-11-Why Study Phase Transformations?

The development of a set of desirable mechanical characteristics for a material often results from a phase transformation, which is wrought by a heat treatment. The time and
temperature dependencies of some phase transformations are conveniently represented on modified phase diagrams. It is important to know how to use these diagrams in order to
design a heat treatment for some alloy that will yield the desired room-temperature mechanical properties.
LearningObjectives
1. Make a schematic fraction transformationversus-logarithm of time plot for a typical solidsolid transformation; cite the equation that describes this behavior.
2. Briefly describe the microstructure for each of the following microconstituents that are found in steel alloys: fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, martensite, and
tempered martensite. - 3. Cite the general mechanical characteristics for each of the following microconstituents: fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite,
martensite, and tempered martensite. Now, in terms of microstructure (or crystal structure), briefly explain these behaviors.
4. Given the isothermal transformation (or continuous cooling transformation) diagram for some ironcarbon alloy, design a heat treatment that will produce a specified
microstructure.
5. Using a phase diagram, describe and explain he two heat treatments that are used to precipitation- harden a metal alloy.
6. Make a schematic plot of room-temperature strength (or hardness) versus the logarithm of time for a precipitation heat treatment at constant temperature. Explain the shape of
this curve in terms of the mechanism of precipitation hardening.- 7. Schematically plot specific volume versus temperaturefor crystalline, semicrystalline, and amorphous
polymers, noting glass transition and melting temperatures. - 8. List four characteristics or structural components of a polymer that affect both its melting and glass transition
temperatures.
-12-Why Study the Electrical Properties of Materials?
Consideration of the electrical properties of materials is often important when materials selection and processing decisions are being made during the design of a component or
structure.
LearningObjectives
1. Describe the four possible electron band structures for solid materials.-2. Briefly describe electron excitation events that produce free electrons/holes in (a) metals, (b)
semiconductors (intrinsic and extrinsic), and (c) insulators.3. Calculate the electrical conductivities of metals, semiconductors (intrinsic and extrinsic), and insulators given
their charge carrier density(s) and mobility(s).4. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconducting materials.-5. Note the manner in which electrical conductivity
changes with increasing temperature for (a) metals, (b) semiconductors, and (c) insulating materials._6. For a pn junction, explain the rectification process in terms of
electron and hole motions._ _7. Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor. _ _8. Define dielectric constant in terms of permittivities. _ _9. Briefly explain how
the charge storing capacity of a capacitor may be increased by the insertion and polarization of a dielectric material between its plates._ _10. Name and describe the three
types of polarization.
-13-Why Study Types and Applications of Materials?
Engineers are often involved in materials selection decisions, which necessitates that they have some familiarity with the general characteristics of a wide variety of materials. In
addition, access to data bases containing property values for a large number of materials may be required.
LearningObjectives
1. Name four different types of steels and, for each, cite compositional differences, distinctive properties, and typical uses. -2. Name the four cast iron types and, for each,
describe its microstructure and note its general mechanical characteristics. -3. Name seven different types of nonferrous alloys and, for each, cite its distinctive physical and
mechanical characteristics; in addition, list at least three typical applications. -4. Describe the process that is used to produce glassceramics 5. Name the two types of clay
products and give two examples of each. 6. Cite three important requirements that normally must be met by refractory ceramics and abrasive ceramics. -7. Describe the
mechanism by which cement hardens
when water is added. -8. Cite the seven different polymer application types and, for each, note its general characteristics.
===13.1 INTRODUCTION
Many times a materials problem is really one of selecting that material which has the right combination of characteristics for a specific application. Therefore, the persons who are
involved in the decision making should have some knowledge of the available options. This extremely abbreviated presentation provides an overview of some of the types
of metal alloys, ceramics, and polymeric materials, their general properties, and their limitations.
TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS
Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classesferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels
and cast irons. These alloys and their characteristics are the first topics of discussion of this section. The nonferrous onesall the alloys that are not iron basedare
treated next.
13.2 FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloysthose of which iron is the prime constituentare produced in larger quantities than any other metal type. They are especially important as engineering
construction ===materials.
-14-Why Study Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing
of Materials?
On occasion, fabrication and processing procedures adversely affect some of the properties of materials. For example, in Section 11.8 we note that some steels may become
embrittled during tempering heat treatments. Also, some stainless steels are made susceptible to intergranular corrosion (Section 16.7) when they are heated for long time
periods within a specific temperature range. And, as discussed in Section 14.4, regions adjacent to weld junctions may experience diminishments in strength and toughness
as a result of undesirable microstructural alterations. It is important that engineers become familiar with possible consequences attendant to processing and fabricating
procedures in order to prevent unanticipated material failures.
LearningObjectives
1. Name and describe four forming operations that are used to shape metal alloys. -2. Name and describe four casting techniques. -3. State the purposes of and describe
procedures for the following heat treatments: process annealing, stress relief annealing, normalizing, full annealing, and spheroidizing. -4. Define hardenability -5. Generate
a hardness profile for a cylindrical steel specimen that has been austenitized and then quenched, given the hardenability curve for the specific alloy, as well as quenching
rateversus- bar diameter information. -6. Name and briefly describe four forming methods that are used to fabricate glass pieces.- 7. Briefly describe and explain the
procedure by which glass pieces are thermally tempered. -8. Briefly describe processes that occur during the drying and firing of clay-based ceramic ware. -9. Briefly
describe/diagram the sintering process of powder particle aggregates. -10. Briefly describe addition and condensation polymerization mechanisms. -11. Name the five types
of polymer additives and, for each, indicate how it modifies the properties. -12. Name and briefly describe five fabrication techniques used for plastic polymers.
-15-Why Study Composites?
With a knowledge of the various types of composites, as well as an understanding of the dependence of their behaviors on the characteristics, relative amounts,
geometry/distribution, and properties of the constituent phases, it is possible to design materials having property combinations that are better than those found in the metal
alloys, ceramics, and polymeric materials. For example, in Design Example 15.1, we discuss how a filament-wound tubular shaft is designed that meets specified stiffness
requirements.
LearningObjectives
1. Name the three main divisions of composite materials, and cite the distinguishing feature of each.- 2. Cite the difference in strengthening mechanism for large-particle and
dispersion-strengthened particle-reinforced composites. -3. Name the three different types of fiber-reinforced composites on the basis of fiber length and orientation;
comment on the distinctive mechanical characteristics for each type. -4. Calculate longitudinal modulus and longitudinal strength for an aligned and continuous fiber-
reinforced composite. -5. Compute longitudinal strengths for discontinuous and aligned fibrous composite materials. 6. Note the three common fiber reinforcements used in
polymer-matrix composites, and, for each, cite both desirable characteristics and limitations. -7. Cite the desirable features of metal-matrix composites. 8. Note the primary
reason for the creation of ceramic- matrix composites. -9. Name and briefly describe the two subclassifications of structural composites
-16-Why Study Corrosion and Degradation of Materials?
With a knowledge of the types of and an understanding of the mechanisms and causes of corrosion and degradation, it is possible to take measures to prevent them from
occurring. For example, we may change the nature of the environment, select a material that is relatively nonreactive, and/or protect the material from appreciable
deterioration.
LearningObjective
1. Distinguish between oxidation and reduction electrochemical reactions. 2. Describe the following: galvanic couple, standard half-cell, and standard hydrogen electrode. 3.
Compute the cell potential and write the spontaneous electrochemical reaction direction for two pure metals that are electrically connected and also submerged in solutions
of their respective ions. 4. Determine metal oxidation rate given the reaction current density. 5. Name and briefly describe the two different types of polarization, and specify
the conditions under which each is rate controlling. 6. For each of the eight forms of corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement, describe the nature of the deteriorative process,
and then note the proposed mechanism. 7. List five measures that are commonly used to prevent corrosion. 8. Explain why ceramic materials are, in general, very resistant
to corrosion. 9. For polymeric materials discuss (a) two degradation processes that occur when they are exposed to liquid solvents, and (b) the causes and consequences
of molecular chain bond rupture
-17-Why Study the Thermal Properties of Materials?
Materials selection decisions for components that are exposed to elevated/subambient temperatures, temperature changes, and/or thermal gradients require the design engineer
to have an understanding of the thermal responses of materials, as well as access to the thermal properties of a wide variety of materials. For example, in the discussion on
materials that are used for the leadframe component of an integrated circuit package (Section 20.13), we noterestrictions that are imposed on the thermal characteristics of
the adhesive material that attaches the integrated circuit chip to the leadframe plate. This adhesive must be thermally conductive so as to facilitate the dissipation of heat
generated by the chip. In addition, its thermal expansion/contraction on heating/cooling must match that of the chip such that the integrity of the adhesive-chip bond is
maintained during thermal cycling.
LearningObjectives
1. Define heat capacity and specific heat. 2. Note the primary mechanism by which thermal energy is assimilated in solid materials. 3. Determine the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion given the length alteration that accompanies a specified temperature change. 4. Briefly explain the phenomenon of thermal expansion from an atomic
perspective using a potential energy-versus-interatomic separation plot. 5. Define thermal conductivity. 6. Note the two principal mechanisms of heat condition in solids, and
compare the relative magnitudes of these contributions for each of metals, ceramics, and polymeric materials.
-18-Why Study the Magnetic Properties of Materials?
An understanding of the mechanism that explains the permanent magnetic behavior of some materials may allow us to alter and in some cases tailor the magnetic properties. For
example, in Design Example 18.1 we note how the behavior of a ceramic magnetic material may be enhanced by changing its composition.
LearningObjectives
1. Determine the magnetization of some material given its magnetic susceptibility and the applied magnetic field strength. 2. From an electronic perspective note and briefly
explain the two sources of magnetic moments in materials. 3. Briefly explain the nature and source of (a) diamagnetism, (b) paramagnetism, and (c) ferromagnetism. 4. In
terms of crystal structure, explain the source of ferrimagnetism for cubic ferrites. 5. (a) Describe magnetic hysteresis; (b) explain why ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials experience magnetic hysteresis; and (c) explain why these materials may become permanent magnets. 6. Note the distinctive magnetic characteristics for both
soft and hard magnetic materials. 7. Describe the phenomenon of superconductivity.
-19-Why Study the Optical Properties of Materials?
 When materials are exposed to electromagnetic radiation, it is sometimes important to be able to predict and alter their responses. This is possible when we are familiar with their
optical properties, and understand the mechanisms responsible for their optical behaviors.
LearningObjectives
1. Compute the energy of a photon given its frequency and the value of Plancks constant. 2. Briefly describe electronic polarization that results from electromagnetic radiation-
atomic interactions. Cite two consequences of electronic polarization. 3. Briefly explain why metallic materials are opaque to visible light. 4. Define index of refraction. 5.
Describe the mechanism of photon absorption for (a) high-purity insulators and semiconductors, and (b) insulators and semiconductors that contain electrically active
defects. 6. For inherently transparent dielectric materials, note three sources of internal scattering that can lead to translucency and opacity. 7. Briefly describe the
construction and operation of ruby and semiconductor lasers.
-20-Why Study Materials Selection and Design Considerations?
Perhaps one of the most important tasks that an engineer may be called upon to perform is that of materials selection with regard to component design. Inappropriate or improper
decisions can be disastrous from both economic and safety perspectives. Therefore, it is essential that the engineering student become familiar with and versed in the
procedures and protocols that are normally employed in this process. This chapter discusses materials selection issues in several contexts and from various perspectives
LearningObjectives
1. Describe how the strength performance index for a solid cylindrical shaft is determined. 2. Describe the manner in which materials selection charts are employed in the
materials selection process. 3. Briefly describe the steps that are used to ascertain whether or not a particular metal alloy is suitable for use in an automobile valve spring. 4.
List and briefly explain six biocompatibility considerations relative to materials that are employed in artificial hip replacements. 5. Name the four components found in the
artificial hip replacement, and, for each, list its specific material requirements. 6. (a) Name the three components of the thermal protection system for the Space Shuttle
Orbiter. (b) Describe the composition, microstructure, and general properties of the ceramic tiles that are used on the Space Shuttle Orbiter. 7. Describe the components
and their functions for an integrated circuit leadframe. 8. (a) Name and briefly describe the three processes that are carried out during integrated circuit packaging. (b) Note
property requirements for each of these processes, and, in addition, cite at least two materials that are employed.
-21-Why Study Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering?
It is essential for the engineer to know about and understand economic issues simply because the company/institution for which he/she works must realize a profit from the
products it manufactures. Materials engineering decisions have economic consequences, with regard to both material and production costs. An awareness of environmental
and societal issues is important for the engineer inasmuch as over time, greater demands are being made on the worlds natural resources. Furthermore, levels of pollution
are ever increasing. Materials engineering decisions have impacts on the consumption of raw materials and energy, on the contamination of our water and atmosphere, and
on the ability of the consumer to recycle or dispose of spent products. The quality of life for this and future generations will depend, to some degree, on how these issues
are addressed by the global engineering community.
LearningObjective
1. List and briefly discuss three factors over which an engineer has control that affect the cost of a product. 2. Diagram the total materials cycle, and briefly discuss relevant
issues that pertain to each stage of this cycle. 3. List the two inputs and five outputs for the life cycle analysis/assessment scheme.- 4. Cite issues that are relevant to the
green design philosophy of product design. 5. Discuss recyclability/disposability issues relative to (a) metals, (b) glass, (c) plastics and rubber, and (d) composite
materials.
CHAPTER 17 THERMAL PROPERTIES
1. Define Thermal Property.
moment are those having low ratios. In terms of material
2.
3.
Define Heat Capacity and express it into Mathematical Term.
Differentiate Thermal Conduction and Thermal Conductivity. 2/3
f
4. Define Thermal Stress. suitability, it is sometimes preferable to work with what is termed a
5. Give at least 3 real life application of thermal property. performance index, P, which is just the reciprocal of this ratio; that is.

Answer Keys: 2/3

P
f
1. Thermal property is the response of a material to the application of heat.
2. Heat capacity is a property that is indicative of a materials ability to absorb
heat from the external surrounding s. In mathematical terms, it is
expressed as C=dQ/dT. 3. The die-bonding operation consists of attaching the IC chip to the central
3. Thermal conduction is the phenomenon by which heat is transported from supporting lead frame plate. It is the process of attaching a die/chip to a
high to low temperature regions of a substance while thermal conductivity substrate or package.
is the property that characterizes the ability of a material to transfer heat.
4. Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as a result of changes in 4. Ceramics are intrinsically thermal insulators and, furthermore, will withstand
temperature. these elevated temperatures. The tile design is utilized for the protection
5. (own opinion) system to conform to the contours of the Shuttles surface, and also to
accommodate the thermal dimensional changes accompanying the
CHAPTER 19 OPTICAL PROPERTIES extremes of temperature that are experienced during a typical mission.
1. What is electromagnetic radiation?
2. What is electron transition? 5. Acetabular cups are made from one of the biocompatible alloys or aluminium
oxide. More commonly, however, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
3. What is refraction?
is used. This material is virtually inert in the body environment and has
4. What is reflection?
excellent wear-resistance characteristics; furthermore, it has a very low
5. What is transmission? coefficient of friction
when in contact with the materials used for the ball component of the socket.
Answer Keys:
1. It is Electromagnetic radiation consists of variation of electric and Chapter 18 - Magnetic Properties
magnetic field. Light is electromagnetic radiation or photon. In classical Questions:
sense, electromagnetic radiation is consider to be wave like having 1. These phenomenon exist in magnetic materials, which, in some respects,
electric and magnetic field components are perpendicular to each other. are analogous to electric dipoles.
Both components are perpendicular to direction of propagation as in 2. This force is usually designated by the symbol H in magnetic properties.
pointing vector. What do you call this force?
2. The absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation may involve 3. Define Diamagnetism.
electron transition from one energy state to another when photon is 4. Define Paramagnetism.
absorbed by atom, the atoms gain energy of the photons and one of the 5. Define Superconductivity.
atoms electron may jump to higher energy level, the atom is excited.
When an electron of an excited atom fails to lower energy levels the Answer Keys:
atoms may emit excess energy in the form of photon. 1. Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials, which, in some
3. One of the most important optical properties of non-metallic materials is respects, are analogous to electric dipoles.
refraction. This refers to the bending of a light beam as it passes from one 2. The magnetic eld strength that is generated by the current loop and the
material into another. bar magnet in is an H eld.
4. Materials with a high index of refraction have a higher reflectivity than 3. Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent
materials with a low index because the index of refraction varies with the and persists only while an external eld is being applied. It is induced by a
wavelength of the photons, so does the reflectivity. In metals, the change in the orbital motion of electrons due to an applied magnetic eld.
reflectivity s typically on the order of 0.90-0.95, whereas for glasses it is The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment is extremely small, and
close to 0.05. The high reflectivity of metals is one reason that they are in a direction opposite to that of the applied eld.
opaque. High reflectivity is desired in many applications including mirrors, 4. Paramagnetism related to magnetize substance that has small but
coatings on glasses, etc. positive susceptibility which varies little with magnetizing force. These
5. Fraction of light beam that is not reflected or absorbed is transmitted magnetic dipoles are acted on individually with no mutual interaction
through the material between adjacent dipoles. Inasmuch as the dipoles align with the external
eld, they enhance it, giving rise to a relative permeability that is greater
.Chapter 20 Questions than unity, and to a relatively small but positive magnetic susceptibility.
1. Why engineering students need to study the Materials Selection and Design 5. Superconductivity is basically an electrical phenomenon; however, its
Considerations? discussion has been deferred to this point because there are magnetic
2. How to determine the strength performance index for a solid cylindrical shaft? implications relative to the superconducting state, and, in addition,
3. What is DIE BONDING? superconducting materials are used primarily in magnets capable of
4. Discuss the CERAMIC TILE SYSTEMS.
generating high elds
5. What is ACETABULAR CUP?
Answer key:

1. The most important tasks that an engineer may be called upon to perform is
that of materials selection with regard to component design. Inappropriate
or improper decisions can be disastrous from both economic and safety
perspectives.

2. The equation
m 2 NM t 2/3
L

2f / 3
is that the best materials

to be used for a light shaft which can safely sustain a specified twisting