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LOADS

What is a load?

These are forces, deformations, or accelerations applied to a structure or its


components. Loads cause stresses, deformations, and displacements in structures.

TYPES OF LOAD

TYPES OF LOAD

The determination of the loads acting on a structure is a complex problem.

The nature of the loads varies essentially with the architectural design, the materials, and the
location of the structure.

Loading conditions on the same structure may change from time to time, or may change rapidly
with time.

Types of loads

Static and dynamic loads

Dead and live loads

Blast loads

Seismic loads

Loads are classified as static and dynamic . Static loads are independent from time but dynamic
loads are function of time.

Dead and live loads are types of static loads.

Dead Loads (DL)

Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any
objects that are permanently attached to the structure.

Hence, for a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and girders,
the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and other miscellaneous
attachments.
Live Loads (LL)

All the movable objects in a building such as people, desks, cupboards and filing cabinets
produced an imposed load on the structure.

This loading may come and go with the result that its intensity will vary considerably.

include all occupants, materials, equipment, constructions, or other elements of weight


supported in, on, or by a building and that will or are likely to be moved or relocated during the
expected life of the building.

Live loads are usually unstable or moving loads.

Live loads are movable and their values are uncertain , so they can not be calculated directly and
local or international specifications shall be consulted.

Dead loads are calculated easily using structure dimensions and material density .

Dynamic Loads

The other group of loads is the dynamic loads , and the following are types of such loads:

Wind Load

Blast Load

Impact Load

Seismic Load

Flood Load
Wind Load (WL)

Wind loads are maximum forces that may be applied to a building by wind in a mean
recurrence interval, or a set of forces that will produce equivalent stresses.

BLAST LOAD

Blast loads are an increase in atmosphere pressure which make buildings applied to
uniform pressure . Blast pressures increases with increasing TNT weight and vice versa if the
explosion distance is increased.

Impact loads

forces that require a structure or its components to absorb energy in a short interval of
time. An example is the dropping of a heavy weight on a floor slab, or the shock wave from an
explosion striking the walls and roof of a building.

SEISMIC LOADS

Seismic loads on buildings are caused by movement in foundations . The acceleration of


this movement is very rapid and its value is highly increased with height.

All structures must be designed to support their own weight along with any superimposed forces, such
as the dead loads from other materials, live loads, wind pressures, seismic forces, snow and ice loads,
and earth pressures.

-Proper design must consider all possible applied forces along with the interaction of these forces on
the structure.

COMBINATIONS OF LOADS (NSCP 2010)


Buildings, tower and other vertical structures and all portions thereof shall be designed to resist
the load combination specified in Section 203.3 or 203.4 and where required by Section 208 or Chapter
4 and the special seismic load combination of section 203.5

The most critical effect can occur when one or more of the contributing loads are not acting. All
applicable loads shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind, in accordance with the
specified load combinations.
203.2 Symbols and Notations

D= dead load

E= earthquake load set forth in Section 208.5.1.1

Em = is estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the structure


as set forth in Section 208.5.1.1

F= load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights

H= load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil

L= live load, except roof live load, including any permitted lice load reduction

Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction

P= ponding load

R= rain load on undeflected roof

T= self- training force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting
from temperature change, shringkage, moisture change, creep in component
materials, movement, movement due to differential settlement, or combinations
thereof

W= load due to wind pressure

Lr = roof live load, including any

permitted live load reduction

203.3 Load Combinations using Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

203.3.1 Basic Load Combinations

Where load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist
the most critical effects from the following combinations of factored loads:

1.4(D+F) (203-1)

1.2(D+F+T)+1.6(L+H)+0.5(Lr or R) (203-2)

1.2D+1.6(Lr or R)+(fL or 0.8W) (203-3)

1.2D+1.6W+fL+0.5(Lr or R) (203-4)

1.2D+1.0E+fL (203-5)
0.9D+1.6W+1.6H (203-6)

0.9D+1.0W+1.6H (203-7)

Where:

f = 1.0 for floors in the places of public assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for
garage live load

= 0.5 for other live loads

Exception:

Factored load combinations for structural concrete per Section 409.3

203.3.2 Other Loads

Where P is to be considered in design, the applicable load shall be added to Section 203.3.1 factored as
1.2P

203.4 Load Combination Using Allowable Stress Design

203.4.1 Basic Load Combinations

Where allowable stress design (working stress design) is used, structures and all portions thereof shall
resist the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations of loads:

D+F (203-8)

D+H+F+L+T (203-9)

D+H+F+(Lr or R) (203-10)

D+H+F+O.75(L+T+(Lr or R)) (203-11)

D+H+F+(W or E/1.4) (203-12)

No increase in allowable stresses shall be used with these load combinations except as specifically
permitted by Section 203.4.2
203.4.2 Alternate Basic Load Combinations

In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in Section 203.4.1, structures and portions thereof shall
be permitted to be designed for the most critical effects resulting from the following load combinations.
When using these alternate basic load combinations, a one-third increase shall be permitted in
allowable stresses for all combinations, including W or E

D+H+F+O.75(L+Lr+(W or E/1.4)) (203-13)

0.60D+W+H (203-14)

0.60D+E/1.4+H (203-15)

D+L+Lr(or R) (203-16)

D+L+W (203-17)

D+L+E/1.4 (203-18)

Exception:

Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live load or with more than one-half of the wind load.

203.4.3 Other Loads

Where P is to be considered in design, each applicable load shall be added to the combination specified
in Sections 203.4.1 and 203.4.2

203.5 Special Seismic Load Combinations

For both allowable stress design and strength design, the following special load combinations for the
seismic design shall be used as specifically required by Section 208, or by Chapters 3 through 7

1.2D+fL+1.0Em (203-19)

0.9D1.0Em (203-20)

Where:

f = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for garage live load

= 0.5 for other live loads

Em = the maximum effect of the horizontal an vertical forces as set forth in Section 208.1.1

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