HVAC Clinic

System
Variations
Table Of Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Variable Refrigerant Flow ...................................................................................................................... 3
Chilled Beams ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Chilled Box ........................................................................................................................................... 13
Heat Pump Chiller Plants .................................................................................................................... 17
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................ 21
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Introduction

One of the most exciting aspects of the field of HVAC is the constant and rapid evolution of the technology involved in
efficiently and effectively maintaining occupant comfort. The purpose of this clinic is examine the latest technological
innovations and the evolution of the technology.

Variable Refrigerant Flow

Fundamentals

Traditional chilled water systems, while extremely reliable, scalable and dependable offer the efficiency disadvantage
of presenting multiple levels heat exchange. A chilled water system, like all traditional refrigeration systems, utilizes a
conventional cycle which produces low temperature low pressure refrigerant. Low temperature low pressure
refrigerant is used to cool and intermediate medium which is then distributed throughout the building. That
intermediate medium is generally water or some percentage of water and glycol (figure 1).

Figure 1. Chilled Water System

Inserting an intermediate medium, such as water, present an inefficiency disadvantage while simultaneously adding
complexity to system. Any medium (chilled water in this case) that is inserted between the cooling cycle (the
refrigeration cycle) and the medium that is ultimately cooled (the building air) presents as inherent system inefficiency
figure 2). Heat exchangers, by their nature, reduce the efficiency of any given system. In the instance of a chilled
water system, cold refrigerant must produce cold water (via the refrigerant to water evaporator) and then the water
must make cold air (via the water to air heat exchanger in the air handler).

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Figure 2. Refrigerant to Water and Water to Air

While not unique in its application, direct refrigerant to air systems are not at all unusual. Direct expansion systems
(otherwise known as DX systems) have been used in HVAC applications for decades. However, direct expansions
systems were always one to one systems; meaning a single refrigerant to air coil was always paired with a single
compressor and condenser (figure 3). The technology to distribute low pressure low temperature refrigerant to
multiple indoor coils was never feasible.

Figure 3. Direct Expansion System

Simply stated, the compressor technology that allowed for proper oil return and compressor unloading was not
available with refrigerant systems serving multiple indoor coils. Thus, designers wishing to utilize the diversity
presented with a single refrigerant system serving multiple indoor coils were forced to use chilled water systems.

With the advancements made small compressor technology, namely advancements in scroll compressor design, and
improvements in both direct digital control and oil recovery at the discharge of the compressor changed the nature of
DX system design.

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Advancements in Scroll Compressor Designs
Oil recovery methods at discharge of compressor
Direct digital controls

In order to distribute refrigerant to multiple evaporators, some means of compressor unloading was required.
Otherwise, maintaining the system pressure required for stable operation with multiple evaporators would not be
feasible. Traditionally, scroll compressor were always constant speed devices. With the advent of variable speed
scroll compressor technology in the past decade, suddenly manufacturers were presented with the opportunity to
perhaps deliver refrigerant to multiple evaporators.

Figure 4. Variable Speed Scroll Compressor

However, even with the advent of variable speed scroll compressors, manufacturers still were presented with the
common issue of oil return. DX systems were traditionally hamstrung with maximum line set limitations that limited
them to line sets less than 150 feet. If variable refrigerant flow systems (VRF systems) were to be practically
implemented, the vast majority of lines sets would be far in excess of 150 feet. Fortunately, advances in centrifugal oil
separation and direct digital controls made that limitation an issue of the past. Centrifugal oil seperators were able to
effectively remove more than 99% of the oil contained at the discharge of the compressor (figure 5).

Figure 5. Centrifugal Oil Separator

Yet, there still remained 1% of the oil that needed to be transported throughout the system. That oil would eventually
accumulate and choke the system if velocities were not maintained. Yet, the very nature of variable speed
compressors was to reduce system velocity below the limits required for oil return. Advances in direct digital controls
technology allowed manufacturers to overcome this one last hurdle (figure 6).

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Figure 6. Direct Digital Controls

Much like digital scroll compressor design, refrigerant can be pulsed with little adverse effects on the system and very
little loss of capacity control. Thus with the use of advanced DDC controls, manufactures were able to intermittently
pulse compressor speeds, bringing the system velocity up to the rates for short intervals of time which allowed the last
1% of system refrigerant to be adequately circulated.

Finally, a refrigeration system was able to serve multiple indoor coils. The system is called variable refrigerant flow
(figure 7).

Figure 7. Variable Refrigerant Flow System

Advantages

The advent of variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems presented designers with several system advantages when
compared to traditional methods (four pipe chilled water systems, packaged units, etc). Those advantages included:

Decreased System Cost

Increased cooling efficiency
Heating and Cooling
Heat Recovery

A traditional chilled water system, especially those lower than 40 tons in capacity, are not inexpensive to install.
Chilled water system are typically paired with a boiler system. Thus, the cost of the chiller, boilers, pumps, controls
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and associated piping can generally be in excess of $5000/ton. Conversely, a VRF system, applied to a system with
a total connected capacity less than 40 tons can be less than $4000/ton installed.

VRF system present owners with several installed cost saving advantages. First, VRF systems have a reversing
cycle (identical to that of a water source heat pump) which allows them to function as air source heat pump. By
incorporating an air source heat pump, designers in somewhat temperate climates can entirely remove the
heating/boiler system and associated cost that would ordinarily be incurred with the design of a chilled water system.
In addition typical four pipe air cooled chiller plus boiler designs utilize, at a minimum, two pump; one for the chiller
loop and one for the boiler loop. Finally, VRF systems are generally supplied with relatively inexpensive application
specific controllers. By comparison, the direct digital controls that are commonly supplied with four pipe chilled water
boiler systems are custom designed for the specific system and are generally more expensive. Combining the
potential savings associated with removing the heating system from a plant and the decrease in cost associated with
the pumps and controls, VRF systems can save as much as 30% of the installed cost compared to an equivalent four
pipe chiller boiler design.

Figure 8. Boiler System

As discussed earlier, for every heat exchanger installed between the production of the low temperature, low pressure
refrigerant and the ultimate cooling of the air delivered to the occupants presents additional system inefficiencies.
Moreover, the pumps utilized in four pump chiller boiler designs are low COP devices. By comparison, a VRF system
transports relatively low pressure refrigerant gas and high pressure liquid refrigerant throughout the building as part of
the normal compression process. As a pump, a compressor can transport refrigerant more efficiently than a
comparable pump can deliver the equivalent number btus via a liquid pumping cycle (figure 9). Thus, between
eliminating a heat exchanger and utilizing a more efficient transport medium (refrigerant as compared to water), a
VRF system is generally more efficient than a comparable air cooled chiller system of a similar size.

Figure 9. Eliminate Pump & Heat Exchanger

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VRF systems can also share load and thus increase system efficiency. Much like how water source heat pumps can
neutralize water loop temperature by adding heat (for those units in cooling) and withdrawing heat (for those units in
heating), heat recovery VRF systems can share load by adding hot gas (for units in cooling) and subtracting hot gas
(for units in heating), thus decreasing the load and thus energy consumption at the outdoor unit. Heat recovery VRF
systems use changeover unit, which determines if the indoor fan coil is in a heating or cooling mode and directing low
pressure, low temperature liquid to the indoor coil if the indoor unit is in cooling, or hot gas if the indoor unit is in
heating. The changeover units generally consist of a box with solenoid valves which redirect the flow of refrigerant as
appropriate. Assuming the changeover units have been appropriately selected to sever thermally diverse zones, heat
recovery vrf units have the potential to save a significant amount of energy.

Disadvantages

Small Systems
Difficult to select with heat recovery
Poor Heating Capacity
High Heating Cost
Code Compliance
High Fan Energy

VRF systems can be a fantastic low installed cost design option for designers and building owners in temperate
climates looking for systems that are less than 40 tons in capacity. VRF system larger than 40 tons are not
commercially available. Thus, if building owners or designers wish to incorporate VRF systems into larger systems,
they need to be broken into systems smaller than 40 tons, adding controls complexity and decreasing the potential to
operate as a heat recovery system.

Furthermore, if a designer applies a VRF system to a small building (less than 40 tons) with a very diverse load, its
ability to act as a heat recovery system can vastly improve its efficiency. Applying heat recovery takes careful design
consideration. Most manufacturers can only recover heat at the changeover units, complicating selection. If the
changeover boxes are assigned to zones which are not thermally diverse, the system will not properly recover energy.

VRF systems generally utilize air cooled condensers with a reversing heat pump cycle. In a cooling cycle, compared
to similar air cooled systems (chillers, packaged units, etc), a VRF system can operate very efficiently. Heating in
cold climates can be difficult. In fact, most VRF manufactures only publish their COP data in heating at 47oF. The
COPs listed by most manufacturers at that temperature are typically in the range of three to four. However, they
dont publish COP data for colder weather, or climates like those in Northern Nevada, which can often approach sub-
zero temperatures. In colder climates, when coupled with the lower densities associated with higher altitudes, we
suspect the COPs of VRF systems approach one. Recall that an efficient boiler system has a COP of slightly less
than one. The cost of gas, on a per BTU basis, is generally about half the cost of electrical power. Thus great care
should be taken to assure that in colder, higher altitude climates that VRF owners are not paying an exorbitant
amount in electrical heating costs and ensuring that the system can adequately heat at those lower temperatures.

VRF was deigned to serve the Asian market where codes relative to indoor air quality are very different than those in
North America. Specifically, VRF systems were not made to filter indoor air with any appreciable efficiency or
introduce ventilation air to the system. The solution to this problem is twofold. First, designers should use a separate
dedicated outside air system to introduce ventilation air to the building. Any zones greater than three tons in size will
likely require an economizer cycle in order to be in compliance with most energy codes and as such, the ventilation
system should be size appropriately. Finally, only ducted type indoor fan coils can be used. All other VRF indoor
units (cassette type, cabinet, etc) do not meet the ASHRAE MERV8 requirement mandated by ASHRAE 62.1 (as of
the writing of this clinic).

Most VRF manufacturers publish cooling COP data for system consisting of both un-ducted and ducted indoor units.
The COP data is considerably better for the un-ducted system. This follows as the fan static pressure is significantly
reduced. Recall that (figure 10):

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Figure 10. Fan Power

As discussed earlier, the un-ducted indoor units to not meet code requirements as described by ASHRAE 62.1. Thus,
designers are forced to use the ducted low, medium or high static units. The problem, as it pertains to fan energy, is
that the fans used in the ducted units are very low static efficiency devices. In most cases, the static efficiency is less
than 30%. Compared to traditional air handlers with more efficient BI, AF or plenum fans, this is often less half the
static efficiency offered by those devices. So great care should be taken when sizing the ductwork and diffusers such
that the indoor unit fan power doesnt offset the refrigeration savings offered with many VRF systems.

Chilled Beam

Fundamentals

A chilled beam is an air distribution device with an integral coil that may be installed within a space in order to provide
sensible cooling and heating.

Figure 11. Active Chilled Beam, Exposed Installation

Although designing with chilled beams is a relatively new technique in North America, chilled beam design as we
understand it today has been in use in Europe for decades. The concepts behind induction technology have been
understood in America since the early 1900s with Willis Carriers introduction of HVAC induction units. Carriers
induction units utilized the similar principle of high velocity air jets inducing space air across a coil, but were primarily
provided as under-window units similar in construction to todays fan coil units. Utilizing mechanical equipment to
heat and cool via ceiling radiation can be traced back to the 1940s when Norwegian engineer Gunnar Frenger
developed and patented a device configured as a pipe attached to an aluminum profile to provide radiant temperature
control. The first radiant ceiling was installed in Gothenburg, Sweden in the late 1960s. Combining the concepts of
utilizing high velocity jet air to induce airflow and Gunnar Frengers applications of radiant panel cooling within the
ceiling, designs began to more closely model what we see in chilled beam technology today. The first radiant cooling
device that incorporated supply air into its design was installed, also in Gothenburg, in 1972 as the first step toward
todays active chilled beams. What could be considered the predecessor to todays passive chilled beams were first
installed in Stockholm, Sweden in 1986. Today, chilled beams are one of the most common HVAC systems installed
in Europe. It has only been within the last decade that the technology started to catch on in designs in North America,
but the comfort, quiet, and efficiencies that a chilled beam system provides are making it a popular and well
established technology.

There are two main types of chilled beams: active and passive. Active chilled beams are those that have duct work
supplied to them providing a specific amount of primary air to the pressurized plenum within the device to be
discharged through induction nozzles, mix with entrained air, and ventilate the room (figure 12).

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Figure 12. Active Chilled Beam

Active beams should be utilized when sensible cooling, heating, and ventilation air are required. Classrooms, private
and public office buildings, meeting facilities, health care facilities, other environments that may have moderate to high
sensible heat ratios, and building retrofits where space for new mechanical equipment may be limited are all good
applications for active chilled beams.

A passive chilled beam is one that is not ducted, does not supply primary air, and does not utilize fan powered
equipment for any portion of the air that crosses the coil; they rely on induction air being drawn across the coil by the
natural gravitation and buoyancy of air (figure 13).

Figure 13. Passive Chilled Beam

To cool the space, warm air rising to the ceiling enters the beam from above as the chilled air that has passed though
the coil drops down. The motion of the cool air dropping creates a pressure drop behind it that draws more warm air
through the coil. Passive chilled beams are a good solution to provide sensible cooling in labs or other spaces where
processes and people generate high heat loads, especially those that are sensitive to changes in pressure or
ventilation and require no additional air flow. Some applications may have a ventilation rate requirement or high
enough latent load that a traditional HVAC system would be more appropriate for use than active chilled beams, but
could benefit from the use of passive beams for supplementary cooling. Building retrofits where additional cooling is
required but the original ventilation system will remain in place are also good passive beam applications.

Due to the tendency of warm air to rise to the ceiling, stratification is possible with all air distribution devices if the
discharge air temperature is too high or discharge velocity too low. With chilled beams, stratification is likely if the
temperature of the water entering the coil is too high. Due to air velocity and the mixing required to distribute treated
air to the occupied zone, passive beams should not be used for heating applications.

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There are some applications where chilled beams may not be an appropriate design. Places such as natatoriums,
saunas, bathrooms, locker rooms, and kitchens may expose beams to conditions with latent gains too high for the
beams to overcome. Spaces with operable windows that may have no method of control and where beams may be
immediately exposed to outdoor temperature and humidity conditions are poor applications for any type of chilled
beam.

Advantages

Various methods of design exist, each possessing their own set of risk and reward. Chilled beam systems may
provide several benefits, some of which are:

Potential reductions in initial costs of equipment and construction material

Increase in occupant comfort beyond that which is achievable through traditional systems
Space adaptability and energy efficiency
Simple operation and maintenance

First cost discussions with regards to chilled beam systems can, at first, seem a little nebulous. First cost savings with
chilled beam systems frequently involve the false assumption that the first costs of providing chilled beams are higher
than those associated with proving traditional air distribution products. That is correct, of course when considering
only the air distribution device itself. However, that assumption does not take into account the reduction in sizes and
capacities of other equipment and construction material. Traditional systems involve mixing return air with outdoor air,
thus handling the total supply air volume and sensible capacity at the air handling unit. Chilled beam systems handle
return air and sensible load within the space, reducing the total volume of supply air and shifting partial loads from the
unit to the space which results in a large decrease in the amount of duct work (and associated handling and labor
costs) required. Reducing space required for the duct work can yield significant savings in floor-tofloor height space
requirements. This leaves more room for occupants, processes, and in some cases, even reduces costs of structural
components by decreasing overall building height. Handling the sensible load in the space and recirculating entrained
air also allows for the significant reduction in size and capacity of air handler components such as heating/cooling
coils, filters, supply fans, etc., which frequently reduces the total overall size of the air handler.

An increase in overall comfort in a space conditioned with chilled beams is mostly a result of the decrease in noise,
draft conditions, and temperature inconsistency. Where traditional overhead air distribution systems produce sound
levels in the range of NC 35-40, chilled beam systems typically operate with sound levels under 20 NC. Chilled beams
are designed to deliver air at lower velocity than standard overhead systems, thus reducing the possibility of
unpleasant draft conditions. Additionally, the design of chilled beams results in highly effective mixing of room air and
primary air supply which creates comfortable and consistent room temperatures.

Energy efficiency in design is a major reason for recent increases in popularity of the use of chilled beam systems.
The handling of return air and the sensible load within the space that occurs with the utilization of chilled beam
technology yields several energy efficiency benefits. Removing all or part of the sensible load from the air handler
decreases the energy transfer by water is more efficient than by air, there is a reduction in potential energy losses
experienced while the air is delivered through the duct work to the space. By separating sensible cooling loads from
ventilation loads, airflow supply rates may be decreased just enough to satisfy minimum ventilation requirements.
Utilizing chilled beams with a constant volume Dedicated Outdoor Air Supply (DOAS) unit that delivers required
minimum ventilation rate airflow may decrease the overall amount of outdoor air being supplied and therefore
decrease the energy output required to treat that air. Due to the fact that chilled beams utilize induced air from the
space and air does not need to be returned to the unit to be re-conditioned, fan energy consumption at the air handler
is reduced. In addition to energy savings as a result of changing air movement and capacity considerations, chilled
beams offer energy savings related to chiller efficiencies as well. Chilled beam systems require that higher
temperature chilled water be supplied to the beams. In traditional systems, the water utilized by traditional ancillary air
handling devices such as terminal units and fan coil units may be supplied at anywhere from 40 F to 45 F. With
chilled beam systems, chilled water is rarely supplied at temperatures below 58 F. Being that a chilled beam is a
sensible only device, the chilled water delivery temperature can never drop below the dewpoint temperature in the
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space. This difference in water temperature supply and increase in return water temperature may produce significant
increases in chiller energy efficiency. Additionally, the higher supply water temperatures employed with chilled beam
system also dramatically increase the number of potential hours that can be utilized by a waterside economizer. In
areas like Northern Nevada with very high daily temperature ranges and low wet bulbs, this can result in a significant
amount of energy savings.

Operation and maintenance of chilled beam systems is very simple, reliable and far less likely to require maintenance
or replacement parts. Because air is supplied by fans upstream of the device, there are no moving parts in the chilled
beam itself that may be prone to wear. In most designs, filtration occurs upstream, so replacement filters are not
required for individual beams. Service costs are minimal with infrequent and/or as necessary vacuuming of the coal,
which can be accessed via a hinged front panel in most devices, is typically all the maintenance required for the beam
itself.

Disadvantages

Higher Installed Cost

Poor Heating Performance

While chilled beam systems have proven to be lower in installed cost than traditional forced air systems in Europe, the
cost has yet to be reflective of that in North America. This is largely due to fact that chilled beam systems are new to
Contactors in North America, and as with any new systems which present unknowns to the installer, the cost has
remained high. However, as installers acquire experience with chilled beam projects, we expect the price to come
down.

A very simple principle in air conditioning is that hot air rises. Chilled beams largely function by utilizing the buoyancy
effects of air when cooling. This can be counterproductive when heating. As a result, passive chilled beams heat
very poorly. Active chilled beams can only maintain moderate heating loads. Even then, the nozzle selection within
the beam is critical. Larger nozzles, which generally reduce the cooling aspiration ratio, are required in order to
deliver hot air to the conditioned space. It is highly advisable, when selecting chilled beams, to use a program that
allows for some type of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis in order to determine if the beam selected is
delivering hot air to the conditioned space (figure 14).

Figure 14. Beam CFD Analysis

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Chilled Box

Fundamentals

While very counterintuitive, increasing the cooling primary airflow as a means of increasing the heating airflow
(assuming the maximum heating airflow is determined as 30% of the cooling max primary airflow) can be an effective
and energy efficient means delivering conditioned air to the occupied space. Psychometrically, the zone cooling
airflow is increased by increasing the delivered supply air temperature in cooling. For example, assuming an 80
degree mixed air temperature, the cooling supply airflow will be increased by 25% if the supply air temperature is
increased from 55oF to 60oF. As a general rule, increasing airflow under any conditions, is not an energy efficient
means of designing a system. Recall that the COP of a chiller can be upwards of six whereas the COP of a fan is
always less than one. Thus it is generally more efficient to produce cold air (via compressor energy) than to move a
larger quantity of air. There are however three exceptions to this rule.

Exceptions to the rule of never moving more design air:

Better fan turndown compared to similar VAV system
Utilization of dedicated outside air systems (DOAS)
Increasing the number of economizer operation hours

The first exception to the rule applies to systems in which the unloading characteristics of the air moving device can
be improved compared to a similar VAV system. Recall from the fan laws that if a fan is reduced in speed by 50%,
the fan power is reduced by 87.5%. According to AHRI a typical system runs at peak load at less than one percent of
its total operating hours. Thus, if we can improve upon the number of hours and unloading characteristics of the
supply fan serving a variable air volume supply fan, we may be able to overcome or even offset the energy penalty
associated with moving a larger quantity of air at peak load. In addition, there will be a slight energy efficiency
improvement at the chiller/compressor associated with providing a larger quantity of air at an increased temperature.
As coils are required to produce warmer air, the refrigerant suction temperature at the chiller/compressor will increase
proportionately. Associated with this increase in suction pressure is a measurable increase in refrigeration cycle
efficiency.

The second caveat to the rule against increasing zone airflow involves utilizing systems that incorporate a dedicated
outside air system (DOAS). DOAS systems generally (as determined by ASHRAE 90.1) utilize an energy recovery air
handler to deliver the outside air to each single zone unit. This dedicated outside-air air handler will generally utilize
an energy recovery device that is at least 50% effective. For a typical HVAC system where the outside air load is
between 20-30% of the total building load, this can reduce the chiller energy consumption by as much as 10-15% at
full load.

Finally, in climates like Northern Nevada with a very high daily temperature range and thus a high percentage of
economizer hours, increasing the supply air temperature can vastly increase the number of airside or wetside
economizer operating hours. By increasing the supply air temperature from 55 oF to 60oF or higher (and thus the
cooling primary supply airflow), we can significantly increase the number of economizer hours and coincidentally
decrease the number of chiller/compressor operating hours.

A single zone DOAS fan powered terminal unit system incorporates all three of these characteristics and thus offsets
the energy penalty and first cost (associated with the increased ductwork size) generally associated with providing
increased airflow to the conditioned zone. A single zone DOAS fan powered terminal unit system, also commonly
referred to as a chilled box system was introduced to the HVAC design community by Krueger just in the last decade.
A DOAS single zone terminal unit system consists of a series fan powered terminal unit with a sensible cooling coil on
the plenum air inlet and a variable capacity ECM blower (figure 15).

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Figure 15. Single Zone DOAS Terminal Unit System

A single zone DOAS terminal unit system utilizes a dedicated outside air handler (generally with energy recovery) in
lieu of a central station air handler. The DOAS air handler is significantly reduced in size compared to a central
station air handler (with traditional terminal units) as it is only sized to handle the outside airflow to the terminal units
or the economizer peak airflow (should an air cooled chiller(s) be utilized).

Advantages

VAV Heating
Significant Energy Savings
Simple Ventilation Compliance
Low Installed Cost

A single zone DOAS terminal unit system overcomes many of the problems associated with VAV heating by
increasing the cooling peak primary airflow. Compared to a supply air temperature of 55 oF, increasing the delivery air
temperature to 60oF (assuming 80oF return) increases the supply airflow by 25%. Does this mean we can only
increase the heating primary airflow by 7.5% (30% of increase in cooling airflow)? The answer is a definitive no. A
single zone DOAS terminal unit strategically places the cooling coil on the return air inlet. Thus, during heating, we
would only be reheating (assuming simultaneous mechanical cooling and heating) the outside air being delivered
through the terminal units VAV damper. ASHRAE 90.1 dictates than we can only reheat 30% of the mechanically
cooled air. Compared to a typical reheat VAV box, because the vast majority of the air is being delivered through the
plenum air opening, we can typically supply at least 62% of the cooling primary airflow (assuming 20% OA to the
zone).

Even when applied to systems without any type of economizer (airside or waterside), a single zone DOAS fan
powered terminal unit system can maintain the heating load in buildings located in the coldest climates while meeting
the requirements of ASHRAE Standard 55 and 90.1.

A single zone DOAS terminal unit system is also one of the more energy efficient means of cooling and heating a
building available today. While somewhat counterintuitive, the overall fan energy consumption associated with a
single zone DOAS fan powered terminal unit system is generally less than that of a comparable variable air volume
system with a central station air handler. While the central system air handler can utilize fans with as much as double
the static efficiency, the overall system reduction of total static pressure is generally more than enough to make up for
the decreased fan efficiency at the terminal unit. Additionally, a VAV central station air handler generally has to over-
pressurize the downstream ductwork. The majority of the control systems for VAV system air handlers are designed
to provide the design static pressure (at system air balance) 2/3rds of the way down the longest duct run. This
method usually massively overpressures the duct system, wasting valuable fan energy. A considerable but
underutilized improvement of the 2/3rds method polls all of the terminal units serving the air handler and resets
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terminal unit with the greatest damper position (the critical zone) to a discharge pressure at the air handler and
maintains a 95% damper position at the critical zone (figure 16).

Figure 16. Critical Zone Reset Over-pressurization

While this method can save a considerable amount of fan energy at the VAV central station air handler, it still over-
pressurizes the ductwork upstream of each non-critical terminal unit. In the example shown in figure 16, the ductwork
serving VAV-1 and VAV-3 is over-pressurized. This over-pressurization at each and every terminal unit (other than
the one critical zone) represents wasted fan energy. Conversely, a single zone DOAS fan powered terminal unit
utilizes a fan with a variable speed ECM motor programmed to be pressure independent (meaning the fan will deliver
the requested airflow independent of external pressure, within the rpm limits of the motor). Recall that airflow and
thus fan speed (equation 1) are directly linear to space load. Thus only as much airflow (as a function of fan speed) is
produced at the terminal unit as is required to directly achieve the space temperature. The fan output power is
optimized and there is only as much pressure at each terminal unit to maintain the load. No fan energy is wasted,
other than a theoretical potential overshoot in the PID loop at the terminal unit controller. In addition, the turndown at
the DOAS terminal unit is generally much higher than a fan(s) at a central station air handler. For example, a direct
drive plenum fan generally has a maximum turndown of about 30-40% of its nominal speed before experiencing
surge. In contrast, a forward curved fan with an ECM motor can often be turned down to as little as 10-15% of its
nominal capacity. Between the overall reduction in fan TSP, increased turndown, and the inherent optimization of
duct static pressure at part load, fan energy for a single zone DOAS terminal unit system should virtually always be
less than that of a comparable VAV central station air handler system serving multiple terminal units.

With regards to the second rule above, the air delivered to the VAV damper at a single zone DOAS terminal unit
system is purely ventilation air. All of the return air is delivered to the terminal unit through the plenum opening. Like
any DOAS system, this lends itself very well to a DOAS air handler incorporating some means of energy recovery.
Furthermore, according to ASHRAE 90.1 2010, should the DOAS air handler supply more than 5000 CFM of
tempered or conditioned air (in Northern Nevada), the air handler must contain some means of energy recovery that is
at least 50% effective.

Finally, because every terminal unit contains a sensible chilled water coil, the system lends itself readily to a waterside
economizer system. However, should the system utilize an air cooled chiller, the ventilation air ductwork can be
slightly upsized in order to accommodate an airside economizer. Not only will this reduce the static pressure (and
thus fan BHP) at the DOAS air handler supply fan during non-economizer operation, but the overall increases in duct
size is generally marginal. According to AHRI, a typical building in North America is at 50% load at an average
ambient temperature of 65oF. In Northern Nevada, we can often cool a large percentage of zones with airside
economizers when the outside air temperature is below 65oF. This is especially true with systems incorporating
increased design cooling supply air temperatures (such as those incorporated in a single zone DOAS terminal unit
system). Thus, as a general rule of thumb, we need to be able to transport 50% of the design cooling airflow via the
ventilation air ductwork in order to utilize full airside economizer operation at temperatures below 65 oF. Assuming the
ventilation system is sized for between 20% to 30% outside air during non-economizer operation, increasing the
ductwork to accommodate 50% of the cooling design supply airflow requires a relatively modest increase in duct size.

An additional major and immeasurable advantage to a single zone DOAS terminal unit system is its ability to easily
measure and document the amount of ventilation air being delivered to each and every zone as required in ASHRAE
62.1. With traditional central station air handler systems serving multiple terminal units, the ventilation air being
delivered to each VAV box is a mixture of return air and outside air. ASHRAE 62.1 requires a relatively complicated
controls scenario by which the outside air volume is calculated and then controlled to at the air handler. Those step
are (the default Ev method)
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1. Calculate the breathing zone outdoor airflow (Vbz) from Table 6-3 in ASHRAE standard 62.1 2004
2. Determine the zone air distribution effectiveness (Ez)
3. Calculate zone outdoor airflow (Voz)
4. Determine the uncorrected outdoor air intake (Vou)
5. Calculate the zone primary outdoor air fraction (Zp)
6. Determine the system ventilation efficiency (Ev)
7. Calculate the system outdoor air intake (Vot)

Not only is this method complicated and rarely implanted correctly, but it generally provides more ventilation air than is
actually required at the air handler (Vot). This is because some zones are over-ventilated in order satisfy other zones
that may be under-ventilated and the system attempts to satisfy those zones during second pass and third pass air
changes through the airside system. For more information of the default Ev method, please see my air conditioning
clinic entitled VAV Systems. The bottom line is that traditional VAV systems will often consume more cooling and
heating energy in order to condition the ventilation air whereas a single zone DOAS system will only condition as
much ventilation air as is required at each of the terminal units. The air being provided at the ventilation inlet of the
terminal unit is measured at the airflow ring, providing a precise measurement of the amount of outside air being
provided to each zone (figure 17). The amount of ventilation airflow as required by ASHRAE 62.1 can be precisely
measure and controlled at the terminal unit.

Figure 17. Inlet Airflow Sensor

Finally, more air at a space (assuming it isnt negatively impacting the systems energy consumption) is usually
considered a very positive design attribute in terms of air distribution effectiveness. Diffusers simply perform better at
lower turndowns. The more a diffuser is required to turn down, the lower the aspiration rate produced at the diffuser,
regardless of diffuser type. Thus, a VAV system with a turndown reduction of 25% (assuming a 60oF supply air
temperature compared to a traditional 55oF system) is going to provide better mixing or air diffusion performance
index (ADPI) at the space. Not only will this increase the comfort in the space, but it will allow for better ventilation air
mixing in the space.

Disadvantages

Power Wiring
Maintenance

When compared to central VAV air handling system, chilled boxes present the disadvantage of requiring a dedicated
power connection at each individual zone. Chilled boxes utilize single phase ECM fans to distribute the air at the
zone. Thus, designers must allow provisions to allow single phase power wiring to the box.

Additionally, a single zone DOAS chilled box presents additional maintenance concerns. Rather than a single air
handler requiring maintenance, facility personnel have essentially a small air handler at every zone requiring filter, fan
and damper maintenance.

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Heat Pump Chillers

Fundamentals

Traditional water cooled chillers control the leaving chilled water temperature and reject the condenser heat to a
cooling tower, ground loop or air cooled condenser (figure 18).

Figure 18. Traditional Chiller/Boiler System

A typical four pipe system generally employs some type of boiler to heat the building. The rejected condenser heat
represents wasted energy and is results in a relatively low COP of the plant (figure 18).

Thus, for a system that requires 35% more peak heating energy than peak cooling energy and utilizes an 85%
thermal efficiency boiler, the overall plant efficiency (COP) is 1.34.

Conversely, a heat pump chiller controls the leaving condenser water temperature and rejects the heat as useful
energy (figure 6). In the case of heat pump chillers, the heat is often used for reheat coils (such as those used on
shutoff VAV reheat coils) or potentially domestic hot water loads. The heat is no longer being rejected to a cooling
tower or air cooled condenser and wasted as unused energy.

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Figure 19. Heat Pump Chiller Plant System

Due of the nature of the refrigeration cycle and its associated increase in condenser head pressure, the COP of the
chiller itself will decreases. The efficiency decrease will be directly related to the temperature required at the reheat
source. For a building requiring a 150oF reheat source, the chiller COP may decrease by as much as 50%. However,
the overall plant COP will increase significantly. For a building requiring a 150oF reheat source, the plant COP
increases from 1.34 to 6.71.

This is results in an overall increase in plant efficiency of 500%. Additionally, the first cost impact of a heat pump
system is minimal. The chiller changes very little. The core components of a heat pump chiller do not vary from a
standard chiller. All that truly changes is the method of control. Rather than controlling to the leaving chilled water
setpoint, a heat pump chiller is controlled to the leaving condenser water setpoint. The chilled water setpoint is not
controlled. However, the heat pump chiller provides us with a free source of reheat energy that we can now utilize at
our VAV terminal units without concern for minimum reheat airflows. We can virtually provide as much heating airflow
as is required to maintain the space demand. ASHRAE 90.1 does not limit us in terms of the reheat energy used (so
long as at least 75% of the total heating load is recovered energy) at the terminal unit.

Advantages

Energy Efficiency
Inherent Redundancy
Reduced Installation Cost

In theory, heat pump chiller systems can increase plant COP by over 600%. In practice, our reheat load is never going
to exactly 125% of our cooling load. Thus, heat pump plants are generally designed with two chillers. One chiller is
dedicated meeting the reheat load. Being that chillers rarely run during the winter months, a chiller heating benefit lies
in its ability to meet the reheat coil load required at terminal units in the summer, spring and fall months. The second
chiller is dedicated to meeting the remainder of the cooling load.

For example, lets assume a 100 ton VAV system (with shutoff reheat terminal units) that has peak summer reheat
load of 486,000 btu/hr. In this instance, we would size the heat pump chiller at 30 tons and a cooling only chiller at 70
tons (figure 20).

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Figure 20. Hybrid Heat Pump Boiler System

Note that the heat pump chiller is operating at a reduced heating hot water supply temperature. While the peak
supply hot water temperature is 150oF during the peak winter months (in the example above), the supply water
temperature at the heat pump can generally be reduced as it is only operating in heating during the non-peak heating
months (spring, summer and fall). During those periods, the hot water temperature can be reset as a function of
ambient temperature, increasing the heat pump chiller COP.

Overall, the plant efficiency is still increased dramatically compared to a similar traditional chiller/boiler system:

Thus, the plant COP (during non-economizer/non-winter operation) still experiences an overall efficiency improvement
of as much as 300%. To be clear, this doesnt necessarily translate to utility savings as often the cost per therm for
gas is significantly less than the cost per therm to produce heating energy from electricity. Nonetheless, the savings
are generally still significant compared to a traditional chiller/boiler VAV system and the system has the added benefit
of providing nearly unlimited reheat energy for the terminal units of a VAV system.

Heat pump chiller plants are inherently redundant. For the reasons previously discussed, heat pump plants require a
minimum of two chillers. One chiller controls the heating load. The second chiller provides the remainder of the
cooling load. Should either chiller fail, the system will have some measure of cooling capacity. In addition, being that
heat pump plants still require some type of boiler for winter operation (when the heat pump chiller is not operating),
this also allows for heating plant redundancy.

While somewhat counterintuitive, heat pump chiller plants cost less to install than a comparatively sized plant with
similar diversity. For example, a two chiller plant requires a primary secondary of variable primary system with a
minimum of two pumps and two cooling towers. A similarly sized heat pump system will likely only require a single
pump and a much smaller cooling tower (more on this topic will be discussed in the disadvantages section of this
clinic). The heat pump chiller doesnt possess any additional components compared to a traditional cooling only
chiller. The only cost disadvantage a heat pump chiller offers compared to a traditional chiller is that due to the higher
head pressures, it will be slightly oversized for the same capacity.

Disadvantages

Controls
Sizing

Heat pump plants, when piped in parallel, can be very difficult to control. Recall that with a heat pump chiller, the
leaving chilled water temperature is wild. Only the leaving hot water temperature is controlled. Now imagine a second
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cooling only chiller piped in parallel. That chiller does maintain the designed supply chilled water temperature. How
do you control the leaving plant temperature? The two chillers are mixing and the plant leaving water temperature is
something other than the design leaving chilled water temperature.

The solution lies in the method by which the plant is piped. If chillers are piped in parallel, the leaving plant
temperature is very hard to control. However, if the chillers are piped in series (figure 21), the plant is very easy to
control. The heat pump chiller is positioned upstream and is set to control the heating loop temperature setpoint. The
downstream chiller is the cooling only chiller, and it picks up the remaining load and delivers the design chilled water
setpoint. In order to maintain a reasonable pressure drop across the evaporator barrels, the system is designed for a
higher system delta (typically 16oF),

Additionally, the system operates very efficiently compared to a traditional parallel chiller plant configuration. The
higher system delta decreases pump energy. Recall that pumps have a very low COP compared to chillers. Thus,
chillers in series operate much more efficiently that in plants with chillers in parallel. An added benefit is that the
upstream chiller also experiences warmer return water temperatures, increases its relative efficiency. This efficiency
boost often offsets the additional power due to the increased head pressure realized with heat pump chillers.

Figure 21. Chillers In Series

The second problem related with heat pump plants is associated with the question of how to size the heat pump
chiller. The heat pump chiller should be sized for the maximum reheat load, which typically occurs in spring and fall.
The question needs to be asked, what happens during summer operation when the reheat load is minimized? Recall
that a heat pump chiller controls the leaving hot water setpoint. Thus if the reheat load is lower in the summer, then
the heat pump chiller unloads. Thus if both chillers are sized to meet the building load at their individual peak loads,
the plant will be undersized during the summer peak months. One solution is to oversize the cooling only chiller. Yet,
that involves oversizing the cooling tower, pumps and associated piping, adding cost to the installation.

The better solution is to pipe a fluid cooler in series with the reheat load (figure 21). Fluid coolers are relatively
inexpensive compared to similarly sized cooling towers. Recall that a plant is only at design capacity during less than
one percent of its operating hours. Thus, during the vast majority of operating hours, the fluid cooler does not
operate. During those few hours when the plant is a peak capacity and the chiller cant reject all of its condenser heat
via the reheat terminals, the fluid cooler is activated. In addition, the higher temperatures associated with condenser
heat pump loops makes a fluid cooler a very effective means of rejecting heat at low cost. Compared to a cooling
tower which requires pump maintenance and water treatment, a fluid cooler is a very efficient low cost means of
rejecting additional heat.

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Figure 22. Heat Pump Chiller Condenser Piping

Conclusion

Any of these solutions, applied by themselves, may present incredible new, innovative and energy savings methods
by which to condition buildings. However, many of the systems discussed in this clinic can paired together to further
the efficiency and first cost savings for many plants. For example, a building which incorporates a combination of
chilled beams for the interior, chilled boxes for the exterior zones and a heat recovery or heat pump chiller plant can
offer a multitude of benefits to building owners (figure 23).

Figure 23. Combination Chilled Beam + Chilled Box + Heat Pump Chiller Plant

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