Académique Documents
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MANUAL
R 2013
II YEAR IV SEMESTER
Prepared by
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
I.C.ENGINE LAB
STEAM LAB
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Determination of flash point and fire point using open cup apparatus. 1
Model Calculations
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Ex.No. :
DATE :
DETERMINATION OF FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT USING OPEN CUP APPARATUS
AIM:
To find the flash point and fire point of given oil sample using open cup apparatus.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PROCEDURE:
2. The given lubricating oil, sample is poured inside the oil cup up to the mark level.
3. Thermometer is placed inside the oil cup such that the bulb of the thermometer doesnt
touch the surface of the oil cup.
4. The oil is heated continuously using heater. The fire is ignited on the surface of the oil by
using a stick or candle.
5. Fire is ignited inside the cup for every temperature rises. The temperature is noted at
which the surface of the layer (oil) catches fire suddenly and fire off. This temperature is
called flash point of the lubricating oil.
6. When the oil cup is continuously heated after the flash point the oil catches fire
and burns continuously, the temperature at this point is called fire point of the lubricating
oil.
7. The procedure is repeated for various lubricating oil and readings were noted.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
TABULATION:
RESULT:
Thus the flash point and fire point of the given sample oils were found by open cup apparatus.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Ex.No. :
DATE :
AIM:
To draw the valve timing diagram of the given four stroke diesel engine.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Chalk
2. Paper
3. String.
FORMULA:
Angle = 360, degrees
60
Valve timing at particular speed =
360
, sec
We consider theoretically that, the valve open and close at the dead centers of the
piston. But, in actual practice they do not open and close instantaneously at dead centers.
They operate some degree before or after the dead centers. The ignition is timed to occur a
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
little before top dead center. The timings of these sequences of events such as inlet valve
opening, inlet valve closing, ignition, exhaust valve opening, exhaust valve closing can be
shown graphically in terms of crank angles from dead center positions. These diagrams are
known as valve timing diagrams.
The inlet valve is opened 10 to 25 in advance of top dead center position. The fresh
air is admitted into the cylinder till the inlet valve closes. The inlet valve is closed 25 to 50
after the bottom dead center. The compression of the air takes place. The fuel injection starts
5 to 10 before the top dead center, in the compression stroke. Fuel injection closes 15 to 25
after the top dead center in the working stroke. The pressure and temperature increases.
The exhaust valve is opened 30 to 50 before bottom dead center. The exhaust gases
are forced out of the engine cylinder till the exhaust valve closes. The exhaust valve is closed
10 to 15 after the top dead center. Even before exhaust valve closes, again the inlet valve is
opened 10 to 25 before the top dead center. The period between the inlet valve opening and
exhaust valve closing (the period at which both valves are in open position) is known as valve
overlap period. The angle between these two events is known as angle of overlap.
PROCEDURE:
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Rotate the flywheel slowly, shaking the paper. We cannot shake the paper at
the particular point. Stop the rotation of flywheel in that position. Mark the
inlet valve opening (I.V.O) position on the flywheel towards reference needle.
Rotate the flywheel in its direction, slightly pulling the paper. Paper comes out
at a particular point. Stop the rotation of the flywheel in that position and mark
inlet valve close (I.V.C) position, towards the reference needle.
Similarly, insert the paper in the gap of rocker arm and exhaust valve head,
after the compression stroke movement of the piston is completed.
The same procedures of I.V.O. & I.V.C. are flowed to mark exhaust valve
opening position (E.V.O) & closing position (E.V.C).
Take the measurements in cm of valve opening and closing points from the
nearest dead center.
Note the measurements and note the positions of valves opening and closing
either before the nearest dead center or after the nearest dead center.
Then, using the above readings, valve timings and timing diagram are worked.
TABULATION:
1. IVO
2. IVC
3. EVO
4. EVC
RESULT:
Thus a valve timing diagram of the given four stroke diesel engine was drawn.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Ex.No. :
DATE :
AIM:
To draw the port timing diagram of the given two stroke petrol engine.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Chalk
2. Paper
3. String.
FORMULA:
Angle = 360, degrees
60
Valve timing at particular speed =
360
, sec
Like valve timing diagram in four stroke diesel engines, the timing of the sequence are
represented graphically for two stroke petrol engine. The events such as opening and closing of inlet
port, transfer port, and exhaust port are shown graphically in terms of crank angles from dead center
positions. Theses diagram is known as port timing diagram.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
The piston uncovers the inlet port 45 to 55 before the top dead center position. The induction of air
fuel mixture into the engine cylinder takes places, till the inlet port is covered. The inlet port is
covered 45 to55 after the top dead center position. The compression of the air fuel mixture takes
place till the spark occurs. The spark is produced at 30 to 40 before the top dead center position. This
is to give sufficient time to the fuel to burn. The pressure and temperature increases. The exhaust port
is uncovered by the piston 65 to 75 before the top dead center. The exhaust gases are forced of the
cylinder till the exhaust port is covered. The piston 65 to 75 covers the exhaust port after the bottom
dead center. The transfer is uncovered and covered55to 65 before and after bottom dead center.
Ignition occurs 15-25 before top dead center.
After the compression stroke (during expansion or working stroke) the charge from the
crankcase enters the cylinder at a pressure, which is above atmospheric. This forces the exhaust gases
to the atmosphere through exhaust port. There is a possibility of escaping out of charge with burnt
gases. However this is over come by designing the piston to have a deflected shape at its crown. Due
to this deflected shape of the piston crown the fresh charge is deflected upward in the engine cylinder.
Thus deflected shape also helps in forcing the exhaust gases to the atmosphere. This process is known
as scavenging.
PROCEDURE:
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
By rotating the flywheel in its direction continuously the motion of the piston
is continued. Now the transfer port is completely uncovered by the piston top
edge and the piston reaches the B.D.C, then closes the transfer port completely
during
its motion is towards T.D.C. stop rotation of the fly wheel at the particular
point and mark transfer port closing position (T.P.C) on the flywheel
Exhaust port opening & closing (E.P.O & E.P.C) points are marked as per the
same procedure adapted to the T.P.O & T.P.C.
Take the ports opening and closing points measurements in cm. From the
nearest dead center and note at which position the ports are opening or closing
either before or after with respect to nearest dead center.
Using the above datas port timing and timing diagram is worked.
TABULATION:
1. IPO
2. IPC
3. EPO
4. EPC
5. TPO
6. TPC
RESULT:
Thus a port timing diagram of a two stroke petrol engine was drawn. The angles of opening
and closing of ports were found.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Ex.No. :
DATE :
AIM:
To conduct a performance test on the four stroke diesel engine (Single cylinder) and to draw the
following graphs.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
4. Stop watch
SPECIFICATION:
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
THEORY:
The Test Ring consists of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine, to be tested for performance, is
connected to Rope Brake Drum with Spring Balace (Mechanical Dynamometer) with
Exhaust Gas Calorimeter. The arrangement is made for the following measurements of the
Set-up :
1) The Rate of Fuel Consumption is measured by using the pipette reading againt the
known time.
2) Air Flow is measured by Manometer connected to Air Box.
3) The different mechanical loading is achieved by operating the spring balance of
dynamometer in steps.
4) The different mechanical energy is measured by spring balance and radius of brake
drum.
5) The Engine Speed (RPM) is measured by electronic digital RPM Counter.
6) Temperature at different points is measured by electronic digital Temperature
Indicator.
The whole instrumentation is mounted on a self contained unit ready for table
operation.
PROCEDURE:
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
TABULATION 1:
TABULATION 2:
FORMULAE:
2
1. Brake Power, BP = kW
60 1000
T = Torque in Nm
Torque, T = W x R
.
2. Total Fuel consumption, TFC = , kg/min
1000
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Note: FP(Frictional power) can be arrived by drawing the graph between TFC and BP. The method
for obtaining the FP (frictional power) using graph is called Willans line method or Negative graph
method.
.
5. Fuel Power, F.P. = TFC , kW
14.34
..
6. Mechanical Efficiency, mech = 100, %
..
..
7. Brake Thermal Efficiency = 100, %
..
Va = cd a 2 , m3/sec
g = 9.81
1 2
Ha = ,m
100
2 (60)
9. Theoretical air intake = , kg/sec
4
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
10. Volumetric Efficiency = 100 , %
.. 6
11. Brake Mean Effective Pressure, BMEP or Pmb= , bar
10
Where n = No of cylinders
N = Speed in rpm
1
k= for 4-stroke cycle engine.
2
.. 6
12. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, IMEP or Pmi= , bar
10
GRAPHS:
RESULT:
Thus the performance test on single cylinder diesel engine with mechanical brake loading was
conducted
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
EX.NO:
DATE:
DIESEL ENGINE
AIM:
To perform a heat balance test on the given single cylinder four stroke C.I engine and to prepare the
heat balance sheet at various loads.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
4. Manometer
5. Stop watch.
SPECIFICATION:
Fuel : diesel
Bore : 80 mm
Starting : cranking
Diameter of orifice : 35 mm
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
THEORY:
The Test Ring consists of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine, to be tested for performance, is
connected to Rope Brake Drum with Spring Balance (Mechanical Dynamometer) with
Exhaust Gas Calorimeter. The arrangement is made for the following measurements of the
Experimental Set-up:
1) The Rate of Fuel Consumption is measured by using the pipette reading against the
known time.
dynamometer in steps.
4) The different mechanical energy is measured by spring balance and radius of brake
drum.
Indicator.
7) Water Flow Rate through the engine & calorimeter is measured by Wattmeter.
PROCEDURE:
7. Put tank valve in to pipette position and note down the time taken for particular quantity of
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
12. After the experiment is over, keep the diesel control valve at mains position.
TABULATION 1:
TABULATION 2:
Heat
Heat Unacco
Carried
Total Fuel Heat Brake Frictio Carried unted
away
Consumption, Supply, Power, nal away by Heat
Sl. Load by Total
Power, Exhaust loss,
No Cooling
TFC Qs B.P. F.P. gases,
water,
Qg QU
Qw
kg Kg/sec kW kW kW kW kW kW kW
Heat
Heat Unacco
Carried
Total Fuel Heat Brake Frictio Carried unted
away
Consumption, Supply, Power, nal away by Heat
Sl. Load by Total
Power, Exhaust loss,
No Cooling
TFC Qs B.P. F.P. gases,
water,
Qg QU
Qw
kg Kg/sec % % % % % % %
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
FORMULAE:
2
1. Brake Power, BP = kW
60 1000
T = Torque in Nm
Torque, T = W x R
Note: FP(Frictional power) can be arrived by drawing the graph between TFC and BP. The method
for obtaining the FP (frictional power) using graph is called Willans line method or Negative graph
method.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
1
Qg = 100, %
Where Qg1 = mg Cg[T2-T1], kW
mg = , kg/sec
Va = cd a 2 , m3/sec
g = 9.81
1 2
Ha = ,m
100
QFP = 100 , %
Note: QFP = FP
1
QU =
QU1 = QS [ Qg + QW + FP + BP ]
RESULT:
Thus the heat balance test on single cylinder diesel engine was conducted and the following
losses were found,
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
EX.NO:
DATE:
OF A DIESEL ENGINE.
AIM:
To find Frictional power of a single cylinder slow speed Diesel Engine using Retardation test
method with mechanical dynamometer as loading device.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Single cylinder slow speed diesel engine with rope brake dynamometer setup.
2. Digital tachometer
3. Stop watch
SPECIFICATIONS:
Make - Kirloskar
Bore - 114.3 mm
Stroke - 139.7 mm
RPM - 700
Fuel - Diesel
THEORY:
This test involves the method of retarding the engine by cutting the fuel supply. The engine is
made to run at no load and rated speed taking in to all usual precautions. When the engine is running
under steady operating conditions the supply of fuel is cut-off and simultaneously the time of fall in
speed by say 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% of the rated speed is recorded. The values are usually tabulated in
an appropriate table.
A graph connecting time for fall in speed (y-axis) at no load as well as 50% load conditions.
From the graph the time required to fall through the same range (say 100rpm) in both, no load and
load condition are found. Let t2 and t3 be the time of fall at no load and load conditions respectively.
The frictional torque and hence frictional power are calculated.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
PRECAUTION:
Open the three way cock valve, so that the fuel flows to the engine.
PROCEDURE:
TABULATION:
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
FORMULAE:
1. Frictional Power, F.P.,
2
F.P. = kW
601000
Where = Frictional Torque, N-m
2
= T1 [ ]
3 2
RESULT:
The frictional power of a single cylinder slow speed diesel engine is -------------------kW.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
EX.NO:
DATE:
AIM:
To conduct a Morse test on a multi cylinder petrol engine using hydraulic dynamometer and to
determine Brake Power, Indicated power, Frictional power and Mechanical efficiency of the engine.
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
1. Tachometer
2. Stop watch
THEORY:
Morse test is one of the methods of finding indicated power of one cylinder of a multi
cylinder I.C.Engine without an indicator. This test is done for estimating the indicated power of multi
cylinder I.C. engines. The engine, which is to be tested, is coupled to a brake (hydraulic
dynamometer) and the brake power is determined. Let this be equal to Brake power (B.P). The first
cylinder is now cut off. This is done by shorting out the spark plug of the first cylinder in the case of
petrol engine. In the case of diesel engine the fuel supply to the first cylinder is cut off. Since, the first
cylinder is cut off, the engine speed drops. Load is removed from the brake to restore original speed.
Under this condition brake power is determined. Let this be B.P1
Then the operation of first cylinder is introduced again. Then the second cylinder is cut off.
The engine speed is restored to the original value and again brake power is determined. Let this be
B.P2
The same procedure is adopted for each cylinder in turn and in each case brake power is
determined like B.P3 and B.P4
Let, I.P1, I.P2, I.P3 & I.P4 are indicated powers of each cylinder.
F.P1, F.P2, F.P3 & F.P4 are frictional powers of each cylinder, if the all cylinders are working.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Now, when any one of the cylinders is cut out, the indicated power developed in the cylinder is cut
out. But, the friction and other losses of this particular cylinder still exist.
Subtracting 2 from 1,
The total indicated power developed I.P = I.P1+ I.P2+ I.P3 + I.P4
PRECAUTIONS:
Checks fuel level and open the three-way cock valve (vertical) so that, fuel flows to
the engine directly from the tank.
Open the engine cooling water inlet, outlet valves and ensure that water flows
through the engine.
Open the hydraulic dynamometer water line inlet, outlet valves and keep the pressure
0.4 Kg / cm2 in pressure dial gauge by tightening the outlet valve. So that, loading
will be easy in dynamometer.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
PROCEDURE:
Start the engine using ignition key and allow running the engine for few minutes.
Load the engine to its maximum capacity of load, using both the hydraulic
dynamometer loading / unloading wheel and the accelerator screw.
The speed of the engine should be maintained at 1500 rpm and should not be raised.
Now the first cylinder is cut off using cylinder cut off lever.
Now the speed of the engine and the load in dynamometer dial gauge will be less than
the previous settings.
Maintain the speed of the engine in 1500 rpm by unloading the dynamometer loading
/ unloading wheel.
Do not use the accelerator screw of the engine to adjust the speed. This is to be used
only for initial maximum load settings.
Note the load in dynamometer dial gauge in Kg, using this reading B.P (2, 3, and 4) is
found out.
Engage the first cylinder and cut off the second cylinder, maintain the speed at1500
rpm, then take the dial gauge reading in Kg.
Finally, stop the engine using ignition key after completely unloading the
dynamometer, disengaging the dynamometer from the engine and keeping the
accelerator throttle in minimum position.
TABULATION:
1 All Nil
2 2,3 &4 1
3 1,3 &4 2
4 1,2, &4 3
5 1,2, &3 4
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
FORMULAE:
= X HP
X
= kW
1.36
Where, I.P1 = Indicated power of first cylinder (with first cylinder cut off)
B.P = Total brake power of the engine (with no cylinder cut off)
B.P1= Brake power of 2nd, 3rd & 4th cylinders (with 1st cylinder cut off)
FP = I.P B.P
= 100 , %
RESULT:
Morse test was conducted in multi cylinder, four stroke petrol engines and the following were
determined:
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
EX.NO:
DATE:
AIM:
To study the components and working principle of steam boiler and Steam turbine.
1. STEAM BOILER
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred to
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then usable for
transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and inexpensive medium for transferring heat to a
process. When water at atmospheric pressure is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600
times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be
equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The boiler system comprises of a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed
water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand.
Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects and controls the
steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use.
Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure
gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat.
The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in the system.
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two
sources of feed water are:
(2) Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room and plant
processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, an economizer preheats the feed water using the waste heat
in the flue gas.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
1.2TYPE OF BOILERS
This section describes the various types of boilers: Fire tube boiler, Water tube boiler,
Packaged boiler, Fluidized bed combustion boiler, Stoker fired boiler, Pulverized fuel boiler, Waste
heat boiler and Thermic fluid heater.
In a fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the shell side is
converted into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for relatively small steam capacities and low
to medium steam pressures. As a guideline, fire tube boilers are competitive for steam rates up to
12,000 kg/hour and pressures up to 18 kg/cm2. Fire tube boilers are available for operation with oil,
gas or solid fuels. For economic reasons, most fire tube boilers are of packaged construction (i.e.
manufacturer erected) for all fuels.
In a water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters the boiler drum. The
circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and converted into steam at the vapour space in the
drum. These boilers are selected when the steam demand as well as steam pressure requirements are
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
high as in the case of process cum power boiler / power boilers. Most modern water boiler tube
designs are within the capacity range 4,500 120,000 kg/hour of steam, at very high pressures. Many
water tube boilers are of packaged construction if oil and /or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel
fired water tube designs are available but packaged designs are less common. The features of water
tube boilers are:
Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion efficiency.
Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant.
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant
advantages over a conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits compact boiler design,
fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx
and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other
agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr.
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid particles
such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity.
As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are suspended
in the air stream the bed is called fluidized. With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble
formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of
solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid
bubbling fluidized bed. If sand particles in a fluidized state are heated to the ignition temperatures
of coal, and coal is injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and the bed attains a
uniform temperature. The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840OC to 950OC.
Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated
problems are avoided. The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of
heat transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed
through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between
minimum fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
Boilers are equipped with two categories of components: boiler mountings and boiler
accessories. Boiler mountings are the machine components that are mounted over the body of the
boiler itself for the safety of the boiler and for complete control of the process of steam generation.
Boiler accessories are those components which are installed either inside or outside the boiler to
increase the efficiency of the plant and to help in the proper working of the plant.
2. STEAM TURBINE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The motive power in a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of change in momentum of a high
velocity jet of steam impinging on a curved blade which is free to rotate. The steam from the boiler is
expanded in a nozzle, resulting in the emission of a high velocity jet. This jet of steam impinges on
the moving vanes or blades, mounted on a shaft. Here it undergoes a change of direction of motion
which gives rise to a change in momentum and therefore a force. Steam turbines are mostly 'axial
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
flow' types; the steam flows over the blades in a direction parallel to the axis of the wheel. 'Radial
flow' types are rarely used.
On the basis of operation, steam turbines can be classified as: (i) Impulse turbine and (ii)
Impulse-reaction turbine.
In impulse turbine, the drop in pressure of steam takes place only in nozzles and not in
moving blades. This is obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross-sectional area.
It primarily consists of: a nozzle or a set of nozzles, a rotor mounted on a shaft, one set of
moving blades attached to the rotor and a casing.
A simple impulse turbine can be diagrammatically represented below. The uppermost portion
of the diagram shows a longitudinal section through the upper half of the turbine, the middle
portion shows the actual shape of the nozzle and blading, and the bottom portion shows the
variation of absolute velocity and absolute pressure during the flow of steam through passage
of nozzles and blades. Example: de-Laval turbine
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
This is done to reduce the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to practical limits. (A rotor
speed of 30,000 rpm is possible, which is pretty high for practical uses.)
Compounding is achieved by using more than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in a series,
keyed to a common shaft; so that either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by
the turbine in stages. Three main types of compounded impulse turbines are: a) Pressure
compounded, b) velocity compounded and c) pressure and velocity compounded impulse
turbines.
This involves splitting up of the whole pressure drop from the steam chest pressure to the
condenser pressure into a series of smaller pressure drops across several stages of impulse
turbine.
The nozzles are fitted into a diaphragm locked in the casing. This diaphragm separates one
wheel chamber from another. All rotors are mounted on the same shaft and the blades are
attached on the rotor.
In this type, the drop in pressure takes place in fixed nozzles as well as moving blades. The
pressure drop suffered by steam while passing through the moving blades causes a further generation
of kinetic energy within these blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to the propelling force, which is
applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft. The blade passage cross-sectional area is varied
(converging type).
2.3 COSTS:
Steam turbine plus boiler installation costs are between $800-$1000/kW. If a boiler is already
in place, the installation cost of just a steam turbine alone is $400-$800/kW. Maintenance costs for the
steam turbine are estimated to be $0.004/kWhr. Steam turbines have been known to last beyond 50
years with over 99% availability. Table 1 gives cost info for steam turbines only.
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PROFESSIONAL GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, PALLADAM
2.4 EMISSIONS:
Steam turbines do not emit anything themselves. However, the steam generator emits
pollutants. Therefore, the emissions from a steam turbine system are highly variable and depend on
the type of fuel being used to create the steam and the method by which steam is created. Boilers will
emit NOx, SOx, PM, CO, and CO2. Typical boiler emissions are shown in the following table.
RESULTS:
Thus the study of Steam Boiler and Steam Turbine were made.
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MODEL CALCULATIONS