Recent research has looked at peoples emotional response to the experience of making

music (where making is listening, performing and composting). Greenberg et al. (2015)

propose a hypothesis that links increased exposure to music with increased capacity for

empathy. This paper bases its suggestions on the links between someones music

preference and their position on the Effective-Systemizing spectrum (as well as age, location

and personality). The correlation between these may provide us with reasons as to why

certain genres or types of music may trigger certain stronger reactions from a certain

musical preference dimension. By examining these ideas and the justifications behind them

we can broaden our understanding about why certain people experience strong emotional

reactions and empathy from certain types of music. We can also begin to explore how we

might be able to further the use of music making in therapy to help people develop

empathy particularly those with communication issues such as those with Autism

Spectrum Conditions (ASC).

Empathy is the ability to understand and appreciate another persons feelings and

experiences1. Greenberg et al. states little is known about the role empathy plays in musical

preference2 but examines correlations between Rentfrows five preference dimensions and

the Effective-Systemizing theory to propose a theory which might begin to explain it.

Rentfrow classifies music into these five dimensions: 1) Mellow, 2) Unpretentious, 3)

Sophisticated, 4) Intense and 5) Contemporary.3 Each of these categories has their own

specific sonic properties; Greenberg and colleagues are keen to emphasise that it is these

qualities that create the dimensions rather than a specific genre of music. The descriptions
1
"Empathy: Oxford English Dictionary", Oed.Com, 2017
<http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/61284?redirectedFrom=empathy#eid> [accessed 21 April 2017]
2
Greenberg, David M., Peter J. Rentfrow, and Simon Baron-Cohen, "Can Music Increase Empathy? Interpreting
Musical Experience Through The EmpathizingSystemizing (E-S) Theory: Implications For Autism", Empirical
Musicology Review, 10 (2015), p.83.
3
Greenberg et al. p.83.
of these dimensions, however, do suggest genres or at least styles. For example, a work

from the Mellow group could be The Eagles 1973 song Desperado4 because of its leisurely

tempo, unaggressive and melancholy qualities. Greenberg et al. suggests that music in this

category would reflect the emotional depth that empathizers experience in their daily

lives5.

This quote shows how the articles authors link the musical qualities with thinking

patterns from the Empathizing-Systemizing theory. The theory is made up of two

components the Empathizing Quotient (considering aspects including perception of

others feelings and seeing the bigger picture) and the Systemizing Quotient (concerning

pattern analysis and scientific content).6 To reveal information about someones thinking

style and methods, tests are taken in each area and the scores are compared. If both scores

are equal, they are balanced (Type B), if Empathizing scores higher they are a Type E and if

Systemizing is greater they are a Type S7. Some people fall at the zeniths of these categories,

such as those with autism who are extreme Type S. According to Greenberg et al. those with

Type S brains are more likely to have strong emotional connections with music which

displays qualities from the Sophisticated dimension with complicated and intricate ideas;

such as Bebop8. Scientists and psychologists know quite a lot about how the cognitive make

up effects the way we think and react but further studies are needed to determine how

emotional recognition9 affects our musical responses. This article hypothesises that the

correlation between listening to a piece of music and experiencing empathy works bi-

directionally so that a person can increase their capacity for empathy by working with

4
Fry, Glenn, Don Henley, produced by Glyn Johns, Desperado (London: Asylum, 1973).
5
Greenberg et al. p.83.
6
Greenberg et al. p.81
7
Greenberg et al. p.82.
8
Greenberg et al. p.84
9
Greenberg et al. p.83.
certain types of music. For example, an extreme Type S could develop empathy by listening

to Mellow music.

Greenberg et al. recognize that it is still not clear what types of music increase

empathy and whether music listening alone can increase empathy10. Despite this and

although music is not sentient, it is still expressive and can induce emotion; particularly

when listening to it. The singer Joni Mitchell is quoted as saying the trick is if you listen to

that music and you see me, youre not getting anything out of it. If you listen to that music

and you see yourself, it will probably make you cry and youll learn something about

yourself and now youre getting something out of it.11 This suggests that in order to really

experience empathy, you must be immersed in the music, rather than just listening to it.

This idea is continued in the film Love Actually when one of the characters says Joni

Mitchell is the woman who taught[me] to feel12.

Greenberg et al. mentions previous studies which have also connected factors such

as age, geographic location and virtues with personal connections with music13. He does

not, however, acknowledge the effects of these sufficiently. For example, little mention is

made of how an empathetic reaction might alter if the event occurs in a certain place which

has memory connotations. The reaction in the affective part of the brain would also change

dependant on who a person hears music with. The phenomenon of darling, theyre playing

our tune occurs between a couple relating to a specific piece of music which marked a

particularly important moment within their relationship. This piece of music may not cause

the same intense reaction when hearing it with different people or in a concert hall or on a

10
Greenberg et al. p.86.
11
Greenberg et al. p.84.
12
Curtis, Richard, Love Actually (London, 2003)
13
Greenberg et al. p.83.
CD rather than in its original setting. It does not have to be itself a romantic piece and this

can help to explain why we can enjoy listening to sad music. This is seen in both Russells

Complex Model of Emotion14 which tracks arousal and valence and the Geneva Emotional

Music Scale15 which considers a how a reaction to a piece can be considered in terms of

sublimity, vitality and unease. These models show that feelings induced by a piece have to

be considered separately to the musics expressed emotion. Greenberg et al. also state it is

often the lyrics of a song that somebody feels empathy through and therefore it is

interesting to consider what effect the same music had if it were only instrumental and

whether the same reaction would be triggered.16 In addition, this suggests reasons why

people feel the compulsion to finish a song lyric if they hear the beginning of it.

A problem arises through the article due to stereotyping audiences and assuming

that certain reactions will occur. This is more than a correlation study alone could prove.

This is interesting when considered in relation to composition and questioning the

emotional motivation behind the creation of a piece. If composition is seen as an expression

of the composers feelings then it could be argued that by listening to this composition we

will gain an appreciation of those feelings. Greenberg provides a quote which highlights that

we may not interpret the same meanings as the composer intended (or indeed, themselves

felt) from the work but still feel an emotional connection.17 The example shows a person

with ASC feeling connected to a song because it was aggressive in its use of rhythms;

showing more of the Type S qualities because they are looking at the smaller details.

14
Russell, James, A . Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review. 2003;
pp. 145172.
15
Williamson, Victoria, "Musical Emotions Unique And Complex Music Psychology",
Musicpsychology.Co.Uk, 2017 <http://musicpsychology.co.uk/musical-emotions-unique-and-complex/>
[accessed 22 April 2017]
16
Greenberg et al. p.82.
17
Greenberg et al. p.84.
 Empathy suggests identification. Through applying Greenberg et al.s idea, it would

suggest that a person be told to compose a reflective piece and come out with a work that

was as effective in making others experience this emotion as somebody who already had

this empathetic capacity. The Empathizing-Systemizing theory could also suggest that

certain people would be better at composing particular types of music. This leads us to

question how our critical judgements are affected if we cannot fully understand due to not

having the same emotional reaction having not experienced the same emotions as the

composer. When looking at a composers intention we must consider how the composer

wanted the people to think about their music and consequently what the function of the

writer is.

An interesting case study in this area is Film composition. Music affects the way we

interpret a scene and can add to the tension. The audience is encouraged to feel a certain

way by what we are hearing. This may affect the composers is writing to be sure that the

audience receives this message; playing to certain stereotypes and learnt associations such

as minor tonality representing sadness.18. An area Greenberg et al.s article does not explore

is the concept of universal epithetical experiences with the focus being on an individuals

characteristics. More research needs to be done into this field to develop our understanding

into the possibilities and effects of these. Nowadays, a film score is added afterwards,

however, in silent movies there was often a pianist on set playing whilst the actors were

working in order to help set the mood. If Greenbergs argument is to be believed then for

everybody to fulfil the same emotional aim, they would all have had the same musical

interpretation, this could also help connect the actor communicate with their character.

18
Studies have shown that babies under the age of 6 do not have the same reaction to hearing a piece in a
minor key to those older and so this association is developed. Damon, William, and Richard M Lerner,
Handbook Of Child Psychology, 1st edn (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006), p. 934.
Also in silent films, cinemas had an instrumentalist (usually piano or organ) accompanying

the film. These musicians would improvise a score to the film meaning that it would be

different each time. This would affect the musical experience the audience would get and so

may cause them to empathise in different ways. A similar situation exists in theatre where

the actor can use the music as a resource to help connect with their character and find

empathy with them.

Strong musical experiences can also occur when performing. Greenberg attempts to

explain the different practice methods undertaken by musicians with different locations on

the Empathizing-Systemizing spectrum19. This data should be used in correlation with other

studies about peoples learning styles but could help to create more efficient practice

routines for people. This also suggests that we can learn to feel more empathy if we are

taught to play in a empathetic style, perhaps embracing some of the characteristics of the

Mellow dimension. This could be useful, as with listening, in terms of helping to increase

communication skills. This is also interesting to consider whether people develop maturity in

their musical interpretation by a combination of experiencing more events or by playing

more pieces.

Greenberg et al. suggest that we can increase our capacity for empathy through

musical exposure. This hypothesis encourages many interesting possibilities for practical

applications in therapy to help encourage and develop communication skills. It is widely

acknowledge that the expressive power of music is very important and there are many

examples to show how these emotional reactions effect our listening habits. Particular

people experience greater reactions from particular types of music. As yet, however, there

19
Greenberg et al. p.85.
is not enough evidence to prove that empathy can be developed and if this were found it

leads to questions regarding the individuality and customization of music.

Bibliography
Journals

Greenberg, David M., Peter J. Rentfrow, and Simon Baron-Cohen, "Can Music Increase
Empathy? Interpreting Musical Experience Through The EmpathizingSystemizing (E-S)
Theory: Implications For Autism", Empirical Musicology Review, 10 (2015), p.83.

Russell, James, A . Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological
Review. 2003; pp. 145172.

Books

Damon, William, and Richard M Lerner, Handbook Of Child Psychology, 1st edn (Hoboken,
N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006), p. 934.

Websites

"Empathy: Oxford English Dictionary", Oed.Com, 2017

<http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/61284?redirectedFrom=empathy#eid> [accessed 21
April 2017]

Williamson, Victoria, "Musical Emotions Unique And Complex Music Psychology",

Musicpsychology.Co.Uk, 2017 <http://musicpsychology.co.uk/musical-emotions-unique-
and-complex/> [accessed 22 April 2017]

Films

Curtis, Richard, Love Actually (London, 2003)

Recordings

Fry, Glenn, Don Henley, produced by Glyn Johns, Desperado (London: Asylum, 1973).