Anatomy Class Notes

HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES
ANATOMY: The study of structure; the composition and organization of living systems
- Microscopic (fine/minute) anatomy: structures that cant be seen with the naked eye.
Cytology the study of cells
Histology the study of tissues
- Macroscopic (gross) anatomy: structures that can be seen with the unaided eye.
Surface anatomy: general form, shape, superficial makings
Regional anatomy: structures in a specific area of the body
Systemic anatomy: one organ system at a time
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
Anatomical landmarks all descriptions assume Standard Anatomical Position (SAP)
-is a reference point whenever discussing location
- SAP the positions
standing erect and upright,
feet are parallel and flat on the floor
head is level and the eyes look forward
arms are at the side of the body
palms are facing forward
thumbs are pointing away from the body
- Supine: laying on the back face up
- Prone: laying on the stomach face down
Sections or Planes
- Frontal (coronal) vertical (longitudinal) cut
- Transverse horizontal (cross-section) cut
- Sagittal vertical (longitudinal) cut
midsagittal right down the middle
parasagittal not mid-line (i.e. to the side)
Direction or Location
Anterior in from or toward the front
Posterior in back of or toward the back
Superior on top of or toward the top

Inferior under or toward the feet
Medial toward the midline

Lateral away from the midline
Bilateral away from the midline on both sides
Deep more toward the inside or underneath a structure
Superficial more toward the surface or on top of one structure
Proximal closer to the attachment point

Distal farther away from the attachment point
Regions or Surfaces: the human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and appendicular
Axial region includes: head, thorax, and trunk
Appendicular region includes: arms & legs / appendages
Other Terms:
cervical neck
brachial upper arm
axilla armpit
plantar bottom of feet
palmar anterior surface of the hand
dorsum (not dorsal) top of hand or top of foot
inguinal groin area
Internal body cavities: protect and restrict the internal organs (viscera)
Cranial cavity space formed by the bones of the skull, protects the brain
Spinal cavity space created by space formed internal of the vertebrae cavity, protects the spinal cord
Thoracic cavity space inside of ribcage, superior to the diaphragm, protects lungs and heart
- Partitioned by 2 serous membranes:
pleural sacs (2) surrounds the lungs
pericardial sac (1) surrounds the heart
Abdominalpelvic cavity space formed between in the abdominal area
- abdominal cavity space inferior to diaphragm and superior to the urinary bladder
enclosed by a single serous membrane the peritoneal sac (peritoneum)
houses and encloses the upper digestive system
- pelvic cavity inferior to the peritoneum and is not housed within the peritoneum
houses the lower intestine, bladder and reproductive organs
THE CELL
The cell introduction
- cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms
- they are the building block of the human body
-an adult human body contains about 75 trillion cells
- each type of cell in the body performs specific functions
The shape and anatomical characteristics of a cell determine its function
example: sperm cell vs. ciliated epithelial cell
- the study of cells is cytology
Common characteristics of cells
- All cells perform the general functions necessary to sustain life.
1. Separate cytoplasm from surrounding fluids
2. Exchange materials (nutrients, water, waste products)
3. House and protect the DNA
4. Coordinate and regulate activities
Human cells fall into two categories
Sex cells (germ or reproductive cells) are the sperm in males and ova in females
Somatic cells are all the other cells in the human body
Cell (plasma) membrane
Structure: semi-permeable, phospholipid bi-layer with emebedded proteins
-soft, flexible, gel-like
Four major functions:
1. physical barrier
2. Regulation of exchange with the environment
3. Sensitivity / communication
4. Structural support / protection
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the general term for all material inside the cell
Cystosol: is the intracellular fluid
thick solution of water, proteins, fats, carbohydrates and inorganic salts
Organelles: are permanent structures within the cytosol that have a particular function and
very distinct structures
- membranous and non-membranous
Nucleus (membranous)
Structure: the nucleus is a porous sphere
Funtions:
1. Holds the genetic material
chromatin: thread like DNA + proteins
chromosomes: condensed, coiled chromatin
2. Controls activities of the cell and its organelles
3. Contains nucleolus
round masses of RNA, involved in protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (membranous)
Structure: wavy channels connecting nucleus and cell membrane
1. smooth ER: no ribosomes attached
involved in: synthesis and transport of fats and carbohydrates
2. rough ER: ribosomes attached
involved in: synthesis and temporary storage of proteins
3. peroxisomes
structure; small sac
function; contain enzymes that detoxify harmful substances (i.e. hydrogen peroxide)
Golgi apparatus (membranous)
Structure: flattened, stacked sacs
Function; modifies, synthesizes, packages, transports secretions especially:
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
- portions may pinch off and form secretory vesicles, including:
Lysosomes
structure; small sac
functions; digestive enzymes that recycle damaged organelles or harmful
bacteria that enter the cell
Mitochondria (membranous)
Structure: rod shaped
Function: produce ATP large amounts of it
Glucose ( 3 --enzymes--
- mitochondria vary in numbers depending on the needs of the cell
Ribosomes (non-membranous)
Structure: very small, dense, granules
Function: protein production
The cytoskeleton (non-membranous)
Filamentous proteins form the cytoskeleton, which helps give the cells its shape and coordinates
cellular activities
1. microfilaments: for contractile mechanism for muscle cells
2. microtubles: straight, hollow, bundled tubles
- serve as internal support or transport channels within cell
- form cilia, flagella, and mitotic spindles
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
Molecules -> form to make
Cells -> which function together to make
Tissues -> which are groups of similar cells with a common function that make
Organs -> which are groups of different tissues with a common function that work to make
Organ Systems -> groups of different organs with a common function, which in turn make
Organism -> The human being
TISSUES
Tissues: groups of similar cells and extracellular products (also called intercellular material) that carry out a
common function.
Histology: the study of tissues types, functions, and modifications of different types of tissues
4 general types of tissues:
1. epithelial tissue (epithelium)
2. connective tissue
3. muscle tissue
4. nervous tissue
Epithelial tissue
Characteristics:
- closely-joined cells forming surfaces and linings
- very little or no extracellular material
- may be richly innervated
- usually avascular (no blood supply or very little)
obtain nutrients by diffusion/absorption
- deepest layers anchored on a basement membrane (where mitosis occurs)
- continually regenerated by deepest- layered cells
Classified by degree of layering
-Simple: single layer; found only in protected areas inside the body, lining internal
compartments and passageways (e.g. chambers of the heart), usually in regions where
secretion, absorption, or filtration occur.
- Stratified: two or more layers; found in areas subjected to physical and mechanical stress
Classified by cell shape
- Squamous: thin, flat cells
- simple squamous; e.g. alveoli of lungs, inner lining of blood vessels
- stratified squamous; e.g. surface of skin, mouth, esophagus, and vagina
- Cuboidal; height equals width (cube shaped)
simple cuboidal; e.g. glands (sebaceous glands or sudoriferous glands
- Columnar; hight 3-4 times width (column shaped)
simple columnar; e.g. GI tract lining
-Transitional; can change shape; irregular layering. e.g. ureters and urinary bladder
Note: Epithelial tissue lines every body surface and all body cavities, forms the external and internal
lining of many organs, and constitues the majority of glands and membranes.
Epithelial specializations/modifications:
Glands: are clusters (involutions) of epithelial cells
1. Endocrine: lack ducts and secrete their products directly into intercellular fluid
and blood stream. Example: hormones
2. Exocrine: ducts secrete material onto the surface of the skin or onto the lining of
an internal passageway. Example: digestive enzymes, sweat,
Body membranes: combinations of epithelia and connective tissues
-Mucous membranes: different types of epithelia over loose connective tissue
-form the internal surface lining of hollow organs (blood vessels)
- line cavities that are open to the outside of the body (digestive, respiratory,
reproductive, urinary tracts)
- functions: forms a barrier to pathogens and provides moisture
- Serous membranes: simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) over loose connective
tissue.
- form a double lining of closed cavities (abdominal, pleural, pericardial)
- parietal layer: lines the cavity, firmly attached
- visceral layer: covers the organ
- function: to produce a watery secretion, serous fluid, that reduces friction
Note: pericardial cavity - > pericardial parietal layer & pericardial visceral layer
pleural cavity - > pleural parietal layer & pleural visceral layer
abdominal cavity - > abdominal parietal layer & abdominal visceral layer
Functions of the epithelium
1. physical protection from abrasion, dehydration, chemical or biological agents
e.g. stratified squamous epithelium found on the skin
2. movement of materials into and out of an organ or tissue (diffusion, filtration)
e.g. simple squamous epithelium found in alveoli of lungs
3. produce secretions
e.g. simple cuboidal epithelium found in sudoriferous or sebaceous glands
4. absorbtion (uptake of gases, fluids, solutes)
e.g. simple columnar epithelium found in GI tract
Connective tissues (CT); most diverse, abundant, widely distributed, and microscopically variable of the tissues
- All connective tissues have 3 basic components:
- Cells: look for the suffixes -blast, -cyte, -phage
- Protein fibers:
- strengthen and support connective tissue
- type and abundance of fibers varies depending on function
- three basic types of protein fibers:
1. collagen fibers: long, straight, stretch-resistant (inelastic)
- these are the most common, and strongest
2. elastin fibers: branched, thread-like, flexible, stretchy (resilient)
3. reticular fibers: for an interwoven framework
- these are netlike, similar to collagen fibers,
- Ground substance (cells and protein fibers reside within)
- non-living; fluid > semi-solid > solid material (protein, carbohydrates, and water)
- Matrix is the term used for the ground substance + protein fibers that surround the
cells of a connective tissue
- Loose Connective Tissue
Areolar:
- fibroblasts produce collagen + elastin fibers and semi-liquid ground substance
- macrophages engulf cell debris
- function: attaches skin to underlying muscle, fills spaces between organs,
surrounds/ supports blood vessels
Adipose:
- Adipocytes are specialized, lipid-filled fibroblasts
- non-fibrous, semi-solid ground substance (however, very little ground substance)
- function: energy storage and cushioning and insulation
Reticular:
- fibroblasts (which produce matrix) and macrophages
- function: forms internal framework in organs such as liver and spleen
- Dense connective tissue
Dense regular connective tissue
- fibroblasts produce dense, parallel collagen bundles
- comprises:
- tendons and ligaments and synovial sacs
Dense irregular connective tissue
- fibroblasts produce thick, interlocking collagen fibers
- provides strength and support to areas subject to stress from many areas
- forms sheath around cartilage and bones and fibrous capsules or organs
- comprises:
- thickest layer of the skin (dermis), (the reticular layer of dermis)
- Supporting connective tissue
Cartilage:
- chondroblasts produce a dense, firm, flexible, resilient ground substance
- mature cells are called chondrocytes
- not pervaded by blood vessels (avascular)
- nutrients and waste products diffuse
- slow, poor growth, poor repair in adults
3 types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline: closely packed collagen fibers; smooth and shiny appearance
under the microscope; gives support with flexibility; provides
smooth gliding surface at ends of long bones.
2. Elastic: dark elastin fibers; firm yet very elastic, is found in the pinna of
the ear.
3. Fibrocartilage: wavy collagen bundles, allows for compression (shock
absorption) found in the Intervertebral disks
Bone:
- Osteoblasts produce a collagen matrix containing inorganic salts of calcium and
phosphorus
- mature cells are called osteocytes
- Strong, flexible, shatter-resistant for structural support, protection, and leverage
- Penetrated by blood vessels (vascular) and nerves
- Fluid connective tissue
Blood:
- is composed primarily of a water/protein matrix called plasma, and various types of
cells, is found in the cardiovascular system
Myeloid:
- (marrow) tissue produces blood cells, is found within bone
- Connective tissue functions
1. physical protection: of organs (bone) of shock absorption (fibrocartilage)
2. Support (structural framework) and cushioning and insulation (bone and adipose)
3. Connection and binding of structures (areolar and skin)
4. Fat and mineral storage (adipose and bone)
5. Production of blood cells (myeloid)
Muscle tissue
- Contractile, densely- packed cells (called fibers, i.e. muscle fiber)
- Classified according to bodily location or microanatomy
- Skeletal: found attached to skeleton
voluntary, striated, long, and multinucleated
- Cardiac: found only in the heart
involuntary, striated, and branched
- Smooth: found surrounding blood vessels / GI tract / and viscera
involuntary, non-striated, and spindle shaped
-Functions:
- motility and support (skeletal muscle)
- pumping blood (cardiac muscle)
- squeezing action (smooth muscle)
Nervous tissue
- Nervous tissue ( or neural tissue) is specialized to conduct electrical signals through the body
- Consists of:
- Neurons, or nerve cells, that actually transmit the electrical signals
- Neuroglia, or glial cells, that support, protect, and provide a framework for neurons
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM OR SKIN
Introduction: the skin, or cutaneous membrane, is the largest organ of the body by weight and surface area
- The integumentary system (integument) is composed of:
- The skin
- Accessory Structures
Skin layers
- Skin has 2 subdivisions:
- Epidermis
- Dermis
- Deep to the dermis is the hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
Epidermis
- Composition: stratified squamous over cuboidal epithelium
- no blood vessels and very few nerves
- may be thick or thin
- thick skin is found on the soles of feet, palms of hand, surfaces of toes and fingers
- 4 or 5 layers depending if skin is thick or thin
- Epidermal layers
- Stratum corneum
- dead, dehydrated, squamous cells
- 15-30 layers; which are constantly shedding
- Stratum lucidum
- clear squamous cells and have lost all organelles
- extra layer on think skin
- Stratum granulosum
- nuclei disintegrate; cells are dying (begin to die)
- secrets lipids that form water barrier
- Stratum spinosum
- spiny sharp-edged cells form a tight, interlocking barrier
- this interlocking barrier provides a second area of water barrier
- Stratum basale (or germinativum)
- actively dividing cuboidal cells (one cell layer thick)
- contains melanocytes which form and distribute the pigment, melanin, by diffusion
Dermis
- Thick connective tissue (CT) containing nerve receptors, hair follicles, sweat (sudoriferous) and
sebaceous glands
- 2 layers:
1. Papillary layer (uppermost)
- areolar connective tissue (CT) containing blood capillaries and nerves
- contours determine the friction ridges of the skin (e.g. fingerprints)
- interwoven collagen bundles extend from this layer into the reticular layer
2. Reticular layer (deepest)
- dense, irregular connective tissue (CT) which provides strength and flexibility
- Hypodermis
- also called the subcutaneous layer
- simple areolor and adipose connective tissues (CT)
- function: fat storage and attachment to underlying muscles
Accessory structures
- All are situated in the dermis but are of epidermis origen
- Nails: keratinized plates of flat epidermal cells
- function: protection of the finger tips, and ends of the toes
- Hair follicles and hair: keratinized tubes of epithelial cells
- each follicle is supplied with a sensory nerve and arrector pili muscle
- function: UV radiation protections, cushioning, and insulation
- Exocrine glands
- sweat (sudoriferous) glands
- product: sweat (mostly water and sodium cloride)
- regulated by: temperature, psychological factors
- function: thermoregulation, excretion,
- sebaceous glands
- product: sebum
- regulated by: sex hormones, stress
- function: lubrication and inhibits bacterial growth
Functions of the skin
- Thermoregulation
- heat conservation by way of vasoconstriction and hair arrector pili muscle contracting to
provide enhanced insulation.
- heat loss by way of vasodilation and sweat (sudoriferous) gland activity
- Absorption
- uptake limited due to waxy sebum and keratinization
- some diffusion of gases and fat-soluble drugs (nicotine, birth control)
- Hydroregulation
- guards against water loss or gain
- Protection forms 2 barriers against bacteria, parasites, UV radiation, chemicals, friction:
1. Chemical barrier: Sebum (water loss/gain) Keratin (water loss) Melanin (UV radiation)
2. Physical barrier: Stratum corneum ( the 15-30 layers provides physical barrier because of
the number or layers) and hair which provides some physical protection with
cushioning
- Reception: sensory nerves and receptors in dermis detect:
- temperature, touch, pressure, and pain
- Synthesis of Vitamin D
- there are vitamin D precursors in the skin that will synthesis vitamin D when exposed to
light, and vitamin D is needed for calcium and phosphorus absorption.
SKELETAL SYSTEM ORGANIZATION
The Axial Skeleton
- Is composed of the bones along the central axis of the body:
* skull
* vertebral column
* thoracic cage
- Functions as a framework that supports and protects organs in those body cavities
- Serves as attachment sites for muscles that:
* adjust posture
* assist breathing
* stabilize / support the appendicular skeleton
The Skull
22 bones interlocked by sutures
* cranial bones (8) encloses and protects the brain
* facial bones (14) form cheekbones, nose, bridge, palate, orbits, jaw (mandible)
Plus 7 associated bones
* ear ossicles (6) inside temporal bone
* hyoid bone (1) floats under mandible
The Vertebral Column
- The vertebral (spinal) column has 26 bones
* 24 vertebrae, 1 sacrum, 1 coccyx
- Functions:
* encloses / protects spinal cord
* supports the skull
* supports weight of head, neck, trunk
* transfers weight to lower limbs
* helps maintain upright body position
- Divided into regions from proximal to distal:
* cervical (7)
* thoracic (12)
* lumbar (5)
* sacral (1), 5 fused
* coccygeal (1), 3-5 fused
The Thoracic Cage (Thorax)
- Two functions:
* protects the heart, lungs, thymus, and other structures within the cavity
* serves as attachment site for muscles involved in:
- respiration
- positioning vertebral column
- movements of pectoral / girdle / upper limbs
- Sternum
* proximal to distal: manubrium, body, xiphoid
- 12 pairs of ribs
* 7 true, 5 false(including the 2 floating ribs)
- Costal cartilages
* hyaline cartilage connective tissue (CT) connecting ribs to sternum
The Appendicular Skeleton
- Is involved in changing your position in the external environment (i.e. movement):
- Includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs, and the girdles of bones that attach the
upper and lower limbs to the axial skeleton:
- The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle and Upper Limb
* includes the S-shaped clavicle (collarbone) and the flattened scapula (shoulder blade)
* the clavicle articulates with sternums manubrium
* point of attachment for bones of the arm and hand
* upper limb consists of:
- humerous (upper arm)
- ulna and radius (forearm)
- carpals (wrist)
- metacarpals and phalanges (hand and fingers)
- The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle and Lower Limb
* the pelvic girdle supports and protects the lower viscera and developing fetus in
females
* consists of two os coxae bones:
- fused ilium and ischium pubis bones
- point of attachment for the lower limb
* the lower limb consists of:
- femur (thigh)
- patella (kneecap) (only articulates with the femur)
- tibia and fibula (leg)
- tarsals (ankle)
- metatarsals and phalanges (foot and toes)
Bone Morphology Surface Features
- Projections or Elevations
* process rough bump for muscle attachment
* spine pointed extension or slender ridge for muscle attachment
* crest circular ridge for muscle attachment
* condyle smooth, round surface or knob forming a joint
- epicondyle extension near a condyle for tendon or ligament to attach
* tubercle small, round surface for tendon or ligament
* tuberosity roughened surface for tendon or ligament attachment
* trochanter large projection on femur for tendon / ligament attachment
- Depressions
* fossa shallow pocket, often forming a joint
* fovea small pit for tendon or ligament attachment
* sulcus groove, often for blood vessels
* facet smooth, flat pad forming a joint
- Openings and Chambers
* foramen hole for blood vessels and/or nerves
* fissure narrow slit or gap for blood vessels and/or nerves
* orbit eye socket
* meatus entrance into bone
* sinus concealed, hallow cavity within skull
Functional Design of the Skeleton
- Skeletal architecture and bone morphology are directly related to function
* protection of vital organs and soft tissues
* movement / leverage forms joints and provides for muscle attachment
* support body weight
* passage of soft tissue nerves / blood vessels
* mineral reserve including calcium and phosphorus, sodium, and potassium
- Special functions of the skeleton
* wide female pelvis for childbirth
* heavier male skeleton for the heavier skeletal muscles of males
* foot arches for balance, shock absorption, and posture
* patella for fulcrum (support, or point of rest, on which a lever turn of the knee)
* ear ossicles transmit sound waves
* sinus cavities clean, warm, humidify breathing air, and lighten skull
* fused sacrum stabilizes lower extremities and supports sitting / standing
Bone Disorders
- Rickets: faulty calcium deposition usually from vitamin D deficiency
- Osteomalacia: reduced calcification during pregnancy
- Osteoporosis: brittle, more porous bones due to less active osteoblasts, especially after menopause
- Osteomyelitis: destruction of bone from bacterial infection, often following fractures
BONE TISSUE AND SKELETAL STRUCTURE

Introduction
- The skeletal system is made up of the skeleton bones AND other connective tissues
- Bone tissue, or osseous tissue is the major component of the skeletal system
- Bones are dynamic organs made up of several living tissues, with cells that become diseased or need
repair
- Bone tissue can be classified as:
* compact hard and dense; also called cortical
* cancelous also called spongy
Microanatomy of Compact Bone
- Arranged in dense, concentric circles called osteons or Haversian systems
* Haversian canals
- centrally located, longitudinal channels
- contain blood vessels and nerve fibers
*Osteocytes
- mature bone cells that maintain the matrix
- trapped in small pockets called lacunae
* Canaliculi
- cracks in the matrix connecting lacunae to the Haversian canal
* Lamellae
- rings of intercellular matrix
- The matrix
* 2/3 of bone weight is hydroxyapetite crystals (calcium phosphate + calcium hydroxide)
- hard and resistant to compression
* 1/3 of the bone matrix is collagen fibers
- flexible and resistant to stretching
* collagen and hydroxyapetite make bone strong and shatter resistant
* cells account for about 2-3% of bone tissue
- Cells of mature bone
* Osteocytes = mature cells
- maintain bone tissue
* Osteoblasts = immature, active cells
- found on the inner and outer surfaces of a bone
- produce bone tissue
* Osteoprogenitor cells precursor cells (stem cells for bone cells)
- found on the inner and outer surfaces of a bone
- divide and differentiate to form new osteoblasts
* Osteoclasts = giant multinucleated cells
- perform osteolysis (bone resorption)
Classification of Bones by Shape
- Long: e.g. femur (* these are all spongy bones)
- Short*: e.g. tarsals
- Flat*: e.g. cranium
- Irregular*: e.g. vertebrae
Notes: all spongy bones are filled with red bone marrow (myeloid CT)
Gross Anatomy of Long Bones
- Diaphysis (shaft) forms the long axis
* composed of compact bone
- Epipysis (ends)
* honeycomb interconnected needle-like projections (called trabeculae) of spongy bone
- Medullary canal
* space within shaft containing yellow bone marrow, fat storage for less weight of the bone
- Nutrient foramen
* holes in compact bone for passage of blood vessels
- Periosteum
* double layer of superficial, dense, irregular connective tissue (CT)
- serves several functions:
* isolates / protects the bone from surrounding tissues
* provides a route and a place for attachment
* bone growth and repair
* insertion of tendons and ligaments
- Marrow cavities
* red marrow
- composed of myeloid connective tissue (CT)
- produces red and white blood cells
- found in flat bones and epiphyses of long bones
* yellow marrow
- composed of fat cells (adipose)
- for energy storage and lessening the weight of the bone
- found mainly in medullary canals of long bones
Bone Development and Growth
- Before 6 weeks of development the skeleton is cartilage
- Osteogenesis is the word for bone formation
- Ossification is bone replacing existing tissue
- Intramembranous Ossification
* produces the flat bones of the skull, some of the facial bones (zygomatic, maxilla), mandible,
clavicle, patella and repair of fractures
* hardening within a fibrous connective tissue membrane (sac)
* Steps:
1. osteoblasts cluster around blood vessels throughout the sac, forming ossification
centers.
2. osteoblasts secrete a collagen / calcium matrix
3. calcium salts crystallize, forming honey combed trabeculae (cancellous bone)
- open spaces provide room for red bone marrow
4. trabeculae become more dense at the surface, forming a thin layer of compact bone
5. periodic remodeling through resorption of existing bone b osteoclasts
6. original sac becomes periosteum
- Endochondral Ossification
* Produces the other bones of the skeleton, including upper & lower limbs, pelvis, and vertebrae
* Bone develops from a hyaline cartilage replica
* Bone growth in length
* Steps:
1. enlargement of hyaline cartilage model by chondrocytes
2. perichondrium becomes periosteum when osteoblasts differentiate
3. cartilage model invaded by blood vessels and osteoblasts from the periosteum,
creating ossification centers at epiphysis and diaphysis
4. calcification of cartilage creates trabeculae, which causes the death of chondrocytes
5. surface osteoblasts form compact bone against outer periosteum
6. breakdown of bone matrix by osteoclasts creates hollow cavities for red and yellow
marrow
* Lengthwise growth
- occurs at epiphyseal cartilage plates
* areas of growing cartilage between the diaphysis and the epiphysis
- stimulated by growth hormones and sex hormones
- cartilage expands at the epiphyseal border with ossification at the diaphysial border
- longitudinal growth stops when diaphysis meets with and fuses with the epiphysis
* this leaves an epiphyseal line
ARTICULATIONS
Interoduction
- Joints or articulations, are connections between bones (or between bones and teeth) that may or may
not permit movement.
- All joints can be classified both functionally and structurally
Classification of Joints
- Joints are classified functionally by the amount of movement they allow
- Synarthroses: immovable joints
- Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints
- Diarthroses: freely movable joints
- Joints are classified structurally based upon the material forming the joint. Meaning, what is the
material that bring these two joints together.
* Fibrous: dense, regular (fibrous) connective tissue
- Sutures: bones connected by DRCT (dense regular connective tissue)
* connects bones of skull
* In adults, sutures are replaced with complete bone fusion = synostoses
- Syndesmoses: bones connected by ligaments (interosseous membrane, means the
ligament between 2 bones) (note: ligaments are made up of DRCT, dense regular
connective tissue)
* connects radius and ulna; tibia and fibula
- Gomphoses: teeth connected to bones by DRCT (dense regular connective tissue)
* Cartilaginous: hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
- Synchondroses: bones connected by hyaline cartilage
* examples: ribs to sternum; epiphyseal growth plates
- Symphyses: bones are separated by discs of fibro cartilage
* examples: pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
* Synovial: enclosed by a joint capsule; space between bones filled with synovial fluid
- Are typically found at the ends of long bones in the upper and lower limbs
- Functionally: diarthrotic (all synovial joints are diarthrotic functionally)
- Six basic characteristics:
* joint (fibrous) capsule
- composed of DRCT ( dense regular connective tissue)
* Synovial membrane lining the joint capsule
- composed of loose CT (connective tissue) with lots of fibroblasts
* Joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
- synovial fluid is composed of water and proteins
- secreted by the synovial membrane
- three functions:
- lubricates the surfaces of the articular cartilages, reducing
friction
- nourishes the chondrocytes
- provides shock absorption
* Articular cartilages
- this layer of hyaline cartilage on the ends of the bones
- provides smooth gliding surface
* Sensory nerves and blood vessels
Teacher Note: the synovial membrane attaches directly to the bone
* Accessory structures
- Menisci
* semilunar, fibrocartilage discs
* contain nerves for sensory reception
* provide cushioning & joint stability
- Capsular (collateral; both sides) ligaments
*extra-articular, bone-to-bone straps of DRCT
* prevent dislocation
- Bursae (bursa, singular)
* extra-articular sac of synovial fluid
* found between bones and ligament, tendons, or muscles to
reduce friction between moving surfaces
- Muscles and tendons
* attach across joints to allow for motion
* help maintain joints stability
- Synovial joints classified by:
* Types of movement they allow:
- Uniaxial bone moves in one place
- Biaxial bone moves in two places
- Multiaxial (or triaxial) bone moves in multiple planes
* Shapes of articulating surfaces
- Plane or Gliding, joints
* side-to-side movement
* example: intercarpal & intertarsal joints
- Hinge joints
* flexion and extension
* example: knee, elbow, interphalangeal joints
- Pivot joints
* rotation (movement around central location)
* example: 1st and 2nd cervical vertebral joint, proximal
radioulnar joint
- Condylar joints
* fexion/extension & abduction/adduction (2 planes of
movement)
* example: metacarpophalangeal & metatarsophalangeal
- Saddle joints
* flexion/extension & circumduction
* example: 1st metacarpal (thumb) at carpal
- Ball and socket joints
* all three types of movement and all three planes
* example: hip and shoulder joints
Disorders of Joints
- Arthritis: inflammation of joints, causing pain, stiffness, swelling (this is the general definition)
* Degenerative (aka osteoarthritis)
- Brought on by old age, joint abuse or obesity
- Progressive erosion of articular cartilage, leading to joint ossification and immobility
* Rheumatoid
- Autoimmune disease
- Thickening of synovial membrane and breakdown of cartilage and bone, leading to
stiffness, swelling, pain
* Gouty
- Metabolic disorder in males (found more in males than females)
- High levels of uric acid in the blood, leading to crystallization in the synovial sac
- Bursitis: inflammation of bursa
* Brought about by prolonged stress, injury, or pressure at the joint
- Sprain: stretched or torn ligaments (not strain, which has to do with muscles)
* May lead to distortion of the joint
- Torn cartilage: usually involves menisci
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
Introduction
- Humans rely on muscles for many physiological processes, and virtually all dynamic interactions with the
environment involve muscle tissue
- Muscle tissue is composed of contractile cells called fibers
- Muscle fibers can shorten, generating a strong pulling force
The Types of Muscle Tissue:
- Skeletal muscle tissue moves the body by pulling on bones
- Cardiac muscle tissue pumps blood through the arteries and veins
- Smooth muscle tissue squeezes fluids and solids (e.g. along the digestive tract)
Skeletal Muscles
- Contractile organs directly or indirectly attached to bones of the skeleton
- Voluntary
- Skeletal muscles perform the following functions:
- Produce skeletal movement / articular movement
- Maintain posture and body position
- Supports soft tissues and joints
- Metabolism / temperature regulation
Skeletal Muscle Structure
- Macroscopic: Muscle Mass (organ level) includes:
- Tendons: DRCT (dense regular connective tissue) attaches muscle to bone
- aponeurosis: wide, flat; connects muscle to muscle
- retinaculum: ligament band; holds tendons in place (example: carpal tunnel)
- Epimysium: superficial fascia (DICT, dense irregular connective tissue) surrounds whole muscle
- Perimysium: internal fascia binding parallel fibers
- forms fasciculi or fascicles
- Endomysium: areolar CT (connective tissue) around each fiber
- Blood vessels and nerves (found within, and passing through)
- Microscopic: Muscle Fibers (cellular level)
- Bound by a sarcolemma (cell membrane)
- Supplied with a branch of one motor nerve
- Multinucleated
- Striated (branded)
- Unidirectional, parallel arrangement
- Within the cytoplasm of skeletal muscle fibers are specialized organelles, unique to muscle
cells, called myofibrils
- Microscopic: Myofibrils (organelle level)
- Groups of protein filaments (rods)
- called myofilaments
- 100s to over 1,000 per cell
- Sacromere: repetitive subunits within the myofibril
- basic unit of contraction
- boundaries are called z-lines (or z-disks)
- Microscopic: Myofilaments (molecular level)
- Myosin: thick protein filaments
- arranged in the center of a sacromere
- ends are studded with knobs called myosin heads or crossbridges
- overlap the ends of actin
- Actin: thin protein filaments
- attached to z-line (only the actin attach to boundaries)
- extend towards the center of the sacromere
- Sliding Filament Theory
- Myosin cross bridges (heads) pull actin over myosin, - > then
- The Z-lines move closer together - > and then
- Sacromere unit shortens (contracts)
- Skeletal Muscle Properties
- Each fiber contracts all-or-none (a muscle fiber contracts along its entire length at full power
or does not contract at all)
- The total force exerted by the muscle depends on the number of activated motor
units
- Motor unit: one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
- High energy demand, therefore many mitochondria
- Rapid contraction
- Contracts very quickly, lots of mitochondria and ATP involved
Muscle Hypertrophy and Atrophy
- Exercise causes an increase in:
- Number of mitochondria
- Myofibrils
- The net effect is an enlargement, or hypertrophy, of the stimulated muscle
- Disuse of a muscle results in the opposite, called atrophy
Fiber Direction and Muscle Action
- The arrangement of the fasciculi determines the overall power and degree of muscle shortening
- Longitudinal: long fibers
- Parallel to the long axis
- Designed for maximum shortening, minimal power
- Pennate: short fibers
- Oblique to the long axis
- Designed for maximum power, less movement
- Sphincter: circular bands
- Near body openings
- Designed to work as a shutter or valve
Muscle Terminology
- Origin: remains stationary (is usually proximal)
- Insertion: moves
- Prime mover (agonist): main muscle
- Synergist: helper muscle to prime mover
- Antagonist: opposing muscle to prime mover (reverses original movement)
- Action: the movement thats accomplished
Naming of Skeletal Muscles

- Specific body regions
- example: brachialis
- Number of divisions
- example: biceps brachii
- Shape or size of the muscle
- example: trapazius
- Origin / Insertion
- example: sterno cleidomastoid gluteus maximus
- Orientation of fibers
- example: abdominal oblique
- Action
- adductor longus
Muscle / Joint Actions
- A. Extension: increasing the angle between two bones
Flexion: decreasing the angle between two bones
example: elbow and knee
- B. Abduction: moving away from the midline
Adduction: moving toward the midline
example: fingers and arms
- C. Rotation: revolving around a central axis (can be medial or lateral)
Circumduction: the end of an appendage describes a circle
example: shoulders and hips
- D. Supination: moving palms from posterior to anterior
Pronation: moving palms from anterior to posterior
example: fore arm
- E. Protraction: horizontal motion of a body part, anteriorly
Retraction: horizontal motion of a body part, posteriorly
example: mandible
- F. Elevation: vertical motion, inferiorly
Depression: vertical motion, inferiorly
example: shrugging shoulders
- G. Plantarflexion: movement of the foot as the heel elevates
Dorsiflexion: movement of the foot as the heel is depressed
example: ankle
- H. Inversion: lift the sole of the foot medially
Eversion: lift the sole of the foot laterally
example: foot tilted inward/ outward
- I. Opposition: thumb touches the fingertips
example: thumb
Disorders of Skeletal Muscles

- Fibromyalgia
- Pain, tenderness, stiffness, spasms, fatigue
- Muscular dystrophy
- Inherited disease of muscle fibers
- Degeneration (atrophy) of fibers causing weakness, especially in the upper limbs, head, & chest
- Myasthenia gravis
- Autoimmune disease at the neuromuscular junction
- Causing weakness and eventual respiratory failure
- Strain
- Muscle tear
- Atrophy
- (previously defined) and condition that may cause atrophy
CARDIAC MUSCLE
- Location: walls of the heart
- Involuntary
- Function: pump blood - > blood circulation
- Structure:
* Organ level: four hollow chambers
* Fiber (cell) level:
- Mono-nucleated
- Intercalated discs between adjacent fibers
- Striated
- Multidirectional / branching pattern
* Organelle level: myofibrils and many mitochondria
* Molecular level: actin and myosin
- Properties:
- All-or-none contraction
- Autorythmic: self excitatory
- Resistant to fatigue
SMOOTH MUSCLE
- Location: line internal viscera
- Involuntary
- Functions:
- Motility of gastrointestinal tract
* Peristalsis: wave-like contraction / relaxation causing a squeezing action
- Childbirth
- Vasoconstriction / vasodilation
- Structure:
* Organ level: walls of hollow organs
- multi-layered, multi-directional sheets
* Fiber (cell) level: spindle shaped
- mono-nucleated
- non-striated
* Organelle level: myofibrils
- no sacromere arrangement
* Molecular level: myofilaments
-Properties:
- Slow, prolonged, wave-like contraction
- Autorythmic
- Can be stretched without damage
- Resist fatigue
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS TISSUE
Introduction
- The nervous system is the bodys primary communication and control system.
* Along with the endocrine system, the nervous system controls and adjusts the activities of
other systems by way of chemical communication.
- The nervous system has relatively swift but brief effects
- The endocrine system has slower but longer-lasting effects
Nervous System: Anatomical (Structural) Organization (Fig. 13.1)
- Two Structural subdivisions:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- brain and spinal cord
- processing and coordinating
- intelligence, memory, learning, emotion
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- neural tissue outside the CNS: nerve trunks leading to/from the brain and spinal
cord
- provides sensory information to the CNS
- carries motor commands to peripheral tissies
Nerve Cells
- Nervous tissue is mostly cells
* Very little intercellular material
- Two distinct cell types form nervous tissue:
* Neurons = nerve cells = nerve fibers
- Excitable cells
- Transfer and process information in the nervous system
* Neuroglia, or glial cells
- Non-excitable cells
- Support, protect, isolate neurons
Characteristics of Neurons
- Neurons have a high metabolic rate
- Neurons have extreme longevity
- Neurons typically are non-mitotic
Neuron Structure (Fig 13.3)
- A typical neuron has a cell body and processes, called dendrites and an axon.
- Cell body (soma) serves as the neurons control center, and is responsible for receiving, processing,
and sending nerve impulses
* May be smooth or star-shaped
* Contains:
- Single, large round nucleus
- Clusters of ribosomes
- Microtubles extending into axon
- Many Mitochondria
* Where soma are concentrated:
- They form ganglia in the PNS
- They for nuclei in the CNS
- Processes
* Extensions off of the cell body that conduct electrical impulses
* Types:
- Dendrites: short, highly branched externsions
* carry impulses toward the cell body
* dendrites are often called receptors
- Axon: long, slender, single extension (may be highly branched at the end)
* carry impulses away from the cell body
* insulated by neuroglia
* Axon branches end in bulbs or knobs called: terminal filaments
* Terminal filaments (synaptic knobs): form cell junctions called - >

(Fig 13.9)
- Synapse when joined to a dendrite of another neuron
- Neuromuscular junction when joined at a muscle cell
(Neurons can be classified according to either their structure or their function)
Neuron Classification: Structure
- Based upon number of processes (Fig 13.10)
* Types:
- Multipolar
* Multiple, short dendrites
* One, long axon
* Usually motor in function (usually)
* Most abundant
- Unipolar
* One process splits near the cell body
* Usually sensory in function
- Bipolar
* Found only in specialized sensory organs of the ear, nose eye
Neuron Classification: Function (Fig 13.11)
- Neurons have three functional groups according to the direction of nerve impulses relative to the
CNS:
* Sensory (afferent) neurons:
- Impulses travel toward the brain, form sensory receptors in the skin and organs
(PNS)
- Most are unipolar neurons with cell bodies located in ganglia outside the CNS
* Motor (efferent) neurons:
- Impulses travel away from the brain, into effectors (muscles / glands)
- Most are multipolar neurons, with cell bodies within the CNS
* Interneurons or association neurons
- Transmit impulses between neurons within the CNS (lie between sensory and
motor neurons)
- Most are multipolar neurons
Neuroglia (Fig 13.4, 13.5)
- Sometimes referred to as glial cells; occur in the CNS and PNS
- Functions:
* Providing a framework for neurons
* Preventing adjacent neurons from interfering with one another
* Maintaining the intercellular environment
* Acting as phagocytes
- 100 billion neuroglia
- Roughly five times the number of neurons in the human body
- Neuroglia in the CNS
* Astrocytes
- Are the largest and most numerous glial cells
- Crowded among central neurons (CNS)
- Many radiating processes
- Variety of functions:
* Maintain the blood-brain barrier
- Support and link neurons to blood capillaries to - >
- Regulate diffusion
- Only H O, O , CO , Glucose, Amino Acids readily enter
the CNS
* Create a 3-demensional framework for the CNS
* Recapture and recycle neurotransmitters
* Oligodendrocytes
- Wrap around central neurons (CNS)
- Provide myelination
* Forms white matter of the CNS
* Microglia
- Phagocytic macrophages of the CNS
- Engulf invading microorganisms and injured / dead neurons
- Neuroglia of the PNS
* Schwann cells (Fig 13.8) (also called Neurolemmocytes)
- Wrap around peripheral (PNS) neurons
- Provide support and axon insulation with myelin:
* A lipid-protein complex wrapped in concentric circles
* Improves the speed of nerve impulse conduction
* Nodes of Ranvier: gaps between Schwann cells
- Serve as relay points for nerve impulses
Synapse microanatomy (Fig 13.13) *need to know this diagram
- Function: where neurons meet to transfer information
- Structures:
* Presynaptic neuron:
- Reacts to arriving impulses
- Conducts information toward the synapse
* Synaptic vesicles:
- Membrane-bound sacs in the presynaptic axon terminal
- Contain / release neurotransmitters
- Chemicals that transmit the signal across the cleft (gap)
* Synaptic cleft:
- Narrow gap between neurons
* Postsynaptic neuron:
- Reacts to neurotransmitters
- Receives information and conducts it away from the synapse
- Sequence of events in impulse transmission
1. Presynaptic electric impulses - >
2. Rupture of synaptic vesicles - >
3. Release of neurotransmitter across cleft - >
4. Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic membrane, changing the electric charge - >
5. New, postsynaptic impulse
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; THE BRAIN
Introduction (Fig 16.1)
- The brain is far more complex than the spinal cord
- The brain contains roughly 20 billion neurons and weighs approximately 3 pounds
- It is not the physical size of the brain that determines intelligence it is the number of active
synapses
Cranial Meninges (Fig 16.3)
- Three protective membranes covering brain / spinal cord
* Dura mater superficial (external most)
- Composed of DICT (dense irregular connective tissue)
- Dips into longitudinal fissure of the brain to form the falx cerebri, which is within
the superior sagittal sinus (SSS) (Fig 16.3b and 16.5a) - >
* Arachnoid membrane middle
- Composed of squamous epithelium and elastic CT (connective tissue)
- Highly vascularized
- Encloses honeycombed subarachnoid space -> where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
flows
- Arachnoid villi: projections of the arachnoid into the SSS (Fig 16.5a)
- Allow CSF to pass from subarachnoid space into the blood to be
reabsorbed
* Pia mater deep (innermost)
- Composed of areolar membrane
- Closely adheres to the spinal cord and brain (follows contours)
Internal Brain Cavities: Ventricles (Fig 16.2)
- Form a continuous, fluid-filled system within the brain and spinal cord
- First and second (lateral) ventricles
* Within the cerebrum
* Drain into: interventricular foramen (Monro) - >
- Third ventricle
* Within cerebrum, between lobes of thalamus
* Drains into: cerebral aqueduct (of Sylvius) - >
- Fourth ventricle
* Within the hindbrain, at the base of the cerebellum
* Drains into: median and lateral apertures and the central canal of the spinal cord to the
subarachnoid space (SAS) - > surrounds entire CNS
- Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) (Fig 16.6 and 16.7)
- Formed: in ventricles by secretion of choroid plexus (composed of ependymal cells)
- Chorid plexus, is a network of blood capillaries in all 4 ventricles
- Absorption: through the arachnoid villi into the superior sagittal sinus
- with mostly water and glucose, Na+, Cl-,
- Composition: similar to blood plasma with less protein
- Functions:
- Shock absorption from head movement
- Internal support structure from weight of head
- Transports nutrients and wastes
Organization of the Brain
- Forebrain (prosencephalon)
* Cerebrum
* Thalamus
* Hypothalamus
- Midbrain (mesencephalon)
* Cerebral peduncles
* Corpora quadrigemina
- Hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
* Cerebellum
* Pons
* Medulla
FOREBRAIN
Cerebrum
- Two hemispheres (Fig 16.16)
* Right and Left
- Right cerebrum primarily responsible for: artistic skills, spatial relationships,
intuition, emotion
- Left cerebrum primarily responsible for: numerical and language skills, logic
* Separated by longitudinal fissure
* Connected by way of the corpus callosum
- Cerebral Lobes (Fig 16.17)
* Frontal
* Parietal
* Occipital
* Temporal
- These lobes are distinguished by sulci (indentations)(sulcus singular) that act as
boundaries:
* Lateral sulcus: between temporal / parietal lobes
* Central sulcus: between frontal / parietal lobes
* Parieto-occipital: very faint
- Cerebral gray matter (cortex) (Fig 16.5)
- Nerve cell bodies and dendrites that are not myelinated
- Folded into gyri (superficial ridges or bumps)
- Gyri and sulci increase functional surface area of the brain
- Cerebral white matter (16.19)
- Myelinated axons bundled into tracts - > axon bundles traveling to similar destinations
* Association tracts: connect regions (gyri) within the same hemisphere
* Commissural tracts: connect gyri in right and left hemispheres
- e.g. corpus callosum
* Projection tracts: carry sensory / motor impulses to / from areas outside the
cerebrum (ascending and descending)
Cerebral Functional Organization (Fig 16.17)
- Frontal lobe
* Pre-central gyrus: primary motor area
- Motor nerve tracks originate here
* Speech area (Brocas area-left hemisphere only)
- Controls muscles necessary for vocalization
* Pre-motor (association) areas, including pre-frontal lobe
- Social behavior, problem solving, judgment, complex learning, higher intellectual
activities.
- Parietal lobe
* Post-central gyrus: primary sensory area
- Termination of pathways that carry perception of pain, touch, pressure,
temperature
* Association areas
- Just posterior to primary sensory area; stored memories of past sensory
experiences
- Interprets shape, images, textures
- Temporal lobe
* Auditory areas: superior
- Hearing and interpretation
- Loudness, rhythm, pitch
* Olfactory areas: medial
- Smell and interpretation
- Occipital lobe
* Primary visual area
- Receives visual input from eyes, forming colors, shapes, and images
- Control of eye movements
- Sub-cortical Areas
* Basal nuclei (Fig 16.20) (also called cerebral nuclei)
- Nuclei: collection of neuron cell bodies within the CNS
- Gray matter, bilateral to the thalamus
- Adjusts and subdues precise motor activity
* Limbic system (Fig 16.21)
- Around lateral ventricles
- Regulates behavioral aspects of major emotions:
- Guilt, rage, pleasure, and retrieval of long-term memory (and the
associated feeling of that memory)
- Interacts with pre-frontal lobes of cortex:
- Close interaction between feelings and thoughts
Thalamus (Fig 16.11 and 16.13b)
- Deep gray matter medial to basal nuclei
* Forms lateral walls of 3rd ventricle
* 2 hemispheres connected by massa intermedia
- Relay point for sensory information that will be passed to the primary sensory area of the cerebral
cortex
- Allows crude appreciation of some sensations
Hypothalamus (Fig 16.12)
- Gray matter forming floor of 3rd ventricle
- Regulates behavior associated with fear
- Controls most of the autonomic nervous system
- Regulates thermoregulation and appetite
- Controls secretion of the pituitary gland
- May help determine sexual orientation
MESENCEPHALON MIDBRAIN (Fig 16.13 and 16.14)
Cerebral peduncles
- Contain motor projection tracts from cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
- Contain sensory tracts from spinal cord to thalamus
Corpora Quadrigemina
- Superior colliculi (2) responsible for involuntary eye / head movement in response to visual stimuli
- Inferior colliculi (2) responsible for involuntary eye / head movement in response to auditory stimuli
HINDBRAIN
Pons (bridge)
- Links to cerebrum
- Connects the cerebellum with the medulla
- Works with the medulla and the autonomic nervous system to control breathing
Cerebellum
- Two hemispheres
- This cortex of gray matter
* Muscular memory involved in habitual actions, normal locomotion
* Adjusts postural muscles for balance, equilibrium
- Internal white matter
* Carries information to / from cerebral cortex
Medulla (oblongata)
- Lower brain stem
* Continuous with spinal cord
- Pyramid formations
* Ridges bilateral to ventral midline
* Crossing nerve tracts carrying voluntary motor output originating from the cerebral cortex
(passing through the peduncles and pons)
- Vital centers:
* Respiration, heart rate, vasomotor control
- Non-Vital centers:
* Coughing, swallowing, vomiting
THE SPINAL CORD
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord
- The spinal cord and brain have functional independence
- The spinal cord:
* Is within the vertebrae colum
* Extends from the foramen magnum - > 1st lumbar vertebra (Fig 14.1)
* The spinal cord and its attached spinal nerves serve two important functions:
- Conducts sensory and motor impulses to / from brain via spinal tracts
* tract = collection of CNS nerve fibers having the same origin, destination
and function
- Responsible for reflexes
Gross anatomy (x section, Fig 14.1d)
- Gray matter (non-myelinated)
* Contains nerve cell bodies, dendrites, synapses
* Differentiated into anterior and posterior horns
- Central, butterfly shaped
- White matter (myelinated axons)
* forms ascending and descending spinal tracts
* Consists of sensory and motor fibers
- Ascending tracts: sensory pathways to various centers in the brain
* Crossover at medulla or point of entry
- Descending tracts: motor pathways from the cerebral cortex and / or cerebellum
* Crossover at or above the medulla
- Central Canal
* Leads to the 4th ventricle
* For flow of CSF
Injuries and Diseases of the CNS
* Paralysis
- Localized damage to the spinal cord
* Meningitis
- Inflammation of the meninges
- Caused by bacterial or viral infection
* Encephalitis
- Inflammation of the brain
* Concussion
- Brain injury due to a blow to the head
* Multiple sclerosis
- Myelin sheaths gradually disappear
- Conduction of nerve impulses slows and eventually ceases
- Autoimmune
* Stroke (cerebrovascular accident or CVA
- Flow of blood to brain is blocked (ischemia)
- Brain tissue dies from lack of oxygen
- Caused by blood clot or athrosclerosis
* Alzheimers disease
- Progressive, and degenerative
- Caused by shrinking of cerebral gyri, declines in glucose use, and abnormal protein
deposits
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
Subdivided into two divisions:
- Afferent division of the PNS provides sensation (sensory information) from muscle (somatic) and
internal organs (visceral) to CNS
- Efferent division carries motor commands from CNS to muscles and glands
* Further subdivided into two divisions:
- Somatic Nervous System (SNS) serves skeletal muscle
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) serves cardiac and smooth muscles, and glands
Spinal Nerves (Fig 14.3 and 14.6)
- The spinal cord is associated with 31 pairs of spinal nerves that connect the CNS to muscles,
receptors, and glands
* Pass through the intervertebral foramen
* Identified by vertebral region; each side of the spinal cord contains:
- 8 cervical nerves (C1-C8)
- 12 thoracic nerves (T1-T12)
- 5 lumbar nerves (L1-L5)
- 5 sacral nerves (S1-S-5)
- 1 coccygeal nerve (Co)
* Carry somatic sensory and somatic motor fibers
- Called mixed trunks; formed from the union of dorsal and ventral roots
* Dorsal root: sensory nerves entry point
- Dorsal root ganglion collection of sensory nerve cell bodies
* Ventral root: motor nerve exit point
- To supply muscles and glands
Spinal Nerve Structure (Nerve Trunk Macro anatomy) (Fig 14.5)
- Similar to skeletal muscle
- Epineurium
* Outermost, DICT
* Surrounds entire nerve trunk
* Continuous with dura mater
* Provides strength and allows for some stretch
- Perineurium
* DICT
* Surrounds bundles of axons (called fascicles) of similar origin or destination
- Endoneurium
* Loose (areolar) connective tissue
Nerve Plexus
- A merging network of spinal nerve trunks leading to and from specific body regions
- Includes cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses
- Cervical plexus (Fig 14.9)
* C-1 - > C-4
- C-1 exits between the occipital bone and atlas
* Innervates neck, jaw, upper back, and diaphragm
* Includes: the phrenic nerve
- Brachial plexus (Fig 14.10)
* C-5 - > C-8 + T-1
* Innervates shoulder, arm, and hand
* Includes: musculocutaneous, radial, median, ulnar, and auxillary nerves
- Lumbar plexus (Fig 14.12)
* T-12 + L-1 - > 4
* Innervates lower back, lower abdominal wall, thigh, and genitalia
* Includes: femoral nerve
1
- Sacral plexus (Fig 14.12)
* L-5 + S-1 - > 4
* Innervates hip region, posterior thigh, calf, and foot
* Includes sciatic nerve, which branches into:
- Tibial nerve
- Common fibular (or peroneal) nerve
Reflexes
- Rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus
- Awareness of the stimulus occurs after the reflex action has been completed, in time to correct or
avoid a potentially dangerous situation
- Components of a Reflex Arc (Fig 14.14)
* Always begins at a receptor in the PNS
* Communicates with the CNS
* Ends at a peripheral effector (muscle or gland)
- Reflex testing in a clinical setting
* Reflexes can be used to test specific muscle groups and specific nerves or segments of the
spinal cord
* Consistently abnormal reflex response may indicate damage to the nervous system or
muscles
* A reflex response may be normal, hypoactive (slow), or hyperactive (exaggerated)
Cranial Nerves (Fig 16.22 and Table 16.12)
- Components of the PNS that connect to the brain rather than the spinal cord
* There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves
* Cranial nerves are numbered using Roman numerals
- Pass through various foramina in the skull
- May be sensory, motor, or mixed
- All innervate the head or neck
* Except the Vagus Nerve (X) (10)
CRANIAL NERVES
- 1. (I) Olfactory (special sensory)
* Origin: nasal cavity
* Function: smell
- 2. (II) Optic (special sensory)
* Origin: retina of eye
- Forms optic chiasma
- Terminates in occipital cortex
- 3. (III) Oculomotor (motor)
* Function: Eye movements, eyelid and iris movements
- 4. (IV) Trochlear (motor)
* Function: Eye movements
- 5. (V) Trigeminal (mixed; sensory and motor)
* Branches:
- Ophthalmic (sensory): orbital structures, nasal cavity, skin of forehead, superior
eyelids, eyebrows, part of the nose
- Maxillary (sensory): inferior eyelids, upper lip, gums, teeth, cheek, nose, palate,
and part of pharynx
- Mandibular (mixed):sensory from lower gums, teeth, lips, palate, tongue, and
motor to muscles of mastication
- 6. (VI) Abducens (motor)
* Function: eye movements
2
- 7. (VII) Facial (mixed)
* Functions:
- Sensory from taste receptors on anterior 2/3 of the tongue
- Motor to muscles of facial expression; lacrimal and salivary glands
- 8. (VIII) Vestibulocochlear (special sensory) (also called acoustic or auditory nerve)
* Origin: receptors of the inner ear (vestibule and cochlea)
* Function: balance and equilibrium (vestibular branch); hearing (cochlear branch)
- 9. (IX) Glossopharyngeal (mixed)
* Functions:
- Sensory: taste on posterior 1/3 of tongue and pressure on the throat
- Motor: swallowing and salivation
- 10. (X) Vagus (mixed)
* Functions to/from chest and abdomen:
- Sensory: visceral pain
- Motor: control of heart, lungs, and g.i. tract
- 11. (XI) Accessory (motor)
* To/from muscles of the neck and upper back
- 12. (XII) Hypoglossal (motor)
* Functions: tongue movements
(Mnemonic for cranial nerves)
Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good Vacations Are Had
Regeneration of PNS Axons
- PNS axons are vulnerable to
- A damaged axon can regenerate, however, if at least
- PNS axon regeneration depends upon three factors:
* The amount of damage
* Neurolemmocyte secretion of growth factors
* The distance between
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, EFFERENT (motor) DIVISION, AUTONOMIC RESPONSE SYSTEM (ANS)
Introduction
- Routine, involuntary adjustments in physiological systems are made by the ANS (Autonomic
Nervous System)
* The ANS regulates body temperature and coordinates cardiovascular, respiratory,
digestive, excretory, and reproductive functions
* The ANS adjusts internal water, electrolyte, nutrient, and dissolved gas concentration in
body fluids
- Maintains homeostasis: stable internal body environment
Somatic NS (SNS) Vs. Autonomic NS (ANS)
- SNS and ANS are both part of the Peripheral NS (PNS)
* SNS operates under our conscious control
* ANS functions are involuntary
- SNS
* Uses somatic sensory neurons to conduct stimulus information from a sensory receptor,
such as a tactile receptor in the skin
* Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers
- ANS also utilizes sensory and motor neurons
* Visceral sensory neurons provide input to activate the ANS
* The ANS is Visceral Motor only
- It is composed entirely of motor neurons
3
- The ANS differs from the somatic nervous system in the arrangement of the neurons connecting
the CNS to the effector organs:
* The ANS features two neurons between the CNS and peripheral effector
- A preganglionic neuron and a ganglionic neuron
* The preganglionic neurons (visceral motor neurons located in the CNS) send their axons,
called preganglionic fibers, to synapse on the ganglionic neurons, whose cell bodies are
located outside the CNS, in autonomic ganglia
- Ganglia: collections of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
* Axons from the ganglionic neurons are called postganglionic fibers because they carry
impulses away from the ganglion
- Postganglionic fibers innervate peripheral tissues and organs, such as cardiac and
smooth muscle, adipose tissue, and glands
Two Divisions of the ANS (17.1)
- Sympathetic
* Usually excitatory
* Fight or flight response
- Parasympathetic
* Usually inhibitory
* Rest and digest response
- Dual Motor Innvervation
* Every effector is supplied with one sympathetic and one parasympathetic fiber
- Have antagonistic effects (opposite effects)
* Exceptions, receive only sympathetics:
- Adrenal glands
- Sweat glands
- Arrector Pili muscles
- Most blood vessels
Sympathetic Division (Fig 17.2)
- Thoracolumbar (T1-L2)
- Chemical neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine
- Fibers are termed: adrenergic
- Short preganglionic fibers, long postganglionic fibers (Fig 17.10)
- Axons branch profusely, allowing each neuron to influence a number of visceral organs so
they can mobilize simutaneously
- Generally excitatory
* Preparation for emergency or physical stress
* Effects:
- Increases HR (heart rate)/ BP (blood pressure) (vasoconstricts blood vessels)
- Dilates pupils
- Raises respiratory rate and volume (dilates bronchioles)
- Stimulates sweating
- Increases alertness
- Decreases digestive activity
- Decreases urine output
4
- Sympathetic Chains (Fig 17.3a, 17.4)
* Each is located immediately lateral to the vertebral column
* A sympathetic chain looks much like a beaded necklace:
- The string of the necklace is composed of bundles of axons
- The beads are the sympathetic chain (or paravertebral) ganglia, which house
sympathetic ganglionic neuron cell bodies
* There are 12 pairs of thoracic and 3 pair of lumbar ganglia receiving preganglionic neurons
* Rami are axon bundles that link the spinal nerves with the sympathetic chain
- White rami contain short, myelinated, preganglionic fibers
* Branch from spinal nerves to enter chain ganglia
- Gray rami contain long, unmyelinated, postganglionic fibers
* Branch away from chain ganglia and re-merge with spinal somatic nerves
* Splanchnics: myelinated, preganglionic fibers passing through (i.e. not synapsing)
paravertebral ganglia to innervate abdominal organs
- Form 3 peripheral (collateral) ganglia in the abdominal cavity (Fig 17.3b)
Parasympathetic Division (Fig 17.7)
- Craniosacral
- Chemical transmitter: acetylcholine
* Termed: cholinergic
- Long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers (Fig 17.10)
- Generally suppressive
* Help maintain quiet activity; metabolic recovery
* Effects:
- Decreases HR (heart rate) / BP (blood pressure)
- Constricts pupils
- Normalizes respiratory rate / volume (constricts bronchioles)
- Increases digestive secretions and smooth muscle activity
- Stimulates urination and defacation
- Note: no effect on blood vessels
- Fibers do not merge with nor travel in spinal nerve trunks
- Cranial Fibers (Fig 17.8)
* Arise in the brain and travel with 4 cranial nerves:
- Oculomotor (III)
- Facial (VII)
- Glossopharyngeal (IX)
- Vagus (X)
* Form 4 ganglia in head near visceral effector
* Postganglionic fibers end in: iris, salivary glands, heart, bronchioles, g.i. tract, gall bladdder
- Sacral Fibers (Fig 17.8)
* Exit from ventral roots at S-2 through S-4, then travel independently to ganglia
* Ganglia (terminal ganglia), near visceral effector, not paravertebral
* Postganglionic fibers end in pelvic viscera: colon, bladder, genitalia, and reproductive
tract
Control of ANS by CNS
- Hypothalamus
* Coordinating center
* Controls ANS actions of medulla
* Controls thermoregulation, food and water intake
- Medulla
* Controls respiration, heart activity, blood pressure and g.i. secretions
- Cerebral cortex
* Certain psychological states (biofeedback, yoga) can influence hypothalamus, and
therefore, the ANS
5
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, GENERAL AND SPECIAL SENSES
Introduction
- A sensory receptor is a modified, specialized cell, cell process, or complex organ that monitors
conditions in the body or external environment
* A sensory receptor is sensitive to a specific type of stimulus
- The sensory information arriving at the CNS is called a sensation
- Two functional classes of receptors:
* General senses: temperature, pain, touch, stretch, pressure
- Distributed throughout the skin and organs
* Special senses: taste, smell, vision, equilibrium, sound
- Housed within complex organs in the head
Types of Receptors
- three types of receptors based on stimulus location
- Exteroceptors: detect stimuli from the external environment
* Mechanoreceptors: touch, pressure
* Thermoreceptors: temperature
* Nociceptors: pain
* Special senses are considered exteroceptors because they usually interpret external
stimuli
- Photoreceptors: light
- Chemoreceptors: taste, smell
- Interoceptors: also called visceroceptors (Fig 18.4, 18.5)
* Detect stimuli in internal organs (viscera):
* Are primarily stretch receptors in the smooth muscle of these organs
* Also report on chemical change, temperature
- Proprioceptors
* Located in muscles, tendons, and joints
* Detect body and limb movements, skeletal muscle contraction, stretch, and position, and
changes in joint capsule structure
THE EYE: Vision
- Visual receptors (photoreceptors) in the eyes detect light, color, and movement
- Accessory structures (Fig 18.19, 18.20):
* Extrinsic skeletal muscles (6)
* Lacrimal gland
- Located in superio-lateral orbit
- Excretes lacrimal fluid (tears)
* Composed of: water, salts, bacteria-destroying enzyme
* Function: Keeps the exposed surface moist, clean and lubricated
* Exits by way of: nasolacrimal duct
* Conjunctiva
- Outer, transparent, mucous-membrane
- Covers inner surface of eyelids and anterior of eye
- lubricates, moistens, and detects foreign objects
6
Three Tunics or Layers (Fig 18.21, 18.22a)
- Fibrous (outer) layer
* Sclera
- White, DICT (dense irregular connective tissue)
- Supports, protects, shapes the eye
* Cornea
- Transparent, convex collagen fibers
-Anterior 1/6 of the orb
- Serves for preliminary focus, called refraction
- Vascular (middle) layer
* Choroid
- Vascular, darkly pigmented (w/melanin)
- Contains ciliary
- Absorbs light, preventing scatter and reflection
* Ciliary body
- Anterior portion to/continuous with choroid
- Serrated ring of ciliary (smooth) muscles, covered by ciliary processes (epithelial
folds)
- Focus lens by way of fine, transparent fibrils called suspensory ligaments:
attached around circumference of lens
* Lens
- Avascular, pliable, thick, transparent, biconvex
- Changes shape via action of ciliary muscles for refraction
* Iris
- Anterior most portion of middle layer
- Attached to ciliary muscles; between cornea and lens
- Contains circular and radial smooth muscles (Circular constricts and Radial Dilates)
- Creates opening called pupil, that allows passage of light
- May be pigmented with melanin
- Nervous (inner) layer
* Retina
- Photoreceptive layer or rods (light) and cones (color)
- Maintained by branches of central artery
- Includes:
* Macula lutea center of retina
* Central fovea inside macula; highest cone cell density
* Optic disc (blind spot) at optic nerve; no rods or cones
* Optic nerve
- Protected by meninges; exits eye
Cavities and Chambers of the Eye (Fig 18.22b)
- The internal space of the eye is subdivided by the lens into two separate cavities (or segments)
* Anterior cavity
* Posterior cavity
- The anterior cavity is:
* the space anterior to the lens and posterior to the cornea
- The iris of the eye subdivides the anterior cavity further into two chambers
* Anterior chambers is between the iris and cornea
* Posterior chamber is between the lens and the iris
- The anterior cavity contains aqueous humor (Fig 18.24)
* Produced continuously by processes of ciliary body
* Secreted into, flows through the posterior chamber - >

* Over lens - > Through the pupil - > Into the anterior chamber
* Exits by way of the Canal of Schlemm - > blood stream 7
- Vitreous Humor
* Posterior cavity is posterior to the lens and anterior to the retina
* Transparent, gelatinous vitreous body which completely fills the space between the lens
and the retina
* Supports retina, maintains shape of posterior cavity
THE EAR: Hearing and Equilibrium (Fig 18.9)
External Eat
- Visible externally
- Auricle or pinna
* Composed of skin, fat, elastic cartilage
* Gathers and funnels sound waves
- External auditory meatus
* Tube connecting auricle with tympanic membrane
* Lined with skin containing hairs and ceruminous glands
- Secrete cerumen to trap dust, other airborne particles
Tympanic Membrane (ear drum)
- Fibrous CT (connective tissue) membrane
* Forms boundary between external and middle ear
- Vibrates when sound waves hit
* Transferring sound waves to structures of middle ear
Middle Ear (Fig 18.10)
- Within the temporal bone
* Air filled space, lined by a mucous membrane
* Auditory (ear) ossicles; from lateral to medial:
- Malleus (hammer): attached to tympanic membrane
- Incus (anvil): forms small synovial joints (with other ossicles)
- Stapes (stirrup): moves in the oval window of the cochlea (entrance to the inner
ear)
* Auditory (eustachian) tube
- Elastic cartilage airway connecting middle ear and nasopharynx
- Normally flattened and closed
- Equalizes middle ear air pressure with atmospheric air pressure
Inner Ear
- Fluid-filled with (endolymph) tubes and chambers (called membranous labyrinth) within temporal
bones (called bony labyrinth), which are filled with perilymph (Fig 18.12)
- Vestibular complex (Fig 18.13, 18.14)
* Sends sensory information concerning balance and equilibrium
- Via vestibular division of vistibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
* 2 regions:
- Vestibule (utricle and saccule)
* Contains receptors to detect the position of the head (static equilibrium)
- Semicircular canals (3)
* Oriented at right angles
* Contain receptors responding to head movement (dynamic equilibrium)
8
- Cochlea (Fig 18.17)
* 3 parallel tubes within cancellous bone
* The scala vestibuli is continuous with the scala tympani
* The scala tympani
- Contains perilymph fluid
- Conducts fluid pulsations from the oval window (connecting the stapes of the
middle ear) to the round window
* The scala media (cochlear duct)
- Lies between the other two scala
- Filled with endolymph fluid
- Houses the spiral organ (organ of Corti)
- The roof of the scala media, separating it from the scala vestibuli, is the vestibular
membrane
- The floor of the scala media is called the basilar membrane
* supports the organ of Corti
* Spiral organ (organ of Corti) (Fig 18.17e)
- Extends the length of the scala media
- Sensory hair cells mounted along the basilar membrane
- Hairs embed in overhanging techorial membrane
- Vibration of basilar membrane -- >
* Movement (bending) of hair cells -- >
* Converted into electrical impulses -- >
* Carried to brain via the cochlear division of the vestibulocochlear nerve
(VIII)
* Hearing (Fig 18.18)
- Sound vibrations travel from the tympanic membrane through the ossicles -- >
- Stapes oscillates against the oval window -- >
- Waves in the parilymph of the scala vestibuli -- >
- Waves then carry to the scala tympani -- >
- Basilar membrane vibrates up and down -- >
- Hair cells in the spiral organ move with the basilar membrane, but overlying
tectorial membrane does not move -- >
- Hair cells bend, releasing neurotransmitters -- >
- Excite cochlear nerve fibers, which carry the information to the brain -- >
- Fluid pulsation are dampened at the round window
9
THE HEART
Introduction
- The blood must stay in motion to maintain homeostasis
* The heart contracts to keep blood moving
- The volume of blood pumped by the heart can vary widely, between 5-30 liters per minute
- The heart is a small organ; approximately the size of a clenched fist
- The heart is located between the left and right pleural sacs within the thoracic cavity
* In a space call the mediastinum (Fig 21.2)
Layers of the Heart
- Pericardium (outer layer) (Fig 21.2, 21.3)
* External serous membrane (simple squamous epithelium & areolar CT and DICT (outside))
- Parietal pericardium
* Continuous with the thoracic wall and pleura of the lungs
- Visceral pericardium or epicardium
* Adheres directly to the heart
* Function:
- Produces serous fluid to reduce friction
- Myocardium (middle layer) (Fig 21.3, 21.7)
* Cardiac muscle (Fig 21.3)
- Thicker on the left side, to assist systemic circulation
* Function:
- Pumps blood
- Endocardium (inner layer) (Fig 21.3)
* Simple squamous epithelium
- Calledendothelium
* Lines all heart chambers and valves (connected by areolar CT)
* Function:
- Decreases friction of blood cell against heart walls
Heart Chambers (Fig 21.7)
- Atria (Right and Left)
* Receiving chambers for incoming venous blood
* Superior; divided by interartrial septum
*Calledauriclesontheoutsideoftheheart
* Prenatal connection called foramen ovale
- For blood to bypass lungs (prenatal only)
- Becomes fossa ovale after birth
- Ventricles (Right and Left)
* Pumping chambers for ongoing arterial blood
* Inferior; divided by interventricular septum
Heart Valves (Fig 21.7, 21.8, 21.9)
- Prevent back flow of blood
- Continuous with endocardium
- 2 sets:
* Atrioventricular (AV)
- Between atria and ventricles
- Right = tricuspid Left = bicuspid or mitral
- Flaps restrained by chordae tendineae (only the AV valves are restrained)
- Connect to papillary muscles
* Anchor cusps in closed position,sotheydontblowopenduring
ventricular contraction
1
* Semilunar (SL)
- Right = pulmonary; between R ventricle and pulmonary trunk
- Left = aortic; between L ventricle and aorta
- Attach directly to vessel walls (no papillary muscles)
- Seal by overlapping of 3 cusps
Cardiac Cycle (Fig 21.11)
- Atrial Relaxation
- Blood enters both atria
Ventricular Contraction (systole)
- Blood leaves ventricles
- AV valves close
- SL valves open
Followed by:
- Atrial Contraction
- Blood leaves both atria
Ventricular Relaxation (diastole)
- Blood fills ventricles
- AV valves open
- SL valves close
Major Vessels Associated with the Heart (Fig 21.6, 21.7, 21.10)
- Inferior Vena Cava
* Vein entering lower right atrium
* Receives blood from lower extremities and abdomen
- Superior Vena Cava
* Vein entering upper right atrium
* Receives blood from head and upper extremities
- Coronary Sinus
* Vein entering lower right atrium
* Collects Venus blood from coronary veins
- From myocardium
- Pulmonary Arteries, L/R
* From R ventricle to lungs
* Fetal connection with aorta = ductus arteriosus
- Fetal bypass of the lungs
- Becomes ligamentum arteriosus after birth
- Pulmonary Veins (4)
* From lungs to atrium
- Aorta (aortic arch -- > thoracic aorta)
* Leaves L ventricle
* 5 initial branches:
- R & L Coronary arteries; first branches of the aorta to myocardium
- R Brachiocephalic artery
- L Common Carotid artery
- L Subclavian artery
2
Blood Flow Through the Heart
- Deoxygenated blood enters the R atrium by way of the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava and the
Coronary Sinus -- >
- Passes through the tricuspid valve -- >
- R ventricle -- >
- Passes through the pulmonary SL valve -- >
- R & L Pulmonary arteries -- >
- Lungs, where blood reoxygenates -- >
- 4 pulmonary veins -- >
- L atrium -- >
- Passes through bicuspid valve -- >
- L ventricle -- >
- Passes through aortic SL valve -- >
- Aorta -- >
- Heart muscle and systems
Coordination and Control of the Heart (Fig 21.12)
- Cardiac muscle cells have an intrinsic ability to generate and conduct impulses
- Pacemaker = sinoatrial (SA) node
* Superior portion of R atrium
* Sets contractile pace for both atria
- Receiver = atrioventricular (AV) node
* On floor of R atrium
* Accepts electrical excitation from atria; passes them to:
- Transmitter = atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
* Spreads excitation through ventricular walls via the conduction myofibers (Purkinje fibers)
- Travel through the apex of the heart, where the contraction starts, and moves
superiorly
Innervation of the Heart (Fig 21.13)
- Innervated by the autonomic nervous system
- Sympathetic nerves (T1 T5)
* Increases heart rate and force of contraction
- Parasympathetic nerves (Vagus)
* Decreases heart rate and force of contraction
VESSELS AND CIRCULATION
Introduction
- The cardiovascular system is a closed system that circulates blood
- There are two circuits within this system (Fig 21.1)
* Pulmonary circuit supplies the lungs
* Systemic circuit supplies the rest of the body
- Blood is pumped into both circuits simultaneously
Blood Vessels: Arteries (Fig 22.1, 22.2, 22.9)
- Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
* Except the pulmonary artery
- Three tissue layers (Tunics)
* Tunica interna (innermost)
- Composition: simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) over elastic connective
tissue
- Function: forms smooth surface to decrease friction of blood cells on vessel walls
3
* Tunica media (middle)
- Composition: elastic fibers and circular smooth muscle
- Function:
* Vasocontriction (contraction)
* Vasodilation (opening)
- Regulated by: sympathetic fibers of the ANS
* Tunica externa (outermost)
- Composition: fibrous connective tissue
- Function: protects, strengthens, anchors vessels to surrounding structures
Blood Vessels: Veins (Fig 22.1, 22.1, 22.20)
- Carry deoxygenated blood toward heart
* Except pulmonary vein
* Sustain a lower pressure than arteries, therefore are collapsible
- Three tissue layers (Tunics) that are thinner than arterial layers (but same histology)
* Tunica interna
- Less connective tissue than arteries of similar size
* Tunica media
- Less smooth muscle than arteries
* Tunica externa
- Slightly thicker than arteries
- Venous valves (Fig 22.5)
- Two endothelial flaps
- Prevent backflow, especially in veins below the heart
* Found in veins where blood is carried away against the force of gravity
* None in the thoracic or abdominal cavities
Blood Vessels: Capillaries (Fig 22.3)
- Microscopic vessels carrying blood between arterioles and venules
- One cell layer: Tunica interna
* Composition: simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
*Function:permitsdiffusionofO/CO,nutrients,andwastesto/fromadjacenttissuecells
* Approximately the same diameter as a RBC (red blood cell) to allow RBCs to pass single file
- Capilary beds (Fig 22.4)
* Branching networks of capillaries to permeate tissue cells
* Precapillary sphincters
- Layer of smooth muscle wrapped around a capillary at the entrance of a capillary
bed
- Controls the amount of blood entering that tissue
*OpenswithincreasedtissueCO
*CloseswithdecreasedtissueCOorsympatheticstimulation
- Pulmonary circulation (Fig 22.7, 22.8)
* Circuit through the lungs
* For reoxygenation of the blood and elimination ofCO
* Pulmonary trunk
- Exits the R ventricle and branches into R & L pulmonary arteries, carrying
deoxygenated blood to both lungs
- Branches become smaller and smaller - >
* Capillary network
- Surrounds alveoli (air sac) within the lungs
- PicksupOandreleasesCO- >
* Pulmonary veins (4, 2 right and 2 left)
- Carry reoxygenated blood from both lungs to L atrium
Systemic Circulation (Fig 22.7)
- Circuit to
* Deliver oxygen / nutrients throughout the body to all organs 4
* Return CO(andotherwasteproducts)totheheartandlungs
Hepatic portal circulation (Fig 22.26)
- Circuit from organs of the digestive tract to the liver
- Functions:
* Stones, modifies, or detoxifies substances from the g.i. tract
* Adds plasma proteins and glucose to blood
- (Hepatic) Portal vein receives blood from:
* Splenic vein
* Gastric vein
* Superior mesentaric vein
* Inferior mesenteric vein
- Returns blood to systemic circulation via hepatic veins - > inferior vena cava
BLOOD
Introduction
- Specialized type of connective tissue
- Suspension of
* Plasma: non-living, fluid portion
* Formed elements (Blood cells): living cells and cell fragments
- 5-6 liters of blood in adult man
- 4-5 liters of blood in adult woman
Functions of Blood (in general)
- OandCOtransportandexchange
- Nutrient and waste transport
- Hormone transport
- Thermoregulation
* When blood is diverted to/from skin to control heat loss/gain
- Antibody circulation
* Providing immunity and infection fighting
- Coagulation
* Blood clotting
Composition of the Blood (Fig 20.1, Table 20.2)
- Plasma
*90%water
* Cell nutrients
- Simple sugars, amino acids, lipids
* Wastes
- Urea, ammonia
* Hormones
* Blood gases
- OandCO
* Plasma proteins: produced in the liver and added through the hepatic-portal circulation:
- Albumin - > maintains osmotic pressure (water balance)
- Globulins - > antibodies and element transport
- Fibrinogen and Prothrombin - > blood clotting
- Red blood cells (RBCs) (Fig 20.2)
* Called erythrocytes
* Small, non-nucleated, biconcave
- For efficient diffusion
* Contain hemoglobin
- heme = red, iron-containing pigment
*CarriesO
- globin = protein
*CarriesCO
* Normal levels: 4.3 5.8 million/mm
- Hematocrit:%agebloodvolumethatisRBC(normal=44%) 5
- White blood cells (WBCs) (Fig 20.5)
* Called leukocytes
* Have nuclei and other organelles
* Normal levels: 4,000-7,000 per mm
* Two types:
- Granular leukocytes
* Neutrophils: bacterial phagocytes
- Enzymes in lysosomes destroy bacterial cell walls
* Eosinophils: combat parasitic infection and allergens
- Release digestive enzymes
* Basophils: release anticoagulants and histamine
- Increases permeability of capillary walls > swelling to dilute
toxins of bacteria
- Agranular leukocytes: form in thymus or bone marrow at birth, then distributed
to lymph tissue
* Monocytes: move outside capillaries as macrophages
- To ingest foreign cells and debris
* Lymphocytes: produce antibodies for immunity
- Most important cells in the immune system
- Platelets (Fig 20.6)
* Formed in red bone marrow
* Hemocytoblast (precursor/stem cell) -- >
Megakaryocyte -- >
Fragments are called Platelets
- Assist in blood clotting
Red Blood Cell Formation
- Called erythropoiesis
* Stimulated by erythropoietin: a hormone from the kidney
- ReleaseistriggeredbydecreasedOintissues
- Develop in red bone marrow (Fig 20.8)
* Hemocytoblast (precursor/pluripotential stem cell) -- >
Erythroblast, (hemoglobin forms -- >
Reticulocyte, (nucleus expelled) -- >
Erythrocyte (mature RBC)
Red Blood Cell Destruction
- Takes place in liver or spleen
- Macrophages phagocytize worn or damaged cells
- Globin returns to circulation
- Heme is broken down:
* Iron is recycled or stored
* Bilirubin is secreted in bile
Leukocyte Production (Fig 20.8)
- Granular types formed in red bone marrow
* Hemocytoblast -- >
Myeloblast -- >
Eosinophil / Basophil / Neutrophil
6
Blood Disorders
- Anemias: diminished capacity to transport oxygen via erythrocytes
* Hemorrhagic; blood loss
* Iron deficiency; decreased hemoglobin
*Pernicious;immatureRBCsduetolowB
* Aplastic; bone marrow malfunction
* Sickle cell; genetic hemoglobin defect
- Leukemia: cancer of lumph tissue or bone marrow
* Excessive immature or old leukocytes crowding out healthy blood cells
- Mononucleosis
* Viral infection causing high levels of lymphocytes
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Interoduction
- The lymphatic system is an accessory to the circulatory and digestive systems.
- The lymphatic system includes (Fig 23.1):
* Lymphatic capillaries and vessels
* Lymph
* Lymphocytes
* Lymphatic tissues and organs
- Including lymph nodes
Functions
- Produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes (agranular WBCs)
- Filter and returns lost tissue fluid (lymph) to the bloodstream
* Thus maintaining normal blood volume
- Provide an alternate route for the transport of hormones, nutrients, and waste products
- Receive fatty food products from the small intestine
Lymphatic Capillaries (Fig 23.2)
- Blind (closed at one end), simple endothelial tubes
* Originate in peripheral tissues
* Found adjacent to blood capillaries within loose CT (connective tissue)
* Highly permeable
- Uneven distribution
* None in CNS, epidermis, cartilage
- Act as one-way valves
* When interstitial fluid pressure rises, the margins of the endothelial cell membranes push
into the lymphatic capillary luman and allow interstitial fluid to enter
- Lacteals
* The small intestine contains special types of lymphatic capillaries called lacteals
* Lacteals pick up not only interstitial fluid, but also dietary lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins
* The lymph of this area has a milky color due to the lipid and is called chyle
Lymphatic Vessels (Fig 23.3)
- Lymphatic capillaries merge to form lymphatic vessels, which deliver lymph to the venous system
- Very thin
* Composed of the same 3 tunics as blood vessels, but thinner, and more permeable
- Contain many valves
* To help direct the flow of lymph (toward heart only)
- Travel between connective tissue and skeletal muscles
* Contraction of which help the lymph travel
- Lymph vessel destination (23.4)
* Thoracic duct
- Enters bloodstream at junction of the left subclavian/jugular vein
- Drains entire left and lower right side of the body
* Right lymphatic duct
- Enters bloodstream at junction of the right subclavian/jugular vein 7
- Drains upper right side of the body only
Lymph
- Consists of:
* Interstitial fluid (reabsorbed tissue fluid)
- Has filtered through the blood capillary walls and entered the loose CT
surrounding the capillaries
- Similar to blood plasma, but with a lower concentration of proteins
* Lymphocytes
- Cells responsible for the immune response
- Produce antibodies
- Most important cells in the immune system!
* Macrophages
* Platelets and fat globules
Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the lymphatic system, and they are responsible for specific immunity
(via antibody production).
- They respond to the presence of:
* Invading organisms, such as bacteria and viruses
* Abnormal body cells, such as virus-infected cells or cancer cells
* Foreign proteins, such as the toxins released by some bacteria
- Types of Lymphocytes (Fig 23.6)
* T-lymphocytes (also called T-cells)
* B-lymphocytes (also called B-cells)
* NK cells (natural killer cells)
* All migrate through the lymphatic tissues and monitor them for the presence of
antigens
* Identified according to the tissue or organ where they mature:
- T-lymphocytes mature in the Thymus
- B-lymphocytes mature in the Bone Marrow
- NK-cells mature in the Bone Marrow
Lymph Nodes (Fig 23.9)
- Small (<1in), been-shaped organs along lymphatic pathway
- Abundant in cervical, axillary, and inquinal (groin) regions
- Contain macrophages to filter antigens, bacteria, foreign debris, and cell fragments
- Produce lymphocytes
- May become infected, inflamed, tender
Tonsils (Fig 23.8)
- Not directly in lymph flow
- Palatine, pharyngeal (adenoids), lingual
- Manufacture lymphocytes
- Guard oral and nasal entrances to remove pathogens that enter pharynx in air or food
Thymus (Fig 23.16)
- Two lobes within mediastinum, superior to heart
- Manufactures / distributes active T-lymphocytes
- Retrograde development
Spleen (Fig 23.17)
- Largest lymphatic organ in body; ovoid shape
- Located in upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, inferior to the diaphragm, posterior to the
stomach
- White pulp = source of lymphocytes that manufacture and release antibodies
* To destry blood-borne antigens
- Red pulp = stored or developing erythrocytes
- Phagocytizes old, defective erythrocytes, platelets, bacteria
- Site of hematopoiesis in fetus 8
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Introduction
- Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing)
* Movement of air in and out of the lungs
- Respiratory processes
* External respiration:O/COexchangebetweenalveoliandpulmonarycirculation
- Accomplished by organs of respiratory system
* Internal respiration:O/COexchangebetweensystemicbloodandtissues
- Accomplished by organs of the circulatory system
* Cellular respiration: production of ATP within cells
- Respiratory system can be divided into: (Fig 24.1)
* Upper respiratory system
* Lower respiratory system
Upper Respiratory Anatomy
- Microanatomy (histology) (Fig 24.2)
* Mucous membrane consisting of ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Goblet cells: secrete mucus to trap airborne particles
- Cilia: move particles
- This membrane is susceptible to viral and bacterial infection
- Smoking increases mucus production and paralyzes cilia
- Gross Anatomy (Fig 24.4)
* Nares or nostrils
* Nasal cavities (2)
- Drainage site of lacrimal and sinus canals
- Divided by nasal septum:
* Includes: perpendicular plate, vomer, hyaline cartilage
* Nasal conchae
- Filter, warm, and humidify incoming air
- Make up lateral walls of nasal cavities
* Paranasal sinuses
- Moisten, cleanse nasal cavities
* Olfactory receptors
- Connect to olfactory bulb via cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
* Pharynx (throat)
- Common to respiratory and digestive systems
- Connects the nasal cavities and mouth proximally with the larynx and esophagus
distally
- Three subdivisions:
* Nasopharynx: posterior to nasal cavity
- Receives auditory tubes and contains pharyngeal tonsils
(adenoids)
* Oropharynx: posterior to oral cavity
- Contains palatine and lingual tonsils
* Laryngopharynx: posterior to the epiglottis
Lower Respiratory Anatomy (Gross)
- Larynx (voice box) (Fig 24.5, 24.6)
* Organ of voice production
* Diverts food into the esophagus
9
* Cartilage components:
- Thyroid cartilage (Adamsapple):hyalinecartilage
* Largest, shield-shaped
- Epiglottis: elastic cartilage
* Spoon-shaped
* Covers glottis during swallowing
- Cricoid cartilage: hyaline cartilage
* Inferior to thyroid cartilage
- Arytenoid cartilages (2): hyaline cartilage
* Horn-shaped; posterior
*Membrane components: (Fig 24.7)
- Vestibular folds: attach laterally to vocal cords for support
- Vocal cords: mucosal folds with elastic fibers
- Attach between arytenoids and thyroid cartilages
- As air from lungs moves across folds, they vibrate, providing sounds of
speech
- Glottis: opening between vocal cords
* Muscle components:
- Intrinsic muscles
- Open/close glottis; control tension on vocal cords
- Extrinsic muscles
- Move larynx up or down with swallowing
- Sternothyroid, thyrohyoid
- Trachea (windpipe) (Fig 24.9)
* Medial airway inferior to larynx
- Travels through neck into mediastinum within thoracic cavity
* 4-5long,flattenedposteriorly
- Posterior is composed of smooth muscle allowing for expansion of esophagus;
contraction of trachea during coughing / sneezing
* Lumen supported by 16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilages
- Joined by fibrocartilage CT (connective tissue)
- Very mobile and flexible
- Prevents collapse
* Bifurcates distally into two primary bronchi (R & L)
- Lungs (Fig 24.10)
* Right: 3 major lobes
* Left: 2 major lobes
* Protected and lubricated by pleurae
- Visceral and Parietal
- Serous membrane
- Bronchial Tree (Fig 24.9, 24.11, 24.13)
* 2 primary bronchi divide -->
* Secondary (lobar) bronchi (3R & 2L) -->
* Tertiary bronchi
- All 3 above are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium with few cartilage rings
surrounded by smooth muscle
- Branching continues until the tubes become smaller than 1 mm in diameter, and
are then called bronchioles
* Terminal bronchioles ( .5mm)
- Cartilage rings are replaced by smooth muscle
- Simple columnar epithelium
* Respiratory bronchioles (.4mm)
- Simple squamous epithelium
- Lead to: alveoli 10
* Alveoli (.25mm)
- Simple squamous epithelium clustered air sacs
- Surrounded by capillary networks for exchange of gases and nutrients
- 150,000,000 per lung
Breathing Mechanics (Fig 24.16)
- Inspiration
* Contraction (lowering/flattening) of diaphragm (*) -->
* Thorax expands -->
* Lowered intrathoracic pressure -->
* Atmospheric air drawn in via airways
(*) synergists: external intercostals and sternocleidomastoids
- Expiration
* Relaxation (raising) of diaphragm (*) -->
* Thorax shrinks -->
* Increased intrathoracic pressure -->
* Air forced out through airways
(*) synergists: internal intercostals and abdominals
Respiratory System Disorders
- All produce hypoxia (tissueOdeficit)
- Impairment of alveoli
* Pneumonia
- Fluid and WBC infiltration into alveoli
* Emphysema
- Consolidation of alveoli and lost elasticity
* Tuberculosis
- Bacterial infection causing fibrosis of lung tissue
* Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)
- Collapse of alveoli at birth due to low surfactant
* Surfactant = a phospholipid secretion that coats the inside of alveoli
- Impairment of other respiratory structures
* Asthma
- Allergic constriction of the bronchioles
* Pleuritis (pleurisy)
- Inflammation of the pleura
* Pneumothorax
- Airway into thorax --> collapsed lung
- Impairment of pulmonary circulation
* Pulmonary edema
- Fluid accumulation in alveoli due to weak left ventricle and high pulmonary blood
pressure
11
1
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Introduction
- The gastrointestinal (or GI or digestive) tract and accessory organs primary actions are to digest and absorb
nutrients (food and water). (Fig 25.1)
Peritoneum (Fig 25.4)
- Serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and digestive organs
- Functions
* GI support, lubrication (to decrease friction), and containment
- Layers
* Parietal: lines abdominal walls
* Visceral: extends between and covers organs
- (aka tunica serous)
- Subparts
* Mesentery: fan-shaped, double layer of visceral peritoneum
- Encircles small intestine (except duodenum) and anchors them to the dorsal body wall
- Functions: acts as surface for blood vessel conduction and prevents entanglement
* Greater omentum: apron-shaped, quadruple layer of visceral peritoneum (Fig 25.10)
- Extends between greater curve of stomach and transverse colon
- Functions: fat deposition, lubrication, cushioning, limits the spread of infection
* Lesser omentum: two layer sheet of visceral peritoneum
- Extends between liver and lesser curve of stomach
- Function: enclose bile duct; hepatic artery, and portal vein
* Mesocolon: two layers of visceral peritoneum
- Function: supports the transverse colon
Organs of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
Mouth (Oral Cavity) (Fig 25.5)
- Entrance to the GI tract; lined with stratified squamous epithelium
- Teeth: organs of mastication
- Tongue: skeletal muscle for speech, mastication, swallowing, taste
* Restrained inferiorly by lingual frenulum
- Salivary glands (*): lubrication and preliminary carbohydrate digestion (Fig 25.6)
* Parotid: duct entry lateral to upper second molars
* Submandibular: ducts emerge along both sides of lingual frenulum
* Sublingual: ducts open into floor of mouth
(*) All innervated and controlled by the ANS:
- Sympathetic (-) , Parasympathetic (+)
Oropharynx (Fig 25.5)
- Lined by stratified squamous epithelium
- Air and food passageway behind the uvula
- Guarded by palatine tonsils, bilaterally
- Leads to laryngopharynx, which leads to esophagus
Esophagus (Fig 25.9)
- Lined with stratified squamous epithelium
- Food conduction tube posterior to trachea
* Between pharynx and stomach
* Passes through diaphragm
- 1/3 voluntary and 2/3 involuntary (smooth) muscle
- Initiates peristalsis:
* Wave-like contractions
Stomach(Fig 25.10, 25.11, 25.13)
-Food storage organ ( 4 hours)
* Food is churned, turned into a paste called chyme
* Some absorption of water, electrolytes, aspirin, alcohol
- Lined with simple columnar epithelium
* Secretes mucus to protect walls from acids
- Entrance at lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter
* Prevents back flow of acidic stomach contents
2
- Exit at pyloric sphincter

* Controls entry of chyme into small intestine
- Rugae are internal folds of mucosa
* Allow stomach to expand and increase surface area
- Gastric glands
* Secrete gastric juice composed of HCl and enzymes for protein digestion
Small Intestine (Fig 25.14)

- Extend from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal valve
* 19 20 feet
* Food remains for 12 hours
- Site of most digestion and absorption
* Primarily at duodenum and jejunum
- Three subdivisions:
* Duodenum: proximal; 10 long
- Receives chyme from stomach and digestive enzymes from the pancreas and liver
- Retro peritoneal
* Jejunum (*): middle; 8 long
* Ileum (*): distal; 10 long
(*) Suspended by mesentery from dorsal body wall
Microanatomy of the Small Intestine (Fig 25.15)
- Layers
* Tunica mucosa (inner layer): 3 sublayers
- Simple columnar epithelium --> lines lumen of absorption and mucus secretion
- Lamina propria --> underlying CT (connective tissue) with blood capillaries for diffusion and
lacteals for absorption of fats
- Muscularis mucosa --> smooth muscle for movement of mucosa
* Tunica submucosa
- Areolar tissue with elastin fibers for expansion
- Contains vessels, nerves, lymphatics
* Tunica muscularis
- Smooth muscle layer for GI peristalsis
* Tunica serous
- Simple squamous epithelium (called mesothelium) and areolar CT (connective tissue)
- Outermost, supportive layer of visceral peritoneum
* Other specialized structures
- Plicae: circular folds, increasing surface area
- Villi: fingerlike projections from the tunica mucosa
- Intestinal glands: secrete digestive enzymes
- Goblet cells: secrete mucus to protect epithelial cells from being digested
Large Intestine (Colon) (Fig 25.17, 25.19)
- Site for absorption of water, vitamins and minerals; compaction
-5 long; 2 diameter
- Cecum
* Collects, stores, begins compaction of materials arriving from the ileum
- By way of the ilececal valve
* Attachment for appendix
- Ascending (R) --> Transverse --> Descending (L) --> Sigmoid (enters pelvis)
- Lined with simple columnar epithelium (no villi)
- Taenia coli = external strips of longitudinal smooth muscle forming pouches called haustra
- Epiploic appendages = external, fat-filled bodies
Rectum
- Leads from sigmoid colon
- Longitudinal muscle layers for defacation
- Lined with stratified squamous epithelium
Anus
- Distal-most portion of tract
3
- Internal sphincter: smooth muscle

- External sphincter: skeletal muscle
Accessory Digestive Organs
Liver (Fig 25.20)
- Location: R, superior abdominal cavity
- Structure
* Attached to diaphragm by faciform ligament
- Double layer of peritoneum
* Four lobes:
- Right (largest)
- Left
- Caudate (posterior)
- Quadrate (inferior, between gallbladder and round ligament)
* Round ligament
- Former umbilical vein, extends from liver to navel
- Digestive functions (exocrine gland)
* Bile production for fat digestion
* Storage of some fat, fat soluble vitamins and iron
* Removal and storage of glucose received via portal circulation
* Conversion of carbohydrates to fat
Gallbladder (Fig 25.22)
- Reservoir for bile produced in liver
* Bile is green, alkaline liquid that emulsifies fats and dissolves cholesterol
- Receives bile via hepatic and cystic ducts
- Drains via cystic and common bile ducts into the duodenum
* Via the hepatopancreatic papilla (papilla of Vater)
Pancreas (Fig 25.23)
- Digestive functions
* Exocrine secretion of digestive enzymes
* Also an endocrine gland, secreting hormones
- Structure
* Attached to inner curvature of duodenum; retroperitoneal
* 4-8 long; tadpole-shaped
* Multiple internal ducts lead to hepatopancreatic papilla
Digestive Processes
Ingestion
Mastication
- Mechanical breakdown by teeth / mouth
Digestion
- Molecular breakdown of carbs and proteins
* By enzymes secreted from salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and duodenum
- Molecular breakdown of fats
* By enzymes secreted from pancreas and bile from liver
Absorption
- Transported into the capillaries of the small intestine:
* Sugars from carbohydrates
* Amino acids from proteins
- Transported into the lacteals of the small intestine:
* Fatty products
Egestion
- Elimination of: fiber, non-digestable foodstuffs, sloughed intestinal cells, and bacteria
THE URINARY SYSTEM
Introduction
- The urinary system performs vital excretory functions:
* Regulates plasma concentration of ions
* Regulates blood volume and blood pressure:
- Adjusts the volume of water lost in urine
4
- Releases erythropoietin (a hormone)

- Releases renin (an enzyme)
* Contributes to the stabilization of blood pH
* Conserves valuable nutrients
* Eliminates organic waste products
* Assists the liver in detoxifying poisens
Kidneys: Location and Attachment (Fig 26.1)
- Location: retroperitoneal, above waist
- Attachment:
* To posterior body wall via renal fascia
- Renal fascia encloses perirenal fat
* Thick layer of adipose for cushioning
Kidneys: Gross Features (Fig 26.3)
- Renal Capsule
* External most covering
* Maintains shape and is a barrier against infection
- Cortex
* Outer layer (lighter in color)
- Medulla
* Inner layer (darker in color)
* Divided into sections called "pyramids"
* Pyramids
- Triangular zones within medulla
- Separated by renal columns = inward extensions of cortex
- Striated with parallel bundles of urine collecting tubules which empty into:
* Minor calyces
- Cup-shaped urine collection ducts at the end of each pyramid; empty into:
* Major calyces
- Urine collection ducts that empty into:
* Renal pelvis
- Urine collection area that empties into:
* Ureter
- Single urinary exit tubule that leads to the Bladder
The Nephron
- Structural and functional unit of the kidney
- Forms and concentrates urine
- 1 million/kidney
- Composed of:
* Vascular components
* Tubular components
The Nephron: Vascular Components (Fig 26.4)
- Toward nephron:
* Renal artery branches into -->
* Lobar arteries -->
* Interlobar arteries (found in between the pyramids) -->
* Arcuate arteries (between cortex and medulla) -->
* Interlobular arteries (extends into the cortex) -->
* Afferent arterioles -->
* Glomerulus = a ball of capillaries that contain pores, thus is highly permeable
- Is found within the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule, which is the beginning of the
tubular component of the nephron
- Away from the nephron:
* Efferent arteriole divides many times to form:
* Peritubular capillaries = capillary bed that surrounds and envelops the tubular components of the
nephron -->
* Interlobular veins -->
* Arcuate veins -->
* Interlobar veins -->
* Renal vein
The Nephron: Tubular Components (Fig 26.6)
- Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule -->
5
- Proximal convoluted tubule -->

- Loop of Henle -->
- Distal convoluted tubule -->
- Collecting ducts
- Which make up the pyramids
- And lead to the minor calyces

Urine formation takes place in 3 steps: (Fig 26.7)
- Glomerular filtration
* As blood enters the glomerulus, fluid passively diffuses from the glomerulus (bloodstream) into the
glomerular capsule (tubular component) as filtrate (Fig 26.8)
* Large molecules, such as blood cells and protein molecules do NOT enter the glomerular capsule as
filtrate
* Water, glucose, electrolytes, metabolic wastes such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine DO become filtrate
- Tubular secretion
* Active transport of materials from the blood in the peritubular capillaries into the tubular components
* Materials that were too large to enter the tubular network as filtrate
- Drugs such as penicillin
* Materials that are transported out of the blood to maintain acid-base balance
- Such as hydrogen and potassium ions
- Tubular Reabsorption
* Return of filtered material (99%) in the tubular components back to the bloodstream via peritubular
capillaries
* Beneficial material to the body that were part of the filtrate, but do not want excreted
- Glucose, amino acids, electrolytes, water, some urea and creatinine
Urine Flow from Kidneys: Ureters (Fig 26.9, 26.10, 26.11)
- Function and location
* Transport urine from kidney to bladder
- Travel obliquely to prevent back-flow
- Enter posteriolateral wall of bladder
* Retroperitoneal
- Layers
* Outer: fibrous connective tissue
* Middle: smooth muscle
- Peristalsis moves urine to bladder
* Inner: transitional epithelium
- Stretches when filled with urine
Urine Flow: Urinary Bladder (Fig 26.9, 26.10, 26.11)
* Urine storage
* Midline in pelvic cavity
- Layers and features
* Lined by mucous membrane of transitional epithelium
* Detrusor muscle: multilayered smooth muscle to squeeze urine into urethra
* Internal sphincter: smooth muscle at bladder/urethra junction
- Keeps urethra closed when urine is not passing
* External sphincter: skeletal muscle for voluntary passage of urine
- Surrounding urethra in urogenital diaphragm
Urine Flow: Urethra (Fig 26.10)
* Urinary excretion
* Passes through urogenital diaphragm (muscular floor of the pelvic cavity)
- Sexual differences:
* Male = 8"long * Female = 1 1/2" long
* Carries urine and * Carries urine only
semen
* 3 Regions:
- Prostatic
- Membranous
- Cavernous (spongy)
6
Urine Flow
- Collecting ducts -->
- Minor calyx -->
- Major calyx -->
- Renal pelvis -->
- Ureters -->
- Urinary bladder -->
- Urethra
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Introduction
- Endocrine Gland
* Ductless gland secreting a chemical product, called a hormone, directly into the blood for action on
specific target organ(s)
- Sometimes the target organ is another endocrine gland
* Target organs contain target cells to which the hormone binds, causing the organ to react
* Most endocrine cells are epithelial in composition, but some are neural, muscular, or CT (connective
tissue)
- The endocrine system and the nervous system often work together to bring about homeostasis
* Both use specific communication methods and affect specific target organs
Overview of the Endocrine System (Fig 19.1)
Hypothalamus (Fig 19.2)
- Secretes regulatory hormones that control the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
* Can stimulate or inhibit
- Produces 2 hormones stored in the posterior pituitary
* Oxytocin
* Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Controls sympathetic output to the adrenal medulla
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) (Fig 19.3, 19.4, Table 19.1)
- Located in the sella turcica
* Connects superiorly to the hypothalamus
- 2 lobes:
* Adenohypophysis (anterior)
- Composed of glandular epithelium
* Neurohypophysis (posterior)
- Composed of neuroendocrine cells
- Neurohypophysis: 2 stored hormones, produced in the hypothalamus
* Oxytocin
- Smooth muscle stimulant
- Especially affecting:
* The uterus during labor
* Ducts of the breasts to eject milk
* Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Causes increased water reabsorption at the nephrons
- Causes systemic constriction (increasing Blood Pressure, BP)
- Adenohypophysis: 7 synthesized hormones
* Growth Hormone (GH)
- Stimulates skeletal and muscular development
- Raises blood sugar levels
* Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
- Influences production of some adrenal cortex hormones
* Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Influences secretion of thyroid hormones
* Prolactin (PRL)
- Initiates and maintains milk production (lactation)
* Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
- Increases melanin synthesis in skin
Gonadotropins
* Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Develops follicle cells in ovaries --> Ova
- Develops seminiferous tubules in the testes --> Sperm
* Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Stimulates ovary --> progesterone and estrogen
- Stimulates testes --> testosterone
Thyroid Gland (Fig 19.6)

- Gross anatomy and location
* Two lobes connected by isthmus
* Bilateral along trachea, inferior to the larynx
- Microanatomy
* Thyroid follicles (1mm hollow spheres)
- Follicle cells --> Thyroxin (Thyroid Hormone)
* Increases general metabolism
- Parafollicle cells --> Calcitonin
* Promotes calcium deposition in bones
* Reduces blood calcium
- Thyroid (Thyroxine) Dysfunctions
* Hyperfunction --> elevated metabolism
* Hypofunction --> lowered metabolism
- Can cause a thyroid enlargement called goiter
Parathyroid Glands (Fig 19.8)
* 4-6 flattened spheres
* Posterior aspect of thyroid lobes
- Microanatomy
* Chief cells --> Parathormone (PTH)
- Stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium from bone to increase blood calcium
- Parathyroid Dysfunctions
* Hyperfunction --> increase blood circulation, causes kidney stones and pliable bones
* Hypofunction --> decreases blood calcium, causes decreased neuromuscular excitability
Adrenal Glands (Fig 19.9)
- Located on the superior margin of kidneys
- Adrenal medulla (inner section)
* Two synthesized hormones:
- Epinephrine (adrenalin): generally excitatory
- Norepinephrine: generally excitatory
(Together, these hormones help maintain HR, BP and blood sugar levels)
(Released continuously)
(Innervated and controlled by sympathetic neurons)
* Adrenal medulla dysfunctions:
- Hypersecretion --> hypertension; increased HR, hyperglycemia
- Hyposecretion --> usually asymptomatic; body can have trouble controlling BP
and reacting to stress
- Adrenal cortex (outer section)
* Synthesizes and secretes 3 hormones:
- Aldosterone
* Increases sodium and water retention by the kidney
- Cortisol
* Promotes glucose production from proteins
* Anti-inflammatory action
- Testosterone
* Helps maintain gonads / libido
* Adrenal cortex dysfunctions:
- Hypersecretion --> fluid retention, weight gain or poor infection resistance
- Hyposecretion --> fluid and mineral depletion; hypoglycemia
Pancreas (Fig 19.10)
* Elongated, tad-pole shaped
* Retroperitoneal, along inner curve of duodenum
- Microanatomy
* Pancreatic acini/ducts (exocrine)
- Produce and release digestive enzymes
* Islets of Langerhans; also called pancreatic islets (endocrine)
- 2 types of cells:
* Alpha cells --> Glucagon --> increases blood sugar
* Beta cells --> Insulin --> lowers blood sugar
- Pancreas beta cell dysfunctions:
* Hypersecretion --> hypoglycemia
* Hyposecretion --> diabetes mellitus --> hyperglycemia, can lead to comma / death
Pineal Gland
* Cone-shaped, pea-sized
* Attached to the posterior wall of the 3rd ventricle
- Microanatomy
* Neuroendocrine cells --> Melatonin
- Helps regulate circadian rhythm (sleep/wake cycles)
* Inhibits release of pituitary gonadotropins, affecting the onset of puberty
- Pineal dysfunctions:
* Hyperfunction --> delayed puberty
* Hypofunction --> premature puberty
Ovaries
* Ovoid, 1-2" in length
* In pelvic cavity, secured to uterus
- Microanatomy
* Follicle cells --> Estrogens(*)/egg
* Corpus luteum (follicle cell remnants) --> estrogens and progesterone(*)
(*) Help maintain female reproductive tract
Testies
* Ovoid, 1-2" in length
* Outside pelvic cavity within scrotum
- Microanatomy
* Seminiferous tubules --> sperm
* Interstitial cells --> testosterone --> helps maintain male reproductive tract and libido
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Introduction
- The human reproductive system produces, stores, nourishes, and transports functional male and female
gametes
* Sperm and ovum
* Fertilization produces a zygote
- The reproductive system also produces sex hormones that affect the structure and function of all other
systems
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System (Fig 27.1, 27.3, 27.7)
- Internal organs: Testes
* Primary male gonads (reproductive organs)
* Gross anatomy
- Tunica vaginalis: serous membrane
- Epididymis: sperm reservoir upon testes
- Spermatid cord: cable-like structure that passes into the pelvic cavity through the inguinal
canal, containing:
* Spermatic vein, artery, lymphocytes, nerves
* Vas deferens: sperm transport tube from epididymis to ejaculatory duct entering the
prostate gland
- Cremaster muscle: skeletal muscle surrounding cord and testes
* Reflex muscle to outside temperature changes
* Microanatomy of testes (Fig 27.4)
- Seminiferous tube
* Divided by septa
* Produce sperm
* Activated at puberty by FSH
- Interstitial cells
* Produce testosterone
* Activated at puberty by LH
- Internal accessory reproductive Glands (Fig 27.8)
* Seminal vesicles (2)
- Poserior to bladder
- Produce 60 % of seminal fluid
* Mostly fructose
- Secrete into the ejaculatory duct (along with the vans deferens), emptying into the prostatic
urethra
* Prostate gland
- Inferior to urinary bladder, surrounds prostatic urethra
- Contributes 30 % of seminal fluid
* To enhance sperm motility
9
* Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands (2)

- Inferior to prostate
- Contributes mucus and alkaline fluid
- External genitalia: Scrotum (Fig 27.9)
* Medial pouch enclosing testes
- Formed by skin, fascia and:
- Dartos muscle: subcutaneous smooth muscle
* Contracts to retain heat
* Responds to outside temperature changes
- External genitalia: Penis (Fig 27.9)
* Male copulatory organ
- Delivers sperm into female reproductive tract
- Glans penis: distal end
- Prepuce (foreskin): loose covering
- Corpora cavernosa (2), corpus spongiosum(*)
* Internal vascular sinuses
* (*) Traversed by spongy (penile) urethra
- Pathway for sperm transport
* Seminiferous tubules -->
* Epididymis -->
* Vas deferens (within spermatic cord) -->
* Ejaculatory duct -->
* Prostatic urethra -->
* Membranous urethra -->
* Spongy (penile) urethra -->
* Female vagina -->
* Uterus -->
* Oviduct --> (where fertilization occurs)
Female Reproductive System (Fig 27.10)
- Internal organs: Ovaries (Fig 27.11)
* Primary female gonads (reproductive organs)
- Produce gametes (ova)
- Secured by ovarian, broad, and suspensory ligament
- Surrounded by fibrous capsule
* Microanatomy of ovaries (Fig 27.12)
- Stroma (or medulla)
* Deep, central connective tissue containing blood and lymph vessels, and nerves
- Primary (immature) follicles
* Spheres containing one potential ovum, surrounded by;
* Follicle cells --> estrogens
* Development promoted by FSH
- Mature (Graafian) follicles (after FSH stimulation)
* Contain mature ovum (egg)
- Corpus leteum
* Vestige of ruptured vesicular follicle
* Short-lived endocrine structure --> estrogen and progesterone
* Development promoted by LH
- Internal organs: Uterus (Fig 27.15)
* Receives, retains, nourishes fertilized egg
* Within pelvic cavity
* Cervix:
- Uterine opening; protrudes into vagina
* Body and fundus
- Held anteriorly to internal abdominal wall by two round ligaments
* Layers of the Uterus (Fig 27.15, 27.16)
- Perimetrium
- External serous membrane
- Continuous with visceral peritoneum of abdominal cavity
- Also called broad ligament
- Myometrium
- Middle, smooth muscle layer
- Endometrium
- Internal, simple columnar epithelium and uterine glands
* Oviducts (Fig 27.14)
- Also called uterine tubes or Fallopian tubes
- Receive ova and provide site for fertilization
- Histology:
* Smooth muscle for peristalsis
10
* Ciliated columnar epithelium to secrete nutrients and move ovum/zygote

- Fimbriae: tentacle-like extensions that manipulate ova into the oviducts
- Internal anatomy: Vagina (Fig 27.15, 27.20)
* Copulatory organ and birth canal
* Three layers:
- Mucosal lining
* Stratified squamous epithelium with rugae for expansion at child birth
* Continuous with hymen
- Muscular layer:
* Longitudinal smooth muscle
- Fibrous layer:
* Highly vascularized connective tissue
- Female external genitalia (Vulva) (Fig 27.20)
* Mons pubis
- Anterior, fat layer from umbilicus (naval) to the pubic symphysis
* Labia majora
- Bilateral, rounded folds of adipose, skin, hair
- Homologous (derived from the same embryonic structure) to the male scrotum
* Libia minora
- Inner vascular fold of skin surrounding the vestibule
- Vestibular glands: secrete mucus around the vestibule during sexual excitation
* Vestibule: region between labia minora
- Vaginal orifice: opening to vagina
- Hymen: thin fold of mucus membrane separating vaginal orifice from vestibule
- Urethral orifice: anterior; opening to urethra
* Clitoris:
- tactile receptor homologus to penis
* Perineum: superficial, diamond-shaped region between pubis, ischial tuberosities, and anus
- Site of episiotomy at childbirth
- Mammary glands (Fig 27.21)
* Modified sweat glands
- Over pectoralis major muscle
* Glandular alveoli
- Lined by stratified cuboidal epithelium
- Organized into lobes (20+) separated by fibrous CT (connective tissue) and adipose
- Milk produced when influenced by prolactin, estrogens, and progesterones
* Lactiferous ducts
- Tubular network leading to nipple
- Milk released when stimulated by oxytocin
* Areola
- Circular area of pigmentation around nipple
- Areolar glands: modified sebaceous glands
- Subcutaneous smooth muscle

Anatomy Class Notes

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Anatomy Class Notes

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HUMAN ANATOMY CLASS NOTES

Superior on top of or toward the top

Medial toward the midline

Proximal closer to the attachment point

BONE TISSUE AND SKELETAL STRUCTURE

- Prime mover (agonist): main muscle

- Synergist: helper muscle to prime mover

- Antagonist: opposing muscle to prime mover (reverses original movement)

- Action: the movement thats accomplished

Naming of Skeletal Muscles

Disorders of Skeletal Muscles

* Terminal filaments (synaptic knobs): form cell junctions called - >

* Secreted into, flows through the posterior chamber - >

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

- Exit at pyloric sphincter

Small Intestine (Fig 25.14)

- Internal sphincter: smooth muscle

- Releases erythropoietin (a hormone)

- Proximal convoluted tubule -->

Thyroid Gland (Fig 19.6)

* Bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands (2)

* Ciliated columnar epithelium to secrete nutrients and move ovum/zygote

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