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Ecological Engineering xxx (2012) xxxxxx

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Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Ecosystem services by paddy elds as substitutes of natural wetlands in Japan

Yosihiro Natuhara
Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 468-8601, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reviews research on the ecosystem services or multifunctionality of paddy rice cultivation in
Received 18 November 2011 Japan, focusing on biodiversity as a basis for ecosystem services, with the aim of describing the current sta-
Received in revised form 10 April 2012 tus and impact of the subject and exploring options for sustainable practices. Ecosystem services provided
Accepted 11 April 2012
by paddy elds include; groundwater recharge, production of non-rice foods, ood control, soil erosion
Available online xxx
and landslide prevention, climate-change mitigation, water purication, culture and landscape, and sup-
port of ecosystems and biodiversity. Among these services, the value of services that regulate ecosystem
Keywords:
functions was estimated to be US$ 72.8 billion in Japan. More than 5000 species have been recorded in
Biodiversity
Satoyama
paddy elds and the surrounding environment. Because paddy elds are articially disturbed by water
Socio-ecological production landscape level management, plowing, and harvest, most species move between paddy elds and the surround-
ing environment. The linkage between paddy elds and the associated environment plays an important
role in biodiversity. Two changes that have affected the ecosystem of paddy elds are modernization
and abandonment of farming. Satoyama, a traditional socio-ecological production landscape, which pro-
vided a functional linkage between paddy elds and the associated environment has lost its functions.
Biodiversity-conscious rice farming has been promoted by collaborations among farmers, consumers and
governments. Biodiversity certication programs are successful examples of biodiversity-conscious fram-
ing. In these programs incentives include direct payments and/or premium prices paid by consumers, as
well as farmers willingness to improve the safety of food and environment.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The area of paddy elds is 25,000 km2 (MAFF, 2011) or only 6.6%
of Japans land area. However, this is far more than the area of nat-
ural wetlands which is 820 km2 (Geospatial Information Authority
of Japan, 2000). Because mountains occupy 70% of Japan, paddy
elds account for much in Japans coastal plain. Almost 100% of
the rice is produced in irrigated paddy elds. Therefore, irrigation
ponds and canals are important elements of rice farming. Further-
more traditional rice farming needs woodlands and meadows as
source of materials, fuel and manure. The oldest paddy elds are in
the Nabana ruins (approximately 2600 years ago) in the foothills of
Kyushu province. The oldest irrigation pond was constructed more
than 1300 years ago.
Historically, paddy elds provided a lot of ecosystem services.
Edo, the old name of Tokyo did not have a sewage treatment sys-
tem until the population exceeded one million. The main reason for
this is that human wastes were used to fertilize rice paddies. Mer-
chants or farmers bought the human waste in Edo town (Tajima,
2007). Rice farming was a key component of resource recycling by
Tel.: +81 52 789 4887; fax: +81 52 789 4887.
E-mail address: natuhara@nagoya-u.jp
Japanese society. Paddy elds form the Satoyama landscape, a word
expressing an agricultural landscape in Japan, where paddy elds,
secondary forests, meadows, and irrigation ponds form a mosaic
landscape. Farmers also used shoots and fallen leaves as an amend-
ment for paddy eld soils. A woodland area about ten times bigger
than paddy elds was needed for rice production (Tokoro, 1980).
Paddy elds provide not only rice production for food, but also
diverse multiple functions (NRIAE, 1998; SCJ, 2001; Matsuno et al.,
2006; Yoon, 2009). The multiple functions of agriculture include
food security, maintaining and ensuring viability of rural commu-
nities and environmental protection, such as land conservation,
sustainable management of renewable natural resources, preserva-
tion of biodiversity, and an aesthetic landscape (OECD, 2001). In the
past, numerous studies have been conducted in Japan and other rice
producing countries to identify, estimate, and value the multiple
outputs from paddy rice cultivation (Matsuno et al., 2006). Paddy
elds have been performing some of the functions of natural wet-
lands. However three recent trends have changed these functions;
urbanization, modernization of rice production, and abandonment
of rice cultivation.
This article summarizes general characteristics of the ecosystem
services of paddy elds in Japan with some comparison to natu-
ral wetlands. Then I discuss changes in rice agriculture, how these
change have affected ecosystems and ecosystem services, and how

0925-8574/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.026

Please cite this article in press as: Natuhara, Y., Ecosystem services by paddy elds as substitutes of natural wetlands in Japan. Ecol. Eng. (2012),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.026
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responses to these changes with best management practices can
restore ecosystem functions.
Before getting onto the main subject, I summarize the character-
istics of paddy elds in Japan. A paddy eld is an articial wetland
and has the following characteristics. (1) mono culture: Oryza sativa
is planted and other plants are removed, (2) shallow and temporary
water, (3) plenty of light intensity on the water surface, (4) seasonal
dynamics, (5) articial disturbance (plowing, ooding, harvest), (6)
being a component of unique landscapes with neighboring land
use and ecosystems. Rice is cultivated once a year in most of Japan
(Fig. 1). Paddy elds are watered and plowed between late April
and Early June, one week before transplanting nursery rice plants.
The transplanting varies by region, and by variety of rice. Shallow
water is retained in paddy elds during the rice growing period
(early spring through late summer) but the water is drained for
710 days to dry the soil around early July to strengthen the roots
of rice plants, and this is called midsummer drainage. Fields are
usually reooded intermittently and then drained before harvest
(early autumn through winter), however some paddy elds with
poor drainage keep water during this time.
2. Ecosystem services of paddy eld
SCJ (2001) summarized the environmental functions of agri-
culture in Japan as (1) material ow control and (2) formation
of semi-natural habitat and landscape. The former includes ood
control, groundwater recharge, landslide prevention, erosion con-
trol, water purication, and climate mitigation. The economic value
of these services were estimated to 5825.8 billion Japanese yen
or US$ 72.8 billion (Table 1). The willingness to pay (WTP) for
the multifunctionality of agriculture was estimated to be 4144
yen/household/an according to a country-wide survey (Aizaki et al.,
2006). The WTP was 649 yen for ood prevention, 505 yen for
groundwater recharge, 642 yen for water environment conserva-
tion, 445 yen to prevent soil erosion, 579 yen for organic-resource
utilization, 394 yen for development of favorable landscapes, 290
yen for recreation and relaxation, and 641 yen for wildlife pro-
tection. The economic value of paddy elds was also estimated in
Korea using the contingent valuation method (CVM) and the travel
cost method, to be from US$ 9.75 to 11.46 billion (Seo, 2003).
2.1. Flood control
Paddy elds increase the water storage capacity of river basins,
lower the peak ow of rivers and functions as a buffer for down-
stream areas during heavy rain. The total ood-storage capacity of
paddies in Japan, estimated by multiplying levee height and paddy
eld area, is between 4.4 billion m3 and 5.2 billion m3 (NRIAE,
1998).
Urbanization and abandonment of paddy cultivation may have
negative impacts on runoff characteristics (Yoshikawa et al., 2010).
Maintaining levees at present height can retain this function in the
abandoned paddy. Ichikawa City pays the owners of lowland paddy
elds to conserve the elds for ood control. The Paddy Field Dam
project was tested in Niigata Prefecture (Yoshikawa et al., 2010).
Runoff from paddies was regulated by runoff-control devices when
the water ow from the paddy eld to the drainage device exceeded
the outow capacity of the paddy eld. The result of simulation
studies showed that the discharge in the main channel could be
decreased by 26% using runoff-control devices.
2.2. Groundwater recharge
The groundwater recharge function is affected by changes such
as groundwater pumpage, land use, topography and geology (Liu
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et al., 2004). All of the water supply for nearly one million people
in the Kumamoto region is groundwater. In this area, the geologi-
cal structure of the surface layer has a high permeability, because
the surface soil consists of alluvium on a pyroclastic ow deposit
(Tanaka et al., 2010). Most of the groundwater recharge was from
agricultural irrigation diverted from the river (Ichikawa, 2002).
The daily recharge rate was between 30 and 60 mm/day before
mid summer drainage in the paddy elds (Takemori and Ichikawa,
2008). However it increased to 169 mm/day after the mid-summer
drainage, because of crack formation (Tanaka et al., 2010). Despite
percentage of paddy-eld area is only 15% of the middle Shira River
Basin, the current recharge in the paddy eld in the basin was
1.5 108 m3 , calculated to be about one-half of the total discharge
in the Shira River reported for 2008.
Groundwater recharge is reduced by urbanization (Levine et al.,
2007; Matsuno et al., 2007; Huang et al., 2007) and abandonment of
paddy elds (Imaizumi et al., 2006; Tsuru et al., 2006). The recharge
reduction due to urbanization could be recovered by extending the
submerged period or winter ooding of paddies and expanding the
submerged paddy area to include fallow land (Tanaka et al., 2010).
2.3. Water quality
Farmlands often are the greatest contributor of non-point
source pollution of waters. However, paddy elds have the poten-
tial to purify water when incoming irrigation water contains high
concentrations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) (Tabuchi, 1998;
Shiratani et al., 2005; Maruyama et al., 2008). This purication
occurred when the inow nitrogen (N) concentration was 23 mg
N/L or greater (Tabuchi, 1998). Recycling irrigation is known to
effectively reduce the load of N in returned irrigation ows (Feng
et al., 2005; Takeda et al., 1997). Rice cultivation with reduced
agrochemicals can enhance water purication (Shibahara, 2010). A
reduction of N concentration is caused by its reuse for crop growth
and denitrication of nitrate/nitrite-N in the paddy elds and irri-
gation/drainage systems. The average value of water purication of
active and fallow paddy elds was estimated to be 1.2 103 JPY/m2
and the value of wetlands was estimated to be 2.81 103 JPY/m2
(Shiratani et al., 2006).
2.4. Local climate mitigation
The urban heat island effect (Oke, 1973) can be explained by
the type of surface material, e.g., asphalt, concrete, brick, gravel,
grass; commercial-industrial areas having the warmest surfaces.
The cooling effect of vegetation and water surfaces is also well
known (Oke, 1987). The solar energy absorbed near the ground
evaporates water from the vegetation and soil. Paddy elds in urban
fringe areas contribute to the cooling effect on hot summer days by
more than 2 C compared with urban air temperatures in Tokyo
(Yokohari et al., 1997). This cooling effect is proportional to the
area of paddy elds.
2.5. Fish culture and other non-rice products
The number of countries practicing sh culture in paddy elds
is at least 24 (Coche, 1967). Fish are important food source in Asia
(Halwart and Gupta, 2004; Lu and Li, 2006). In Japan, sh culture in
paddy elds started 2000 years ago (Ikuta and Yamaguchi, 2005).
Commonly used species such as carp (Cyprinus carpio), crucian carp
(Carassius auratus), cat sh (Silurus asotus) and weather roach (Mis-
gurnus anguillicaudatus) often migrated to paddy elds to spawn
throughout the system of drainage ditches before those systems
were modernized. Annual sh yields from paddy elds amounted
to 1800 kg/ha in Japan (Kuronuma, 1954). Fish culture for food
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Fig. 1. Landscape of paddy elds and movement of species.

decreased in most of Japan, except in some inland areas such as
Nagano Prefecture (Iguchi et al., 2009). However sh culture is
being reconsidered. It is reported that rice yields in the rice-sh
plots were 20% higher than in rice-only plots that received N fertil-
izer. Waste excretion from the sh improved the nutrient supply
to the rice crop (Tsuruta et al., 2011). There are many case stud-
ies that have shown the positive effects of rice-sh system on rice
yield (summarized by Matsui, 1948; Halwart & Gupta, 2004), but
the mechanism is still unclear (Vromant & Chau, 2005).
Asian people have used many products of paddy elds rice in
addition to rice in many regions (DeFoliart, 1999; Somnasang and
Moreno-Black, 2000; Natuhara et al., 2011) including insect pests
(Matsuura, 1999) and weeds (Mineta, 2008), although such food
culture has disappeared now. Some species of wild plants that live
on paddy levees were used for medicine or for festivals (Baba et al.,
2003).
2.6. Culture and landscape
Traditional agricultural management practices created and
maintained specic ecosystems (Moonen and Marshall, 2001).
Paddy elds cultivated the culture and landscapes of Japan (Iiyama
et al., 2005). Farmers are proud of keeping paddy elds in good
condition as during their parents era. This is one of the reason why
part-time farmers continue to grow rice in spite of the fact that
average income from rice production is a faction of average per
capita income. An often discussed topic is that if the rice paddies
go, the beautiful traditional Japanese landscape and the traditional
Japanese sense of community will disappear. A survey of The Top
100 Japanese Rural Landscapes was conducted by Asahi Shim-
bun Newspaper Company in 2008. A total of 3024 nominated sites
were classied into six types. Text-mining analysis revealed that
paddy eld type where the average paddy eld area is 60% was
signicantly associated with peoples perception of Furusato, or
home town (Iwata et al., 2011). Terrace paddies, in particular,
attracts people. A modern art exhibit is held in the terrace paddy
of Echigo-tsumari, and draws 37,000 visitors to a town of 70,000
people.
2.7. Biodiversity
Biodiversity provides ecosystem services. Although water lev-
els are articially controlled, rice paddies play an important role
as wetland habitat for plants (Yamaguchi and Umemoto, 1996;
Sekioka et al., 2000), water birds (Fasola and Ruiz, 1996; Lane
and Fujioka, 1998; Elphick and Oring, 2003; Fujioka et al., 2010;
Pierluissi, 2010), frogs (Fujioka and Lane, 1997; Natuhara and
Kanbara, 2001; Osawa and Katsuno, 2001) and sh (Katano et al.,
2003; Amilhat and Lorenzen, 2005). More than 5000 species have
been recorded in and around paddy elds in Japan (Kiritani, 2010).
The ecosystem of paddy eld can be described as having two
major characteristics: landscape and temporal change. Paddy elds
are a part of a Satoyama landscape. This landscape is a mosaic of
fallow elds, grasslands, woodlands, ponds and irrigation ditches
(Fig. 2) (Tabata, 1997; Washitani, 2001; Kobori and Primack, 2003)
that maintains a high species diversity (Natuhara et al., 1999; Katoh
et al., 2009). For example, the Japanese brown frog (Rana japonica)
lives in woodland oors and lay eggs in paddy elds. The grey-faced
buzzard (Butastur indicus) prey on frogs in paddy elds and make
their nests in woodlots. Shallow water is retained during the grow-
ing period of rice plants with midsummer drainage, while elds
are usually drained before harvest, creating habitats for different
organisms at different times (Maeda, 2001; Czech and Parsons,
2002).
More than 30% (135 species) of 430 native avian species use
paddy elds in Korea and Japan, and 24% (32 species) of 135 species

Table 1
Value of functions in farmland in Japan.

Function Basis of estimate Estimate value

Flood control Construction cost of dam (storage 4.4 billion m3 ) US$ 43,735 million
Ground water recharge Construction cost of dam (recharge 3.6 billion m3 ) US$ 18,962 million
Soil erosion prevention Prevent 53 million ton of soil runoff US$ 4147 million
Landslide prevention Damage cost if paddy were abandoned US$ 5977 million
Organic waste treatment Construction cost of disposal site US$ 154 million
Local climate mitigation Electric rate to cool down US$ 108 million
Recreation Travel cost method US$ 29,697 million

Science Council of Japan. Convert 1US $ = 80 Japanese yen.

Please cite this article in press as: Natuhara, Y., Ecosystem services by paddy elds as substitutes of natural wetlands in Japan. Ecol. Eng. (2012),
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biomass than irrigation ditches. The connection between ditches

Fig. 2. Water management of paddy eld and life cycle of species. Timing of ooding
and drainage affects survival of aquatic species. O. albistylum is a multivoltine.
that use paddy elds are designated as threatened at the global
or national scale (Fujioka et al., 2010). Because water depth and
vegetation height change in paddy elds, birds use of paddy elds
changes seasonally. The grey-headed lapwing (Vanellus cinereus)
and skylark (Alauda arvensis) make nests in dry paddy elds before
ooding or on the levees, and Ardea spp. prey on aquatic animals
and insects after ooding when the height of rice plants is low.
These birds move to fallow paddies and ditches when rice plants
grow higher (Fujioka et al., 2001).
Among 16 species/subspecies of domestic amphibians in Hon-
shu, Shikoku and Kyushu islands of Japan, 12 species/subspecies
use paddy elds for reproduction. One species, the bull frog (Rana
catesbeiana) is categorized a regulated living organism under the
Invasive Alien Species Act. Bufo japonicus, Rana japonica, R. orna-
tiventris lay eggs between February and March in wet paddies and
tadpoles metamorphose into frogs around rice-planting period.
These species suffer from winter desiccation, because of modern
improvements in drainage systems for paddy elds. Other species
lay eggs when paddies are ooded just before rice-planting. These
species are vulnerable to changes in water management during
the growing season. Habitat of frogs varies among species. Green-
tree frogs (Rhacophorus spp.), Japanese brown frog (Rana japonica),
mountain brown frog (R. ornativentris) live in forests, black-spotted
pond frog (R. nigromaculata) lives in levees and grasslands, and
Nagoya-daruma pond frog (R. porosa brevipoda) stay in paddy elds.
Several urodeles (salamanders) including the clouded salamander
(Hynobius nebulosus) lay eggs in irrigation ditches (Natuhara et al.,
2002). Japanese re-bellied newt (Cynops pyrrhogaster) catch their
prey in mountain rice elds (Yusa et al., 2006).
One hundred six sh species have been recorded in Japans
irrigation ditches (Nakamura, 2007a; MOE, 2008). Nine species
including the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) are alien
species. Eighteen species including one alien species, the pond
loach (Paramisgurnus dabryanus) were recorded in paddy elds
(Katano, 1998; Nakamura, 2007b). They can be classied accord-
ing to their wandering habit (Hata, 2002). Catsh (Silurus asotus),
crucian carps (Carassius spp.), carp (Cyprinus carpio), medaka
sh (Oryzias latipes), weather roach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus),
Sujishima-dojo roach (Cobitis spp), and Ayumodoki (Leptobotia
curta) lay eggs in the paddy elds (Katano, 1998). These sh origi-
nally spawned in the ood plains during the rainy season.
Fish species richness and diversity in ditches were high when
shes were able to easily migrate upstream into the paddy elds.
Natural stream beds not covered by concrete had a greater total sh
and paddy elds was of secondary importance to the bed material
(Katano et al., 2003).
Some insects in paddy elds are serious pests of rice, and
humans have struggled against these insects. However a com-
plete picture of insect fauna in the paddy elds was only recently
grasped. Emerging pesticide resistance and water pollution con-
cerns have prompted research on use of natural pest enemies.
Kobayashi et al. (1973) reported that only 41 insect species were
rice pests, and 83 were natural enemies of rice pests, out of
about 450 species collected from four paddy elds in southwest-
ern Japan. Although most of the other species are not a concern,
these insects are important as polyphagous predator food (Kiritani,
2000). Polyphagous predators (e.g. spiders) often play a role to
decrease population of pests (Kiritani and Kakiya, 1975; Tanaka,
2004). However the predators do not always decrease these prey
due to indirect effects among species (e.g. Bence, 1988).
Insect that breeds in shallow water depend strongly on paddy
elds. Flooded rice paddies are often very rich in algae, plankton
and other food for the aquatic insects (Roger et al., 1991). However
few insects stay in a paddy eld for their lifetime, partly because the
paddy eld drained in summer. Some species escape to ditch con-
tact with the paddy eld, and others migrate to permanent water
such as irrigation ponds (Mukai et al., 2005). Thus landscape-scale
conditions are important for aquatic insects in paddy elds.
3. Modern changes and their impact
3.1. Outline of situation surrounding rice farming in Japan
After World War II, Japan needed to increase food production as
well as move toward an industrial society. Increases in farmland by
reclamation of wetlands, farmland consolidation, introduction of
farm machines, use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers increased
food production. The total area of paddy elds increased from
28,496 km2 (1947) to 30,482 km2 (1970). The second largest lake
in Japan, Hachirogata lagoon (220 km2 ) was drained and con-
verted to paddy elds. The percentage of paddy elds consolidated
increased from 2% in 1964 to 60% by 2006 (MAFF, 2008a). The
paddy eld consolidation combined smaller into larger paddy elds
with improving drainage and farm roads. These changes had some
negative impacts on Japans agricultural ecosystems. At the same
time urban sprawl swallowed suburban farmlands deteriorating
ecosystem services for urban dwellers.
However, since 1970s, the consumption of rice has decreased
due to the change in food culture. The policy of trimming rice pro-
duction by reducing the rice-growing area, beginning in 1970, is
a supply-restriction cartel arrangement that aims to keep surplus
rice off the market to prevent prices from falling. Forty percent of
the nations rice paddies are currently subject to area reduction
(Nakawatari, 2009). Depopulation and aging mainly in mountain-
ous areas have also been responsible for abandoning 3860 km2
or 5.8% of the Nations farmland (MAFF, 2008b). Farmland aban-
donment ratio is 13% in mountainous areas (MAFF, 2009). The
population aging ratio (aged 65 or more) is 39.5% in farmers liv-
ing in mountainous areas, and this value is twice greater than that
of overall Japan (MAFF, 2009).
3.2. Land consolidation and modernization of irrigation system
Traditional paddy elds were subdivided into small plots and
had relatively large levee areas. Small irrigation ponds were dug
in some areas where precipitation was low. Levees provided semi-
natural strips of grassland, while ponds were home to many aquatic

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Fig. 3. Land consolidation and drainage improvement. Conversion to elds equipped with deeper ditches for rapid draining has almost eliminated wet winter paddy elds.
The gap between paddy and drainage ditch prevents sh from migrating to the paddy.
animals and plants. But these traditional paddies required sig-
nicant labor, and it is hard to nd paddy elds today without
improvements that increase paddy size to allow large tractors, rice
planting machines, combine harvesters, and engineered subsurface
drainage control systems in each eld. Naturally-drained muddy
paddies are impractical for large scale agricultural production,
therefore, traditional smaller elds are disappearing. Mechaniza-
tion and land improvement projects resulted in: (1) expansion of
paddy eld plots eliminating semi-natural grass-strip habitats; (2)
underground drains laid in the paddies and the combination of irri-
gation and drainage can quickly convert wet paddy elds to dry
paddy elds (Fig. 3); (3) frequent ooding and draining for manag-
ing rice growth has made difcult for wetland species to live; and
(4) deeper ditches and/or culvert made it possible for paddy elds
to drain rapidly and separate ditches from paddies.
Coincident with paddy-plot expansion, the number of irriga-
tion ponds decreased from 300,000 in 1950s to 210,000 in 1997
(Morita and Arai, 2003). Irrigation water is typically introduced
by long canals or pipelines from big reservoirs reducing the use
of small. Scarce labor makes it difcult to dredge mud from
the bottom of ponds. The introduction of alien species depopu-
lates fauna and ora of the ponds. For example, Maezono and
Miyashita (2003) reported that the numbers of sh, crustaceans,
and nymphal odonates were smaller in ponds where the large-
mouth bass Micropterus salmoides or bluegill Lepomis macrochirus
were found and some native species were considered to be locally
extinct in several ponds.
3.3. Agrichemicals
The toxic effects of pesticides and herbicides on non-target
species in paddy-elds has reduced the biodiversity of Japans
agroecosystems (Hamasaki, 2007). Insecticide susceptibilities of
insects and spiders varies among species, and some pesticides are
toxic to predators (Tanaka et al., 2000). Carnivorous and univol-
tine species such as the giant water bug (Lethocerus deyrollei) and
the red dragony (Sympetrum frequens) are vulnerable to the use of
insecticides in paddy elds. The giant water bug is endangered in
Japan. Some insecticides and desiccation of paddy elds were sus-
pected to be the causes (Miyashita, 1992; Ichikawa, 1993; Mukai
et al., 2005). The red dragony is also decreasing and insecticide
application on rice nursery is suspected as the cause (Jinguji et al.,
2009).
3.4. Invasive species
Rice is an introduced species. Many wetland plants might be
introduced with rice. Impacts of these species on the Japans
wetland ecosystem is unclear. However recent globalization is
accelerating introduction of invasive species. The Invasive Alien
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5
Act of Japan regulates several invasive species, among which 14
species inhabit or visit paddy elds and irrigation systems. The bull
frog, topminnow (Gambusia afnis), largemouth bass, and Bluegil
(Gambusia afnis) drive native species away from irrigation sys-
tems (Maezono and Miyashita, 2003; Yoshimura and Okochi, 2010).
Azolla cristata extends some paddy elds and competes with native
aquatic plants.
Although not listed above, the apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)
affected negative impact on the paddy ecosystem in Japan. This
species was introduced to Japan in 1981 for food (Yusa et al., 2006).
After that, it was brought to paddy elds for weed control. However
this snail is harmful for aquatic plants, other snail species and rice.
3.5. Impact on taxonomic groups
Some bird species populations have decreased due to both
modernization and abandonment of paddy elds. Paddy elds have
declined in value as foraging habitat for Ardeidae, especially for the
Intermediate Egret (Egretta intermedia) with the decline in aquatic
prey animals (Lane and Fujioka, 1998). The Grey-faced Buzzard
nests in woodland trees near to paddy elds, and take frogs and
other small animals in and around the paddy elds. The decline of
Grey-faced Buzzards breeding in the Tokyo region probably was
caused by habitat loss following the abandonment and consoli-
dation of traditional paddy elds (Ueta et al., 2006; Fujioka et al.,
2010).
Frogs are strongly affected by desiccation of paddy elds due
to farm land drainage improvement (Fujioka and Lane, 1997). The
Nagoya-daruma pond frog is on the red list of endangered species
in Japan. This species cannot overwinter in dry paddies, and cannot
survive to sub-adult stage because of mid-summer drainage in well
drained paddies. The population density of the Tokyo daruma frog
(R. porosa) was low in levees adjacent to concrete canals compared
to soil levees (Osawa et al., 2005). Conversion of small traditional
paddies to well-drained large paddy elds has a negative impact on
the habitat of the Japanese brown frog (Azuma and Takeuchi, 1999).
Isolation of paddy elds due to urbanization may cause local extinc-
tion of the Japanese brown frog (Natuhara and Kanbara, 2001). Loss
of natural refuges by bank compaction would diminish the popu-
lations of Japanese tree frogs (Hyla japonica) in paddy elds (Hirai,
2006).
Almost of all sh found in paddy elds and associated ditches are
affected by modernization of irrigation systems. Major factors that
affect abundance and diversity of sh are shown in Fig. 4. Obsta-
cles that diminish diversity and abundance of sh are: (1) blocking
of migration routes; (2) concrete channel lining; and (3) straight-
ened waterways (Hata, 2002). In particular, the loss of connectivity
between waterways and paddies, the seasonal loss of water within
waterways, and simplication of waterways for the sole purpose
of conveyance have had a heavy, negative effect on the abundance
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6 Y. Natuhara / Ecological Engineering xxx (2012) xxxxxx
Fig. 4. Impacts of changes in paddy eld on sh. (Modied from Katano, 2000).
and diversity of sh populations (Katano et al., 2003; Koizumi et al.,
2005; Fujimoto et al., 2008; Onikura et al., 2009; Katayama et al.,
2011). Abandonment of rice cultivation also negatively affects sh.
The population of the medaka sh around paddy elds drasti-
cally decreased after the abandonment of cultivation (Kitano et al.,
2003).
Factors affecting insect fauna were summarized by Tanaka
(2004): (1) Plowing reduces populations of spiders and ground
beetles; (2) Application of fertilizer affects aquatic insects through
change in water quality; (3) Weeding affects spiders and insects
living on weeds, (4) Space of rice plants affects oviposition of drag-
onies; (5) Insecticide application directly affects the population
of insects; (6) Water management, especially duration of ooding
affects the survival of aquatic insects.
4. Response to restore agroecosystem functions
4.1. Agricultural policy
People and governments have been eager to enlarge farmland
since the 8th century or before. The Privatization of Reclaimed
Lands Perpetuity Act was proclaimed in 743 A.D. to promote
reclamation and development of new farmlands. However the
environmental impact of reclamation was also realized early in
Japan. Then, the Rule of Mountain and River was issued in 1666 by
the Edo shogunate. This rule required planting woodlots between
a river and farmland when farmers developed a new farmland, and
prohibited expansion of new swiddens into old growth forests.
Please cite this article in press as: Natuhara, Y., Ecosystem services by paddy elds as substitutes of natural wetlands in Japan. Ecol. Eng. (2012),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.026
Farmland consolidation was promoted by the Land Improve-
ment Act (1949). The Agricultural Basic Act (1961) enhanced the
economic status of farmers. However the income gap between
farmers and company employees had increased. Agriculture policy
was changed in 1980s to respond to globalization and environmen-
tal issues. In 1999, the Agricultural Basic Act was abolished, and The
Basic Law on Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas was enacted to: (1)
secure a stable food supply; (2) fullling the multi-functional role
of agriculture; (3) develop sustainable agricultural; (4) develop the
economy of rural areas.
The biodiversity strategy of the MAFF was established in 2007.
Basic principles of this strategy are: (1) implementation of poli-
cies that consider the importance of preserving biodiversity; (2)
enhancing peoples understanding of agriculture, forestry and sh-
eries and of biodiversity; (3) encouraging preservation efforts by
various organizations in their own ways; and (4) contributing to
global environmental conservation through agriculture, forestry
and sheries activities.
The Revised Land Improvement Act (2001) required consider-
ation of environmental impacts when land improvement projects
are implemented, and a guide book was published. This guidebook
consists of three volumes, Vol. 1 General statement; Research and
planning; Vol. 2 Irrigation pond; and Vol. 3 Farmland consolidation.
The Ecosystem Conservation Society Japan (2003) recommends
biodiversity-conscious farming be encouraged through national
policies promulgated by MAFF, and lists necessary steps which
include identifying target species, effective methods for restor-
ing their habitat, and building consensus for balancing biodiversity
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Y. Natuhara / Ecological Engineering xxx (2012) xxxxxx 7

with the need for rice production. It gives examples of target species
including two mammals, 25 birds, one reptile, 25 sh, 11 insects,
four crustacean, and six snails based on scarcity, umbrella species,
indicator species, and icon species. These species were selected
because they depend on paddy elds and wetlands, are in danger
of extinction, and/or are top predators.

4.2. Ecological engineering for paddy elds

Ecological engineering for paddy elds targets improvements of

paddy elds without damaging the ecosystem, and creates village
communities in good harmony with nature. It is closely associ-
ated with the above agriculture policy and includes three elements;
(1) technology to restore habitats, (2) farm management with low
impacts on biodiversity and the environment, and (3) participation
and social capital formation.
Technology for restoring habitats includes restoring connec-
tivity between rivers and paddy elds, making variations and
providing refuge in irrigation canals, restoring semi-natural habi-
tats such as vegetation on levees. Various types of habitat devices,
such as shways and sh-nest blocks, have been installed in many
drainage canals. Also, fundamental information about the distribu-
tion and habitat properties of sh has been gradually accumulated
for rural areas of Japan (Koizumi et al., 2008). The number of local
communities and groups that take part in the Survey on Lives in
Paddy Fields and Surrounding Environment increased from 118 in
2001 to 616 in 2009.
Fish ladders are used to connect drainage ditches and paddy
elds (Katano, 1998). A sh ladder makes small drops so that sh
are able to run through wood or polyethylene half-pipe and detach-
able plates (Ogino and Ota, 2007; Suzuki, 2007; Tanaka et al., 2009).
Another type of sh ladder is installed by putting several weirs Fig. 5. Two types of sh ladders, (a) connection by a half pipe and (b) rising water
successively in a drainage ditch to raise water levels (Fig. 5). by weirs.

Straight and concrete lined ditches are modied to have more

porous and rough surfaces to provide for aquatic species habitats vulnerable to modernized farming. Some good practices are
(Takahashi, 2007). Fish nest blocks, gabions, and log mattresses are selected and introduced by Ministry of Environment (MOE, 2009).
used to make habitats and refuges. Maintaining an earth bottom in The conditions for biodiversity certication is listed in Table 2.
drainage ditches is a high priority to enrich the biodiversity (Matsui It is common to reduce agrichemical use, an option that is effec-
and Sato, 2006). tive for improving biodiversity. The appeal of symbolic species and
A catchment ditch is a traditional engineering feature to slow their use in these programs can determine the difference between
the inow water (Fig. 6). This feature is not necessary for paddy
elds with modern irrigation systems. However, because catch-
ment ditches are lled with water during midsummer drainage, it
is recommended that catchment ditches be installed as a refuge
for aquatic species. Fallow paddies are lled with water as feed-
ing sites for egrets and other birds. Flooded open fallow elds can
serve as valuable supplemental habitats for water birds during the
summer (Fujioka et al., 2001; Maeda, 2001). Winter ooding and
temporal extension of ooding are also carried out with the aim
of increasing roosts for migrating birds and creating breeding sites
for frogs (Fujioka et al., 2010; Naito and Ikeda, 2007).

4.3. Biodiversity certication

Food safety and low environmental impact are priority themes

as well as activation of village communities. The trend to often
use biodiversity as a target for these tasks is reasonable because
reduction of pesticides has increased inland sh and birds species
such as the Eastern Great Egret (Ardea modesta) and Grey Heron
(A. cinerea) that feed on these sh (Iseki et al., 2002; Fujioka
et al., 2010). Establishing a biodiversity certication or labeling
is an approach to promote to safety- and biodiversity-conscious
farming through charismatic and culturally iconic species. These Fig. 6. This irrigation and drainage ditch is designed for living things. Fish and
species include birds, sh, plants, and aquatic insects, all commonly tadpoles can survive in non-irrigation season.

Please cite this article in press as: Natuhara, Y., Ecosystem services by paddy elds as substitutes of natural wetlands in Japan. Ecol. Eng. (2012),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.026
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8 Y. Natuhara / Ecological Engineering xxx (2012) xxxxxx
Table 2
Good practices of biodiversity conscious farming in Japan.
Site Fukuoka Osaki
Target/icon Goose and other birds
Winter ooding E O*
Delay of summer drainage
Fish ladder
Monitoring species E O
Agrichemicals Reduce No use
Direct payment Yes Yes
E: essential; O: optional; : not required.
*
At least one method is required.
success and failure. The crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) and oriental
stork (Ciconia boyciana) were extinct in the wild and reintroduc-
tion projects successfully combined biodiversity with rice farming.
Both species are important in Japanese literature and traditional
culture. The Nigoro-buna carp (Carassius auratus grandoculis) used
to be caught in ooded paddy elds in Shiga prefecture, and was
used to make Funa-zushi, a traditional fermented food. Older peo-
ple remember it and can therefore be encouraged to support these
new programs.
One unique idea is to make farmers select symbolic species
themselves in Takashima city. Farmers are required to declare three
species they are most proud to nd living in their paddies as a con-
dition for certication. Farmers may declare common species, but
they have to know the species is living in their paddies. Some cer-
tications require a simple survey by farmers to identify species in
their paddy elds. Fukuoka prefecture emphasized monitoring bio-
diversity in paddies. Farmers who produce certied rice are paid by
local governments or others, and can sell the rice at a higher price
than rice produced by conventional farming.
Enhancement of the cooperation between farmers and con-
sumers has been responsible for success of these programs,
including the adoption of temporary ownership in some cases.
For example, a temporary owner may pay 30,000 for a paddy
(100 m2 ). The temporary owner is invited to work on the farm,
observe nature, and get at least 30 kg of rice harvested from the
paddy.
In Osaki city, winter ooding is promoted for wintering birds.
Kabukuri-numa is a marsh located in Miyagi prefecture, north
eastern Honshu, Japan. Kabukuri-numa is visited by 60% of the
white-fronted geese migrating to Japan in the winter. The wet-
lands were drained during the last 100 years in Miyagi Prefecture
(Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 2000). Kabukuri-numa
was partially changed to paddy elds and 100 ha of the wetland
remains. Miyagi Prefecture planned to dredge the remaining marsh
for ood control. Scientists and other people demanded that an
emphasis be placed on restoration of biodiversity. As a result, 50 ha
of paddy elds next to the marsh were restored to a wetland that
is always lled with water. The number of white-fronted geese has
increased from 32,000 to 40,000 since establishment of the wetland
(Iwabuchi, 2006). Furthermore, winter-ooding of the surrounding
paddy elds has increased the carrying capacity of the geese. Flood-
ing paddy elds in winter is known as fuyu-mizu-tambo and it is
practiced in this district and accompanied with planting seedlings
in smaller bunches compared to conventional methods to help
grow disease resistant plants. The winter-ooding paddy eld has
proven to have other advantages as well. For example, waterfowl
foraging activity increased residual surface straw decomposition
(Bird et al., 2000), and droppings of birds enrich the soil (Yamamoto
et al., 2003), and increased tubicid worm populations inhibit
weed growth (Kurihara and Kikuchi, 1988). This enables farmers
to produce rice without using agricultural pesticides and chemi-
cal fertilizers. Although fuyu-nizu-tambo in this district without
Please cite this article in press as: Natuhara, Y., Ecosystem services by paddy elds as substitutes of natural wetlands in Japan. Ecol. Eng. (2012),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.026
Sado Shiga Takashima Toyooka
Crested ibis Nigorobuna carp Any three species Oriental stork
O O
O E E
O E O O
50% use 50% use is recommended No use or reduce No use/25% use
Yes Yes No +
agrichemicals has advantages, rice yields have been reduced par-
tially because of planting in smaller bunches of seedlings (MOE,
2009). Farmers are offered a grant of 8000 yen or more per 10a of
paddy elds that use no agrichemicals and are ooded during the
winter. The rice produced in such paddy elds is certied to sell at
prices 60% higher than rice produced by a conventional method.
In Sado city, farmers make feeding sites in paddy elds for the
crested ibis. The crested ibis was distributed across a broad range
in Japan until the 19th century. Overhunting of this species for
their beautiful feathers and following habitat destruction drove this
species to near extinction (Yanai, 2006). Sado island is one of the
locations where crested ibis has survived. The Ministry of Envi-
ronment planned to reintroduce this species to Sado after captive
breeding. However rice elds in Sado had changed so that they
could not support the crested ibis survival, because paddy elds
were drained in the winter and ditches were paved with concrete.
At the same time, rice farming became inactive, and abandoned
paddy elds increased. In 2008, Sado city started the program called
Creating Villages Coexisting with Crested Ibis to certify rice that is
produced by biodiversity-friendly farming. This certication pro-
gram requires farmers to: (1) reduce the use of agrichemicals to
less than 50% of conventional farming methods; (2) adopt cultiva-
tion techniques that foster biodiversity, including winter-ooding
of paddy elds, installation of channels and shways, and ooding
fallows as habitats; and (3) acquire some other criteria according to
the Law for Promoting the Introduction of Sustainable Agricultural
Production Practices.
5. Conclusion
Paddy elds took over part of the functions of natural wet-
lands, and have been providing Japan with ecosystem services.
A mosaic landscape that includes small-scale paddy elds has
maintained semi-natural habitats. Paddy elds are the basis of
Japanese culture, and people have considered them as a blessing
of nature inherited from their ancestors. Although modernization
of rice farming has improved farmers labor, some functions of the
ecosystem in paddy elds have deteriorated. Ecological engineer-
ing methods and improved management can promote ecosystem
functions in paddy elds, though the practices are not yet suf-
cient to show wide improvements. There are promising success
stories. The importance of social capital in rural communities is
being recognized in these efforts. However, international situations
surrounding agriculture are increasing the pressure for large-scale
agriculture. Even after a limited scale expansion of agriculture,
Japanese rice is at a heavy disadvantage in price competition.
Sustainability of agriculture relies on recognition of its multifunc-
tionality. Although the recognition of multiple roles of paddy elds
is being accepted in Japan, our knowledge is not enough to fully
evaluate and enhance ecosystem services of paddy elds. Exist-
ing conservation efforts need to be expanded and combined with
research to learn more of how conservation efforts can promote
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ecosystem functions of paddy elds, in harmony with the economic
demands of people and their need for a stable food supply.
Acknowledgements
I should appreciate Drs. Chris Tanner and Clive Howard-
Williams for their inviting me to the Symposium. This work was
supported by the Global Environment Research Fund (F-094) of the
Ministry of the Environment, Japan.
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