CHRISTIANITY AND STRESS AMONG YOUNG BLACK WOMEN ATTENDING

SPELMAN COLLEGE

Quinn Forrester-Wamsley

Religion, Women & Violence in a Global Perspective Section 02

Dr. Nami Kim

May 5, 2017
 1

Introduction

According to the 2015 National College Health Assessment, 42.8 percent of students

reported experiencing more-than-average stress and 10.7 percent reported experiencing

tremendous stress within the last 12 months.1 In everyday conversation, the word stress may be

used as a verb, a noun, or a feeling, but it is often misused. According to psychology, stress is the

labeling process of a stressor as a threat or challenge that leads to a stress reaction or a response.

Stressors are catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles that can be interpreted as

benign, motivating or malicious by each individual.2 In the case of college students, this may

come in the form of a test, financial aid difficulties, or non-academic concerns such as a family

death or racism-related stress. In fact, in the 2015 NCHA findings mentioned above, it is

important to note that reported overall more-than-average and tremendous stress showed higher

percentages among females compared to males, and the participants were majority white (67.6

percent), with only 6.1 percent identifying as Black, 12.4 percent as Hispanic/Latinx, and 15.2

percent as Asian/Pacific Islander.3 Therefore, as suggested by the minority stress theory, due to

identity-based discrimination that comes in the form of racism, homophobia, sexism,

1
American College Health Association. "Spring 2015 Reference Group Executive
Summary."National College Health Assessment, 2015, 16-17.

2
Myers, David G. and C. Nathan DeWall. Psychology in Modules. 11th ed. New York: Worth
Publishers, 2015.

3
American College Health Association. "Spring 2015 Reference Group Executive Summary."
 2

transphobia, etc. minoritized students may in fact report higher levels of stress than is typically

associated with or expected for a college student.4

The human body is equipped to respond to temporary stress, but prolonged stress is

harmful and can potentially lead to early death for many reasons such as suppressed immune

system functioning, which increases the risk of heart disease, cancer, and respiratory disease.

Due to the adverse impact of prolonged stress on the body and the mind, it is vital to adopt

healthy coping strategies, otherwise referred to as emotional, cognitive, and behavioral methods

to reduce or remove stress. Often called the faith factor, religion has been suggested as a possible

coping mechanism because of the researched link between high religiositya measure of ones

religious belief or feelingand overall good health.5 However, research that investigates the use

of religion to cope with stress has focused on major life stressors, as opposed to daily hassles,

and it is unclear whether or not there is as strong of a tendency to turn to religion when faced

with daily stressors.6

With that understanding, the current research aims to investigate the possible beneficial

use of religion when facing daily hassles among Black women undergraduate students attending

Spelman College. Spelman College is a historically Black womens college and provides the

opportunity to analyze stress among students who experience at least two or more

4
Barnes, avid M., and Ilan H. Meyer, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, and
D
Mental Health in Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexuals, American Journal Of Orthopsychiatry 82,
no. 4 (2012): 505-515, doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01185.x
5
Myers, Psychology in Modules.

6
homas G., Beatriz Saucedo, and Chelsea Rice. The Association Between Strength of
Plante,
T
Religious Faith and Coping with Daily Stress. Journal of Pastoral Psychology 49, no. 4 (2001):
291-300. 0031-2789/01/0300-0291$19.50/0.
 3

oppressionsas the majority are Black/African-American and female and/or women. These

identity-based stressors are important because according to the minority stress theory, those who

are of any minority status will experience greater stress and negative effects on their health due

to stigmas and discrimination.7 The minority stress theory, feminist perspective and

psychological approach are employed in order to explore if religiosity impacts perceived stress in

Spelman College students. It is hypothesized that those who believe in God and perceive religion

as important, but do not interpret the Bible literally have a lower level of perceived stress.

Literature Review

When faced with stressors, the chosen coping strategy may depend upon a number of

factors such as perception of control, ethnic/cultural background, and access to resources. In

regards to control, individuals tend to have a sustained external or internal locus of control that

guides how they perceive and interact in their world. Someone with an internal locus of control

believes that they control their own fate and have the freedom to determine their path in life,

whereas someone with an external locus of control believes that chance or some outside power

controls their fate.8 Due to the perception of a higher being, Christianity, the religion of interest

in this study, could influence a more external locus of control among some followers of the

religion.

In one qualitative study, researchers interviewed African American parishioners and

pastors from six Christian denominations in order to better understand the perceptions of the link

between religion and health. An external locus of control was the most supported factor among

7
Barnes, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.

8
Myers, Psychology in Modules.
 4

the participants that served as the link between religion and health. One participant shared, 'We

can pray to God and say, you know, please dont let me get this or that, but we dont know what

Gods will is because God is sovereign. Meaning that whatever He wills for your life thats it.9

It is important to pause and analyze the gendered pronouns used by the participant when

referring to God. When speaking in regards to control, it becomes problematic to use masculine

pronouns, especially for women who are followers of the Christian faith, because of the

historical and contemporary domination of men over women. Andy Smith highlights this

domination by explaining that the European Christian colonizers taught Native Americans the

hierarchy that placed women at the bottom, followed by men, religious leaders, and the religious

figure of God.10 In line with Smiths analysis, Jennifer Grace Bird argues that this hierarchy can

result in a near abusive religious relationship. In other words, if someone has an external locus of

control and believes to some extent that God determines what happens in their life according to

Gods plan or Gods will, then they have a loving relationship with God, but are also

God-fearing due to the ultimate control that God is perceived to have over their life.11 As

explained by Grace Bird, this combination of love and fear in the presence of a hierarchy of

control is what lends itself to a possible abusive interpretation.

9
Holt, Cheryl L., Laura A. Lewellyn, and Mary Jo Rathweg. Exploring Religion-Health
Mediators among African American Parishioners. Journal of Health Psychology 10, no.
4 (2005): 520. 10.1177/1359105305053416.

Smith, Andy. Christian Conquest and the Sexual Colonization of Native Women. In
10

Violence
Against Women and Children: A Christian Theological Sourcebook. Edited by Carol J. Adams
and Marie M. Fortune. New York, NY: Continuum, 1995.

Grace Bird, Jennifer. Permission Granted: Take the Bible into Your Own Hands. Louisville,
11

KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015.

 5

As demonstrated by the possible implications of even assigning a gender to a higher

being, religion can arguably serve to oppress, but also to liberate. The two-fold purpose of

religion and religious texts are named as roadblocks and resources by Rev. Dr. Marie M. Fortune

and Rabbi Cindy G. Enger. Fortune and Enger cite some examples of roadblocks in the Bible as

stories that depict or support violence against women, and the hierarchy of God at the top and

women at the bottom. However, they point out that proof-textingpicking and choosing which

parts of the text to use out of context to support claimscan be used to promote the exclusive

oppressive or liberatory power of religious text. Furthermore, they argue that the change from a

roadblock to a resource needs to support and provide women, in particular, with strength, rather

than using text to justify her endurance of suffering.12 The latter may be more difficult to avoid

than expected because of the glorified image of suffering promoted through the symbol of the

cross in Christianity. As analyzed by Smith, the image of Jesus on the cross can be related to the

idea of the battered woman because the victim and their suffering is the main focus, as

opposed to the perpetrator and their culpability. This image reinforces admiration for those who

endure suffering and emphasizes the difference in privilege and power between men and women,

perpetrator and victim.13 However, this glorification and endurance of suffering can end through

the social support of religious communities or those who have an understanding of the religious

background of the person in need.

Fortune, Rev. Dr. Marie M. and Rabbi Cindy G. Enger. Violence Against Women and the
12

Role of Religion. National Online Resource Center of Violence Against Women (2005): 1-7.

13
Smith, Christian Conquest.
 6

Social support is actually one method that can be employed to cope with stress, which is

one explanation for the faith factordefined previously as the phenomenon of religiosity

predicting longevity.14 Although some Christians may subscribe to an external locus of control

that predicts overall poorer health, this detrimental health-and-control link is contradicted by the

faith factor that predicts greater health among the religious. As mentioned previously, immune

system functioning is suppressed by the bodys physiological response to stressors when in flight

mode, but social support allows for a calming effect by strengthening immunity and lowering

blood pressure and stress hormones. In addition, the ability to confide in another person about

strong emotions and traumatic situations may alleviate or lessen the long-term impact of these

emotions and events on the mind and body.15 Religious social support can be found through the

regular meeting of the religious community in church or other spaces, which increases the

quantity of relationships and benefits individuals as social beings. Furthermore, the professed

importance of forgiveness, the encouragement of marriage, and the personal belief in a kind God

all contribute to better quality relationships, reduced conflict, and peace in general because of the

idea that God, according to an external locus of control, would offer ways to cope with stress and

the offering of heaven after suffering on earth.16 While marriage allows for a presumed

long-lasting and deep connection between two individuals, the drawback of the encouragement

of marriage would be domestic violence and the implied necessity of the victim to remain in the

14
Myers, Psychology in Modules.

15
Myers, Psychology in Modules.

16
ndrea D. and Anna V. Ermakova. Surrender to God and Stress: A Possible Link
Clements,
A
Between Religiosity and Health. Journal of Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 4, no. 2
(2012): 93-107.
 7

marriage due to their bounding vows or for the sake of their children. Although not in all cases,

this burden disproportionately falls on women.

Although the faith factor represents a correlation between religious activity and

longevity, as opposed to causation, many studies have supported its claims. In one 8-year study

of over 92,000 women ages 50-79 in the U.S., it was found that the women who attended

religious services at least once a week had a 20 percent reduced risk of death during the study

period when all other factors were controlled.17 At the same time, using the fact that prolonged

stress may result in earlier death, the experience of minoritized groupsused here as describing

a socially-assigned minority statusmay challenge the faith factor theory. In the context of

minoritized groups, religions and religious places of worship can either be affirming or

non-affirming. Defined in the context of a study about LGBLesbian, Gay,

Bisxexualindividuals, non-affirming would be intolerable environments that may claim

homosexuality to be a sin, refuse to marry same-sex couples, and exclude LGBs from leadership

positions. Non-affirming environments can be found in the three largest denominations that

represent 35 percent of the religious affiliations in the U.S., such as the Roman Catholic Church

and the United Methodist Church. In contrast, affirming environments are more tolerable or

completely accepting, such as the United Church of Christ or the Unitarian Universalist

churches, which are the minority of religious affiliations in the U.S. Although LGBs are said to

be less likely to participate in institutional religion, stay with their childhood religion, and attend

religious services, the majority of those who identify as religious belong to non-affirming

17
Myers, Psychology in Modules.
 8

denominations.18 One study found statistically significant higher rates of internalized

homophobia among LGBs in non-affirming religions compared to affirming religions. This

difference was even greater when assessing based on race, with the highest internalized

homophobia among Latinxs. There was also a high level for Blacks, although this was not found

to be statistically significant.19 Even though no relationship between non-affirming religion and

depressive symptoms and/or psychological well-being was found, stress was not analyzed

specifically.

Although not in support of the possible link between hostile religious environments and

adverse psychological well-being, the mentioned study takes an intersectional approach to the

study of religious environments, which is especially important in the context of race. In the LGB

study, Black and Latinx participants reported higher religiosity, were more likely to belong to

non-affirming religions, and more frequently attended religious services compared to Whites.20

This finding is consistent with the historical importance of Black churches, in particular, in

providing social services and an anti-racist communal space for resistance. One study of 284

African-Americans recruited from a variety of spaces such as an HBCU (Historically Black

Colleges and Universities), a church, a barbershop, and a professional conference attempted to

analyze the religious problem-solvingself-directing (internal locus), deferring (external locus),

and collaborative (combination)and Africultural copingcognitive-emotional,

spiritual-centered, collective, and ritual-centeredemployed in response to various forms of

18
Barnes, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.

19
Barnes. Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.

20
Barnes, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.
 9

racism-related stressindividual, institutional, and cultural. The results suggest that

African-American women with greater perceived institutional racism-related stress take part in

cognitive-emotional coping, spiritual-centered coping, and collective coping. All of these

strategies make use of social support and imply less perceived control of the situation,

reinforcing the suggestion that women more than men tend to rely on religious coping such as

prayer.21 The underlying message of these findings is the need for culturally-specific religious

spaces free of discrimination and hate in order to cope with stressful experiences, as opposed to

possibly creating new traumas and stressors.

In line with the hypothesis that the relationship between young womens stress and faith

depends on their interpretation of the Bible, it is argued that the difference between religions and

religious environments that either provoke a sense of trauma or healing rely on the interpretation

of religious text by followers and religious leaders. Keeping in mind there is a spectrum of

interpretation, for ease, the three categories of biblical interpretation are (1) the actual word of

God (2) the inspired word of God and (3) a book of fables. In the first, it is believed that the

Bible is God-breathed22 and should be taken word for word as said by God, as it is completely

accurate and mistake-free. On the other end of the spectrum, the third views the Bible as a

flawed collection of ancient legends, fables, and sometimes moral lessons that was written by

male human-beings in the patriarchal context. Finally, falling in the middle, the second is the

belief that although the text should not be taken literally, God still did have some say or is at

21
ewis-Coles, Maat E. and Madonna G. Constantine. Racism-Related Stress,
Lyris
L
Africultural Coping, and Religious Problem-Solving Among African Americans. Journal of
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 12, no. 3 (2006): 433-443.

22
Grace Bird, Permission Granted.
 10

least still evident in what is written in the Bible.23 In addition to the category of interpretation,

text in general can either be viewed as prescriptivea frame of referenceor descriptivean

account of what is taking place in the time-specific context.24 More literal interpreters will most

likely view the Bible as prescriptive, even using the text as a guide for their own life and the

lives of others. Nonetheless, whenever reading a text, it is important to consider the world of the

author, the content, and the reader, including the differences in language, before making any

conclusions regarding its intended prescriptive or descriptive use.

Keeping in mind that religious text, including the Bible, can be used as both a roadblock

and a resource, there are some crucial risks of prescriptive, literal readings of religious text. As

already mentioned, there is a significant danger for women when gendered language is used to

place women at the bottom of the hierarchy of control and power, and is even more problematic

with intersecting identities of race, class, ability, etc. Although this is not an exclusively religious

concept, it was historically promoted by Christian colonizers25 and continues to be an underlying

theme for those who view the Bible as the word of God. This interpretation implies that God

created the gendered and racialized difference in power that only acknowledges White men and

equates them to God. For example, author Ruth Wallace reminds the reader that it was not until

1985 that the Vatican approved the requests in Canada, New Zealand, and the U.S. to change the

Fettes, Daniel. Accounting for Sexuality: God, Genes, and Gays. In Counted Out: Same-Sex
23

Relations and Americans Definitions of Family, 103-136. Edited by Brian Powell, Catherine
Bolzendahl, Claudia Geist, and LaLa Carr Steelman. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation,
2010.

24
Grace Bird, Permission Granted.

25
Smith, Christian Conquest.
 11

declaration for you and for all men to for you and for all so that sins may be forgiven during

the consecration of the host before communion. Wallace also introduces the concept of

reification or bringing something into being, by arguing that religion, religious texts, and

religious teachings are all social constructs like gender or race that can constrain humans, but it

is forgotten or ignored that humans were the ones who created them in the first place. Wallace

argues that resistance can occur once the human involvement in the construction is realized26,

which depends upon interpretation.

Interpretation can be used as a form of resistance for LGBTQIA+ individuals and people

of color, along with other minoritized groups. For example, in the study with LGB individuals27,

it was suggested that some may stay in non-affirming religious spaces because of the significant

meaning of their religion, the strong connections to a community, and the promotion of racial

identity and pride in Black churches, in particular. Therefore, some ways of coping may be to

view the Bible as a historical document that may sometimes include the social rules or norms of

that time period. Another strategy would be to challenge whomever is professing their own

interpretation such as a pastor or priest, by questioning their biblical knowledge, morality, and

use of proof-texting. Although an avoidance of a literal interpretation of the Bible is suggested,

studies have found that religious Latino/as and Blacks in the general population are more likely

to say religion is very important, to attend church at least once a week, and to view the Bible as

26
uth A. Catholic Women and the Creation of a New Social Reality. In The
Wallace,
R
Sociology of Gender: A Text-Reader, 435-446. Edited by Laura Kramer. New York, NY: St.
Martins Press, 1991.

27
Barnes, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.
 12

the literal word of God compared to Whites, regardless of sexual orientation.28 This conflicting

information is what informs the current study on the implications of perceived importance of

religion, belief in God, and interpretation of the Bible on reported stress among African

American young women.

Research Questions and Methodology

As much of the literature proposes a connection between religion and health, this study

further investigates that connection by examining if there is a relationship between young Black

womens reported stress and the extent to which they believe in God, interpret the Bible literally,

and perceive religion as important. Although not all Spelman students are Black nor women, all

of the participants identify as Black women, which is accompanied by the assumption that there

are at least two systems of oppression faced by each individual. Working within the framework

of the minority stress theory and the feminist perspective, focusing on Black women allows for a

better understanding of how minority status(es) may or may not influence health, religion, and

their interaction.29 Additionally, previous literature reveal cultural differences in expression and

use of religion according to race.30

In addition to the use of the minority stress theory and feminist perspective, this research

is guided by and analyzed through class readings. First, the concept of roadblocks and resources

in Christianity claims that religions and religious communities never remain neutral in instances

of violence, but will instead either help or hinder the recovery of victim-survivors. In addition,

28
Barnes, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.

29
Barnes, Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, 505-515.

30
Lyris Lewis-Coles, Racism-Related Stress, 433-443.
 13

religious texts and teachings may promote certain scriptures that support the suffering of women

or violence against women that may hinder recovery processes, while ignoring scripture that

promotes healing and the idea of violence as a sin.31 In this study, the framework of roadblocks

and resources is extended beyond violence against women to violence against all marginalized

groups by picking and choosing or fabricating religious text to justify suffering. Seen as a

roadblock, this justification of suffering creates a hostile religious environment that has negative

implications on the well-being of the individual. However, while text could be used to justify

suffering, it can also be used as a resource to justify equality and liberation, which may

subsequently improve health and well-being. Similarly, Jennifer Grace Bird reminds that there

are various ways of interpreting the Bible and offers variations to common perceptions. Birds

analysis is relevant to this study because she critiques a literal interpretation of the Bible and

notes the possible implications of these interpretations, such as seeing females as inferior to

males.32 For this example, if a female believes in their inferiority to males, they may or may not

internalize this inferiority or at least promote this message to other females, which may result in

negative health outcomes. This same concept can be applied to race, sexual orientation, and other

identities.

As far as the actual procedure, the research question and methodology fall under the

psychological and feminist approaches to studying religion. The feminist approach aims to

reinterpret, deconstruct, and recreate messages and themes regarding gender roles, gender

stereotypes, and the representation (or lack thereof) of both women and minoritized groups in

31
Fortune, Violence Against Women, 1-7.

32
Grace Bird, Permission Granted.
 14

religious traditions and texts. Additionally, an intersectional analysis is incorporated, which

assesses multiple systems of oppression and the ways in which they are intertwined and

connected. Finally, this study makes use of the psychological approach by investigating

behaviors, emotions, and psychological well-being, namely stress.33

The question of whether or not there is a relationship between young Black womens

reported stress and the extent to which they believe in God, interpret the Bible literally, and

perceive religion as important is assessed using survey questions from the 2008-2012

Relationship Dynamics and Social Life (RDSL) study mentioned previously (see Appendix for

questions).34 Participants for the current study were recruited through text message in a

volunteer-based convenience sample. Upon agreeing to participate, eight Spelman women were

emailed a Google document containing the informed consent and the 14-question survey. They

then copied the document, pasted the content into a new document, signed the consent form, and

completed the survey. Upon completion, the participants either printed the document and

returned it in person (N=2) or emailed the document for it to be printed (N=6). For the latter

option, the email and document was immediately deleted after printing in order to maintain

anonymity. The only requirements for participation were identifying as Black/African-American

and being of the Christian faith. These two requirements were included in the consent form that

had to be completed before beginning the survey.

33
Majeed. How Is Religion Studied? 15-25.

34
Barber, Relationship Dynamics and Social Life (RDSL) Study,
 15

Research Findings, Implications, and Conclusion

Previous literature argues the beneficial impact of religiosity on health, particularly when

related to stress. However, when reviewing the literature it became evident that many of the

studies lacked racial/ethnic diversity because white participants made up the majority, if not all,

of the sample. There was one study that did include exclusively Black participants, which found

Africultural coping practices being employed in response to racism-related stress, such as

cognitive-emotional coping, spiritual-centered coping, and collective coping35. Understanding

the need for further investigation outside of white participants, the current study explores

whether or not there is a relationship between young Black/African-American females reported

stress and the extent to which they believe in God, interpret the Bible literally, and perceive

religion as important.

To analyze the relationship between religion and health, a convenience sample was used

among Spelman College students. Eight of the questions using scale variables (e.g. strongly

agree to strongly disagree) were taken from the 2008-2012 Relationship Dynamics and Social

Life (RDSL) study36, which assessed religiosity and stress-related health, and the first six

questions were demographic questions also from the RDSL study, but there were more options

added with the goal of inclusiveness. In total, eight questionnaires were completed by Black cis

womencis women meaning they are both female and woman as assigned by birthattending

Spelman College. Two participants were second year students, four were third year students, and

two were fourth year students. In addition, one of the participants identified as Roman Catholic,

35
Lyris Lewis-Coles, Racism-Related Stress, 433-443.

36
Barber, Relationship Dynamics and Social Life (RDSL) Study,
 16

and the remaining seven identified as Christian, not Roman Catholic. In addition, all reported I

believe that God(s) exists, except for one participant who reported I dont believe in a personal

God(s), but I do believe in a Higher Power(s) of some kind. For the importance of religion,

there was some variation, as four reported religion being very important, two somewhat

important, one more important than anything, and one not important. The sample was leaning

towards a more literal interpretation of the Bible because in response to the statement The Bible

is Gods word and everything happened or will happen pretty much as it says, three participants

said they agree, three disagreed, and two strongly disagreed. Finally, besides one participant with

an averaged stress score of 4.00 out of 5.00, the other participants reported relatively low scores

falling in the range of 1.75 to 3.00, with a total mean score of 2.66.

In order to conduct statistical testing, the scale ratings (range 1-5) for the four

stress-related health factors (inability to control important things, confidence in ability, things

going your way, and unable to overcome difficulties) were averaged to have one stress-related

health score for each participant. Before doing so, two of the questions were reverse-coded (e.g.

5 becomes 1) so that all high scores indicated high stress and low scores indicated low stress.

With the average stress score, three separate one-way ANOVAs were conducted for the

religiosity measures of (1) importance of religion (see Appendix D), (2) belief in God (see

Appendix D), and (3) interpretation of the Bible (see Appendix E). Significance was not found

for any of the three tests. In other words, the importance of religion [F(3,4)=1.871, p=0.275],

belief in God [F(1,6)=0.019, p=0.894], and interpretation of the Bible [F(2,5)=0.292, p=0.759]

were found to have no significant effect on average reported stress among the eight participants.
 17

The results of this study stand in contrast to the general findings of previous literature

that support what is referred to as the faith factor, or the tendency for religious individuals to

have longer lives, in general.37 Even though these results appear to challenge the faith factor, the

phenomenon has typically been found in the case of major life stressors such as catastrophes

(e.g. natural disasters) or significant life changes (e.g. marriage, divorce, college, death, etc.)38,

whereas this study analyzed stressors in the form of daily hassles. In addition, the sample size

was very small with only eight participants and the women showed a range of reported

importance of religion, including some participants whose families more strongly identified with

religion than them. This could serve as a possible confounding variable because there was no

question that assessed the extent to which the individual is currently practicing religion.

Another possible confounding variable is number of semester credit hours being taking

because school is a very realistic stressor for student participants. Upon not finding significance

for the impact of religion on stress, course credit hours were tested for an impact on stress, which

also yielded nonsignificant results (see Appendix E). The majority of the participants reported

15-17 credit hours (5 participants), one more than 18 hours, one between 12 and 14 hours, and

another less than 12 hours. Another possible explanation may be that the participants have

already developed positive coping mechanisms outside of religious practices and coping. In

contrast, religion may still be a core influence, but perceived stress may be reported differently

depending on if the participant has an internal or external locus of control. For someone with an

internal locus of control, they believe they control their own faith and life path, whereas someone

37
Myers, Psychology in Modules.

38
Plante, The Association Between Strength of Religious Faith, 291-300.
 18

with an external locus believes there is some outside factor (chance or a higher power) that

controls their fate.39 In reference to the question In the last month, how often have you felt that

you were unable to control the important things in your life?, someone with an internal locus of

control may report a higher stress rating because they believe they hold the control or power. In

comparison, a lower rating may be reported for someone with an external locus of control

because they may maintain faith that someone, something, or some power will restore whatever

they feel unable to control. Finally, there simply may not have been enough questions to fully

assess both stress and religiosity since there were only four questions for each. The short length

of the questionnaire was intentional in order to appeal to students taking time out of their

schedules to participate, but it may have affected the results.

If this study were to be improved and conducted with a greater number of participants,

and it was still suggested that religion had no significant effect on perceived stress, one social

implication may be the need to increase access to and knowledge about non-religious coping

mechanisms for young Black women under stress. For instance, Spelman students have access to

the Wellness Center, the counseling center, and various organizations that could potentially

provide ways to alleviate stress. However, with busy schedules students may not have much

energy or may take on too much and subsequently sacrifice their own health. Therefore, colleges

and universities like Spelman could find creative ways to offer activities like meditation, walking

groups, art therapy, or napping spaces that would not require large time commitments. Again, in

the case that religion was found to not have a significant impact on perceived stress, in general,

39
Myers, Psychology in Modules.
 19

then these suggested tactics could assist coping in addition to any personal or religious practices

that may not fully alleviate stress alone.

Taken together, although religion was not found to have a significant effect on high or

low amounts of perceived stress among a sample of Spelman women, religiosity was still

relatively high and stress relatively low. With a large sample and a longer questionnaire, the

findings may suggest otherwise. Nonetheless, if religiosity does not work to significantly

alleviate perceived stress, then it may be suggested that colleges and universities advertise

diverse coping options for college students, and particularly Black women and other students

who may be experiencing additional stress due to identity-based discrimination and oppression.
 20

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Social Life (RDSL) Study, Data Sharing for Demographic Research (2008-2012).

Barnes, David M. and Ilan H. Meyer. Religious Affiliation, Internalized Homophobia, and
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Orthopsychiatry 82, no. 4 (2012): 505-515. 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01185.x.

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Relations and Americans Definitions of Family, 103-136. Edited by Brian Powell,
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of Religion. National Online Resource Center of Violence Against Women (2005): 1-7.

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Mediators among African American Parishioners. Journal of Health Psychology 10, no.
4 (2005): 511-527. 10.1177/1359105305053416.

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Coping, and Religious Problem-Solving Among African Americans. Journal of Cultural
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Publishers, 2015.
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Plante, Thomas G., Beatriz Saucedo, and Chelsea Rice. The Association Between Strength of
Religious Faith and Coping with Daily Stress. Journal of Pastoral Psychology 49, no. 4
(2001): 291-300. 0031-2789/01/0300-0291$19.50/0.

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 22

Appendix

Questionnaire partially from 2008-2012 Relationship Dynamics and Social Life study

(Questions 4-7, 9-14)

1. What is your classification? (Select all that apply)

a. First-year
b. Second-year
c. Third-year
d. Fourth-year
e. Fifth-year and up
f. International student
g. Domestic exchange student
h. Pauline E. Drake scholar
2. How many credits are you taking this semester?
a. Less than 12 credits
b. 12-14 credits
c. 15-17 credits
d. 18+ credits
3. What sex do you identify as? (Select all that apply)
a. Female
b. Male
c. Intersex
d. I dont identify as any of these
e. I prefer not to say
4. What gender do you identify as? (Select all that apply)
a. Woman
b. Man
c. Transwoman
d. Transman
e. Transgender
f. Gender non-binary
g. Genderqueer
h. I dont identify as any of these
i. I prefer not to say
5. What is your racial identity? (Select all that apply)
a. Black or African American
b. Latinx/Hispanic
c. American Indian or Alaska Native
d. Asian
e. Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
f. White
g. I identify with a race not listed
 23

Appendix A
6. Although there are many religions, this study is specific to Christianity. What is your
religious identity?
a. Roman Catholic
b. Christian
c. Non-religious
d. Atheist
7. How important if at all is your religious faith to you?
a. Not important
b. Somewhat important
c. Very important
d. More important than anything else
8. Which statement comes closest to expressing what you believe about God(s)?
a. I don't believe in God(s).
b. I don't know whether there is a God(s) and I don't believe there is any way to find
out.
c. I don't believe in a personal God (s), but I do believe in a Higher Power(s) of
some kind.
d. I believe that God(s) exists.
9. When referring to the God(s) you believe in, do you use masculine or feminine pronouns
(i.e. He/She)?
a. Yes, I use He
b. Yes, I use She
c. No, I do not use masculine or feminine pronouns
10. How much do you agree with the following statement: The Bible is God's word and
everything happened or will happen pretty much as it says?
a. Strongly agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly disagree
11. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important
things in your life?
a. Never
b. Almost never
c. Sometimes
d. Fairly often
e. Very often
12. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your
personal problems?
a. Never
b. Almost never
c. Sometimes
d. Fairly often
e. Very often
13. In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way?
 24

Appendix B
a. Never
b. Almost never
c. Sometimes
d. Fairly often
e. Very often
14. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you
could not overcome them?
a. Never
b. Almost never
c. Sometimes
d. Fairly often
e. Very often
 25

Appendix C
 26

Appendix D
 27

Appendix E