13-Nov-17

INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Chapter 8
Internal Incompressible
Viscous Flow

Part B
Flow in Pipes and Ducts 2

Recall, Bernoullis Eqn.:

Assumptions:
1. Frictionless flow
2. Laminar flow
Friction causes continual reduction in Bernoullis constant
(representing a loss of mech. energy)
In reality, flow are often frictional and turbulent.:

Bernoullis Eqn:

Energy
Eqn:

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 13-Nov-17

Part B
Flow in Pipes and Ducts 3

In frictional flows, turbulent flows experiences

larger pressure drop in comparison to laminar
flow.
As derived previously, pressure drop for laminar
flow is given by,

To develop similar expression for turbulent ows

is not possible analytically and is done semi-
empirically.

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Part B
Flow in Pipes and Ducts 4

Conventionally, frictional losses are divided in

two categories:
1. Major losses, which are losses due to friction in the
constant-area sections of the pipe;
2. Minor losses (sometimes larger than major
losses), which are losses due to valves, elbows,
fittings, joints and so on
(and we will treat the pressure drop at the entrance
region as a minor loss term).

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 13-Nov-17

Shear Stress Distribution in Fully

Developed Pipe Flow 5

For laminar flow:

Time-mean velocity
For turbulent flow:

Randomly uctuating velocity components u and v

(negatively related to each other causing turb to be
positive) continuously transfer momentum between
adjacent uid layers, tending to reduce any velocity
gradient present. This effect shows up as an
apparent stress, called as Reynolds stress.

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Shear Stress Distribution in Fully

Developed Pipe Flow 6

In the region very close to the wall, called the wall layer,
Reynolds stress is zero and viscous shear is dominant.
Often, Reynolds stress eqn. is written as,

The term has dimensions of velocity squared.

In particular, is called the friction velocity.
Stress distribution and velocity profiles for turbulent flows
are determined experimentally.

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 13-Nov-17

Turbulent Velocity Proles in Fully

Developed Pipe Flow 7

In the region very close to the wall where viscous shear

is dominant, the mean velocity prole follows the linear
viscous relation, this region is called the viscous sub-
layer.
Close to viscous sub-layer is the transition region, or
buffer layer in which both viscous and turbulent shear are
important.
The shape of velocity profile close to the centerline,
shows the velocity defect, and is referred to as defect law
(Close to centerline, the velocity profile depend on the
distance ratio only and not on the viscosity of the fluid).

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Turbulent Velocity Proles in Fully

Developed Pipe Flow 8

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 13-Nov-17

Turbulent Velocity Proles in Fully

Developed Pipe Flow 9

The velocity prole for turbulent

ow through a smooth pipe may
also be approximated by the
empirical power-law equation
(not applicable close to the wall,
y/R<0.04),

The exponent n can be

determined using Heinz relation
(based on pipe diameter, D, and
centerline velocity, U):

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ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN PIPE FLOW

Recall the Energy Grade Line (EGL),

-----(1)

We saw that this is a measure of the total

mechanical energy (pressure, kinetic and
potential, per unit mass) in a ow.
We can expect that instead of being constant
(which it was for inviscid ow), the EGL will
continuously decrease in the direction of ow as
friction eats the mechanical energy.

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ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS IN PIPE FLOW

We can now consider the energy equation (the rst
law of thermodynamics) to obtain information on the
effects of friction.
Consider, for example, steady ow through the piping
system, including a reducing elbow, shown in Fig.8.12.

The control volume boundaries are shown as

dashed lines.
They are normal to the ow at sections 1 and 2
and coincide with the inside surface of the pipe
wall elsewhere.
Basic equation:

-----(2)

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Assumptions:
(1)Ws = 0; Wother = 0.
(2) Wshear = 0 (although shear stresses are present
at the walls of the elbow, the velocities are zero
there, so there is no possibility of work).
(3) Steady ow.
(4) Incompressible ow.
(5) Internal energy and pressure uniform across
sections 1 and 2 .

Under these assumptions the energy equation reduces

to

--(8.25)
Note that we have not assumed the velocity to be
uniform at sections 1 and 2 , since we know that for
viscous ows the velocity at a cross-section cannot be
uniform.
However, it is convenient to introduce the average
velocity into Eq. 8.25 so that we can eliminate the
integrals. To do this, we dene a kinetic energy
coefficient.

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Kinetic Energy Coefcient

The kinetic energy coefcient, , is dened such
that

-----(5)
or

We can think of as a correction factor that

allows us to use the average velocity V in the
energy equation to compute the kinetic energy at
a cross section.
For laminar ow in a pipe, = 2.
In turbulent pipe ow, = ~1.

Head Loss
Using the denition of , the energy equation can
be written,

-----(7)

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Here allows for the fact that in a pipe ow we

have a velocity prole, not a uniform ow.
The term represents the (irreversible)
conversion of mechanical energy at section 1 to
unwanted thermal energy (u2 u1) and loss of energy
via heat transfer ( Q/dm) .
If the total energy loss per unit mass is designated
by the symbol hlT (units: m2/s2). Then

-----(8)

Dividing by g, and defining HlT as energy loss per unit

weight (units: m):

Energy Considerations in Pipe

Flow 18

Energy Equation (per unit mass) for head loss:

where, hlT is termed as the total energy loss per

unit mass.
Energy Equation (per unit weight) for head
loss:

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 13-Nov-17

CALCULATION OF HEAD LOSS

Total head loss, hlT , is regarded as the sum of

major losses, hl, due to frictional effects in fully
developed ow in constant-area tubes, and minor
losses, hlm, resulting from entrances, ttings,
area changes, and so on.
Consequently, we consider the major and minor
losses separately.

MAJOR LOSSES: FRICTION FACTOR

For fully developed ow through a
horizontal pipe of constant area the major
head loss can be expressed as:
(0)
p V
2
(0)
gz hlT
2
-----(9)

Thus, all we need to find is p.

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A. LAMINAR FLOW
For fully developed ow through a horizontal
pipe of constant area and from Eq. 8.13c,

(Hagen-Poiseuille equation)

Substituting in Eq. (9) gives

-----(10)

B. TURBULENT FLOW
In turbulent ow we cannot evaluate the pressure
drop analytically; we must resort to experimental
results and use dimensional analysis to correlate the
experimental data.

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B. TURBULENT FLOW

These functional relationship are determined

experimentally.
Experiments show that the nondimensional head
loss is directly proportional to L/D.

or

B. TURBULENT FLOW
Thus, for turbulent flow systems,

or -----(11)

where, f, is the friction factor termed as the Darcy

friction factor.
Fanning friction factor: fF, defined as the ratio of
the wall shear stress to the product of the density and
velocity head:
w
fF
1 2
V
2
Note: Darcy friction factor, f = 4 Fanning
friction factor, fF [i.e., f = 4fF]

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Turbulent Flow
CALCULATION OF HEAD LOSS dimensional analysis
Major Losses: Friction Factor

For constant area horizontal pipe

Experiments show
Laminar Flow: Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Darcy friction factor, f

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The friction factor f is determined experimentally.

The results, published by L. F. Moody in the form
of diagram called Moody Diagram or Moody
Chart.
Procedure for head loss determination:
1. For the known flow conditions, determine the
Reynolds number.
2. Find the roughness, e, from Moodys Table 8.1.

3. Then the friction factor, f, can be read from the

appropriate curve (Moody Diagram) Fig. 8.13, at
the known values of Re and e/D.
4. Finally, head loss hl or Hl can be found using
appropriate equation.

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CALCULATION OF MAJOR HEAD LOSS

e/D= 0.004
Re = ~ 106
f= 0.0029

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Consequently, for laminar ow,

-----(12)

Alternative to the graphical approach, for turbulent

ows, a widely used analytical formula for friction
factor is from Colebrook,

-----(13)

Equation (13) is implicit in f, and needs to be

iterated to solve for f.
For turbulent ows f < 0.1; hence f = 0.1 would make
a good initial value.

As an alternative, Haaland developed the

following non-iterative equation (approx.
Colebrook),

-----(14)
For turbulent ow in smooth pipes, the Blasius
correlation, valid for Re <= l05, is

-----(15)

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CALCULATION OF MAJOR HEAD LOSS

Laminar Friction Factor:

Turbulent Friction Factor (Colebrook) From

Moody
chart

Turbulent Friction Factor (Haaland Eqn.)

Re > 3000

For turbulent flow in smooth pipes,

the Blasius correlation, valid for Re l05 31

Thank you
Part Bto be Continued

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CALCULATION OF HEAD LOSS:

MINOR LOSSES
The ow in a piping system may be required to pass
through a variety of ttings, bends, or abrupt changes
in area.
Additional head losses are encountered, primarily as a
result of ow separation.
These losses will be minor (hence the term minor
losses) if the piping system includes long lengths of
constant-area pipe.
Minor losses can be computed as,

; Le is an
or equiv. length
of straight pipe.
Loss coefficient, K=f(D)

MINOR LOSSES: INLETS AND EXITS

A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause
appreciable head loss.
If the inlet has sharp corners, ow separation
occurs at the corners, and a vena contracta is
formed.

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MINOR LOSSES: INLETS AND EXITS

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MINOR LOSSES: EXIT LOSS

If, A2 , then the head loss at an abrupt
enlargement tends to V12/2g.
The physical resemblance of this situation is the
submerged outlet of a pipe discharging into a
large reservoir as shown in Fig. below:

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MINOR LOSSES: EXIT LOSS

The fluid particles near the wall due to their low
kinetic energy cannot overcome the adverse
pressure hill in the direction of flow and hence
follow up the reverse path under the favorable
pressure gradient (from p2 to p1).
This creates a zone of recirculating flow with
turbulent eddies near the wall of the larger tube
at the abrupt change of cross-section, resulting in
a loss of total mechanical energy.
In such circumstances, the loss is usually termed
as the exit loss for the pipe and equals to the
velocity head at the discharge end of the
pipe.

MINOR LOSSES: ENLARGEMENTS AND

CONTRACTIONS

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MINOR LOSSES: ENLARGEMENTS AND

CONTRACTIONS
Minor loss coefficients for sudden expansions and
contractions in circular ducts are based on the
larger V2/2 (smaller area).
Losses caused by area change can be reduced
somewhat by installing a nozzle or diffuser
between the two sections of straight pipe.

MINOR LOSSES: ENLARGEMENTS AND

CONTRACTIONS
For Diffusers the data is most commonly
presented in terms of a Pressure Recovery
Coefcient, Cp , dened as the ratio of static
pressure rise to inlet dynamic pressure,

The ideal (frictionless) pressure recovery

coefficient (using Bernoullis Eqn.) is given by:

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MINOR LOSSES: ENLARGEMENTS AND

CONTRACTIONS
We can relate Cp to the head loss. If gravity is
neglected, and 1= 2 =1.0, the head loss equation
reduces to,

Thus,

MINOR LOSSES: ENLARGEMENTS AND

CONTRACTIONS

If hlm=0 then CP=CPi

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MINOR LOSSES: DIFFUSERS

An expression for the head loss in terms of the
actual and ideal Cp values:

Minimum loss including minor and friction losses

occur for angle of 7 degrees OPTIMUM angle!

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MINOR LOSSES: PIPE BENDS

The head loss of a bend is larger than for fully developed
ow through a straight section of equal length.
The additional loss is primarily the result of secondary
ow.

MINOR LOSSES: VALVES AND FITTINGS

Losses are expressed in terms of an equivalent
length of straight pipe.
Losses increase markedly when valves are
partially open.
Fittings in a piping system may have threaded,
anged, or welded connections.
For small diameters, threaded joints are most
common;
large pipe systems frequently have anged or welded
joints.
One may expect to predict actual losses within
+10 percent.

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MINOR LOSSES: VALVES AND FITTINGS

HEAD LOSS IN PUMPS, FANS AND

BLOWERS IN FLUID SYSTEMS

Pump (for liquids) or a fan or blower (for gases)

are used to provide force for flow against friction.
Heat transfer effects are often incorporated as
pump efficiency.
By first law of thermodynamics for pump work:

If the pump
is included
in the
system

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HEAD LOSS IN PUMPS, FANS AND

BLOWERS IN FLUID SYSTEMS

The pump efficiency can be defined as:

Power reaching
the fluid

Power input to the

pump (electric etc. )

It is interesting to note that a pump adds energy

to the uid in the form of a gain in pressurethe
everyday, invalid perception is that pumps add
kinetic energy to the uid.
It is true that when a pump-pipe system is rst
started up, the pump does work to accelerate the uid
to its steady speed;
This is when a pump driven by an electric motor is
most in danger of burning out the motor.

NONCIRCULAR DUCTS
The empirical correlations for pipe ow may
directly be extended to non-circular ducts:
if the ratio of height to width is less than about 3
or 4 (square and rectangular c/s).
by introducing the hydraulic diameter, dened
as,

where, A is cross-sectional area, and P is wetted

perimeter (the length of wall in contact with the
owing uid at any cross-section.)
The factor 4 is introduced so that the hydraulic
diameter will equal the duct diameter for a
circular cross section.

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NONCIRCULAR DUCTS

NONCIRCULAR DUCTS

The hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in

the approximate range:

Commonly used in air conditioning, heating, and

ventilating applications.

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SOLUTION OF PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Energy Equation

SOLUTION OF PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Major Losses

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SOLUTION OF PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Minor Losses

SOLUTION OF PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Single Path
Find pressure drop (p) for a given (L,
D), and Q
Use energy equation directly

Find L for a given p, D, and Q

Use energy equation directly

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SOLUTION OF PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Single Path (Continued)
Find Q for a given p, (L, and D)
1. Manually iterate energy equation and
friction factor formula to find V (or Q), or
2. Directly solve, simultaneously, energy
equation and friction factor formula using
(for example) Excel

Find D for a given p, L, and Q

1. Manually iterate energy equation and
friction factor formula to find D, or
2. Directly solve, simultaneously, energy
equation and friction factor formula using
(for example) Excel
59

Thank You

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