ME TAP HYS I C S AN D L O GI C

SI R WI L L I A M H A M I L T O N, BA RT .

P RO F ES S O R O F LOGI C A ND A PH Y I
M ET UN R I YS DINB U GH ;
C S IN T H E IV E S T O F E R

AD VO CAT E A M ( 01mm) E T C m M M
c o n n rz s po x n c ANE HN A BE R o r T H E IN S T IT U T E or FR C E ; O O R RY
MM AM A A AD M A
.
,
.
,

E BE R or T H E E RI C N C E Y 0 1? RT S A N D S C IE N C E S ; A N D or T H E

T IN S O C IE T Y or JE N A , E T C .

E DI T E D B Y

T HE RE V H EN RY L MAN S EL B D
.
, . .
, O XFORD ,

JOH N V E IT C H I L A , , E DINBU RGH .

I N T WO V O L U M E S .

VOL . II .

L O G I C .

BO S T O N
G O U L D A N D L I N C O L N ,

59 WA H N G TON S TR
S I E E T .

N E W YO RK : S H E L D O N A N D C O M P A N Y .

C I NC I NNATI GE OR GE : S . B LANC HARD .

1 8 6 0 .
O N E AR HT , T H E R E I S NO HIN G G
T RE A T B U T M A N ;

I N M A N , T H E R E I S N O H ING G
T RE A T B U T M IND .
 L E C T U RE S

L O G I C

SI R WI LLI AM H AMILT O N ,
BA RT .

P R OF ESS OR O LOGI
F C A N D M APH YS I
ET C S IN T H E UNI V E RS IT Y OF E D I B URGH
N .

E DI E D r
T BY . T H E

REV HE NRY L MAN S E L B D LL D

. .
, . .
,
. .
,

WA Y N F L E T E R P R M RA L M A H A L H L H
O FE S S O O F O AN D E T P Y SIC P I O SO P Y , O XF O R D ,

A N D

JOH N V EIT C H M A , . .
,

P RO F E S S O R O F LO G I C , RH E T O R C S , ST . AN D RE WS .

BO S T O N
G O U L D A N D L I N C O L N ,

59 WA S H I NG TON S TRE E T .

N E W YO RK : S H E L D O N A N D C O M P A N Y .

C I N C I N NATI GE ORGE : S . B LANC HARD .

1 8 6 0 .
 A U T H O R I Z A T I O N .

M E S S RS . GOULD L IN C O L N O F BO S T O N U NI T E D S T A T E S A R E E X C LU S I V E L Y A U T H O R
A N D , , ,

I Z E D B Y M E T O P U B L I S H I N A M E RI C A T H E L E C T U R E S M E T A PH YS I C A L A N D L O GI C A L , ,

O F T H E L A T E S I R W I LL I A M HA M I L T O N BA R T , .

d
a H U BE R T H AM I L T O N
G A S
.

16 RE T KIN G T RE E T ,

E DN I B U RG H , 14 S E PT .
, 1858 .

AND O V E R :

E L E C T R O T Y P E D A N D P R I N T E D
B Y W . F . D AR P E R
 P R E F A C E .

d mpr ise V olu me for m

dd d
T H E L ec tur es co in th e pr es en t

i
d
th e se con an cor cl u in g p or tion of th e Bien n ia l

m
d
C o ur se on M t
e a h
p y s ics an Lo g ic , w hich w a s co

d d
men ce b y S ir il l ia m H T
a mil t on on h is el e c t ion to

P
d
the f
r o es s or ia l C h a ir in 1 8 3 6 ,
an re
p ea e t , w it h b u t

al t er a t ion s t ill
d d
sli
gh t , h is e ce a se in 1 85 6 . T he A p

d
m for the mo s t

d
p e n ix con t a in s v a r io u s p p a er s , o
c p ose
.
.
t u r in th is e r io w h ich , t h ou gh tion s of
p ar
g p , p or

d
t h eir con t en t s w er e pub licly t a u gh t at le a s t as ea r l
y
as 1 8 4 0, w er e on l
y t o a v er
y s ma ll ex t en t in cor por a t e

in t o th e t ex t of th e L ec tur es .

dd
T he L ec tur es on Lo g ic , lik e th o s e on M e a ph y s ics ,
t

dd
mpo s e
d d
w er e ch ie ur in t h s e ss ion in w hich t hey
y co
g e

d
w er e r s t ( )
e liver e 1 8 3 78 an t he t t men t s ma
s a e e

d
in the P refa ce t o th e pr evious vo l u me ,
as r e
g ar s th e

cir cu ms t a n ce s an ma n n er of th eir co mpo sition ,

ar e

d d
e q u a ll a l ica b l e t o th e r e se n t c o ur se In t h is as
y pp p .
,

in th e pr e ce in g s er i e s , th e A u th or h a s l a r g el y a va ile
VI PREFACE .

himself of th e la b or s of
p r eviou s wr it er s , ma n y of

w h om ar e b u t l itt le kn ow n in t his co un r t y . T o th e

ma n l ogicia n s of the pr e s en t
d
w or k s o f the G er cen ur t y,

d
p ar t icu la r ly t o t ho s e of K r ug an E sse r , th ese L ec tur es

s pe cia l o b l iga t ion s

d
a r e un er .

d d d
I n th e co mpila t ion of th e A ppen ix , so me r es
p on si

d
b ility r es s t w it h th e E it or s ; an a few w or s o f ex

ma y b e ma n n er in
d
p l a n a t io n n e ce ss a r
y as re
g ar s th e

tt empt e t o per for m

dd
w hich t h ey ha ve a th i s p or t ion of

d d
t h eir t a sk . In pu b lishin g the p p a er s of a ece a s e

d d d d
w r i t er , co mpo s e at va r iou s in t er va l s u r in
g a lon g

d d
e r io of a r s, t r ea t in g f ifcul t tr o
p y e an o an con

d
d d d
v er e t q u e s t ion s t h er e
, ar e tw o o
pp o si et an
g er s to b e

g uar e a
g a in s t . O n th e on e ha n , t h er e i s th e an

d
mpr omisin g
d
of t he A uth o r s t t ion b y th e

re u a
g er co
p
men t s m
d
ma t ur er
d d
p u b lica t ion j of o cu w hich h is u
g en t

might
d
n ot ha ve s a n ctio e ; an , on th e o th er han ,

mmittin g
d d
t h er e i s th e j an
g er of co an O
pp osi e t in ur y

t o him

d dW
an t o th e pub lic, b y w it hh o l in g wr it in g s of

illia m H mil t on
d d
in t e r e s t an va l ue . H a S ir a , a t an
y
t ma t ic t r ea t ise
d j d
er io of his life, pub l ish e a s e on
p s
y
Lo gic , or f ha his pr o t
ec e N ew A na l
y tic o L og ica l

m
d d
F or ms b een l eft in a t t
s a e at a ll a
pp r o a ch in
g t o co

e t e n e s s , th e E it o r s migh t pr ob a b ly h a ve

d
pl o bt a in e a

d d
t
cr i er ion b y w hich t o is t in gu i sh b e t we e n t h o s e s
p e cu

th e n a l imp r ima tur

d d
la tion s w hich w ou l h a ve r e ceive

o f th eir A uth o r , an t h ose which woul n ot . I n th e

 PREFACE . V II

a b sen ce of an
y s u ch cr i e r ion
t , t h ey h a ve t hou gh t it

f g ivin g t oo mu ch

d
b e tt er to r un th e r is k o t ha n t oo

l itt le ; to p u b lish wh a t ever a

pp ea r e to h a ve an
y

d d
phil o s o hica l
p or h is t or ica l in t er es t , w it h ou t b ein g in

u en ce b y it s co in ci en ce wit h t he ir o wn o
pin ion s , or

w it h t her ts of th e A uth o r s wr i t

b y it s coh er en ce o
p ar

mon g
d d dd
in gs . I t i s pos sib l e t ha t ,
a th e pa per s th us pu b

ma y b e foun
d
lish e ,
so me w h ich ar e to be con s i er e

d
ra t h er as ex pe ri men t a l ex er cise s tha n as a
pp r ove re

su l ts but no
p p a er s h a ve b e en in t en t ion a ll y o mitt e ,

ex ce p t s u ch as w er e ei t her t o o fr a gmen t a r y t o b e in t el

ma n ife s t ly imper fe ct
d d
l ig ib le , or s k e t che s of w ha t h a s

b een p u b l ish e h er e or el se w h er e in a mor e ma t ur e

d
me
dd d
T he N o t es , in this as in th e pr eviou s v ol u , ar e

fr om the

d
ivi e in t o t hr ee cl a ss e s . T h o se pr in t e

d
ma n u s cr ipt of the L ec tur es a
pp ea r w i t h ou t an y is

ma r k ; t h o s e
d
fr om th e A C om

d
tin ctive l i th o r
su u
pp e s

mon pla ce-Boo k

d d
dd
an o t h er a
p p er s ar e en cl o s e w it hin

d d
s q ua r e b r a ck e t s w it h o u t si
g t
n a ur e ; an t h ose a e by

th e E it o r s ar e ma r k e b y th e si
g t
n a ur e

ED . T hese

d d
la s t , as in th e L ec tur es on M t
e a h
p y s ics , ar e ch ie
y co n

n e to o cca s ion a l ex pl a n a t ion s of the t ex t an ve r i

t ion s o f r e fer en ces

dd
ca .

d d
In con cl u s ion , th e E it o r s es ir e to ex p r ess t h eir ac

d
kn o wl e gmen t s t o th o s e fr ien s fr o m w h om the y h a ve

r e ce ive t
a s s is a n ce in t r a cin g the nu mer ou s q u o t a t ion s
V III P REFA C E .

d d d d
d
an a ll u sion s s ca tt er e t hr ough t his an th e pr ece in g

v ol u me . I n pa r t icul a r , t h eir t h a n k s ar e ue t o H ub er t

mil t on mon g his fa ther

d d
H E sq wh ose r e s ea r ch e s

a , ,
a s

th em ma n y
d W d
b oo k s an
p a
pers h a ve su
ppl ie w it h va l

d dd
u a b le ma t er ia l s ; an to H . C ha n ler E s q ,
.
, F ellow

of P emb r o k e C o l l e g e , O x fo r , wh o ha s ai e them fr om
th e r e s ou r ces of a h il o s o hica l l ea r n in t
na e in
p p g co
g
ma n y r es
p ec s t t o t ha t of S ir Wil li a m H a mil t on himself .
 C O N T E N T S .

LE CTURE I .
"

INT R ODUCTION .

LO G IC I . IT S D EFINITION ,

LE CTURE II .

LOGIC I ITS DE F INITION HISTORICAL NOTICES OF OPINION S

.

R EGARDING ITS OB J ECT AND DOMAIN II ITS U TILIT Y .

,

LE CTURE I I I .

LOGIC H ITS U TILIT Y III ITS DIVISIONS

. . S U B JE C T IV E A ND
OB J ECTI V E GENERAL AND S PECIAL ,

LE CTURE I V .

LOGIC III ITS D IVISIONS

. P U RE AND MODIF IE D ,

LE CTURE V .

PU RE LOGIC .

PART ISTOICHE IOLOG Y SECTION I NOETIC O N T H E

.

.
. .

D AMENTAL LA WS O F THO U GHT THE I R CONTENT S AND

HISTORY ,
 X CONTENTS .

LE CTURE V I .

PAG E

TH E F U NDAMENTAL LAWS OF THO U GHT THEIR CLA SSIFICA

TION A N D IMPORT ,

LE CTURE V II .

SECTION II .PROD U CTS O F THO U GHT I E N N O E M A T I C

OF THE .
.

or CONCEPTS O R N OTIONS A O F CONCEPTS I N G E N .

ERAL ,

LE CTURE V III .

E N N O E M A T IC OF CONCEPTS IN GENERAL ; B IN SPECIAL

A . . .

I THEIR OB J ECTIVE RELATION Q U ANTIT Y

.
,

LE CTURE IX .

E N N O E M A T IC . OF CONCEPTS IN SPECIAL
-
B . . II THEIR
.

JE C T I V E RELATION Q UA LIT Y ,

LE CTURE X .

IMPERFECTION O F CONCEPTS

E N N O E M A T IC .
,

LE CTURE XI .

E N N O E M A T IC .
-
III . R E CIPROCAL RELATIONS OF CONCE PT S A .

QU ANTIT Y OF E X TENSION S U BORDINATION A N D C O O RD I

NATION ,
 CONTENTS . XI

LE CTURE XII .

PA G E

E N N O E M A T IC III RECIPROCAL RELATIONS

.
. OF CONCEPTS .
B
.

Q U ANTIT Y O F COMPREHENSION ,

-
LE CTURE XIII .

II . A P OPHANTIC , OR THE DOCTRINE OF J U DGM E NT S . J U DG

MENTS THEIR NAT U RE AND DIVISIONS ,

LE CTURE XI V .

APOPH A NTIC . J U DGMENTS THEIR QU ALIT Y OPPOSITION , ,

AND
C O NVER S ION ,

LE CTURE XV .

II I . D OCTRINE REASONINGS OFREASONING I N GENERAL . .

S Y LLOGISMS THEIR DIVISIONS ACCORDING T O INTERNAL

FORM ,

LE CTURE XV I .

D O CTRINE OF REASONINGS S Y LLOGISMS THEIR DIV ISIONS

.

ACCORDING TO INTERNAL FOR M A SIMPLE C A T E G O RI . .

CAL I DED U CTI V E IN E X TENSION

.
- .
,

LE CTURE XV II .

D O CTRIN E REASONING S
OF S Y LLOGISMS THEIR D IVISION S
.

ACCORDING T O INTERNAL FORM A SIMPLE C A T E GO RI .

.

CAL . I I DED U CTIVE I N C O MPREHENSION

. III IND U CTIVE .
.

I N E X TENSION A N D COMPR E H ENSION B CONDITIONAL . .

DIS J U NCTIV E ,
X II C ONTENTS .

L E C T U RE XV I I I
'

PAG E

DOCTRIN E O F REASONINGS S Y LL O GISMS THEI R DIVISIONS

.

ACCORDING T O INTERNAL FOR M R CO N DITIONAL H Y .

P O T H E T I C A L A N D H Y POTHETICO DIS J U NCTIVE

-
,

LE C T URE X IX .

D OCTRINE OF REASONINGS S Y LLOGISMS THEIR DIVISIONS

. .

ACCORDI N G T O E X TERNAL FORM A COMPLE X E P I

. .

C H E I RE M A A N D S ORITES ,

LE CTURE XX .

DOCTRINE OF REASONINGS S Y LLO G ISMS THEIR DIVISIONS

.

ACCOR D ING TO E XTERNAL FO RM B DEFECTIVE E N . .

T H YM EM E C REG U LAR AND IRREG U LAR FIG UR E AND

.

MOOD FIRST AND SECOND FIG U RES

,

LE CTURE XXI .

DOCT RINE OF REASONINGS S Y LLOGISMS THEIR DIVISIONS

.

ACCORDING TO E X TERNAL FORM THIRD AND FO U RTH .

FIG U RES ,

LE CTURE XXII .

DOCTRINE O E REASONINGS S Y LLOGISMS THEIR DIVISIONS

.

ACCORDING TO E X TERNAL FORM C REG U LAR AND IR . .

REG U LAR FIG U RE RED U CTION

.
,

LE CTURE XXIII .

DOCTRINE OF REASONINGS S Y LLOGISMS . THEIR DIVISIONS

ACCORDING TO VALIDIT Y FALLACIES .
,
 CO NTE NTS . XIII

L E C T U RE QX X L W
PAG E

PU RE LOGIC .

PART II METHODOLOGY SECTION I METHOD IN GENERAL

. .
. .

SECTION II M ETHOD IN SPECIAL OR LOGICAL M E T H O D O L

.
,

OG Y I DOCTRINE OF D EFINITI ON
. .
,

L E C T U RE XXV
. .

M E TH OD O L O GY .

LOGICAL METHODOLOG Y .
II DOCTRINE OF DIVISION
.
,

L E C T U RE XX V L
J

LOGICAL METHODOLOG Y .
III DOCTRINE OF PROBATION
.
,

L E C T U RE iX X V I L

MODIFIED LOGIC .

P ART I MODIFIED STOICHEIOLOG Y SECTION I DOCTRINE OF

. . .

TR U TH AND ERROR TRU TH ITS CHARACTER AND KIND S

.

, 376

LE CTURE XXV TI L

M OD IFIED ST OICH EIOLO GY .

SECTION I DOCTRINE O F TR U TH A N D ERRO R SECTION I I E R

. .

ROR I T S CAU SES A N D REMEDIES A GENERAL CIR C U M .

- .

STA NCES SOCIET Y ,

LE CTURE XXIX .

E RROR ITS CA U SES AND REMEDIES A GENERAL CIRC U M . .

STANCES SOCIET Y B AS IN PO WERS OF COGNITION

.
.
,

FEELING AND DESIRE I AFFECTIONS PRECIPITAN C Y

,
. .

SLOT H HOPE AND FEAR SELF LOVE

,
X IV CONTENTS .

LE CTURE XXX .

PAG E

E RR O R ITS CAU SES AND REMEDIES B AS IN THE C O G N I .

.

TIONS FEELINGS A N D DESIRES II WEAKNESS A N D D I S

, ,
.
.

PROPORTIONED STRENGTH O F T H E FACU LTIES O F KNO WL

EDGE ,

LE CTURE XXXI .

E RROR IT S CA U SES A N D REMEDIES .

C . LANG U AG E D . OB
JE C T S O F KNO WLEDGE ,

LE CTURE XXXII .

M ODIFIED METH OD OLO GY .

SECTION I OF THE ACQ U ISITION AND PERFECTING OF KNO WL

.

E DGE I E X PERIENCE A PERSONAL OBSERVATION

. . . . :

IND U CTION AND ANALOG Y ,

LE CTURE XXXIII .

OF THE ACQ U ISITION A N D PERFECTING O F KNO WLEDGE I . .

E X PERIENC E B FOREIGN ORAL TESTIMON Y ITS CRED

. :

I BI L I T Y ,

LE CTURE XXXIV .

OF THE ACQU ISITION AND PERFECTING OF KNO WLEDGE I . .

E X PERIENCE B FO REIGN RECORDED TESTIMON Y A ND

. . :

WRITINGS IN GENERAL II SPEC U LATION . .

,

LE CT URE XXXV .

OF THE ACQU ISITION A N D PERFECTING O F KNO WLEDG E III .

COMM U NICATION O F KNO WLEDGE A INSTRU CTION . .

ORAL A N D WRITTE N B CONFERENCE DIALOG U E A N D

.

DISPU TATION ,
 CONTENTS . XV

A P P EN D IX .

PA G E

I . THE CHAR ACTER AND COMPREHE NSION b F LOGIC A F R AG

MENT ,

II . GEN U S OF LOGIC ,

III .
DIVISIONS VARIETIES AND CONTENTS OF LOGIC, , ,

IV . LAWS OF THO U GHT ,

V .
NE W ANALY TIC OF LOGICAL FORMS GENERAL RE SU LTS
FR AGMENTS .

I . R A C T F R OM P R OSP E C T U S OF E SS A Y T O W A R D S A N E W
- E XT

A NAL Y T I C O F LO GI C AL FO R M S ,

II LO G I C I T S P O S T U LAT E S
.
, ,

I I I Q U A N T I F I C A T I ON OF P R E D I C A T E I MM E D I A T E I NF E R
.
,

E NC E C O N V E R S I ON O PP O S I T I ON
, , ,

I V A PP L I C AT I ON OF DO C T R I N E OF Q U A NT I F I E D P R E DI C A T E
.

T O P R OPOS I T I ONS ,

V A P P L I C A T I ON OF DO C T R I N E OF Q U A NT I F I E D P R E D I C A T E
.

Y LLOG MS
T O S IS ,

VI . OB I ON
JE C T DO R I N OF A Q U AN I F I D P R D
S T O T H E C T E T E E

I AT ON ID R D
G E C S E E ,

V IL H I O I AL NOT I
ST OF D O R N OF Q U A NT I F I D
R C C E S C T I E E

PR D I A E C T E ,

VI . CANONS O F S Y LLOGISM ; GENERAL HISTORICAL NOTICES

AND CRITICIS M .

A . H I S T O RI C A L N O T I C E S .

I .F U NDAM N AL LA W S OF S Y LLOG I SM Q U OT A T I ONS

E T
,

I I F U NDAM N AL LA W S OF S Y L L OG I S M R F R N C S
. E T E E E E ,

III N U N C IA T I O N S OF T
. E H IG H R L A W S OF S Y LLO G I SM H E E ,

I V OB C . I ON S O D I C UM
JE OMN I T N U LLO T T H E T D E E T ,

V G N R AL LA W S O F S Y L L O GI S M I V R S
.
- E E N E E ,

VL S P C I AL L A W S OF S Y LLO GI S M I N V R S E
E E ,

B C RI T I C I S M
. .

I .
C R I T I C I S M OF
SP E C I AL L A W S OF S Y LLOG I SM T H E ,

II LAW S O F S C O ND F IG U R
. E E ,

III A U HO R S S U P R M
. C ANON S
T OF C A GO R I C A L S
E E T E Y L L o

GI M S S ,

IV U L R O AL Q U AN IFI C A I ON O F M I DDLE R M
. T A -T T T T T E ,
X VI CONTENTS .

VII . IND U CTION AND E X AMPLE .

I . Q U O A I ONS F R OM A U HO R S
T T T ,

IL M A T R I AL IE
E D U C T IO N ,

V III . H Y POTHETICAL AND D IS J U NCTIVE RE A S O N IN G IM M E D I

ATE I N FE RE N CE .

I A U THO R S D O T R N F R A GM NTS
.

C I E E ,

II H I S O R I A L NO I S
. T C T C E ,

IX . S ORITE S ,

X . S Y LLOGI S M .

I .
NO U N C M E NT A N A L Y T I C A N D S Y NTH E T I C O R D E R
IT S E E

OF P R M I S S E E .

( ) NO U N C M N OF S Y LLOG I SM
a E E E T ,

( b) O R D R OF P R M I S S E E E ,

I I F I G UR U N FIG UR D AND F I G UR D S Y LLOG I S M

'

. E E E .

( ) C ON R A S A ND C OM PA R I S ON OF E V AR I
a T T T H

O U S K I N D S O F F O R M A L S Y LLOG I SM DI FF R N C OF E E E

F I G U R A C C I D N AL E E T ,

( b) O U B L C O N C L U S I ON I N
D S C ON D AND TH I R D F I G
E E

UR S E ,
6 27

I IL H I STO R I C AL NO I C S R G A R D I NG F I G UR E OF S Y LLOG I SM T E E ,
63 2

I V S Y LLOG I S I C MOODS
. T .

I DI R C AND I ND I R C T MOODS
. E T E ,
658

I I I ND I R C T MOOD S OF S
. C OND A ND TH I R D F I G UR S E E E , 663

IIL N W MOOD S NOT E S U PON TABL O F S Y LLO G I SMS

E E ,
66 5

XI . LOGICAL NOTA TION .

I .
L I N E A R NOT A T I ON
L A M E E RT

S ,

I I NO A I ON B
. MAA S S
T T Y ,

I I I A U THO R S S C H M OF NOT A I ON
. E E T .

NO I L I N A R . . E ,

NO I I U N FIG UR D AN D F I G UR E D S Y LLOG I S M
. . E ,

NO I I I F I G UR D S Y LLOG I SM T A E L E OF MOO D S
. . E ,
 L E T U RE S O N

L E C T U RE I 1
c

IN T RO D U C TI O N .

L O GI C I . I T S D E F IN IT I O N .

GE N T LE M E N W t er on t he c on s id e r a ti on
e a r e n ow a b ou t t o en

o f o n e o f t h e mos t i mpo t a n t b r a n ch es o f M e n r

mh h on d
L gi P p
o c m iro
t e a
a l P hil o e
o s o
phy t h e s ci e n ce whi ch is c o n v e r ,
m
. . .

s a n t a b out t he L a w s o f T houg ht
1 s o
E
e
But b e for e
dt d
.
,
tI on o u g ht t b o e con

uc e c o mme n ci n g t h e di s cu s s i o n I w o uld pr e mi s e a ,

d
,

w or d in r eg a r d t o t he mo d e in whi ch it o ug ht
t o b e c on d uct e d wi t h a V i e w t o y o ur i n for ma t i o n a n

E d f i mi t i
,

d
i mpr ov e men t
T h e gr e a t e n whi ch e v e y i n st r uct o r o ug h t t o r
.

d

n o ns c on
o po s e in t h e comm un i c a t i o o f a s ci e n ce is t o
.

n
p r , ,

d
a ffo r d t h e s t u d e n t c l e a r a n di st i n ct n ot i o s o f it s s e ver a l pa r t s o f n ,

t h e i r r e l a t i o s t o e a ch o t h e r a n
n t o t h e Wh o l e o f whi ch th e y a r e
,

t he co n st i t ue n t s F o r u l e s s he a cc o mpli s h t hi s it is of co mpa r a
. n ,

d
t iv e ly li t t l e mo me n t th a t h is i fo r ma t i on b e i i t s e l f e i t h e r n e w o r n n

d
i mpor t a n t ; for of w h a t con s e que n ce a r e a ll t h e q ua li t i e s of a o c
t i n e if t h a t d o ct r i n e b e n o t co mmun i ca t e d ?
r , an co mmu n i ca t e d -

it is n ot if it b e n o t un d e r s t o o d
, .

d
B ut in t he co mmu n i ca t i o n O f a d oct i e t h e me t h o d s t o b e fol r n ,

l o w e d b y a n i n s t r uct or who w i t e s a n b y a n r
memo f m
,

d l t ti a e I n fa ct t o a cer t a i n e t e t n e ce ssar ly f
i n s t r u ct o r w h o s ea ks a e n o t t he sa me h y
d

f
en
p T e r

d
, .

an or a I n s r uc on
r x n i i
i t
er en .
, , ,

fe e n t z for Wh i l e t he r e a d e r of t he o n e ca n a l
r ,

w a y s b e r e fe r e d b a ck or for wa r d ca n a l wa y s compa r e o n e pa r t O f a
r
,

d d d
'
T h e r st sev e n L ect ur e s of t h e M et a ph y s ica l C o ur s e (L ectur es onZlf efa p hy s z cs, pp .

1 9 0) w er e e liv e r e by S ir Willia m H a milton as a G e n er a l I n tr o uct ion t o th e

C o ur s e o f L o g ic p r o per .
ED .
2 LOGIC LE C T I

d
. . .

b o ok w i t h an o th er
l wa ys me dit a t e a t l e i sur e on e a ch st ep
,
an ca n a

o f t he e v o l ut i o n ; t h e b e a e o f t h e o t h e r o n t h e co n t r a y mu st a t
r r , r ,

e v e y mo me n t b e r e a ed b wh a t ha s
p r e ce d e d t o co m r e h en d
r
p p y r , p ,

d
a t o n c e w h a t is t o e n s ue T h e o r a l i n s t r uct o r h a s th us a much mor e
a r uo us pr ob l e m t o s ol v e in a cco mpli shi n g t he e n
.

, whi ch b e pr o d
os es F o r if; o n t h e o n e h a n d h e a v o id o b s c ur ity b y c o mmu n ica t
p .
,

i g o n ly Wh a t c a n e a s ily b e u nd e r s t o o d a s i s o l a t e d f a g me n t s h e is
n r ,

an d
i n t elli g ib l e o ly b eca us e he co mmun i ca t es n ot hi n g w o t h l e a n i n g
n

r,

d
if; o n t h e o t h e h e b e un i n t e lli g i bl e in p opo t i o n a s his o c r r
r r

d
t r i n e is c on ca t e n a t e d a n s y st e ma t i c b e e u a lly fa il s in his a t t e m t ;
q p ,

fo a s in t h e o n e ca s e t h e r e is n o t hi n g t o t e a ch s o in t h e o t h e r
r , , , , ,

th er e is n ot hin g t a ug h t I t is t h er e fo r e e v id e t th a t t h e o r a l in
.
, ,
n ,

s t r u ct o r mu st a cc o mmo d a t e his mo d e of t e a chi n g t o t h e ci r cum

s t a n ce s u n d e r w hi ch h e a ct s H e mus t e n d e a v o r t o make his a u di .

a t t e mpt e d ; a n d
e n ce fully u n d e s t a n d e a ch s t e p o f his mo v e me n t b e fo r e a o t h e r is
r

h e mu s t p e pa r e t h e m fo r d e t a il s b y a pl e V l O U S s ur
r

n

v ey O f g e n er a l s I n sh o t w h a t fo ll o ws s h o uld a l w a y s b e s e e n t o
. r ,

e v o l v e i t s e lf o ut o f Wh a t pr e ce d es I t is in con s e q ue n ce o f t hi s .

con di t i o n o f o r a l i n s t r uct i o n t h a t w h e r e t h e d e v e l opme n t o f a s y s , ,

t e ma t ic d o ct i e is a tt e mpt e d in a c o ur s e o f L ec r n

t ur e s it is u s u a l fo r t he l e ct ur e r t o f acili t a t e t h e
d
U f T
se o t b k i ex - oo n
,
a s y m ti
st e a f c c our se o

L t
e c ur es .
l a b or t o his p upil s a n hi m se l f b
y e x hi b i t i n
g i n ,

d a M a n u a l o r T e x t b o ok t h e o r d e r o f his d oct r i n e -

an a s umma r y o f it s c on t e n t s A S I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o p e pa r e . r

t hi s u se ful s ub s idi a r y I S h a ll e n d e a v or a s fa r a s po ss i b l e t o supply

, , ,

it s w a n t I s h a ll in t h e r s t pl a ce e n d e a v or a l w a y s t o p e s e n t y o u
.
, ,
r

P
A th
l
u m th d
or s

f
w i t h a g e n er a l s t a t e me n t o f e v er y d o ct r i n e t o
b e e x pl a i n e d b efor e
e o o
e s ce in g t o t h e d e t a il s ,

dd d,
n

d
i
r e ect o n .

of e x l a n a t i on ; a n in o r d er t h a t o u ma y b e
p y
i n s ur e d in di st i n ct er a n mor e co mpr e h e n si v e n ot i on s I S h a ll Wh e r e , ,

it is po ss ib l e co mpr i s e t h e g e n e r a l s t a t e me n t s in P r o pos i t i on s o r
,

P a a g a ph s w hi ch I S h a ll sl o w ly di ct a t e t o y o u in o r d e r th a t t h e y
r r , ,

ce e d
ma y b e fully t a ke n d ow n in w r i t i n g T hi s b e i n g d on e I S h a ll pr o
t o a n a lyz e t h e s e

t h e i r cl a us e s in d e t a il
p pr o os i t i o n s or
p a r a r a ph s
g a t o e
p l ai n
.

,
n d
,

T hi s I ma y O b s e r v e is t he me t h o d foll o w e d
.
, ,

i t h os e c o un t r i es wh e e i st r uct i on b y pr el e ct i o n is t ur n e d t o t h e
n r n

d
b es t a cco un t ; it is t h e o n e pr e v a l e n t o t h e C o t i n e n t mor e es n n
,

e cia l l i t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s o f G e r ma n y a n H ll an d
p y n o .

I n pu su a n ce o f t hi s pl a n I a t o n ce comme n ce b y g i v i n g y o u
r , ,

a s t h e r s t pr o po s i t i o o r pa a a h t h e fo ll o wi n
n I m a
y n o t i ce
r
g p g r ,
.
,

h ow e v er b y pa r e n t h esi s t h a t a s w e ma y h a v e s o me t i mes o cca si on

, , ,

t o r e fe r a r t i c ul a t e ly t o t h e s e pr op o si t i o n s it w o uld b e pr ope r for

y o u t o di sti n ui s h t h e m b y S i g n a n
g n u mb e r d ,

.
LE C T . I .
LOGIC .

T h e r s t pa r a g r a ph , th e n ,
is t hi s

{I I . A S ys t e m of L og i ca l I n s t r u ct i on c on si s t s of T w o P a r t s ,
O f a n I n t r o d uct i o n t o t h e sci e n ce ;
P ar -L at m a
Bo dy of D i ti t ut i n g t he
t em of L o g i c c on s i s t s .
Of a o ct r n e co n s

S ci en ce I t s e lf .

T h ese , O f c o ur s e , a r e to be c on s id er e d in th ei r or der .

l I I . T h e I n t r o d u ct i o n t o L og i c S h o uld a ffo r d a n sw e r s t o t h e
fo ll o w i n g q u e st i o n s : i h a t is L og i c ? ii . W .

Wh Wh
d
d
P II T he I tr
ar . .

t o L og i c .
n o
l 1 1 at w e I ts D I V S
a t I s I ts V a ue 1 . I

W Wh a t is it s H i s t or y
u c t i on

Io s ? n a V . n ,
.

Wh at is it s Bi b li og r a phy th a t is Wh a t a r e t h e b est b ooks upon

, ,

t he s ub ect j

In

h
g
a n s w e r is

thi
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.
it is
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d ict a t e t o
it s

y o u t e
p g p .

1T III . Wh t a is L og i c ? A n s wer L og i c
III I D i
t i on
P ar

of
.

L og
.

i c.
. e n
is t he S i
c e n ce of t h e L a w s of T h oug ht as

T h o ug ht .

T hi s d en i t i on h ow ev er t b e un d er st o o d Wi t h o ut a n a r
, ,
ca n n o

t icul a t e e x pos i t i on O f it s s e v e r a l p a t s I t h er e
d
r .

d
E pli t i
x ca on .
fo e p o ce e d t o t hi s a n a ly s i s a e
p l a n a t i on
r r n x ,

an S h a ll co n s id e r it u n d e r t h e t h e e fo ll o w i n h ea d s I n t he r st

d d
r
g .
,

I sh a ll co s id e r t h e me a n i g a
w o d L og i c
r I n t h e s e co n
n hi st or y a n s yn o y ms of t he
I s h a ll co n s id e r t h e G e n u s o f L og i c
. d n

,
,
n , n

t h a t is e x pl a i n why it is d e n e d a s a S ci e n ce
,
I n t he thi d I sh a ll . r ,

con s id e t h e O bj e ct ma t t e r o f L og i c t h a t is e x pl a i
r t o y o u wh a t
-
, ,
n

is m a t b y s a yi n g t h a t it is con v er sa n t a b o ut t he L a w s of T h oug ht
e
n ,

a s T h o ug ht .

d
F i rs t t h e n in r eg a r d t o t h e si g n i ca n ce of t he w or d
, , L og i c y o u .
,

1 Th w d
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r , , o t n a t ,
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, T O tK ,
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eK r t ,
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dd
a s s or .

h a r dly t ell y o u is a n a dj ect i v e on e o r o t h e r of , ,

d
t h e su b s t a n t i v e s m m a n s ci en ce
'
m m y/

-
x y a r t o e s tu y o r , , T
e , ,
r a l ar er,
,

d
r ath e ma tter of s tu y b e i n g u d e s t o o d T h e t m A y mj i t hi s
r n r er o t n
, .
,

d
s e ci a l s i n i ca t i o n a n a s di s t i ct ly ma r ki n i l s ci
p g g o ut a
p a t, c u a n r r

d
e n ce is o t so ol
, a s t h e co n s t it ut i on o f t h a t s ci e n ce i t s e l f
n A is . r

t ot l e did n ot d e si g n a t e b h e te m A m h e s ci e ce w h o s e
y f
y t t oc r o t n
,
 4 LOGIC . LE C T . I .

tr i n e h e r st fully d ev el ope d . H i n d e e d t h e a dj e ct iv e A y Og
e u s e s, , o LK

A i t tl
in v a i ous
r s o
T h us I
e.
r

n d
co mb i n a t i o s Wi t h o t h e s ub s t a t i v e s

in his P hy s i cs , Aoy cm; 7r opca ,

n

- in
r

d
dd

n

1
.

his R hetor i c, Aoy t x a i Ovo xepefa t,

d
2
in h is JII etap hy s i cs , A oy t x ; woOecf

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.

in h is P os ter i or A n a ly ti cs , n in his T op i cs , A oy t 4

a sf A oy u<
a
,

K OV B wpci An/L a li k e w i se .
5
H e, ,
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q
a dve b A W h om t h e t er m A r st a li d

m B f w h

y b r
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pp e a s t e o o ,

w or d ex p essiv e O f t h e s ci en ce d o e s n o t a ppe a r Boe t hi u s wh o

r

ou i sh e d a t t h e cl ose o f t he ft h a commen ce me n t of t h e s i x t h
r

c en t ur y sa y s in his C ommen ta r y on the T op i cs of C i cer o] t h a t t h e

,

n d .
,

, ,

n a me o f L og i c w a s r s t i v e n b y t h e a n ci e n t
g

d
A i tP ip t t i

df A ph r o isia s t he old est commen t a t or we poss ess on

n c en er a e cs .
P e r i pa t e t i cs I n t h e w or ks of A l ex a n d er O f A ph .

d
A l ex a n er o
,

d
ro i i s a s.
t h e w or ks of A r i s t ot l e (h e ou r i s h e d t ow a r d s

d
t h e en o f t h e s e c on d ce n t ur y ) t h e t e r m A y mj b o t h a b s o l ut ely ,
o t ,

d
in comb i n a ti on w i t h wp yn
an i e t c is f e q ue n t ly e mpl o y e d ; a ar e a ,
.
,
r
8

an t h e w or d is fa mili a r in t he w i t i g s o f a ll t h e s ub s e q ue n t A r i s r n

t ot elia n s

Ci
P r ev i o usly h o w e v e r t o A l ex a n d er it is e v id e t t h a t
A y u i h a b e co me a comm
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.

s ci e c e ; fo r it is on ce a n
on e s i n a ti o n o f t h e
g
a a i n t h us a li
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o d ,

dd ,
n

g pp n

b y C i ce o S O mu ch fo r t h e hi st o r y o f t h e w o d L og i c in s o fa r
d
9
r . r ,

W
a s r eg a r d s it s i n t r o d u ct i on a n

t o co s id e r it s d er i va t i o n a n
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me a i g
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d d d
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n n .
.

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I t is d e r i v e d f o m A oy s a n it ha p ima r ily
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it s or i g i a l h a t th e n did si i fy ? I
d
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m i g g n . n

d
ean n

G r e e k t hi s w o r d h a a t w o fo ld mea n i n I t
A yi z ' os . g .

q
d e n ot e d b o t h t h o ug ht a n it s e x pr e s si o ; it w a s
e ui v a l en t b o th t o t h e r a ti o a n t o t h e or a t i o of t h e L a t i n s T h e d n

1 B
c 3 . ii i 8 E pfc w A oy mu
. . .

l2e

ur o .
6 E .
g .
, A nal. P os t . , 21 , 3 2 ; P hy s V
i . . III . 8;

d
D ub ita t io n e m q uae n o n e r e r u m s in g ul a r ium M et a p h
. .
, vi
4, 17 ; x . i 1 ED
. . .

i sub i n it E

d
7 L
( ph y sica r um) co n templ a t i on e , se e r a t iocin a . . . D .

W
d
e specia l l y ,

d d
h is commen t a r y on
8 S ee ,
d
t ion e s o la o r ta e st
a it z a A r is t O rg t he

dd m
. .
.
, ,

v ol i i p 35 4 L og ica l a n
. ia lect ica l r ea s o n P r ior A n a ly t ics , f 2 .
( S cholia , e , Br a n is , p .

'
. . .

d
d
rea l a vA
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i n g i n A r ist ot le me a n t h e sa me t h in g , v iz , w h er e h e i vi es A o yz ) 7 6
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.

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A o y w r uci)
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in t o fou r b r a n ch es ,

Tr a r eta
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'

d d
of
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d dd
s p ecia l e x p e r ie n ce s - E D H er e L og ic i s u se in a wi er

j
. .

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ecti ve a n ve r b b e a r in

d
2 T hi s ex r e ss i o n o ccu r s n o t in t h e s e n se t h a n t he a a
p Rhet or i c,
Wh ile t h e te r m ia lect ic

d
A r is t o t l e , c og n a t e re
b ut i n t h e M et a p hy s ics , B iii ( i v ) 0 3 , a n B
. . . . . .

t a i n s it s o r i g in a l sig n i ca t i o n ED
x iii 1 I n t h e Rhet or ic w e n the
. .

d d
. .

o m 7 ; T usc Q a az s t , i v 1 4
9 S ee D F in ibus , i
e x p r e ss i on A yucol a u yw uol. B i c 1
' e . . .

o . .
. . . .

C icer o p r o b a b l y b or r o w e t h is u se of t he

B 1 Cf D A n im
t er m fr om t h e S t o ics , t o w h ose foun er , e n o , Z
3 iii (x iv ) G ener

d
x c . e
t he or ig in O f t h e
. . . . . . .
,
L a e r t iu s ( v ii 39 ) a scr ib es
8 ED
.

d d
II .

P h y s i cs,
. .

ivis ion of P h il osoph y i n t o L og ic,

4 B i . . c . 24 E D .
E t h ics , s ome times e r r on e ousl y a ttr ib ut e
an

5 B . V . c. 1 ED
. . to P lat o E D . .
LE C T . I . LOGIC . 5

G r e e ks, in or d er to ii i
fr om t he
ob v a t e t he a mb i g uity t h us ar s n g

dd
d
c o n fus o n i o f t w o di ffe e t t hi g s un d e r o n e e x pr e s s i on w e e com
r n n ,
r ~

e lle to a a di ffe r e n t i a l e pi t h e t t o t h e co mmon t e m A i st o r r

p .

H ow ex p r esse d by
t l e t o c o n t r a di st i n g ui s h A y me a i g thoug ht
,

fr o m Ay s me a i g sp eech ca ll s t he fo r me r w o , n n ,
o g, n n

r c
,

dd l
r is t o t l e .

d
A
m th a t wi thi n , tha t i n the

cr w, / x,

cv r I

mi n an t he a tt er , T OV Zw, tha t w i th ou t .
1
T he sa me is t in c
t i on ca me s ub s e
q ue n t ly to be ex
p r e s se d b y the

d
By oth e rs .
A67 0; Bi S er oc, for thoug ht, t h e bum men ti s

ev u v er

o r la n u a e, t h e ver bum I t was

2
b y Ka y os O f

an a
pq p Qo, tK
g g or is . n ec

y i hi a c co un t o f t h e a mb i ui t y
dAyg of

d

e ss a r t o g ve y o u t s g t h e w or o o ,

b e ca use t h e s a me pa s se d i n t o ti t s d e i v a t i v e A y u i ; a n it a l s o w a s r o o

n ece ss a r y t h a t o u S h o uld b e ma d e a w a r e o f t h e a mb i g ui t y in t h e
y
n a me o f t h e s ci en ce b eca us e t hi s a g a i n e x e r t e d a n i n ue n ce o n t h e,

V i e ws a d o pt e d in r eg a r d t o t h e O bj e ct ma t t e r o f t he s ci e n ce - .

But wh a t it ma y b e a ske d w a s t h e a ppe ll a ti on of t he s ci en c e

,

b efor e it ha O b t a i n e d t he n a me of L og i c ? fo r d ,

d d ,

w d
dd
A pp ll ti f th
a s I h a v e s a id t he d oct r i n e h a iscr imi
e a on s o e
b een
ll d
,
i
sc en ce f a t er ar s
t an e v e n c a r r i e d t o a v e r y hi h e r fect i on
ca L gi
e o
n a e
c. g p , ,

b efor e it r e ce i ve d t he d e si g n at i o n b y whi ch it is
n ow
g e n e r a lly kn ow n T h e m os t a n c i e n t n a me fo r wh a t w a s s ub .

s e qu e n t ly d e n o mi n a t e d L o i c wa s D i a lecti c

n
g
u d e r s t o o d w i t h c er t a i n li mi t a t i on s
B ut t hi s m
By P l a t o t h e t e r m ia lecti c is
f e q uen t ly empl oy e d t o ma r k o ut a pa r t i cul a r se ct i on of phil os ophy
r
u s t b e ,

.
.

, d .

But t hi s s e ct i on is wi t h P l a t o n ot co e x t e n s i v e wi t h t h e d o ma i n of
, ,

L og i c ; it i n cl u d es i n d e e d L o gi c b ut it d o es n o t e x cl ud e M e t a phy s i c
, , , ,

d
fo r it is c o n v e r sa n t n o t o ly a b o ut t h e fo m b ut a b o ut t h e ma t t e r n r ,

o f o ur k n o w l e T h e me a n i n f h ese e x r ess i on s
g e
( g o t p .
y o u a re

so on t o l e a r n
) .

T hi s w or d O A
'
iy 01 m m p n or
, ta
p yp eKT t Kb e i n
g

, r a a r et a ,

d d
u n d e r st o o d ) is d e r i v e d y o u a r e a w a r e f o m , ,
r
m mi)

d h
-
A I aA e its ety
S ta A ey eo S a i , to h ol

con ver s a ti on or i s cou r s e
mol og y

d
.

t og ether i a lecti c, t e r e fo r e, lit er a lly i i s g n e s,

l W
d
of a con ver s a ti on , colloqu con tr over s t h i sp u te But P
y , y a o , o .
,

d e e d t h oug h t
n an in te rna l di s co ur se O f t h e so ul wi t h i t se l f a n
3
,

wh o e pl a i n e d 6 SI a A ey ec b y t he a mbi g uo us e x pr e s s i on e

x 7 at ? A y r c

l A n a l. ED .

d o r igi n a t e d w ith t h e S t oics . S ee W

V y tte n

p 6 72 ,
d
2 E g. P hi lo , D e V it a M os is , . e it . b a ch s n ot e on l
P ut a r ch s M

or a lia
, p . 44 A

d
P a r is , 1 640; P lu ta r ch , P hilos . es se cu m pr in cip i ( t om . vi .
p a r s l , p 3 78 , . e it . O x on ,

( v ol ii p 7 77 , C , e F r a n cof ,
d
bus , c . 2 . . . . . . E D .

S ex tus E mp ir icus , P y r r h H yp , i 65 ; S impl i . . . 3 F ish a b er

, p 1 0 [ L ehr bu ch er L og ilc, E in l ei
. .

d
g A r is t , p 7 ; D a ma s ce n u s, F 171
c ius I n C a t e . . t un g . S ee T hea tetus p 1 89 S op his ta , p 2 63
. . .
,
. . .

O r r/ro ii 21 T he ED
, . . ex p r essi on s p r ob a b ly .
]
6 LOGIC LE C T I

di l
. . .

Xp o S a t} did n ot ce r t a i n ly o V o e n ce e i t h er t o t h e G r ee k la n

d
i v i t
ua g e h e t o h is o wn o i i on s i
g g n
g or p n ,
n
U f th t m D i
se o e er
i a lecti c t o t h e p oce s s n o t me ly O f
a
n a me o f

r ,
re
l i by P l t
ect c a o.

l og i ca fe r e n ce b ut of met a phys i ca l spe cul a l i n ,

t i on I n o ur ow t i me s t he P l a t o i c si g n i c a t i o n of t h e w o r d
.

By H g l
h a s b een r e v i v e d a n
e e
n

H e g e l h a s a ppli e d it in
es t r i ct e d me a n i n g t o me t a phy s i ca l
,

,
n

d ,

e v e n a m or e
.

r ,

S pecul a t i o n a l on e But if P l a t o e mpl o y e d t h e t e m D i a lecti c 2

. r

t o d e n o t e mo r e t h a n L og i c A i st o t l e e mpl o y e d ,
r
A i t tl mpl y
W

it t o d e n ot e l e s s i t h him D i a lecti c is n o t
r s o e s e o
.
,
m t f Di l i

d d
en O a ect c.

a t er m fo r t h e u r e s ci e n c e or t h e s ie ce in
p g ,
n

g e n er a l b ut f r a , p a r t i cul a r a an a
pp li ed
o
p ar t I t m ea s n . n

mer e ly t h e L og i c of P r ob a b l e M a t t e r a is t h us c o v e t i b l e ,
n n r

wi t h wh a t b e o t h er wi s e d e n o mi n a t e s T op i cs ( m mi)
d
T hi s I T o
3
.
,

ma y O b se r v e h a s b e e n v e r y g e n e r a lly mi s un d e r s t o o d a n
,
it is ,

c o mmon ly s u ppo s e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e u se s t h e t e m D i a l ect i c in t wo r

me a n i n g s in o e me a n i g fo r t h e s ci e ce O f L og i c in g en er a l
,
n n n ,

in a n o t h e r for t h e L og i c O f P r ob a b ili t i es T hi s is h o w e v e r a .
, ,

mi st ake T h e r e is in fa ct on ly a s i n g l e pa ssa g e in his w i t i g s

.
, ,
r n ,

on t h e g r o u n d of whi ch it ca n p os s i b ly b e ma i n t a i n e d th a t h e e v e r

e m l o y s D i a lecti c in t h e mo r e e x t e n s i v e me a i n T hi
d
p g s i s in h is n .

R hetor i c i 1 ; b ut t h e p a s s a g e is n o t s t r i g en t a
.
4
D i a lecti c ma y n ,
n

th er e b e pl a usi bly i n t e pr et e d in t h e mo r e li mi t e d si g i ca t i o n r n .

But a t a n y r a t e it is o f n o a ut h or i t y for it is a n e v id e n t i n t e r pol a ,

t i on a me r e
, g l o s s whi c h h a s c r e t in fr o m t h e ma r i
p g i t o t h e n n

t ex t T h us it a ppe a r s t h a t A r i st o t l e p oss e ss e d n o s i n g l e t e m b y
.
5
r

whi ch t o d es ig n a t e t h e g e n er a l s ci e ce of whi ch h e w a s t he pr i n
ly i A p d
c ip a l a u t h or an n i sh e r A n a ly ti c a
d Apo d n

.
,
n d
d
Of A i t
ei ct i c wi t h T op i c ( e q ui v a l e t t o D i a lecti c
na c o e c
,
n ,
t i c, T i op c.

an i n cl udi n g S op his ti c) w e e s o ma y s pe ci a l ,
r n

n a me s b
y whi
t i o n s O f L og i c
c h b e d en ote d
p a t i c ul a r
p ar ts or
p a r t i cul a r a

I s a y n o t hi g O f t h e v a cill a t i g a n v a r i o us e m
.
pp li c a

n
r

d
,

d n

l
d d
o y me t o f t h e t er ms L o i c a n D i l t i b t h S t i E i u
p n
g a ec c y e o c s
p c ,

r ean s a n o t h e r a n ci e n t s ch o o l s O f phil o sophy ; a n

,

t o e x pl a i n t o y ou t he s e con d h e a d o f t h e
n ow

e n it io n V i
p o ce e d

t he d ,
r

z , .

G e n us cl a ss of L o i c w hi ch I a v e a s S ci e n ce

d
-
, g g , ,
.

I t w a s a po i n t l on g ke en ly mo o t e d b y t he ol l og i ci a n s wh et h er ,

1 I . A leib
d .
, p 1 29 . . ) 8 s O t a x ey ea a t
T2
' 4 H e i
p at a vM o
'

dd
d
y w uo ii 6,t1 0i u a l/ T og

d
'
l O I a A ex r mns
A

u

w i
a

A y cp x pno a t i)
A s
'v
i)
' A A A

it a r x a A e I s; o A ns

r a tr r

1r ov r ns sa r ea ! ur ns
I ol oi c
AA H C f G L og F r omm
r
: a l/ U 7 5 0 . a sse n , a, .

S
PO U S r a/
e
6g , ED .

d
d d
O p er a , t i p 32 . . . . E D .
S ee Ba l for e us [ R Ba lf or ei C o mmen ta r i us in
5 . .

2 S ee E n cy klop ie, 81 E D
O r g a n u m L og icum A r is t o tel is , Bu r ig a l ae , 1 61 8

d

'
.

8 T O P I C , i 1' A t a A eK '
r uc s b 56 II ve r s ion ,
Q u 3 , p 12 M ur etus , in h is

. . . .

a bs 6 5 y Buw a vM '
o yz f p eI/ os . ED . o mits t his p assa g e as an i n t e po la ti on E D
z
.
]
.
LE C T I LO GIC 7

d
.
. .

L og i c w er e a sc e n i ce , or a n a r t , o r n e t i h er , or b ot h ; if i
an a sc e n c e,

i l Wh e t he r i
d
i c
r a c t ca
'

p or a s c e n e s e e n
p a s c e n ce ,

d
2 L GI
Wh t h
. it G O
l at ive
C
or a t o n ce
s
s pe cu l a t v e
e n us
an
p r a ct ca l ,
i i .

S i e er c en ce o r
P l a t o a n t h e P l a t o n i s t s V i e we a s a s c n ce ; d it i e
1

b ut w i t h th e m D i a l ect i c a s I h a v e n o t i ce d
w a s c oe x t en si v e wi t h t h e L og i c a n M e t a phy s i cs of t h e P e r i pa t et i cs d , ,

t a ke n t og et h er By A r i st ot l e hims elf L og i c is n o t d e n e d T he
d
. .

G e e k A i st ot e li a n s a n
r ma n y phil o s oph er s s i n ce t h e r e v i v a l O f
r ,

l ett er s d en y it t o b e e i t h er s ci en ce or a r t T he S t oi cs in g e n er a l
d d
2
,
.
, ,

v i e w e d it a s a s ci e n ce ; a n t h e s a me w a s d o n e b y t h e A r a b i a n a n
3

L a t i s ch o ol me n I n mp r e mo d e r n t i mes h o w e v er ma n y A r i s
d
4
n .
, ,

d
t o t elia n s a ll t he Ra mi st s a n ,
a maj or i t y o f t h e C a r t e s i a n s ma i n , ,

it t o b e a n a r t ; b ut a co n s id e r a b l e pa r t y w e r e fo un d wh o
d
5
t a in e
d en e d it a s b ot h a r t a n s ci en ce I n G er ma n y si n ce t he t i me O f 6
.
,

L e i b n i t z L og i c h a s b e e n a l mo s t u n i v e r s a lly r eg a r d e d a s a sci e n ce
, .

T he co n t r o v e s y w hi ch h a s b e e n w a g e d on t hi s r

d
Th q tie f til u es on u e.
o i n t is pe r h a ps o n e of t h e mos t fut il e in t h e
p
hi st o r y of spe cul a t i o n I n s o far a s L og i c is con cer n e d t he e cis .
,

ion of t h e q ue sti o n is n o t O f t h e v e r y sma ll e st i mpor t I t w a s n ot .

an d
in co n s e q ue n ce o f a n y di v e r s ity o f o pi n i o n in r eg a r d t o t h e s cope
n a t ur e o f thi s d o ct r i n e th a t phil os oph er s di sput e d b y wh a t ,

n a me it s h ould b e c a ll e d

d d
T he con t r o v er s y w a s in fa ct O n ly a b o ut .
, ,

Wh a t w a s pr oper ly a n a r t a n wh a t w a s p ope r ly a s ci e n ce a n a s
d
d
,
r

men a t t a ch e d on e mea n i n g or a n o th er t o t h e s e t er ms s o i t h e y ,

a fr m L o i c t o b e a n a r t or a s ci e n ce o r b ot h o r n e i t h e r
g
n ot in fa ct h a v e t h o ug ht it n e c e ss a r y t o s a
, , y
I s h o uld

a n y t hi n g o n t hi s h ea

w er e it n ot t o g ua r d y o u a g a i n st s ome mi st a ke s of t h e r e spe ct a bl e
, , ,
.

d ,

a ut h o r w h os e w o k o n L o i c I h a v e r e c o mme n d e d t o y o ur a t t e n r
, g
ti on I mea n D r Wh a t ely I n t h e open i g s en t en ce O f his
,
. . n

Wh t ly q t d
E lemen ts it is s a id : L og i c in t he mos t e x t e n ,

,

d
a e uo e
s i v e s e s e whi ch t he n a me c a n w i t h p o i
.

et n
p r r y

b e ma d e t o b e a r ma y b e con s id e e d a s t h e S ci e n ce a n a l s o t he
,
r ,

A t o f Re a s o n i n g I t i n v e st i g a t e s the pr i n ci pl e s o n w hi ch a r g ume
r

t a t io n is co n d uct e an fur n i sh e s r ul e s t o secur e t h e mi n d f o m

.

dd , r
n

1 [C a mer a r ius , D

P a r isiis , 1630 d
isp ut a t ion es P hilosop hicce , p
S ee
. i
G
. 1 .

d
sub s

J o hn V
. 4 , et

ossi us ,
s eq , p
D e N
. 8, e d .

A r t i um,
1 711 L n

d ]
3 0] [P ars i .
q u 3, e . . . er a r a t. s z ve e

a l so Q u . 4 , p 44 E D ]
. . . L og ica , 0 . vi

2 [ S ee T hemis tius , I n A n a l P ost 1 i c 24 , 3 [ S ee L a e r t i us , I n V ita Z en on is , l ] 62

. . . .
,
.

V IL

dd
. .

O
[ p 6 V e n ice l 55 4 E U
] A mmon iu s
d
, p
er a , , . . .

ED ] .

H e r mite , I n C a t eg , P r ze f [ p 3 , e A i 1 503

d
P r ce ica men ta ,
. . . . . .

4 [ S co tus i A l b e r t us
Q u

d S impl ici us , I n C a t eg
, . .

ED P r ae f . 25 , p
.
] .
,
.

M In D P ica b ilibus , I
a g n us , e r ae c. ]
5, e Ba s ile se 1 551 E D ] Z a b a r e ll a , D e

d
.
. .

d
[ Ra mus , I n st z t
'
5 D ia lect l i 1 Bu r
N L og icce , [ l i c 5 , et s eq
a t ur a E ] S mi D c
. . . .
. . . . . , .

g e r s icius , I n s t it L og 1 i c l 4 BE J
g le ci us , L og ica , D is p ii q u 4 , [ p 6 9 , e , C x
. . . . . . .
. . . . , ,

O n ii, 1 658 - E D ] L og ica C on imbr icen s is , [T r act

. . 6 S ee S mig l ecius , a s a b o ve . E D .
 LOGIC LE C T . I .

e r r or d ed ucti on s I t s most a ppr opr i a t e of ce h ow ev er is

in it s .
, ,

d
t h a t of i n s t it ut i g a n a n a ly s i s o f t he pr o ce ss of t h e mi n d in r e a s on
n

in g ; a n in t hi s po i n t o f V i e w it is a s h a s b e e n s t a t e d s t r i ct ly a , ,

s ci e n ce ; whil e me n t i on e d in r e fer e n ce t o t h e pr a ct i ca l r ul e s a b o v e

me n t i o e d it ma y b e ca ll e d t h e a r t o f r ea so n i n g T hi s di s t i n ct i on
n , .
,

a s w ill h e r e a ft e r a p pea r h a s b e en ov er l ooke d or n o t cl e a r ly oi t e d

, p , n

o ut b y mos t w r i t e r s o n t h e s ubj e ct ; L og i c h a v i n g b e e n in

g
,

r e a d e d a s me r e ly a n a r t a
r it s cl a i m t o h o ld a
p l a c,e a mn o
g
d
n
en e r a l

g t h e .

s ci e n ce s h a v i n g b ee n e x pr e s sly d e n i e d

.

A ll t hi s is f o m r s t t o l a s t e r r o n e o us
,
r I n t h e r s t pl a c e it is , .
,

C it i i d
e r on e o us in Wh a t it s a y s o f t h e O
r i n i on r ev
r c ze
p p
a l e n t a mon hil h e r s in r e a r d t o t h e
.

g p os o p g e n u s
g ,

of L og i c

ar t , an d
L og i c w a s n ot a s is a sser t e d in g e n e r a l r e g a r d e d a s a n
.

it s cl a i m t o h old a pl a ce a mon g t h e s ci e n ce s e x pr e ssly

, ,

d e n i e d T he c o n t r a r y w o uld h a v e b e en cor r e ct ; for t he i mme n s e

.

d
a s ci e n ce a n e , p d
maj or i t y of l og i ci a n s a n ci en t a n mod er n h a v e r eg a r d e d L og i c a s
r e s s ly d e n i e d it t o b e a n a r t
x
,

I n t he s e co n d
p l a ce
,

d ,

s uppos i g D r Wh a t ely s a cc ept a t i o n of t h e t er ms a r t a n

n . s ci en ce

t o b e c o r e ct t h e r e is n ot a pr e vi ous l og ici a n w h o w o uld h a v e

r ,

s ci e n ce a n an a r t dd
d r ea mt of d en yi n g th a t on such a n a ccept a t i o n L ogi c w a s b o t h a ,

But in t h e thi r d pl a ce t h e iscr imin a t ion

.

i t s elf of a r t a n sci en ce is w r on g D r Wh a t ely con sid er s sci en ce

, ,
,
'
d
t o b e a n y kn o wl e d g e V i e w e d a b s o l ut e ly a n n o t in r e l a t i o n t o
p
.

ae
.

,
d r

ti ce a s ig i cat i on in whi ch e v er y a r t w o uld in it s d oct r i a l

p ar t
,

,
b e a s c i e n ce ; an
n

h d
e d e n e s a r t t o b e t h e a ppli ca t i o n o f
,
n

d
k o w l e d g e t o pr a ct i ce in whi ch s en s e E t hi cs P oli t i cs Re li g i o n
n , , , ,

d
an a ll r a ct i ca l s ci e n c e s w o uld b e a r t s T h e di st i n ct i o n o f a t s r
p , .

an s ci e n c e s is t h us w r o n g But in t he fo u t h pl a ce w e r e t h e 1
.
,
r ,

n o t hi n g s i n ce a r t a n
,
,

d
di s ti n ct i on cor r e ct it w ould b e of n o va l ue for it w o uld di st i n g ui sh
sci en ce w o uld ma r k o ut n o r e a l

b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s b r a n ch e s O f kn o wl e d g e b ut o ly di ffe e t
iffe en ce
,

n
d r

r n
,

i
d
n t s o f V i e w u n d e r w hi ch t h e s a me b r a n ch mi h t b e co n t e m l a t e d
p o g p
b y u s e a ch b e i n g in di ffe e n t r e l a ti o n s a t o n c e a s ci e n ce a n a n
, r

I fa ct D r Wh a t e ly co f us e s t h e di sti n ct i on o f s ci e n ce t h e o
d d
art . n , . n

r e t ic a l a n s ci e n ce r a ct i ca l wi t h t he di s t i n ct i on O f s ci e n ce a n ar t
p .

d
I a m w e ll a w a r e t h a t it w o u ld b e n o e a sy ma tt e r t o g i v e a g e n e a l
e n i t i o n o f s ci e n ce a s c o t r a di st i n ui sh e d fr o m a r t a n
g ,
n O f ar t a s , d ,
r

c o n t a di s t i n g ui s h e d f o m s ci e c e

d b ut if t he w or d s t h ems el v es c a
d
r r n n

n o t v a lidly b e i s c i mi n a t e d it w o uld b e ab sur d t o a t t e mpt t o is

r ,

Wh en I t h e efor e d en e L og i c b y
cr i mi n a t e a n y t hi n g b y t h e m

d .
,
r ,

d
t he g e n u s s ci en ce I o n ot a t t e m t t o
p , g i v e it mo r e t h a n t h e

en omi n a ti on of a b r a n ch o f kn o wl e d g e ; for I r es e r v e t h e
g e er a l

is cr imi d n

1 C mpa r e L ect ur es on
o M eta phy s ics , p 81 . et seq . E D .
LE C T . I .
LO GIC .

n at on i
b y it s obj e ct ma t t e r
of it s pe c uli ar
h a r a ct er t o t h e differ en ti a l qua lity a ffor d e d
Y o u wil l n-
c

w h e n w e h a v e di scus se d t h e
. d ,

t hi r d h e a d o f t h e d e n i t i o n t h a t L og i c is n o t o n ly a s ci e n ce b ut a , ,

d e mo n st a t i v e or a podi ct i c s ci en ce b ut so t o h a ve d en e d it w ould
r ,

h a v e b e en t a ut ol og i ca l ; for a sci e n ce co n ve sa n t a b o ut l a ws is con

v e r s a n t a b o ut n e ce s s a r y ma tt e r an a s ci e n ce c on v e r s a n t a b o u t ,
d r

n e ces s a r y ma t t er is d e mon s t r a t i v e

I pr o ce e d th er e for e t o t h e t hi d a n
,
l a st h ea d of t h e e i
,

ti on t o e x pl a i n t o y ou wh a t is mea n t b y t h e
.

r d d n

3 L GI bj t
,
O it C s o ec
obj e ct ma t t e r o f L og i c vi t h e L a w s of
.
,
- z
m tt
.
, ,
a er .

T h o ug h t a s T h oug h t T h e con s id er a t i o n o f .

thi s h ea d n a t ur a lly di v id e s i t s elf i t o t h ee qu e st i on s : 1 Wh a t is n r

,

T h o ug h t ? 2 Wh a t is T houg ht a s T h o ug h t ? 3 Wh a t a r e t h e L a w s
, ,

of T h o ug h t a s T h o ug h t ?

I n the r s t pl a c e th en in s a yi n g th a t L og i c is con v er sa n t a b out

, ,

T h o ug h t we me a n t o s a y th a t it is c o n v e r s a n t ,
( ) T h ght
a Wh t
ou a
a b o u t t h o ug ht s t i ct ly s o c a ll e d T h e t er m
.
,
r .

thoug ht is u s e d in t w o sig n ica t ion s o f differ en t e x t en t I n the .

I it Wi d d
wid er me a n i n g it d en ot es ev er y cog n i t iv e a ct ,

wh
d
some phil oso h e r s a s D e s ca r t e s
n s er an n ar
a t ev er ; b
m y p ,

d
ro w er i g ea n n
his di sci pl e s it is e v e n u s e d for e v er y me n t a l
.

an ,

mo dica t i on of whi ch w e a r e c on sci o us a n th u s i n cl ud e s t h e F e e l

, ,
d
i n g s t h e V o li t i on s a n t he D es i r e s I n t he mor e li mi t e d mea n i n g 1
.
,

it d e n ot e s o n ly t h e a ct s of t h e U n d e r st a n di n g pr oper ly s o ca ll e d ,

th a t is of t h e F a cu l t y of C ompa r i son or t h a t whi ch is di s t i n g ui s h e d

, ,

a s t h e E l a b o r a ti v e o r D i s cu s i v e F a c ul t y I t is in thi s mor e r e
d
2
r .

st ict e s i g i ca t i o n t h a t t h o u h t is s a id t o b e

d
r n
g
O bj t t h t l i b
dth ph f n ot con sid er t he l a w s whi ch r eg ul a t e t he ot h er
t h e obj e ct ma t t e r o f L og i c T h u s L og i c
ec s a e e -
oe s .

yon e s er e o

L gi
o c.

ow er s o f mi n d I t t a ke s n o i mme di a t e a cco un t
p .

of th e fa c ul t i e s b y w hi ch w e a cq u i e t he r ud e ma t e r i a l s O f kn o w l

d
r

e d g e ; it s uppo s e s t h e s e ma t e r i a l s in p o s ses s i o n a n con s id e r s o n ly ,

t he ma n er of th e i r e l a b o r a t i o n
d
n I t t a ke s n o a cco un t a t l ea s t in .
,

t h e d pa r t me n t of P ur e L og i c O f M e mo r y a n
e I ma g i n a t i o n or of , ,

t h e b li n d l a w s O f A s s o ci a t i on b ut co n n e s it s a t t e n t i o n t o con n ec ,

t i o s r eg ul a t e d b y t h e l a w s of i n t e lli g e n ce
n F i n a lly it d o e s n ot .
,

con s id e r t h e l a w s th e ms el v e s o f I n t e lli g e n ce a s i v e n in t h e Re u
g g
l tiv F c lt y I t lli g C o mmo n S en se fo r in t h a t fa cul t y
d
a e a u n e e n ce
, ,

t h es e l a w s a r e d a t a fa ct s u l t i ma t e a n con s e ue n t ly i n c o n ce i v a b l e ;
, q , , ,

d d
d
P r in ci p z a , p i 9 C og it a i n t e l lig e r e , ima g in a r i , m sen tir e ,

1 D esc a r t es, . . .
vell e , se e t ia

t i on is n omin e i n t e llig o i ll a omn ia q uee n ob is i e m est hic q u o C o g it a r e .

E D .

co n s ciis i n n ob is h un t , q u a ten u s c or u m i n

d iv
2 S ee L ectur es on M eta p hy s ics , l ect . xxx .
,

n ob is con scien t ia e st . A tq ue i t a n on mo o p 4 63 .
-ED .

2
10 LOGIC . LE C T . I .

b ut wh a t ev er t r an sc en d s t he sph er e of t he c on cei vab l e t r a n s c en d s ,

t h e s ph e r e o f L og i c .

S uch a e t h e fun ct i on s ab o ut w hi ch L og i c is n ot c on v er s a n t a n
r ,
d
s u ch in t h e li mi t e d s i g i ca t i o n o f t h e w o d a r e t h e a ct s w hi ch a r e
,
n r ,

n o t d e n o mi n a t e d T h o ug h t We h a v e hi t h er t o fo un d wh a t t h oug ht
.

is n o t w e mu s t n ow e n d e a v o t o d e t e r mi n e g e n e r a lly Wh a t it is r .

T he co n t e mpl a t i on of t h e w o ld pr esen t s t o o ur s ub s idi a y fa cul r r -

t i e s a mul t i t u d e O f O bj e ct s T h e s e o bj e ct s a r e .

d
T h ght p p
ou r o er
t h e r ud e ma t e r i a l s s ub mi t t e d t o e l a b or a t i on b y a
.

hig h e r a n s elf a cti v e fa cul t y whi ch o per a t e s upon t h em in O b edi

d
-
,

e n ce t o c e r t a i n l a w s a n in co n for mi t y t o c e r t a i n e n d s T he o pe r a
, .

t i o n o f t hi s fa cul t y is T h o ug h t
d
A 11 t h o ug ht is a co mpa r i so n a .
=
,

r e cog n i t i o n o f s i mil a r i t y o r di ffer en ce ; a co nj un ct i o n o r isj un c

ti on ; in oth er w or d s a s yn t h e si s o r a n aly si s of it s O bj e ct s I n
, .

C o n ce pt i o n t h a t is in t h e fo r ma t i on o f con cept s ( or g e n e a l o t i o n s)
, , r n ,

it co mpa r e s di sj oi n s o r conj o i n s a t t r ib ut e s ; in a n a ct O f J ud g men t

, , ,

p ar es ,
i d
it c o mpa r es di sj oi n s or conj o i n s con cept s ; in Rea s on i n g it com
,

sj o i n s o r c onj o i n s j u d g me n t s
,
I
,

n ea c h s t e

th er e is o n e e ssen ti a l e l e men t ; t o t hi n k t o compa r e t o conj oi n or

p o f t hi s
p r o ces s .
,

, , ,

a n o th e r ; a n
,

d
di sj oi n it is n ecessa r y t o r e cog n iz e o n e thi n g t h r oug h o un d er
th er efor e in d en i n g T h o ug ht pr oper we ma y e i t h er
,

d en e it a s a n a ct of C ompa r i s on o r a s a r e cog n i t i o n of on e n o t ion

,
r

a s i n o r u n d er a n ot h er I t is in pe r for mi n g t hi s a ct of t hi n ki n g a
.

thi n g un d er a g en er a l n ot i on t h a t w e a r e s a id t o un d er s t a d or , n

compr e h e n d it F o r e x a mpl e : a n obj e ct is pr e s en t e d s a y a b o ok ;

.

t hi s O bj e ct d e t e r mi n e s a n i mpr es s i on a n I a m e v e n co sci o u s O f t h e ,
d ,

i mpr e ssi o n b ut wi t h o ut r e cog n izi n g t o my self wh a t t h e t hi n g is

,

d
in t h a t ca s e th er e is o n ly a pe r ce pt i on a n n o t pr ope r ly a t h o ug h t
, , d .

But s uppose I
d
o r e c og iz e it fo r w h a t it is in o t h e r w o r d s co m
n , ,

a r e it w i t h a n r e d u ce it un d e r a c er t a i n con ce t cl a ss o r co m
p
p , , , ,

p l e men t o f a t t r i b ut e s w hi ch I c a ll bo ok ; in th a t c a se th e r e is mor e
, ,

t ha n a pe r ce pti on t h e r e is a t h o ug ht
, .

A ll t hi s w ill h o w e v er b e fully e x pl a i n e d t o y o u in t h e s e q uel ; a t

, ,

p r e s e n t I o ly a tt e mpt t o
n

d g i ve
y o u a r ud e n o t i on of wh a t t hi ki n

is t o t h e e n t h a t y ou ma y b e a b l e v a g uely t o c o mpr e h e n d t he l im
,
g n

d
it a t io n o f L og i c t o a ce t a i d ep a r t me n t O f o ur cog n i t i v e fun ct i o n s
r n ,

an wh a t is me a n t b y s a yi n g t h a t L og i c is a s ci en ce O f t h o ug h t .

But T h o ug h t s i mply is st ill t oo u n d e t er mi n e d ; t h e pr ope r obj e ct

o f L o i c is s ome t hi n t ill m d i t i t is
g g s o r e e n e ;
( b ) T h g h t th g h t
ou as ou
n o t t h o u ht in n e r a l b ut th o u h t c o n s id e r e d
wh t
a .
g g e
g ,

me ely a s th oug ht o f whi ch thi s s ci en ce t a ke s

r
,

c ogn iz a n c e T hi s ex pr es si on r e qui r es ex pl a n ati on ; we come ther e '

.
LE C T . I . L 0G I C 11

for e t o t h e se c on d q ue s ti on ,
Wh t a is mea n t b y T h oug ht as

T h o ug h t
T o a n s w er hi s questi on le t us e memb e r w h a t h a s j ust b e en sa id
t ,
r

o f t h e a ct co n st i t ut i ve o f t h o u h t v i t h a t it is t h e r e co n i t i on z -
g g , .
,

o f a t hi a s c o mi n u d r a co n ce t ; in o t h e r w o d s t h e ma ki n
g n
g n e p g r ,
r

d
an O bj e ct b a n a t t r i b ut e o r a t t r i b ut e s r e vi o usly k o w n a s c o mmo n
y p n

t o s u d y O bj e ct s a n t o whi ch w e h a v e a cco r di n gly g i v e n a g e n e r a l

n r ,

n a me I n t hi s p o cess w e a r e a b l e b y a b s t r a ct i o n t o di st i n g ui s h

. r , ,

M tt
T h g htou
a d F
er a n

.
m f
f o m e a ch o t h e r
an
or o
T h ki d a n
r

md
T h e obj e ct th o ug ht of ;
a n n e r of t hi n ki n
,

L e t u s e mpl o yi g t h e O l a n es t a b li s h e d t e ch
g it e

n
,

n d
dd .

n ic a l e x r e s s i on s ca ll t h e r s t o f t h e se t h e ma t ter t h e s e co n d t h e
p , ,

d
r m o f t he t h o u h t F r e x a m l e w h e n I t hi n k t h a t t he b ook
f o , g o p .
,

b e fo r e me is a foli o t h e ma t t e r o f t hi s t h oug h t is b oo k a n foli o ;

,

t h e fo r m o f it is a j ud g me n t N o w it is a b u d a n t ly e v id en t t h a t .
,
n

t hi s a n a ly s i s o f th oug h t i n t o t w o ph a se s o r s id e s is o n ly t h e w or k
O f a s ci e t i c di scr i mi n a t i o n a n
n c o t a s t ; for a s o n t h e o n e h a n d d n r , ,

t he ma t t e r of whi ch w e t hi n k is on ly c og i t a b l e t h o ug h a cer t a i n r

for m s o o n t he o t h er t he for m u n d er whi ch w e t hi n k ca n ot b e

, , ,
n

r e a liz e d in con sci o u s e s s u n l ess in a ct u a l a ppli ca t i o n t o a n o bj e ct

1
n ,
.

N o w w h en I s a id t h a t L og i c w a s c on v e r s a n t
,
L g i p mp f
a b o ut t h o ug h t co s id e r e d mer e ly a s t h ou ht I
o c er con

n
ver sa n t ly W t h t h
on i e
g ,

m ea n t S i m ly t o sa y th a t L o i c I s con v e r sa n t
F m f Th
or o g h t ou .p g ,

wi t h t he fo m of t h oug ht t o t he e x cl usi o n O f r ,

t h e ma t t er T hi s b e i n g u n d e s t o o d I n o w pr o ce e d t o S h ow h ow
. r ,

L og i c o ly pr opo s e s h o w L og i c o n ly ca n pr op o s e t h e fo m o f
n r

t h o ug h t fo r it s o bj e ct o f co s id e a t i o I t is i d e e d t ue t h a t t hi sn r n . n r ,

li mi t a t i o n of L og i c t o t he fo m o f t h o ug h t ha s n ot a l w a y s b e en r

d
kept s t e a dily in V i e w b y l og i ci a s ; t h a t it is o n ly g r a d ua lly t h a t n

r o er v i e w s O f t h e s ci e n ce h a v e b e en S ecul a t i v e ly a d o t e d a n
p p p p ,

s t ill mo r e g a d u a lly t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n c a r i e d p a c t i ca lly i n t o

r r r

e ffe ct i n s o mu ch t h a t t o t h e pr ese n t h o ur a s I S h a ll h e r e a ft e r s h o w
, ,

y ou t,
h e e a e s u d r y d o ct r i n es s t ill t a ug h t a s l o i c a l
r r n
g whi c h a s , ,

r e l a t i v e t o t he ma t t e r o f t h o u h t a r e in fa ct for e i n t o t h e s ci e n ce
g g ,

of it s fo r m .

But a i mpo ssi bl e t o sh ow b y t he hi st or y O f t he
l t h ough it is
s ci e n ce t h a t L o i c is con v e r s a n t wi t h t h e fo r m
g , ,

idi
d
T hi h W b y
S S O
t o t h e e x cl u s i on O f t he ma t t e r o f t h o ug h t ; thi s
3 0011

d
d
S f th
e r a t on o e na
ca n h o we v e b e s a t sfa ct o r ly d on e b y a con S I
t m u c on d i t i ons f
an o
,
r, I I

t h t h i g it l f
e n e r a t ion o f t h e n a t ur e a n
se ,
co n di t i o n s o f t h e

t hi g i t se l f F o r if it b e ma i n t a i e d th a t L og i c
n .
,
n

t akes n ot mer e ly t he fo m b ut t he ma tt e r of th o ug ht i n t o a cc oun t r ,

1 E ss er L ag llc,
, 5 3 , p 4, 2 . dd e it . M u n ste r , 1 830 . ED .
12 LO GIC .
LE C T . I .

( t h e ma tt er , y ou will r e c oll e ct is a coll e cti ve ex pr e ss i on for t h e,

s e v e r a l obj e ct s a b o u t whi c h t h o ug ht is c on v e s a t ) i n t h a t ca s e r n , ,

L og i c mu s t e i t h e r c o n s id e r a ll t h os e O bj e ct s Wi t h o ut di s t i ct i o n or n
,

ma ke a s e le ct io n o f s o me a l on e N o w t he fo r me r o f t h e se a l t e n a
,
. r

t iv e s is ma i fe s t ly i mpo s s i b l e ; fo r if it w e r e r e q u i e d t h a t L og i c
n r

s h o uld compr i se a full di s cu s s i on o f a ll cog i t a b l e o bj ect s in ot h er

d

,

w o d s if L og i c must d a w w i t hi n it s sph er e a ll ot h er s ci e n ces a n

r ,
r
,

t h us co n s t i t ut e i t se l f in fa ct t h e o n e un i v er s a l s ci e n ce
o n ce
p e r c e i v es t h e a b s u di t y o f t h e r e qu i s i t i on a n
r t h
e v e r y on e a t

e i m o s si b ility
p , d ,

O f it s ful l me n t Bu t is t h e s e co d a l t er n a t i v e mor e r e a so n a b l e ?
. n

C a n it b e pr opo s e d t o L o g ic t o t a ke cog n iz a n ce of ce r t a i n obj e ct s

O f th o ug h t t o t h e e x cl u s i on O f o t h e r s ? O n t hi s s uppos i t i o it n,

an d
must b e s h ow n why L og i c s h o uld co n s id er t hi s pa r t i c ul a r o bj e ct
n ot a l s o t h a t ; b ut a s n on e b u t a n a r b it r a r y a n s w e

n o a n s w er a t a ll
th at is
ca n b e g i v e n t o t hi s i n t e r r o a t i o n t h e a b s u di t y
r
,

g ,
r

O f t hi s a l t e a t i v e is n o l e s s ma n i fe s t t h a n th a t o f t he o t h er
rn T he .

a r t i cul a r obj e ct s o r t h e ma t t e r o f t h o ug h t b ei n
g t h u s e l u d e d
p , c , x ,

t h e fo m o f h uma n th o ug h t a l o e r e ma i s a s t h e O bj e ct ma t t er O f
d
r n n -

d
o ur s ci e c e ; in o t h e r w o d s L og i c h a s o n ly t o o wi t h t hi ki n

d
r as
n , g n

t hi n ki g a n h a s n o a t l e a s t o i mme i a t e co n cer n men t wi t h t h a t

,
n ,
n ,

whi ch is t h ought a b out L ogi c t h us O b t a i n s in common pa l a n ce

.
,
r ,

L og i c h a o ly a fo m a d
t h e a ppe ll a t i on o f a for ma l s ci e n ce n o t i n d ee d in t h e s e se a s if
n d
n o t a n O bj e ct b ut s i m ly b e ca u s e t h e
r n

for m O f h u ma n t h ou gh t is t h e O bj e ct of L og i c ; s o t h a t t he t i t l e
p
,

,
n

r ma l s ci en ce is pr o pe r ly o n ly a n a b b r e v i a t e d e x pr es s i on
1
f o .

I pr o ce e d n o w t o t h e q u e s t i on u n d e r t hi s h e a d v i Wh a t is ,
z .
,

me a n t b y t h e L a w s of T h oug h t a s T h o ug h t ? in
o t h e w o r d s Wh a t is me a n t b
( ) Th L w f
e F o r ma l L a ws
c e a s o
r
y t h ,
Th ou g ht Th as h
g t ou .

O f T h o ug ht

We h a v e a l r e a dy li mi t e d t he O bj e ct of L og i c t o t h e for m of
t h o ug h t But t h e r e is s t ill r e q ui r e d a l a s t a n n a l li mi t a t i o n for
. d
t hi s for m c on t a i n s mo r e th a n L og i c c a n l eg i t i ma t ely c o s id e r H u
d
n .

ma n th o ug h t r eg a d e d me r e ly i it s for ma l r e l a t i on ma y b e co si
,
r n ,
n

e r e d in a t w ofo ld p o i n t o f V i e w ; fo r on t h e o n e h a n d it is e i t h e r , ,

khow n t o us mer e ly fr o m e x pe i e n ce o r O b s er v a t i o n w e a r e r ,

d
m e e ly a w ar e of it s ph e n o me n a hi st or i ca lly o r e mpi i ca lly o o n t h e
r r ,
r,

d
o th er b y a r e e ct i v e s e cul a t i o n b
p y a n a ly si s a n a b s t a ct i o
, w e r n,

s e e k o ut a

d
di scr i mi a t e in t h e ma n ife st a t i o n s of t h o ug h t w h a t is
n n

c on t a i n e d o f n e ces s a y a n un i v er s a lr T h e e mpi r i ca l o hi s t o i ca l . r r

c o n s id e r a t i on of o ur t hi n ki n g fa cul t y d o e s n ot b el on g t o L og i c b ut ,

t o t he P haen o me n ol ogy of M i n d t o P s y ch ol og y T h e e mpi i ca l

,
- . r

1 E sser L ogi k,

ED .
,
3 , pp 5, 6
. . Cf . K r ug , D en klehr e o d
er L og ik, 8, p 17
. et s eq , . 2 dd e it 1 819
. .
LE C T I LO GIC 13

d
.
. .

ob s er v a ti on of the ph en omen a n e c essa r ily i n d e ed pr e c e es t h e i r

, ,

S pe c ul a t i v e a n a ly s i s

p
.

e c uli a r pr o v i n c e of it s o wn a n

e x cl us i v e s ci e n ce .
,

,
d
But n ot wi t h s t a n di g t hi s L og i c po ss e sse s a
n ,

con s tit ut e s a n i n d e pe n d e n t a n

F o r wh er e o ur e mpi r i ca l c on sid e r a t i on o f t he
d
mi n d t e r mi n a t es th er e our spe c ul a ti ve c on sid er a t i on comme n c es ;
,

t h e n e c ess a r y e l e me n t s whi ch t h e l a t t er se c ur e s fr om t h e c on t i n g en t
ma t e r i a l s of ob ser va ti on th ese a r e wh a t c on stit ut e t he l a w s of
,

th oug ht a s th oug ht 1
.

1 C f E sser , L ogik 4, pp 6 , 7 _ E D
. 0 0
 L E C T U RE I I .

IN TRO D UC TI O N .

L O GI C D E F IN I T I O N H I S T O R I C A L
I . IT S N O TI C E S O F O P IN I O N S
R E GA R D I N G I T S O BJ E C T A N D D O M A I N II I T S U TILIT Y
. .

IN my ct ur e I c ommen c e d t he c on sid er a ti on o f L og i c
l ast L e ,

of L og i c r o e r ly s o d e n omi n a t e d a s ci e n ce
R
p p ,
eca pit l ti
u a on
fo r t he cul t i v a t i on o f whi ch e v e y E ur opea n
.

u n i ve s i t y ha s pr o v id e d a speci a l ch a i r b ut whi ch in thi s c o u n t y in

r , , r ,

g a it s en dd
c on se q u e n ce o f t h e mi sco n cept i o n s whi ch h a v e l a t t e r ly a r i s e n in r e

r d t o it s n a t ur e a n h as b e e n v e r y
, g e n e r a lly s u e r s e d e d ;

i n somu ch t h a t for a c on sid er a b l e per i od t he ch a i r s of L og i c in o ur

p
, ,

S cot t i s h un i v e r s i t i es h a v e in fa ct t a ug h t a l mo s t e v er y t hi n g e x cept
t he d oct i e whi c h t h e y w er e e s t a b li sh e d t o t e a ch
r n

c ur sor y O b se va t i o n s in r eg ar d t o t he mo e of c ommun ic a t i on whi ch

r d
A ft er s o me pr e .

d
I sh ould fo ll o w in my L e ct ur e s o n t hi s s ubj e ct I e n t e r e d o n t h e t e a t
me n t of t he sci e n ce it se lf; a n s t a t e d t o y o u t h a t a sy st e ma t i c v i e w
,
r

O f L og i c w o uld co n s i s t of t w o pa r t s t h e o n e b e i g a n I n t r o d u ct i on
,
n

d
t o t he d oct r i n e t h e o t h er a b o dy O f t h e D oct r i n e i t s el f
,

t r o uct io n w e r e co n s id e r e d cer t a i n pr epa a t or y poi n t s n e ce ss a y t o

r
I n t he in
,
.

an d
b e un d er s t oo d b e for e e n t e r i n g o n t h e di s cuss i on O f t h e s ci e n ce i t s e lf;

d
I s t a t e d t h a t th ese pr e pa r a t or y p i t s w e r e i r e l a t i o n t o o ur
o n ,
n

s ci e n ce e h a u s t e d in v e q u e s ti o n s a n
,
x t h e i r a n s we s Wh a t is r

L og i c ? Wh a t is it s v a l ue ? H o w is it di str ib ut e d ? Wh a t
is it s hi s t o r y YV h a t a r e it s sub s idi a i e s ? r

t i on s ; a n d
I t h e n pr o ce e d e d t o t h e c o s id e a t i o n of t h e r s t o f t h e se q ue s
a s t h e a n sw er t o t h e
q u e st i o n
n

wh
r

a t is L og i c
,
is
g i ve n ,
-

in it s d e n i t i o I d e e d L o g i c t o b e t he s ci e n ce co n v e r s a t a b o u t
n, n n

t h e l a w s o f t h o ug ht co s id e r e d me e ly a s t h o ug h t ; w a n i g y o u
n r r n ,

h ow e v er t h a t t hi s d en i t i on co uld o n ly b e u n d e s t oo d aft e r a n a t i c
,
r r

ul a t e e x pl a n a t i o n o f it s co t e n t s

y ,
r

d
o u n a t u a lly fe ll i n t o th r e e p a r t s ad N o w t his d e n i t i o n I sh o we d
n .

e a ch O f t h e s e
,
n

h o ov e d t o co n s id e r a n ill ust r a t e b y i t s el f T he r st w a s t he w o r d
p a t s it b e
,

s i g n i c a t o f t h e t hi n g d e n e d

dd L og i c T h e s e co n d w a s t h e
n - .
,

e n us b y whi ch L o i c wa s e n e s ci e n ce T h e t hi r d w a s t he
g g ,
.
LE C T . II . L O GIC . 15

O bj e ct -ma tt er c on stit uti n g th e differ en ti a l qua lity of L og ic t he ,

l a ws O f t h o ug ht a s t h o ug h t E a ch o f t h e se I con s id er e d in it s or d er
I r s t o f a ll e pl a i n e d t h e or i g i a l mea n i n g o f t h e t e r m L og i c a n
, ,
x
.

n ,
d
.

g ave
y o u a b r i ef hi s t o r y of it s a ppli ca t i o n

n e c e s s a r y in r e a r d t o t h e g e n u s
g ,
sci e n ce
I th
an
en s t a t e d wh a t w a s

l a s t ly w h a t is O f ,
.

d , ,

r i n ci a l i m o r t a n ce I e n d e a v o r e d t o ma ke y o u v a g ue ly a w a r e of
p p p ,

t h a t w hi ch y ou ca n n o t a s y e t b e s uppos e d compe t e t di s t i n ct ly t o n

co mpr e h e d I me a n t h e pe culi a r ch ar a ct er O f t h e obj e ct

n o bj e ct ,

ma t t er a b o ut whi ch L og i c is con v e r s a n t T he O bj e ct of L og ic
, .
,

a s s t a t e d in t h e d e i t i o is t h e l a w s o f t h o ug ht a s t h o ug h t
n n, T hi s
d .

dd
r e q ui r e d a n a t i c ul a t e e x pl a n a t i o r ; a n s u ch a n e x l a n a t i o n I e h n
p
eavo e t o a ffo d y o u u n d er t h e e di s t i ct h ea d s ; e po u n di n g
r r r n x ,

Wh a t w a s me a n t b y th ough t ; Wh a t wa s mea n t b y t h oug h t

a s t h o ug h t ; Wh a t wa s me a t b y t he l a w s of t h oug h t a s t h oug h t n .

I n r e fe r e n ce t o t he r s t h ea d I s t a t e d t h a t L og i c is co n v e r s a n t ,

a b o ut t h o ug ht t a ke in it s s t i ct e r s ig n i ca t i on t h a t is a b o ut t h o ug ht
n r , ,

c on sid e e d a s t he o per a t i o n of t he U d e r st a n di n g P r ope r or of t h a t

r n ,

fa cul t y whi ch I di st i n g ui sh e d a s t h e E l a b or a t iv e or D i scur si ve ,

t h e F a cul t y of Re l a t i on s o r C o mpa i s on I a tt e mpt e d t o m

, a ke
y o u r .

v a ue ly a pp e h e n d wh a t is t h e e ss e n t i a l ch a r a ct e r i s t i c o f t h o u ht
r
g g ,

t h e co mpr e h e n si on O f a t hi n g u n d e r a g e n er a l n o t i o n o r a t t r i
d
V iz .
,

b ut e .F o r s u ch a compr eh e s i on e n t e r s i n t o e v er y a ct o f t h e is n

an d
cur s i v e fa culty in it s di ffe r e n t g r a d a t i o n s O f C o n ce pt i on J ud me n t

Re a s on i n g
,

But b y s a yi g t h a t L og i c is con v e s a t ab out

r,
.

th ough t pr ope L og i c is n ot y e t di s c i mi n a t e d a s a pe culi a s ci e n ce

g
n

r
,

r n

r
,

O pe r a t i o n s a n
r r

d
fo r t h e e a e ma n y sci e n ce s li ke w i s e i n ter a li a co n v e r s a n t a b o ut t he
obj e ct s o f t h e E l a b or a t i v e F a cul t y
,

T h e r e is r e
, ,

ui r e d a fur t h er d e t e r mi n a t i o n O f it s o bj e ct ma tt er T hi s is d o n e -
q .

b y t h e li mi t a t i on t h a t L og i c is c o n v e r s a t n o t me r e ly a b o ut t h o ug ht
,
n
,

b ut a b o u t t h o ug ht a s t h o ug h t T h e e pl a n a t i o n of t hi s co n s t i t ut e d . x

t h e s e c o n d h e a d O f o ur e p o s i t i o n O f t h e O bj e ct ma t t e r x T h o ug h t I -
.
,

S h o w e d co uld b e v i e w e d b y a n a n a l y t i c a b s t r a ct i o
, o n t w o S id es
, n,

We could e it h e r co sid er t he obj e ct th o ugh t or t he

d
o r ph a s e s . n
,

ma n n er of t hi n ki g it ; in o t h er w o r d s w e c ould s ci e n t i c ally is
d
n ,

t i g uish f o m e a ch o t h e r t h e m a t t e r a n
n r

d
t h e for m of t h o ug h t N ot .

d
t h a t t h e ma tt e r a n fo m h a v e a n y s epa r a t e e x i st en ce ; o O bj e ct
r n

b e i n g cog it a b l e e x cept u n d e r s o me fo r m o f t h o ug h t a n n o fo r m o f ,

th oug h t h a vi g a n y e x i s t en ce in co n sci ousn e ss e cept so me obj e ct

n x

b e t h o ug h t un d er it T hi s h ow e v e r fo r me d n o i mpe di me n t t o o ur
.
, ,

a n a ly s i s of t h es e e l e me n t s t h r o ug h a me t a l a b s t r a ct i o n , T hi s is in n .

O f ma ki

b e i mpo ssib l e
n

an no
0 3
n

d
fa ct o ly o e of a t h ous a n d si mil a r a b s tr a ct i on s we a r e in t he h a b i t
if s u ch w e e i mpo s s i b l e a l l h uma n sci e ce w o uld
"

F or e x a mpl e : e x t e s i o n is on ly pr e s en t e d t o s e n s e
r

n
, n

.
,
16 LOGIC LE C T II

d
. . .

un d er so me mo di ca ti on l
of co or , a n i e v en mag i n a ti on c a n n ot r ep
r es e n t i on e x cept a s
ex t en s e co l o e d r . W ma y V i e w it in ph a n t a s y
a s b l a ck o r w hi t e a s t a n s l uce n t o r o a u e b ut r e p e s e n t it w e ca n r
, p q r

d
n o t e ce t e i th e r un d e r s o me
x o s i t i v e v a i e t y o f li g h t o r u n d e t he r
, p p , r

n e a t i o n o f li h t w hi ch is d a k e s s B ut psy ch o l o i ca lly con si

g g , g r n .
,

e e d d a r k e s s o r b l a ckn es s is a s mu ch a co l or t h a t is a
r

se sat i o
n
,
n

as w hi t e n e s s o r r e d es s ; a n
n ,
th us w e ca n o t i mag e t o n
p o si t i v e

d ,

n
,

o u s e l v e s a u h t e t e d e d n o t e v e n s pa ce i t s e l f o ut o f r e l a t i o n t o
r x n
g , ,

col o r But is thi s i a b ili t y e v e n t o i mag i n e e x t e n si on a pa t fr o m

. n ,
r

s ome co l o r a n y hi d e r a ce t o o ur c o n s id e i n g it s ci e n ti ca lly a a r t

d d
n n r
, p

d
f o m a ll col or ? N ot in t h e s ma ll est n or o M a th ema t i cs a n t h e
r

o t h er s ci e n ces n an di f u l t y i n tr e a ti n f t n s i o n w i t h ou t
y c g o e e x ,

e v e n a s i n l e r efe r e n c e t o t hi s co n di t i on o f it s a ct u a l ma n i fe s t a t i on
g .

T h e ca se of L og i c is pr e ci s e ly t h e s a me
a pa r t f o m t h e ma t t e r o f t h o u ht
r
g an

a n y t r o ub l e ; for t h o u h t h e fo r m is o n ly a n a ct u a l
it
L og i c co n s id e r s t h e fo r m
is ab l e t o o thi s wi t h o ut

h aen o men o n
d .

d
g p
wh e n a ppli e d t o s ome ma t t er obj e ct y e t a s it is n o t n ecessa , ,
-
,

r ily a s t r i ct e d t o a n b j t w a n a l w a y s c o n s id e r it a b s t r a ct fr om
y o ec e c ,

a ll O bj e ct s in ot h er w o r d s fr o m a ll ma t t er F o r a s t h e ma th e ma
, .

t icia n wh o ca n o t co n st r uct his di a gr a ms e i t h er t o s e n s e o r t o im

,
n ,

a in a t io n a a r t fr o m s o me r t i c ul a r co l or is s till a b l e t o con s id er
g p , p a ,

t he p ope r t i e s o f e x t e n s i on a pa r t fr o m a ll c o l or ; s o t he l og i ci a n
r ,

th oug h he ca n n o t co n cr et e ly r e p es e t t h e for ms of t h oug h t e x cept r n

in e x a mpl e s o f s ome pa t i cul a r ma tt er is s t ill a b l e t o con s id e r t he

r ,

r o e t i e s o f t h es e fo r ms a a t fr o m a l l ma t t e r T h i b ility b
p p r
p e
p or s s e .

in g th u s a ppa r e n t o f a co n s id e r a t i o n o f t h e fo r m a b s t r a ct ly f om r

t h e ma tt er o f t h oug h t I sh o w e d y o u th a t su ch a n a b s t r a ct i o n w a s
,

d
n e ce ss a y T he obj e ct s ( t h e ma t t e r ) of th o ug ht a r e i n n i t e ; n o
'

r .

on e sci e n ce ca n e mb a c e th e m a ll a t h e e fo e t o s u ppos e L og i c
r ,
n r r ,

co v e sa n t a b o u t t h e ma t t e r o f t h o u h t in
n r e e r a l is t o s a y t h a t
g g n ,

L o g i c is a n o t h e n a me fo r t h e e cy cl opae di a t he omn e s ci bi le
r n

o f h u ma n k o wl e d e T h e n
a b s u di t y o f thi s s uppo s i t i o n i s a ppa r r
g .

e t
n .But if it b e i mpo s s i b l e fo r L og i c t o t r e a t o f a ll t he o bj e ct s ,

o f t h o u g h t it c a n ot b e s u o s e d t h a t it t r e a t s O f a y ; fo r n o r e a
n n
pp
,

so nca b e g i v e n w h y it s h o uld li mi t it s co n sid e a t i o n t o s o me t o t h e

n r ,

e cl u s i o n O f o t h e s
x

o bj e ct s a n a s it c a n o t
, pd
A s L og i c ca n o t t h e e fo e po s s ib ly i cl ud e a ll
r .

o s s i b ly b e s h o w n w h n
y it S h o u ld i c l
n

ud e
,
r r ,
n

o ly s o me it fo ll o w s t h a t it mu s t e cl ud e fr o m it s d o ma i n t h e co n

d
n , x

s id e r a t i o n o f t h e ma t t e r o f t h o u h t a l t o e t h e r ; a n a s a pa t f o m r r
g g ,

t h e ma t t e r o f t h oug ht t h e r e o ly r e ma i n s t h e fo m it fo ll o w s t h a t
,
n r ,

L og i c a s a spe ci a l s ci e n ce o f t h o ug h t mu st b e V i e w e d a s c on v e r s a n t
, ,

e x cl u s i v e ly a b o u t t h e fo m of t h o ug ht r .

B ut t h e li mit a t i on of t he obj e ct ma tt er of L og ic t o t h e for m of -

LE C T II LOGIC 17

d
. . .

t h oug ht ( a n t h e e x pr ess on i f o zm o f thoug h t is con v e r t i bl e wi t h

d
i th oug ht a s th oug ht) is n ot y e t
t he e x pr e ss o n ,

( ) Th L w f
e n o ug h t o i s cr i mi n a t e it s p o v i n c e fr o m t h a t o f
c e a s o
r
Th g ht
ou Th g ht as ou
o t h er s ci e n ces ; for P s y ch o l o g y o r t h e E mpir
.

i ca l S ci e n ce o f M i n d is like w i se a mon g t he o t h er me n t a l phae n om

, ,

co v e s a n t a b o ut t h e ph aen o me n a o f fo r ma l t h o ug h t

d
e a n ,
n r A st il l .

fur t h e r li mi t a t i o n is t h e r e fo r e r e q ui si t e ; a n t hi s is g i v e n in s a y

i g t h a t L og i c is t h e sci e n ce n ot me e ly o f T h o ug h t a s T h o ug h t
n r ,

b ut of t h e L a w s O f T h o ug h t a s T h o ug h t
w hi ch a ffo d s t h e pr o x i ma t e a n r
p e culi a r
I t is t hi s d e t e r mi n a t i on
i ff e e n ce o f L o g i c in d .

d
d
r ,

co t a di s t i n ct i o n f o m a ll o t h e r s ci e c e s ; a n
n r r t h e e pl a n a t i o n o f it s n x

me a i n g co n st i t ut e d t h e t hi d h e a d o f ill us t r a t i o n whi ch t he O bj e ct
n r ,

ma t t er in t he d e n i t i on d e ma d e d n .

T he ph aen o me n a of t h e fo rma l or subj e ct i ve ph a ses o f t h o ug ht , ,

a r e o f t w o ki n d s T h e y a e e i t h er s uch a s a e . r r

T h Ph m m
co n t i n g e n t t h a t is s u ch a s ma y o r ma y n o t a
e fae en a
, p ,
f m l th
t w ki d
or a g ht f ou ar e o
e a r ; or t h e y a r e s uch a s a r e n e ce ss a r y t h a t I s
tm p
d y
, ,
o n s_ co n
t en
g
an n e cessa r s uch a s ca n n o t b ut a ppea r
,
T h e se t w o cl a sse s .

O f ph ae n o me n a a r e h o w e v e r o n ly ma n i fest e d in , ,

t h o ug h t ; a d
conj un cti on ; th e y a r e n o t di s cr i mi n a t e d in t h e a ct ua l o pe r a t i o n s o f

it r e q ui r e s a specul a t i v e a n a lysi s t o sepa r a t e t h em

n

dd
i n t o t h e i r se v er a l cl a sses I n s o far a s th e se ph e n ome n a a e con
si e r e me r e ly a s ph aen ome a t h a t is in so far a s phil o s ophy is
me e ly ob s er v a n t o f t h e m a s ma n i fe s t a t i on s in g e n er a l t h e y b el on g
r
.

n , ,
r

t o t he s ci e n ce of E mpi r i ca l o r H i st o r i ca l P s y ch ol og y But wh e n .

p hil oso
p hy , b y a r e e c t i v e a b s t r a ct i o n a n a lyz e s t h e n e ce s s a y f o m ,
r r

d
t he co n t i g e t fo r ms o f t h o ug h t t h e r e r es ul t s a s ci e n ce whi ch is
n n
, ,

i st i n g ui h d fr om a ll ot h er s b y t aki n g for it s obj e ct ma t t er t h e

d
s e -

for me r o f t h es e cl a sses ; a n t hi s s ci e n ce is L og i c L og i c t h e e
fo r e is a t l a s t fully a n
, d
n a lly d e e d a s t h e sci en c e o f t h e n e ces n
.
,
r

d d
s a r y fo r ms o f t h o u ht H e r e t e mi n a t e d o ur l a st L ect ur e B u t
g . r .

t h o ug h full a n n a l t hi s d e n i ti o n is n ot e x pli cit ; a n

, it st ill
r e ma i n s t o e v o l v e it i n t o a mo r e r e ci se ex r ess i on
p p .

N o w w h e n w e s a y t h a t L og i c is t he s ci en ce o f t he n e ce ssa r y

for ms o f t h oug ht wh a t d o es t he q uali t y o f n e c e ss it y h e r e i mply ?

,

I n t he r s t pl a ce it is e v id e n t t h a t in s o fa r

,

d
F m f t h ght
or o ou
a s a fo r m O f t I] o u ll t h f m
. .

F ou r co n i i t t on s o g 1 s n e cess a I
y t IS or ,
s

mus t b e d e t er mi n e d or n e ces s i t a t e d b y t h e n a
1 D t mi d
n e cess it y .

e er
l a th t u e o f t h e t hi n ki n
ne e
g s urb j e ct i t s e lf ; fo r if it

d
t
a ? f t h t h mkmg
f
(
w e r e d e t e mi n e d b y a n y t hi n g e x t e n a l t o t h e
e
r r
su bj t t lf
ec I se

mI n t h e n w o uld I t n ot b e a n ece ss a r y b u t a
.

, ,

mer ely co n t i n g e n t d e t er mi n a t i on T h e r s t con di t i o n t h e r e for e .

, ,

3
18 L oG I c . LE C T .

II .

of th e n ecess for m of th o ug ht is th a t it is subj ecti v ely n ot

ity of a , ,

obj e ct i v e ly d e t e r mi n e d ,
.

d

I n t h e secon d pl a ce if a for m o f t h oug ht b e subj e ct i v e ly n e ce s
,

s a r y it mu s t b e o r i i n a l a n n o t a c ui r e d F
2 O ig i l r na
g , q o r .

if it w er e a cq ui r e d t h e r e must h a v e b e en a t i me
. .

wh e n it did n ot e x i st ; b ut if it did e v e r a ct ua ll y n ot e x i st w e mu st ,

b e a b l e a t l ea s t t o co n ce i v e t he po ss i b ili t y o f it s n o t e x i st i g o w n n .

But if w e a r e s o a b l e t h e n is t he fo r m n ot n e c ess a r y ; for t he cr it e

,

r i o n o f a c on t i n g e n t cog n i t i o n is t h a t w e ca n r e r e s e n t t o o u s e l v es
p , r

t h e poss i b ili t y o f it s n on e x i s t e n ce T h e s e co n d c o n di t i o n t h e e
d
- . r
,

fo e o f t he n e ce ssi t y of a for m of th ough t is t h a t it is o r ig i n a l a n

r , , ,

n o t a cq ui r e d

.

I n t h e t hi r d pl a ce if a for m o f t h oug h t b e n e c ess a r y a n o r i g i

,
d
d
n al it must b e u n i ve r s a l ; t h a t is it c a n n o t b e
, ,
3 U i l n ve r sa
t h a t it n e ce s si t a t e s o n s o me o cca s i o n s a n d oe s
. .

n o t n e ce ss it a t e o n o t h er s

d
F o r if it did n ot n e cessi t a t e u n i v e r sa lly
.
,

th e n w ould it s n e ce ssi t a t i on b e con t i n g en t a n it w o uld co s e

d ,
n

d
u e n t ly n o t b e a n o i g i n a l a n n ece s s a r y r
p r i n ci l e o f mi n d
p T h e
q .

t hi d cor i t i o t h e r e fo r e of t he n eces s i t y of a for m of t h o ug ht is

n n, , ,

th a t it I s un i ver s a l

.

I n t h e fo ur th pl a c e if a fo r m of th ough t b e n e c ess a r y a n un i
, d
4 A l w. a
v e r s a l it mu s t b e a l a w ; fo r a l a w is t h a t w hi ch

a
.

pp li
,

e s t o a ll ca s e s w i t h o u t e x c e t i o n a n
p
d f om ,
d r

whi ch a d evi a ti on is e v er a n e v er y wh e r e i mpo ssi b l e or a t l ea st

u n a ll o w e d T he fo ur t h a n
.
,

d
l a st co n di t i o n t h e r e for e o f t he n e ce s ,
,

,
, , ,

s it y o f a fo r m O f t h o ug ht is t h a t it is a l a w T hi s l a st co n di t i o
1
, . n,

li ke wi se e n ab l es us t o g i v e t he mo st e x pli ci t e n un ci a t i o n of t he
,

O bj e ct ma t t e r o f L o i c in sa yi n t h- a t L o i c is
g g g ,

t h e sci e n ce of t h e L a w s o f T h o ug h t a s T h o ug h t
T bj
f f g ig zf; o r the s ci en ce of t he F or ma l L a ws of T h ou h t or
e
,

d
o o o

e n ou n c . g ,

t he s ci e n c e O f t he L a w s o f t h e F o r m O f T h o ug h t ;
for a ll t h e se a r e me r e ly v a r i o us e x pr e ssi on s o f t h e s a me t hi n g .

Be for e pr o ce e di n g fur t h e r it ma y b e pr o per ,

t o t a ke a v e r y g e n e r a l r e t r ospe ct o f t he v i e ws

d
G l
en e r a

ig lff fht xj
d
o e o e
t h a t h a v e pr e v a il e d in r eg ar d t o t h e o bj e ct a n

d d
d
d
c e

m i o ma i n o f L o i c fr o m t he e r a w h e n t h e s ci e n ce
an o f L gi a n o o g c ,
,

r e c e i v e d it s r s t r a n d an i s t i n ct i v e d e v e l op
g
me n t fr om t he g en i us of A i st o t l e t o t he pr es en t t i me r .

M
i w
it f t h A t h
er o
h e
I ma y s a y in g e n er a l t h a t t he V i e w w hi ch I
a ve n ow
u
p

r esen t e d t o
or s
y o u o f t h e o bj e ct a
,

n
,

d
d
V e f L goi o c.

d oma i n of L og i c is t he o n e w hi ch con ce n t r a t e s , ,

c or r ect s a n compl et e s t h e V i e ws whi ch h a ve b e en g en e r a lly h eld

,

1 E sser , L og ik, 5 6 , pp 9 , 1 0, . wi t h a few or ig i n a l in ter p ol a ti on s E

. D
L E C T . II .
LOGIC . 19

by l og i ci a n s of t he peculi a r pr ovi n ce o f th e i r s ci en c e I t is t he o n e .

t o w hi ch t h e y a ll g r a v i t a t e .

I t is u n fo t u n a t e t h a t b y fa r t h e g r e a t er n umb er o f t h e l o g i ca l

A i t tl r s o e.
r ,

w i t i n g s o f A r i s t o t l e h a v e p e r i sh e d a n t h a t
r ,
d
t h o se whi ch e ma i n t o u s e x hi b it o n ly h is V i e w s r

of t h e s ci e n ce c o n s id e e d i it s pa r t s o r in ce r t a i n spe ci a l r e l a t i o n s
r n , .

N o n e of t he t r e a t i s e s w hi ch a e n o w c oll e c t e d in t he O r g a n on
dd
1
r ,

co n s id e r s t h e s ci e n ce f o m a ce t r a l po i n t ; a n r we o n ot e v e n n

osse ss a g e n e r a l d e i t i o n o f L og i c b y it s ill u st r i o us fo un d e r
n I t
p .

w o uld t h e r e fo e b e u j us t t o t h e mi gh t y ma s t er if a s h a s u s ua lly
r n , ,

b e en d on e W
, ,

e e s t i ma t e d his co cepti o n of t h e s ci e n ce o n ly b y t h e
,
n

a t i a l V i e w s co n t a i e d in t h e f a g me n t a y o r s pe ci a l t r e a t i s e s w hi ch
r n r r
p
h a v e ch a ce d t o o a t a sh o e f o m t he g e n e a l w r eck of his l og i ca l
n r r r

w r i t i n g s T h e se b y t h e ms el ve s a r e ce r t a i ly e o ug h t o pl a ce t h e
. n
'
n

d
S t a g i r i t e hi g h a b o v e c o mpa r i so w i t h a y s ub se qu e n t l og i ci a n ; b ut n n

s t ill if h e h a s
,
o n e so mu c h in t h e h a l f d o z e n t r e a t i s e s th a t s t ill -

r ema i n wh a t ma y w e n ot con cei v e him t o h av e a cc omplis h e d in

,

t he fo ty w hi ch a r e r e co r d e d a n
r s e e m t o h a v e b e en l os t ? I t is d ,

th er efor e n ot t o b e a t t r ib ut e d t o A r i s t ot l e t h a t s ub s e q uen t l og i
, ,

d
cia s mi s t a ki n g his s u r v i v i g t r e a t i s es of a l og i c a l n a t u e
n ,
n fe w in r

n umb e r an w r i t t e n in g en er a l n ot in e x pos it i on o f t h e pur e s ci

, , ,

e n ce b ,
u t o n ly o f t h e s ci e n ce i c e r t a i n m o di e d a
ppli c a ti o n s fonr

a s y s t e ma t i c b o dy o f l og i ca l d o ct r i n e s h ould h a v e a ll o w e d his V i e w s ,

a b so l ut e ly a n a s a w h ol e d
of it s p a r t i a l r e l a t i o s t o i n u e n ce th e i r con cepti o n s o f th e s ci e n ce
n

By thi s i n u en ce O f t he A r i s t o t eli c
t r e a t i se s w e ma y ex pl a i n t h e s i g ul a r ci r cumst a n ce t h a t whil e
.

n
, , ,

ma n y i n d e e d most o f t he s ub se q ue n t l og i ci a n s s pe cu l a t i v e ly h e ld
, ,

t h e s o un d e s t V i e w s in r e g a r d t o t h e pr oper O bj ect a
fe w o r n on e of t h e m h a ve a t t e mpt e d b y th es e V i e w s t o pur i fy t he
en of L o i c
g n dd ,

s ci e c e o f t h o s e e x t r a e o u s d oc t i n e s
n t o w hi ch t h e a u t h o ity of
n r , r

A i s t o t l e s ee me d t o h a v e g i v e n a r i g ht O f occupa n cy wi t hi n it s
r

d o ma i n I s h a ll n ot a t t empt t o sh o w y o u i .
,
n

d d
G k A i t t li
e n e r a l w e r e t he n o t i o n s
r ee r s o e an s
ex ten s o h o w co r e ct in r
an L ti S h
a lm n c oo en .
g , , ,

en t e t a i e d b t h G r eek A r i s t ot e li a n s a
y e r n e v e ,
n n

d
b y t h e L a t i n s ch oo l me n fo r t hi s w o uld r e q ui e a n e x pl a n a t i o n o f
, r

ie d
t h e s i g n i ca t i o n O f t h e t e ms i w hi ch t h e i O pi n i on s w er e e mb o

,
r

w hi c h w o uld l e a d me i n t o d e t a il s whi ch t he i mpor t a n ce o f t h e

n r

ma tt e r w o uld h a r dly w a r a n t I S h a ll O ly s a y in g e n e a l t h a t i r . n ,
r , ,
n

t h e i r mul t ifa r i o us co n t o v e s i e s un d er thi s h e a d t he di v e s i t y o f

r r
,
r

t h e i r o pi n i o n s on s ub o di a t e poi n t s is n o t mo r e r e ma r k a b l e t h a n
r n

th ei r un an i mi t y on pr i n cipa l L og i c th e y a ll di scr i mi n a t e d a s a s ci .

1 S ee be l ow , p 24 . . ED .
20 LOGIC LE C T II

d j
. . .

e n ce of the for m a n
th ought T h ose of th e n ot of the ma t t e r of .
1

s ch o o l me n wh o h e ld
t h e O b e ct o f L og i c t o b e t hi n g s in g e n e r a l ,

di t ly dh
h eld t hi s h o we v e r un e r t h e q ua li ca t i o t h a t t hi n g s in g en er a l
,
d ,
n

w e e n o t i mme a e a n in t e mse l v e s co n s id er e d b y t h e l og i cia n

r ,

b ut o n ly a s t e st o o u n e r t he g e e r a l fo ms i mpos e d o n t h e m
h y d d
d n r

b y t h e i n t e ll e ct q u a t e n u s s e cun is in t e n t io ib u s n

a mo d e o f s pe a ki g w hi ch is o n ly a pe r i ph r a s i s o f o ur a sse t i on t h a t
n r ,

L og i c is co n v e s a t a b o u t t h e fo ms o f t h o ug ht r T he o t h e r s c
n h ool r .
2

me a g a i wh o ma i t a i n e d t h a t t he O bj e ct o f L og i c w a s t h o ug ht
d
n ,
n, n

i n it s p r o ce s s e s o f S i mpl e a pp e h e n s i o j ud g men t a n r e a s o i g r n, ,
n n

( t h e e t w o o r o n e)
r ,
c a r e full v e x l a i n e d t h a t t h e s e o e r a t i o n s w e r e
p , p ,

n o t in t h e i r o w n n a t ur e r o o s e d t o t h e l o i ci a n fo r a s s u ch t h e y
p p g ,

b el o g e d t o A n i ma s t i c a s t h e y c a ll e d it o P s y ch ol o g y b ut o n ly in
n , ,
r ,

s o fa r a s t h e y w e r e di r i g i b l e o r s ubj e ct t o l a w s a s t a t e me n t w hi c h ,

is o n ly a l e s s s i mpl e e x pr e s s i on of t h e fa ct t h a t L og i c is t h e s ci e c e ,
n

o f t h e l a ws o f t h o u g h t F i a lly t h o s e s ch o o l me n w h o h e ld t h a t 3
. n ,

t h e O bj ect ma tt er o f L og i c w a s fo u d in s ec on d n ot i o n s a s a ppli e d
- n

t o s t o n ly me a n t t o s a y t h a t L og i c w a s co n v e r s a t w i t h co ce p
r ,

d n n

ti on s j ud g me n t s a n r e a s o i n g s n ot in t h ems el v e s b ut o n ly a s r eg
d
,
n , ,

ul a t o s o f t h o ug h t f a s t a t e me t whi ch me r e ly v a i es a e n r
r
p n r

p l e e s t h e e x r e ssi on t h a t t h e obj e ct o f L og i c is t h e fo ma l l a ws
x
p ,
r

O f th o ug ht .

T h e s a me V i e w s v a r i o us in a ppe a r a n ce b ut w h e n a n a lyz e d es

L ib i ti W l
s e n t ia lly t h e s a me a n
,

e s s e n t i a lly co r r e ct ma y ,
d , ,

,
,

d
O-
b e t r a ce d t h r o ug h t h e L e ib it io VV o l a n s ch o o l
e n o an
n -
an K i S h l ant an c oo s .
i n t o t h e K a n ti a n ; s o t h a t w hil e it must b e ,

o w n e d t h a t th e y w e r e n e v e r a d e q ua t e ly c a r r i e d o ut i n t o pr a ct i ca l

a ppli c a ti o n it ca n n o t b e d e n i e d t h a t t h e y w e r e t h e o r e ti ca lly n o t
,

u n s o un d

d
.

T he c oun t r y in whi ch per h a ps t he n a t ur e o f , ,

L og i c h a s b e e n mos t co mpl e t ly a g e n e a lly e n r

m i s un d e s t o o d i s G r e a t B r i t a i n B a c o n wh o
,
lly m i s co ce i v e d r .
n

1
L O g icus s ol a s con si d er a t for ma s i n t en i d dd dd
d eo q uae a m secun
m
ae i n ten ti on es in v en t ae
iscu r sum , d d
t i on um co mmun es .

A l b e r t us M a g n us , In s un t a r e g ul a n u q u ib use

ima , L L og ica

S ee a l s o Z a b a r ella a n
D e A n . 1 . t r ue . i . c. 8 . F or v a r i o us p r o p r ie e st
sch ol a s t ic t he o r ies on t he O b j ect - ma t t e r of C a mer a r ius a s a b ov e E D .

L o g ic , s ee S co t us , S up er U n iv P o rp hy r i i, Q u
[ C a mer a r ius , D isp P hil , P i q u 1 , p
. .

3 . . . . . .

i ii ; Z a h a r e l l a , D e N a tur a L og icee , l ib i c a p

d
.

E D ] S ch ul e r , P /I il os op hia , p 3 07 , [ L v ,
. .

3
.

. .

1 9 ; S mig le ci us , L og ica , D isp i i q u I ; C a me

. . .

dd
mitis
. .

1 763
.

L og ica , E x e r i . .
,
e . H ag a e C o ,
.

r a r ius , D isp uta t ion es P hi los op hicce P a r s i q u .

Ra c o n i s , [ T r a ct a t io T ot ia s
. .
,
E D ] D A bra

e
mpa r e
.

C D is cus s ion s , p 1 38

d
1 p 2, et s eq . o .

i p 4 8,
.

P hilos op hies, P r a elu ia L og ica , P os t

. .
.
, 0 . . .

ED

d
E
.

P a r is iis , 1640 ]
J
d d
e D
A r t ium
. . .

V oss i us, D N s iv e D
2 [G . . e a t. e

L og z ca , c
'

] iv C mp a r e
o A l ex e A l es , I n 4 S ee Z a b a r el la an C a mer a r ius , a s a b ov e .

dd
. .

dd
M et a p h 1 i v t 5 . . . . D ia l e ct ica es t in v e n t a a E D .
[C o mp a r e P o n cin s , C ur su s P hil os op hi
a r is , 1 649 ]
um iscur sum i n te l lectus e t p 48, 2
r a t ion is cus , D isp i q u ul t e P
r e g ul a n ; . . . .
. .
,
LE C T . II .
LOGIC . 21

i ts ch a r a ct er c er t a i n r espe ct s ; b ut his er r or s a r e i n sig n i ca n t

in ,

whe co mp a r e d wi t h t h e t o t a l mi s a ppr e h e n s i o n o f it s n a t ur e b y
n

L o cke T he ch a r a ct e r o f t h e s e mi s t a ke s I s h a ll h a v e o cca s i o n t o
.

ill ust r a t e i t h e se q uel ; a t pr e s e t I n e e d on ly s a y t h a t w hil e

n n , ,

t h ose w h o t ill l a t e ly a tt e mpt e d t o w r i t e o n L o g i c-

, ,
in t he E n g li s h
l a n g u ag e w e r e o t h e r wi s e w h olly i n co mpe t en t t o t he t a sk t h e y a t , ,

t h e s a me t i me e i t h e r s h a r e d t h e mi s con ce pt i o n s O f it s n a t ur e w i t h
,

L o cke o r o n ly co n t r i b ut e d b y th e i r o w n h a pl e s s a t t e mpt s t o j us
, , ,

t o c ul t i v a t e a n
r

i mpr o ve d
t ify t h e p ej u di ces pr e v a l e n t a g a i n s t t he sci e n ce whi ch t h e y pr ofe sse d

I t w o uld b e unj ust t o co n fo un d wi t h o t h er a tt e mpt s o f o ur co u t r y

.

me n in l og i ca l s ci e n ce t h e w o k o f D r Wh a t e ly r . .

Wh t l y g a e l
T he a ut h o r if n o t e n d o we d w i t h a n y hi g h t a l
, en e r a
,

d
c h t
a r a c er f hi E l o s e

m t en s .
e n t fo r p hil os o hi ca l s e cul a t i o n
p p p os s esse s a t ,

l e a st a s oun d a n V ig or o us un d er st a n di g H e n .

u n for t un a t e ly h ow e v e r w r o t e his E lemen ts of L og i c in s i n g ul a r

, ,

d
u n a cq u a i n t a n ce wi t h a ll t h a t h a

d
b e e n w r i t t e n o n t h e s ci e n ce in
a n ci e t a n

d
in mo d e r n t i mes w i t h t he e x ce pti on a pp a r e t ly o f t w o
n , ,
n ,

w or ks o f t wo O x for d l og i ci a n s t he I n s ti tu ti o of Wa lli s a n t he
C o pe i m o
m n u f A ld i h
c b o t h w r i t t en a b o v e
a ce n t ur y a o n e i t h e r of th e m r i s i n a b ov e a
d ,

r ,
,

g g ,

p os i t i on ; a n

s a fe a n
A d
d dd d
ld
h umb l e me di o cr ity e v en a t t he d a t e O f it s com
r i ch wh o m W h a t e ly u n for t u n a t e ly r e a r d s a s a
,

l e a r n e d g ui e h a hi mse lf w r i t t e n his b o ok in i g or a n ce
g
,

n
,

o f A r i s t ot l e a n o f a ll t he i n ci a l a ut h o r s o n t h e s ci e c e a n
p p r n ,

i g n or a n ce ma n i fe st e d b y th e g r o ssest e r r o s in t h e mo st e l e me n t a y r r

a r t s o f t he sci e ce I t i n o t t h e r e fo r e t o b e w o n d er e d a t t h a t
p s n .
, , ,

t h e E lemen ts of Wh a t e ly t h o ug h t h e p o d u ct i o o f a n a b l e ma n
,
r n ,

a r e s o fa r b ehi n d t h e a d v a n ce me n t o f t h e s ci e n ce o f whi ch t h e y

d
t e a t ; th a t t h e y a r e d e for me d w i t h n ume o us a n se r i o us e r o r s ; r d r

an t h a t t h e o n ly r e co mme n d a ti on th e y pos sess is t h a t O f b e i n g t h e ,

b est b o k o n t he s ubj e ct in a la n g ua g e whi ch h a s a b sol ut e ly n o

o

o t h e r d e s er v i n o f n o t i ce 1
1
g
I h a v e n o w th er e fo e t o ca ll y o ur a tt e n t i o n t o D r Wh a t e ly s
dd

r
, , .

a cco u t of t he obj e ct ma tt e r an o ma i n
n of -

T h e t ea t i s e o f D r Wh a t e ly s a y s h is
d d d
Wh t l y
n d V ce P n C a l a n e i t o ma t o r D r H I n s
i w f L og i c

a e s v e o
. r .
,

d d
bJ t m tt
'
h
t e o ec - a er a
2
- rI I
p p l i s

dditi i d pl a ys a n it is t he on ly o e t h a t ha s cl e a r ly
m
.
f L g
. .

t t

d d
o ai n O o ic s a

e an cr c ze , , n

d o n e s o t h e t ue n a t ur e a n u se of L og i c ; s o ,
r

th a t it ma y b e a ppr oa ch e d n o l on g er a s a d a r k cur i ou s a n mer ely , ,

fo ot-n ote
S ee D iscuss ion s , p
.
. 12 8, secon dd e it i on ,
for d
d
2 I n t r o uct ion t o

1 82 7 .
E D .
L og i c, P r efa ce , p . v iii . C x

,
22 L OGIC . LE C T . II .

an d l i
s p e cu a t v e s u

a l ch e my
t dy such a s on e is a pt in fa n cy t o cl a ss w i t h a st r ol og y

r
.

,

L e t u s t y w h e t h e r t hi s e ul og y b e a s me r i t e d a s it is un me a s ur e d
,

N o w D r Wh a t e ly ca n n o t t r uly b e s a id c l e a r ly t o di spl a y t he n a
, .

t ur e o f L og i c b e c a u se in di ffer en t pa ssa g e s he ,

d
d d
Wh t ly pmp
d dj ect s ; a n he c an n ot b e s ai d t o i spl a y the t r ue
r o os e s t o it di ffe r e n t c o n t r a di ct o r y oh
a e t o ses o
an
p p
dt y bj t n a t ur e of L o i c for o f th e se ffer en t O b ect s d
L gio iff
c t er e n an

t
co n r a i c or O eC

m a a , g j ,
i

t h e r e is n ot o n e whi ch is t he t r ue .

se v e r a l e s a y s th a t r o ce s s o r o e r a t i o n o f
l
I n
p a ssa e s
g h t h e
p , p

r e a so i s a l on e t he a pr o pr i a t e pr ov i n ce o f L og i c o w t hi s

g i n n
p N .
,

s t a t e me n t i s i n co r r e ct in t w o r e s pe ct s I n t h e r s t pl a ce it is in .
,

c or r e ct i n a smu ch a s it li mi t s t he obj e ct ma t t e r of L og i c t o t h a t
,
-

a t o f t h e D i s cu r s i v e F a cul t y whi ch is e sp e ci a lly d e n o mi a t e d n

p r

t ic . d
Re a so n i n g I n t hi s V i e w L og i c is ma d e con v e r t i b l e w i t h S y llog is
.

T hi s is a n ol e r r o r whi ch h a s b e en fr e q ue n t ly r e fut e d a n
i n t o whi ch Wh a t ely see ms t o h a v e b e en l e b y his g uid e D r Wa lli s
,

d , d
. .

I n t h e s e co n d pl a ce t hi s s t a t e me n t is i n cor r e ct i n a s much a s it
, ,

ma ke s t he pr o ce s s or a s he a l s o ca ll s it t h e o p , , ,

e r a t io n o f r ea so n i n g t h e obj ect -ma t t e r o f L og i c

Th p e O ti fR
er a on O ea

bj t
.
,
son ni g th n ot e O ec
N o w a d efi n i t i on w h i ch me el y a i r ms t h a t r
m tta f L
er o O g Ic
,
as
,
0

r ea s o n n i gd e n i t i o of
for it s O bj e ct , is n ot a n

d
t hi s s ci e n ce a t a ll ; it d oes n o t co n t a i n t he di ffe r e n t i a l q ua li t y b y
w hi ch L og i c is di s c i mi n a t e d fr o m o t h er sci e n ce s ; a n
r it d o e s n ot
r e v e n t t h e mo s t e r r on e o u s o i n i on s i n s ug e s t s t h e m fr o m
p p ( t e v e
g )

o
gy an M e t p d
b e i n g t a ke n up in r eg a r d t o it s n a t ur e
a hy s i c
p p
r o os e f
ul t ie s ) t h e o e r a t i o n O f r ea s o n i n
O t h e r s ci e n ce s a s P s y ch ol
o r th e i r O bj e ct
, ( a mo n
g t h e o t h er fa c
.
,

p g b u t thi s c on s id e r e d in it s r e a l ,

n a t u r e : L o i c o n t h e con t r a r y h a s t h e s a me for it s O bj e ct b ut o ly
g , , ,
n

d
i it s fo ma l ca pa ci t y ; in fa ct it h a s in pr opr i e t y o f spe e ch n o t hi g
n r
,
n

t o o w i t h t h e pr o ce ss or ope r a ti o n b u t is con v er s a n t o n ly wi t h it s ,

l a ws D r Wh a t ely s d en i t i o n is t h e r efor e n ot on ly i n co mpet en t

d d

. .
,

d
b ut d e l us i v e ; it w o uld c o n fo un d L og i c a n P s y ch o l og y a n M eta
p hy si c a t,en d t o ne
p p r e t u a t e t h e m i s c o n ce p t i o n s in r e
g a r d t o t h e

n a t ur e o f L o ic whi ch h a v e b e e n s o l o n l n t in t hi s c o un t r y
g g p r e v a e .

ly
Wh t ly e rr oneo u s
dt d
an
a e

i t my
con r a
u
But D
re b y
c o
a f
W
o
h
ei
g n s t a n d a r d d
a t e ly i s n ot o ly w r o n g a s me a s

d h e i s wr o

b y h is o wn ; h e is hi ms e lf con t a di ct or y
r.

g a sr m ea s ,
n

d
m k L g g th
a es an ur e
ua e e r .

a q e t ua e
Y o u h a v e j us t s e e n t h a t in s o me pl a ces h e , ,
ter o f L gi o c.
mak e s t h e o pe r a t o n o f r e a s o n i n g n ot o ly t h e i n

p r i n ci a l b ut t h e a d e u a t e obj ec t o f L o i c
p q g W e ll in o t h er s h e .
,

1 S ee pp 1 , 1 3 , 1 40, thi r
. dd e i ti on .
LE C T . II .
L O G I C 23

ma kes t hi s t ot a l
d e qua t e O bj ect t o b e l a n g ua g e But a s t h er e
or a

d .

d
o t b e t wo a d e q u a t e o bj ect s as la

d
ca nn an g gua e a n t h e o e a
p ,
n r

t i o n o f e a s o n i n g a e n o t t h e s a me t h e r e is t h e e f r e a co t r a ic
r r , ,
r o ,
n

t ion i n t r o d uci g he s a y s t he me n t i o of l a g uag e p e v i

. I
n n , ,
n n r

o usl y t o t he d e n i t i o n o f l og i c I h a v e d e p a t e d fr o m e s t a b li sh e d ,
r

r a ct i ce in o r d e r t h a t it ma y b e cl e a r ly un d e r s t o o d t h a t l o g i c is
p ,

e t i e ly co v e r s a n t a b o ut l a n g u a g e
n r n a t r ut h w hi ch most w r i t e s o n r

c e t a i n ly

a ai
r

L
o t t a ken n
,

ue ca r e t o i m r e s s o
p
o i c is wh o ll y c o n c e r n e d in t h e u s e o f l a

t d
t h e s ubj e ct if i n d e e d t h e y w e r e fully a w a r e o f it t h e mse l v e s h a v e
h eir r e a d e s

u a e
A n n

n
r
1
,

d
g n :
g g g .

I n o ur l a s t L e ct ur e I ca ll e d y o ur a t t e t i o n t o t he a mb i g uity of
, n

t he t e m A y
d
in G r eek me a n i n g a mb i g u o usly e i t h e t h o ug h t or it s

r r

o o s, ,

e r e ss i o n ; a t hi s a mb i g ui t y fa v o r e d t h e r i s e o f t w o c o un t er
n
x
p

an

Ay
d
o pi n i o s in r eg a r d t o t h e o bj e ct o f l og i c ; for w hil e it w a s g e n e a lly

co

o s,
n

e ct ly h e ld t o b e i mme di a t e ly c o v e sa n t a b o ut t h e i t e r n a l
rr

th ou g h t s o me h o w e v e r on t h e c o n t r a y ma i n t a i e d t h a t it
n r

r n
n
r

, , , ,

w a s i mme di a t e ly c o n v e s a n t a b o ut t h e e x t e a l A y r la n g u a g e rn og, .

N o w b y s o me u n a cco u t a b l e ill us i o n D r Wh a t e ly in di ffe e n t

p l
,

a c es a d o pt s t h e s e o ppo s i t e O pi n i on s a n
,
n

e n un ci a t e s t h e m w i t h o ut ,
,

d .
, r

a w o r d of e x pl a n a t i o n o r w i t h o ut e v e n a s u spi ci o n t h a t t h e y a r e
,

c on t r a di ct o y o f e a ch o t h e
3
r r.

F r o m wh a t I h a v e n o w s a id y o u ma y in s o me d e g r e e b e ab l e t o , , ,

j ud g e h o w fa r c e di t is t o b e a ccor d e d t o t he r

th a t D r Wh a t e ly is t h e o n ly l og i ci a n
d
Th t e t r ue f a ss e t i on
n a ur e o r ,
.

L g i mo r e my
dt db y t h use of L o c I n fa ct s o fa r I s t hi s a sser ti on
l ly di l y d t
c co n e
f
o
w h o e v e c e a r s p a e t h e r u e n a t u e arn r

d
un er s o o e

h mt i
i
sc o s l gi i c o g c an s
.
,

th an b y Wh t l y fr o m t h e t ut h t h a t t h e O bj e ct ma t t e r a n scope
a e . r ,
-

d
of L og i c w a s fa mo r e c o r e ct ly un d e st o o d r r r

e v e n b y t h e s ch o l a s t i c l o g i ci a n s t h a n b y D r Wh a t e ly ; a n I ma y .

d
dd
c a ut i o n y o u b y t h e w a y t h a t w h a t y o u ma y n
, s t a t e d in t he E le
,

me ts of t h e V i e w s of t h e s ch o ol me t o uchi g t he n a t u r e a n e
n n n n

o f L og i c is in g e n er a l w r on g ; in p a t i cul a r I ma y n o t i ce o e
,
r , n

mos t e r on e o us a ll e g a t i o n t h a t t h e s ch o ol men a t t e mpt e d t o e mpl o y

r ,

l og i c fo r t he pur pos e o f phy s i ca l di scover y .

B ut if co mpa e d o n ly w i t h t he O ld e r l og i ci a n s t h e a sse r t i o n o f
,
r
,

d
D r H i n d s is f un d u n t e a b l e wh a t w ill it b e fo un d if w e co mpa r e
. o n , ,

Wh a t e ly w i t h the l ogi ci a n s o f t he K a n t i a n a n L eib n it ia n s ch o ol s ,

o f w h os e w iti n s n e i t h e e A r ch b i s ho

d
n or his a b b r e v i a t o
g t h r
p r s e e ms r

e ve t rh a v e h e a d ? A n h er e I ma y O b s e v e t h a t G e a t B i t a i is
o r r , r r n ,

I b e li e v e t h e o n ly co un t y o f E ur ope i n w hi ch b o o ks a e w i tt e n
,
r r r

b y r espe ct a b l e a uth or s upo n s ci e n ce s of t he pr o gr e ss o f w hi h for , c ,

1 P a g e 56 2 P age 74 . 3 Besi d es mos t va g ue. Jot t in

g .
24 L O G IC LE C T . II .

a b ov e a c en ur t y th e y h a v e
,
n ev er t a ken t he t r oub l e to i n for m
th e ms e l ve s .

T he s econ d q u e s ti on ,
to whi ch in t h e I n t r o d ucti on t o L og i c an

II T h e U til it y of
a n sw er is r e u i r e d , is,
q h a t is t h e V a l ue W or

hi U t ili t y
s s ci e n c e ? B e for e r o c ee di n
.

of t t
L gi
O c. p g o

a s e ci a l c o n s id e r a t i on of thi s u e s t i o n it ma
p q y ,

b e e n o b s cur e d a n d
b e pr ope r t o ob se r v e in g e n e r a l t h a t t h e r ea l ut ili t y O f L og i c h a s
,

di spa a g e d b y t h e fa l s e u tiliti e s whi ch h a ve t o o

r
,

fr e q ue n t ly b e en a r r og a t e d t o it ; for wh en l og i c wa s fou n d un ab l e
t o a c co mpli s h w h a t it s u n wi s e e n co mi a s t s h a

d p r o mi s e d t h e r e co il d ,

w a s n a t ur a l a n a s it fa il e d in p e fo r mi n g e ver y t hi n g it w a s lig htly

,
r ,

i n fe r r e d t h a t it could pe r for m n ot hi n g Both of th ese e x t r e me s a r e

e u a lly e r on e o u s
q r T h e r e is t h a t w hi ch L o i c c a n a n
.
g
whi ch L og i c ca n n ot pe r fo m ; a n t h er efo r e b efor e a t t empt i g t o r
t h e r e is t h a t

d
.

,
d n
, , ,

sh o w wh a t it is t h a t w e o ug ht t o e pe ct f o m t he s t udy of t hi s x r

sci e n ce it w ill b e pr ope r t o S h o w w h a t it is t h a t w e o ug h t n o t

,

s h a ll t h e r e fo r e in t h e r s t pl a ce co n s id e r it s fa l s e u t ili t i e s a n

t h e s e co n d it s t r u e
,

.
in
I
, ,
d .

T h e a t t r i b ut i o n o f e v e r y fa l s e utility t o L og i c h a s a r i s en f o m e r r

r o u co u s O
p i n i o s h e ld in r e a r d t o t h e o bj e ct o f
g n

t ib t d
U t ilit i f l ly
es t a se a
t h e s ci e n ce S o lo
g a s it w a s su
pp os e d. th a t n
r u e t L gi o o c.

l og i c t o ok a y cog iz a n ce o f t he ma t t er of n n

d
t h o ug ht s o l on, g a s it w a s n o t di st i ct ly u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e fo r m n

O f t h o ug h t w a s t h e e x cl us i v e O bj e ct o f t hi s s ci e ce a n so l on as n
g ,

d
it w a s n o t di s e cumb e r e d o f it s e t ra n e o us l umb e r S o l on g mus t
n x
,

d
e r o n e o us o p i i o n s h a v e b e e n
r r e v a l e n t a s t o t h e n a t ur e a n co m
n
p
r e h e n s i on o f it s e n
p .

I t w a s a cco r di n g ly in t h e r s t pl a ce fre qu e n tly s uppo s e d t h a t

, ,

L o g i c w a s in a c e r t a i n s o r t a n i s t ume n t o f , ,
n r

i t i d
A s ani t m t f ns ru en o
s ci e n t i c di sco v e r y T he t i t l e o f O r g a on . n ,
s c en i c y sc o ve r .

i n s tr u men t b e st o w e d o t h e co ll e ct i o ,
we n n

os s e ss of t h e l o i c a l t r e a t i s e s o f A r i s t o t l e co n t r i b ut e d t o t hi s e r
p g ,

d
r or .T h es e t r e a t i s e s a s I ob se r v e d a r e b ut a fe w O f t h e ma n y w i t
, ,
r

i n g s o f t he S t ag i r i t e o n L og i c a n t o him w e o w e n e i t h e r t h e or d e r ,

i n whi ch t h e y s t a n d a r r a n g e d n or t h e g e n e r a l n a me u n d e r w hi ch ,

d
t h e y a e n o w co m e h en d e d
r I n l a t e r ti me s t h ese t e a t i ses w e r e
r
1
r
p .
,

su os e d t o c o n t a i m l t y t m f L i L i w
pp a c o
p e e s s e n o og c a n
g c a s ,
o

v i e w e d a s t he o a n n ot o n ly o f P hil o s o hy b ut o f t h e s ci e n ces in
r
g p ,

en e a l r T h u it w t h t L i b t i d t ly t h m o f i n
g s . a s a o g c o a n e n o o n e n a e

s tr u men t o i n s tr u men ta l p hi los op hy b ut ma n y o th e r hi g h so un d

,
r -
,

1 d
dd
S ee Br a n is A r i s t o teles , s ein e a ka d e mis chen 1 40 . T r en d
ele n b ur g , E lemen ta L og . A r ist ot .
,

Z ige t en oss en un n chs t cn N a ch olg er

f , P . i p
. .
p 38. .
ED .
LE C T II L OGIC 25

d
. . .

in g ti t l e s . I t was l on g g en er a lly s tyl e d t he A rt f

o a r ts an S ci
L og i ca s a y s S co t us i m

e t s cien

en ce o f s ci en ces . , ,
est ar s ar t u

i i
d
t ia sc en t ar u m m, qu a
n e s a l iae a e r iun t ur ; e t ua c l a us a, ta,
p p q a er o

o mn e s a liae cl a u un t ur ; cum q ua q u m l ib e t , S i n e q u a n ull a

1
In .

V i a a V er i ta tem
op hi oe
4
2
d
mo d e r n t i mes, w e h a v e s y s t e ms of t hi s s ci e n ce un d e r t h e t i t l e s of
O y n os u r a V er i ta ti s
H eu r i s ti ca , s ive I n tr o u ct io a
'
3
C ap u t et A p ex P hi los
A r tem I nven i en i , e t c
5
d d d .

But it w a s n ot o n ly v i e w e d a s a n i n st r ume n t of di s co v e r y, it w a s
li ke wi s e h e ld t o b e t h e i n fa llib l e cor r ec t or of o ur
A th e c or r ect or of
S

i n t el le ct ua l vices .
i n t e ll e ct ual V i ce s th e i n v ig or a t or o f o ur i n t el ,

L og i cs , T he Jll e i cin e of the M n , T he A r t of T hi n ki n g ] T he

L ig htho us e of the I n tellect, T he S ci en ce tea chi n g the R ig ht U s e
8
d d
l e ct ua l i mb e cili t y H e n ce s o me e n t i t l e d th e i r

.

d
of R ea s on , e t c , e t c N o w , in a ll thi s t h e r e is a mi x t ur e o f t r ut h
d
9
. .

i i po i n t s
d iew L og i c
an e r r or . T o a ce r t a n e x t e n t , a n in ce r t a n of V ,

hi
d
osophy t h e cr i t e r i o n o f
of t r ut h a n
is t h e p l o r g an t h e cor r e ct or , ,

of e r o r a n r in ot h e r s it is n o t
,
.

I n r e fe r e n c e t o t h e di s put e w h e t h e r l ogi c ma y w i t h pr opr i e ty b e ,

c all e d t he i n s tr umen t t he or g a n on of t h e o t h er ,

s ci e ce s t h e q ue s t i o n ma y b e a t o n ce s ol v e d b y n ,
t m t f th
I s an In s r u en o e
a d i s t i n ct i o n O n e s ci e n ce ma b s t yl e d t h e
science s. y e .

i n st r umen t of a n ot h er e it h er in a ma t e r i a l or in ,

a for ma l oi n t o f V i e w I n t h e fo me r
p o i t o f V i e w o n e s ci e n c e is r
p . n
,

t h e o r g a n o f a n o t h er w h e n o n e s ci e n ce d e t e r mi n es fo r a n o t h e r it s
c o n t e t s o r O bj e ct s
n T h us M a t h e ma t i cs ma y b e ca ll e d t h e m a t e r i a l
.

i st ume n t Of t h e v a i o us b r a ch e s of phy s i ca l s ci e ce P hil o l ogy

n r r n n

o r s t u dy o f t h e l a n g u a g e s L ati G e ek H e b r e w C h a ld e e e t c ,
n ,
r , , , .
,

wi t h a kn o wl e d g e of t h e i r el a t i ve hi st o y co st i t ut es a ma t e r i a l
d
r r n

i s t ume n t t o C h i st i a n T h e ol o g y ; a n t he j ur i st i like ma n n e r
n r r ,
n ,

n d s a ma t e i a l i n st u me t in a k o w l e d g e o f t h e hi s t o y o f t he
r r n n .
r

co un t r y wh o se l a w s h e e x po un d s T h us a l so P hy s i o l og y in a 10
.
, , ,

d
1 M a ur i t n E xp os iti o Q ue st ion a m D oct or is 5 G un n er , A rs H eu ri s t ica I n t ellectua li s, L ip

d d d
S ubt i l is in q ui n q ue U n iver s a l ia P orp hy r i i, Q uee s t . s iae, 1 75 6 . T ra t ta t o i M es s er S eba s t ia n o E r iz z o
,

t om ell I n s tr umen t o et V ia I n ven tr ice

i (S co t i L ug 1 639 ,
O p er a , p . . i . . e g li a n ti c/t i

d
M a u r it ius r e fe r s t o S t A ug us t in a s h is a ut h o r . n elle s ci en t ie , V e n ice , 1 554 E . D .

d d
i t y fo r t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n I t s l ig h t ly r e 6 T s ch ir n h a usen M e icin a M en t is , s iv e A r t is
,
.

d
se mb l es a p a ss a g e i n t h e D e O r in e , 1 ii . . 0 . 13 . I n ven ien i P r oacep t a G en er a lia , A mst . 1 68 7 .

d d d
- E D . L a n ge , M e icin a M en t is , H a les , 1 703 . E D .

d
2 G un lin g , V ia a V er i ta tem M or a le m, H a 7 L 'A r t e P en ser , co mmo n ly k n o wn as the
J
dd V er it a z em,
dd
Jae, 1 7 1 3 . D a r ics , V ia a en a e , P or t Roy a l L O g ic S e v e r a l o t he r w o r k s h a ve
.

1 764 ( 2 e r t h e s a me t it le
e it ) .
E D . a p p ea r e un ED . .

3 P . L a ur e mb e r g ius , B on az M en t is 8 G r o ss e r u s P ha r us in tellect us , s ive L og i ca

s.L og ica R o st och , 16 33 . R L . o en us , C y n os ur a E lect iva , L ip s .
, 1 6 97 E . D .

Ra t ion is , A r n h e m, 1 66 7 . E D . 9 Wa tts , L og ic, or the Rig ht U se of Rea son .

K
d 9 , p 2 3 f r om w h o m
4 S ee r ug , L og ik, .
, E D .

s ev e r a l o f th e a b o ve e n i t ion s wer e p r ob a b ly 10 S ee G en o v esi , 4 1 [ E lemen t or u m A r tis

p ,

t aken E . D . L og ico -C r i t i cce L ibr i V , I i c ii i E D ]

. . . . . .

4
 26 L O G I C LE C T . II .

ma t er i a l p oi n t i e w is t he or g a n on of me di ci n e ; A i st o t l e h a s
of V ,
r

i n d ee d w e ll s a id t h a t me di ci n e b eg i n s w h e e t he philO S O phV of
,
r

n a t u r e l e a v e s O ff I n t h e l a t t e r p o i n t o f V i e w on e s ci e n c e i s t he
d
1
.
,

o r a n on o f a n ot h e r w h e n o e s ci e n ce e t e r mi n e s t h e sci e t i c
n
g , n

fo m o f a o t h e r
r N o w a s it is g e n e r a lly a d mi t t e d t h a t L o g i c
n .
,

s t a n d s in t hi s r e l a t i o t o t h e o t h e r s ci e ce s a s it a ppe t a i n s t o

d
n n ,
r

L og i c t o c o n s id e r t h e g e n e a l d o ct r i n e o f M e t h o d a n of s y s
r

t e ma t ic co n s t u ct i on in t hi s r e spe ct L og i c ma y b e pr o pe ly
r , r

a ll o w e d t o b e t o t he sci e n ce s a n i n s t r ume n t b ut o n ly a fo r ma l ,

i st ume t
n r n .
2

I n e g a r d t o t he o t h er t i t l e s of h o n or L og i c ca n n o t wi t h p o
r ,
r

p r ie t y b e d e n o mi n a t e d a
[ H e u e t i c o
] A t r r r

f d
L gi t p p ly
o f D i sco v e r y F o r di s co v e r y o r i n v e n t i o n is
o c no ro er

.

an tar i Oy sco ver .

n ot t o b e t a u h t b r ul e s b u t i i t h t h
g y s e e e ,
r

f e e a ct o f a n or i g i n a l g e n i us o r t h e co n se q ue n ce o f a l ucky a cci
r ,

d e n t whi ch e i t h e r con d uct s t he n d e r t o s ome thi g u n k o wn o

,
n n ,
r

g i v e s h im t he i m u l s e t o s ee k it o ut
p L og i c c a n a t b e s t o n ly a n a ly t

i ca lly t e a ch h o w t o di sco v e r t h a t is b y t h e d e v e l o pme n t a n , is

.

,
d
d
me mb er me n t of wh a t is a l r e a dy di scov e r e d
is n o t hi g n e w e v o l ve d a n
n o ur kn o wl e d g e is n o t a mpli e d ; a ll
,
d d
By t hi s pr o cess t h e r e .

d
t h a t is a cco mpli s h e d is a cl e a r er a n

t h e o l ; o ur kn o w l e d g e is p ur i e d a n
di st i n ct er comp e h e s i on of
s y s t e ma t iz e d d I t is
r

.
3
n

w e ll ob se r ve d b y A n t o n i us in C i ce r o : N ull um es t pr ae ce pt um
d d

,

d
in h a c a t e q u o mo d o v e um in v e ia t ur s e t a n t um e st q u o mo o
r r n , ,

o i c is t h u s n o t cr e a t i ve ; it is o n ly l astic n ly
4
j u i c et u L gr .
p o ,

for ma t i v e i r e l a t i o n t o o ur k o wl e d g e
,
n n .

A g ai n : L og i c c a n n ot w i t h pr o pr i e t y b e s t yl e d t h e me d ici n e o f
d

d
t h e mi n d a t l e a s t w i t h o ut s o me q u a li fyi g a ,
n

ty l d th m d
I Wh t L gi
o s h o w t h a t t he o n ly r e me y it c a n
c
j
n a s e n se o
e ct iv e t ,
ca n b e s e e e
a ply i s t o o ur for ma l e o r s w h l e o u r ma t e r i a l
f t h m in d
rr i
i i
c ne o e p .
,

er r o r s l ie b e y on d it s r e a ch T hi s is e vid en t . .

L o g i c is t h e s ci e n ce O f t h e fo ma l l a w s of t h o ug h t But w e ca n n o t r .
,

i li mi t i n g o ur co n s id e r a t i o n t o t he l a w s o f fo r ma l t hi n ki n g i n v es t i
n ,

g a t e t he c o n t e n t s t h e ma t t er o f o u r t h o ug h t
,
L o g i c ca n t h e r e .
,

d d
fo r e o ly pr opo s e t o pu g e t h e un d e r st a n di n g o f t h ose e r r o r s whi ch
, n r

l ie in t h e c o n fus i on a n e
p p l e x i t i e s o f a n i n co n s e q u e n t t h in ki r
g n .

d
T hi s h o w e v e it must he c o n fe s s e is n o r a di ca l c ur e b ut me r e ly a
, r, , ,

u i ca t i o f t h d t di I t hi t h w t
p r o e u n e s a n n
g n s nr es p e c r o e v e r a o .
, ,
n

t hi s e x t e n t L og ic ma y j us tly pr e t en d t o b e t h e me di ci n e o f t he
,

1 D e S en s u et S e n s ili, c i . . 3 K r ug . L og i lc, 9 , p 24 E
. . D . C f [ Rich
.

K
d
2 L og ik, 9 , p 23 : C f P l a t n er , P hilo
r ug , ter , L n p 83 et s eq -l
'
.
. o ,
.

s ep his che A p hor is men , P t i p 2 3 e 1 79 3 ED . . . . 4 D e O r a t or e, i i 3 8 E

. D
, . .
. .
LE C T II LO GIC 27

d th f f
. . .

mi n d ,
an ma y er e o r e , in a for ma l l i
r e at on , be s tyl e d ,
as by me
so

l og i ci a ns it h a s in a ct b e en , O a t/t a r t i con i n tellectu s .

By h e se ob se r va t i on s the v a l ue of L og i c is n ot d epr eci a t e d ;
t

t h e y o n ly pr ep a r e u s t o fo r m a n e s t i ma t e o f it s r e a l a mo un t
c ise ly in fa ct a s t o o much w a s pr o mi se d a n
, ,

s t udy did it l o se in cr e di t a n est e em dp

P re
e x e ct e d fr o m t hi s
1
.
d .

1 K r ug ,
L og ik, 9 , pp 246
. . ED . C f [Richter , L ogi k, p
. .
 L E C T U RE I I I .

I N T RO D U C TI O N .

L O GI C II . IT S I Y
U T IL T III I T S D I V I S I O N S S U BJE C T I V E
.

A ND O BJ E C T I V E G E N E R AL A N D S P E C I AL .

T H E l a st ct ur e w a s o ccupi e d with t he con s id e r a ti on of t he

L e

W
l a t t er a r t o f t he i n t r o d uct o r y i
d h t
u t
R
p q es o a n,
pit l t i
e ca u a on
is L o g i c ? a n wi t h t h a t o f t h e r st p a r t o f t he
.

Wh a t is it s U t ili t y ?

d
se c o n d ,
I n t he L e ct ur e pr e ce di g t h e l a st n ,

d
I ha g i ve n t he d e n i t i on o f L o g i c a s t he sci en ce of t he l a ws of ,

d
h a a r t i cul a t e ly e x pl a i n e
,

d
th oug h t a s t h o ug h t a n t a ki n g t h e s e ve r a l pa r t s O f t hi s d e it i on
,

Wh a t w a s t he me a n in g a n hi st or y
, d n ,

Wh a t w a s t he i mpor t of t he t er m s cien ce
of t h e w o r d L og i c ;

t he g e n us o f L og i c ; a n
a s th o u h t t h e o bj e ct ma tt er of L o i c -
d
Wh a t wa s sig n i e d b y l a ws of t h oug h t
,

T hi s l a s t I ha c o n s id e r e d d
,

g , g .

Wh a t is me a n t b y thoug ht ;
u d er th r e e h e a d s e x pl a i n i n g
n

Wh a t is me a n t b y th oug ht a s thoug ht ; a n
, ,

Wh a t is me a n t b y d ,

la ws of th oug ht a s thoug h t I t w a s u n d e r t h e l a st of t h es e h e a d s
.

th a t t he l a s t L e ct ur e comme n ce d I ha in t h e pr e ce di n g s h o w n . d, ,

t h a t t he fo r m o f th o ug ht co mpr i se s t w o ki n d s o f ph ae o me n a g i v e n
a lw a y s in c o nj un cti on b ut t h a t w e a r e a b l e b y a b s t a ct i o n a n
,

a n a ly s i s t o di s cr i mi n a t e t h e m f o m e a ch o t h e r T he o e o f t h e s e
r
n

n
,

d
.

cl a s ses co m r e h e n d s w h a t is con t i n e n t t h e o t h e r wh a t is ece s s a y n r

p g , ,

d
in t h e ma n ifest a ti o s o f th o ug ht n T he n e cessa y e l e me n t is t h e. r

c li
d
x cl us i v e obj e ct o f L o i c ; wh e r e a s t h e ph aen o me n a o f
p e u a r an e g
t h ou ght a n o f mi n d in e n e r a l a r e i n di scr i mi n a t e ly p o pos e d t o r
g
P s y ch o l og y L og i c t h e efo e I s a id is di st i n g u i sh e d fr o m t h e
.
,
r r , ,

dd
oth e rhil hi l i b i t d i t i n a s t h e s ci e n ce o f t h e
p o s o
p c a s c e n c e s y s e o n ,

d
n e c e ss a r

e n i t i o
y fo r m o f th ou h t
g T hi s h o w e v e r
. t h o

is ca pab l e o f a st ill mo r e e x pli ci t e n u ci a t i o ; a n

n,
u
g h a f u ll ,
a n al

I
,

n n
n

t e r m la ws ; a d
S h o w e d h o w w e a e e n t i t l e d t o co n v e r t t h e t e m n eces s a r
r

in d o i n g s o I t o ok t h e O ppor t un i t y o f e pl a i i g
n , ,

h o w t h e n e cess i t y of a me t a l e l e me t b e i g g i v e n t h e e is a l s o
y i n t o t he r

x n n

, n n n , r

i mpli ci t ly g i ve n t he fou co di t i o s
T h a t it is o i g i n a l ;
l aw T he full a n
r

d
r T h a t it is s ubj e ct i v e ;
T h a t it is u n i v er s a l ; a n
n

e x li cit d e n iti on of L o i c th er efor e is t h e

n

T h a t it is a
,

d ,

.
p g , , ,
LE C T III. .
L O G I C . 29

i
s c e n ce o f t he L h oug ht a s T h ought ; or t h e s ci en ce of t h e
a w s of T ,

L a w s o f t h e F o m o f T h o ug h t ; o r t h e s ci ce of t h e F o ma l L a w s
r ,
en r

o f T h o ug h t t h ese b e i n g o n ly t h r e e v a r i o us e pr e ss i o n s of wh a t x

is r e a lly t h e s a me
L og i c b e i n g t h us d e n e d I g a v e a b r i e f a n
.

g e n er a l r e t r o spe ct
,
d d
o f t h e hi s t o r y o f opi i o

d
in r eg a r d t o t h e pr oper o bj e ct a d oma i n
d
n n n

of L o i c a

dd
s h o w e d h o w t h o ug h mo s t l og i ci a n s h a
n t a ke s pe e n n
g , , ,

l a t iv e ly a n i g e n e a l a v e y co e ct V i e w O f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r
n r ,
r rr

s ci e n ce t h e y ha n o t c a r i e d t hi s V i e w o ut i n t o a ppli ca t i on

d d
,
r by ,

e cl udi g fr o m t h e sph e e o f P u r e a
x n A b st a ct L o g i c a ll n o t
r n r

s t i ct ly r e l a t i v e t o t h e fo r m o f t h o ug h t
r b ut ha a ll o w e d ma n y ,

d
d o ct i e s r e l a t i v e me r e ly t o t he ma t t e of t h o ught t o co mpli ca t e
r n r

a n t o d e fo m t h e s ci e ce r n .

I t h e n ca ll e d a t t e n t i o n t o t he O pi n i on s o f t h e a ut h or wh om I
r e co mme d t o y o u r a t t e n t i o n a
n s h o w e d t h a t D r Wh a t e ly in h is ,
n d .
,

d
s t a t e me n t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e obj ect ma t t e r o f L og i c

d is v a g u e a n
d
-
,

o b s c ur e er n e o us a n
,
ro s l f co n t r a di ct o y ; an t h a t s o far fr o m
e - r

b e i n g e n t i t l e d t o t h e p a i s e o f h a v i g b e e n t he o n ly l og i ci a n w ho
r n

h a s cl e a ly di spl a y e d t h e t ue n a t u e o f t he s ci e ce on t h e co n t r a r y
r r r n , ,

d
in t h e e po si t i o n O f t hi s n a t u e h e is fa r i fer i o r n ot o ly in pe r
x r ,
n ,
n

d
spicu it y a n r e ci s i o b ut in t r u t h t o t h e l o i ci a n s o f a l mos t e v e y
n,
p g ,
r

d
a e an c o u t y e x ce p t o ur o w
n r n
g .

A n h er e t aki n g a V i e w of wh a t w e h a v e a l r e a dy e st a bli s h e d
, ,

I w o ul d i n t e po l a t e so me ob ser v a t i on s whi ch I r

dl ti t W l e a v i t he con s id e a t i o n of t he st quest ion

o u h t in m l t h m d f
Ob ti i t
ser va on s n er
L t t b

g y a s e c u e o a v e a e e o e r ,
r
p O SQ re a ve o e

Wh t n g r r
ues i on , 0
.

Wh a t is L og i c ? L og i c w e h a v e s e e n is
q t a is
Vi z
L gi
o c? .
, , ,

e x cl u s i v e ly c o v e r s a n t a b o u t t h o u ht a b ou t n -
g ,

th oug ht con s id er e d st r i ct ly a s t he O pe r a t i on of C ompa r i son or t he

d ,

fa cul t y o f Re l a t i o s ; a n t h oug h t i t hi s r e st r i ct e d si g i c a t i o n is

e e d a s i cl ud e d ;
r
n

n
n
n

t he co g i t i o n o f a y me n t a l o bj ect b y a n ot h e r in w hi ch it is c o si
in ot h er w o d s t h o ug ht is t h e kn o wl e d g e of
r
,
n n

n
,

d
,

t hi n g s u n d er co n ce pt i o n s By t he w a y I w o uld .
,

d d
Th t m C p i t on

an C
e er

on cep t .
s
hon ce
er e
p a u s e t o ma ke a n O b s e r v a t i on u on t h e
p
w o d con cep ti on a n t o pr epa r e y o u for t he e m
r ,

p l o y men t o f a t e r m w hi ch I me a n h e r e a ft e r t o a d o t

a wa e f o m w h a t I h a v e a l e a y s a i
r ,
r t h at I
p Y
o n o t u se con cep ti on
o u

r
a e

dd d ,
. r

in t h e s i g n i ca t i o n in w hi ch it is a ppli e d b y M S t ewa r t H e r. .

u s ur ps it in a v e r y li mi t e d mea n i g in a me a n i n whi ch is e culi ar

d
n
g p ,

t o hi mse l f vi fo r t h e s i mpl e a n
z .
,
u mo di e d r e r ese n t a t i o n o f
p n

a n O bj e ct e s e t e d in P e r ce t i o R id i ill 1
p r
p n e a
g a v a c a t es i n t h e n .
,
n,

si i a t i o n h e a t t a ch es t o t h i s t e m u i i t m ti m
g n c s n
g s o e e s a s a r ,

1 S ee L ectur es on llI eta p hy sics , l ect . xxx iii p 452 E D

. . . .
 30 L O G IC LE C T . I II .

s y n on y m for I mag i n a t i on so met i mes a s compr eh en din g n ot o ly

I ma g i n a t i o n b ut U d e r s t a di g a n t he obj e ct o f U n d e s t a n di g
,
n
,

n n d r n
n
1
.

o
A th
f th
u

t m
mp l y m t
ese
or s e

er
I t is in t h e l a t t e r r e l a t i on a l on e t h a t I e v e r e m
p l o y it a n
s.
o
t hi s is it s c o r e ct a n
en
g e n ui n e si n i
g ,
d r d
ca t io n w h et h e r we r eg a r d t h e d e i v a t i o o f ,
r n

t h e w o r d o r it s g e n e r a l u se b y phil osoph er s
,

is e qu i v a l e n t t o con cep ti o a n co cep tu s in L a t i n ; a n

C on cep ti on i E n gli sh
th e se t e r ms d
d n
.

d ,
n ,

b y t h e b es t phil o soph e s a n t h e mos t e x t e s i v e s ch o ol s h a v e b e e n r ,

n ,

e mpl o y e d a s s y n o y mo us fo r n o ti on ( n ot i a h e a ct o r O bj e ct of t h e
) t n ,

U d e s t a di n g P ope r or F a cul t y of Re l a t i o n s
n r n r S O fa t h e r e for e
, . r, ,

u a e s uf ci e n t ly p e p a r e d n o t t o a t t i b u t e t o t h e w o r d con ce ti onr
y o r
p r ,

wh en y o u h e a r it fr o m me t he me a n i n g whi ch it b e a r s in t he phil o ,

S ophi ca l w r i t i n g s wi t h whi ch y o u a r e mos t li ke ly t o b e fa mili a r .

Wh a t is t he pr eci s e me a n i n g of t he t er m will b e s oon fully

p l a i e d in it s
n r o er
p p p l a ce w h e n w e c omme n ce t h e t r e a t me t of ,
n

L og i c i t s e l f But w h a t I pr i ci pa lly pa u s e a t pr es e t t o s a y is
. n n

th a t for t he s a ke of per spi cui t y I t hi n k it n e ess a r y i r e fer e ce t o

, ,
c ,
n n

thi s w o r d t o ma ke t h e foll o wi g di st i n ct i on T he t e r m con cep ti on

,
n .
,

like p er cep ti on i ma g in a ti on e t c me a s t w o thi n g s o r r a t h e r t h e

, ,
.
,
n ,

d
,

s a me thi n g in t w o di ffer e t r e l a ti o n s r e l a ti o n s h o w e v e r whi ch it n , , ,

is of g e a t i mpo r t a n c e t o di st i g ui sh a n t o ma r k t h e di s t i n ct i o n
r n ,

b y t h e e mpl o y me n t of di sti ct w o r d s
a ct of c o ce i v i n g a n n ,
d
C on cep ti on me a n s b o t h t h e

d
t h e o bj e ct c on ce i v e d ; a s p er cep ti on b o t h t h e
n .

d
a ct o f e r ce i v i a t h e t hi r ce i v e d ; i m a i n a ti on b t h t h
p g g p e n , g n o e n ,

a ct o f i ma g i n i n a wh a t is i ma i n e d N w t hi s is a s o u ce o f
g n
g , o .
,
r

g r e a t v a u e n e s s in o ur
g
o f a v o idi n
g t hi
p hi l os o

s i n co n v e n i e ce ?
p hi c a l di s cu ss i o n s : h a v e w e n o me a n s

I t hi n k w e h a v e ; a t h at t oo n n d , ,

wi t h ou t co mmi t ti n g a y v i ol e n ce upon l a n g u a g e I w ould p o po s e n . r

d
t h e fo ll o w i g di s t i ct i o F o r t h e a ct of co ce i v i g t h e t e m co
n n n n n ,
r n

cep t ion s h o uld b e e m l o y e d a t h a t e x cl us i v e ly ; w hil e fo r t h e

p ,
n

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p ,
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dd
s h o uld b e u se d C o ce pt is t he E g li sh o f t h e L a t i con cep tu m
dd
2
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i q u o con ce tu m es t
p a h a it n o v es t e d r i g ht a s a ,
a ct u a l
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d e n iz e n of t he l a n g u ag e it ha s g o o d w a r r a n t fo r it s n a t ur a liz a t i o n ,
.

d
T h e r e a e a t h o u s a n d w o r d s in E n g li s h for me d o n pr e ci s e ly t h e
r

s a me a a l o y a s n t i t t t B u t w e h a v e n o o cca s i o n
g p r e cep g es e c , e c , ,
.
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.

t o a ppe a l t o a a l og y T he t e r m co cep t w a s in co mmo n u s e a mo g

n . n n

t h e o ld e r phil osophi ca l w r i t e r s in E n g li sh t h o ug h li ke ma n y o t h e r ,
3
,

v a l ua b l e e r e ss i on s of t h es e a ut h o s it h a s b ee n o v e r l o o ke d b o ur
p x
y r ,

d d
d d m,
1 S ee L ectur es on M eta p hy sics , l ec t xxx iii p i n tell ig en i
S ee O cca I n S en t l i . . . 2,
. . . .
,

dd d
452 E D 8; 3, q Biel , 1 i
. .
qu . an . . . .

Z
d
S ee Bie l , [ I n S en t l i a ch a r y C ok e , A r t of L og i clc L on on

d
2 . . . is t 2 . q u 8 ; 1 I I
. . . . 3 S ee .
,

ist 2 , q u 2
con cep t us
. By O
is use
. .

d dd as

i
cc a

q uo
m an mo st ot h e r s ,
t er min a t act n m
1 654 , pp 1 1 , 101 , et a libi ; G i e o n H a r ve y ,
.

A r chelogi a P hil os ophi ca N ova , or N ew P r in cip les

 L E C T III L OGI0

ddh t ly t
. .
.

E n
g li sh l e x i cogr a ph er s . I ma y a , t a n ear

t he old
h a s b efa ll en t h e t e r m in F r en c
F r e n ch phil os oph e r s, b ut ha a tt e r
h
d.

l ly w
C on cep t w a s in
ax e d ob so l et e . It
h a s, h o we v e r , I s e e , b e e n r e i n s t a t e in it s r g t s
d i l
d i h i t he r e aw a ke n

s n ce

in g p hil
ofo sophy i F r a n ce ; a n i n
p a r t cu a r it is n o w e m l o y e d
n
p , ,

in t h a t l a g ua g e in t r a n s l a t i g fr o m t h e G e r ma n t h e t e r m B eg r i:
n n

I sh a ll t h e r e for e ma ke n o s cr upl e in us i n g t h e e x pr es s i o n con cep t

l
,

o y t o d e s i n a t e t h e a ct o f co n c e i v i n g W h
,

fo r t he obj ect o f co n ce pt i on a n con cep ti on I sh a ll e x cl us i v e ly e m

e th e r it mi h t n o t i n
, d
p g g .
,

li ke ma n er b e pr ope r t o i t r o d uce t he t e r m p er cep t for t he obj e ct

n ,
n

of pe r ce pt i o n I s h a ll n o t a t pr e s e n t i n q u i r e
,
.

But t o r e t ur n fr o m t hi s di g e s s i o n L og i c w e h a v e s een is e x r .
, ,

e l us i v e ly con v

d d
e r s a n t a b o ut t h o u ht s t r i ct ly s o
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e n o mi n a t e d a n th o ug ht pr ope r w e h a v e see n
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, , ,
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is t he c og n i t i o n of o n e o bj e ct o f t h o ug h t b y a n
a e a

d
.

l cs
o th e r i o r u n d e r whi ch it is me n t a lly i n cl ud e d ;

,
n

-in o th er w o r d s th o u h t is t h e kn o w l e e o f a t hi t h ou h a
g g , g g n r

co n ce pt o r g e n e r a l n o t i o o r o f o n e n o ti o n th r o ug h a n o t h e r In n, .

t h o ug h t a ll t h a t w e t hi n k a b o ut is con s id e e d e i t h e r a s s o me t hi g
,
r n

co n t a i n i o r a s s o me thi n
g con t a in ed in o th e r w o r d s e v e r y ro
g n , p ,

c es s of t h o ug ht is on ly a cog n i t i on of t h e n e cessa r y r el a t i o s of our n

c on ce pt s T hi s b e i n g t h e ca se it n e e d n o t mo v e o ur w o n d e r th a t
.
,

L og i c wi t hi n it s pr ope r sph e r e is o f s uch i r r e fr a g a b l e ce r t a i n t y

, , ,

t h a t in t h e mid st o f a ll t h e r e vo l ut i o n s of phil osophi ca l d o ct r i n es

, ,

L og i c a d
it h a s s t o o d n o t on ly u n sh a tt e e d b ut u n s h a ke n
M a t h e ma t i cs s t a d a l o n e a mo n g t h e s ci e n ce s a
n

e c uli a r ce r t a i t y o w s fr o m t h e s a me s o u r c e
I n thi s r e spe ct
t h eir n
r .

,
n d ,

p n B o t h a r e c o n v er s a t . n

a b o ut t h e r e l a t i o n s o f ce r t a i n a r i or i fo r ms o f i n t e lli e n ce
p g
M a t h e ma t i cs a b o ut t h e n e ce s s a r y fo ms o f I ma g i n a t i on ; L o g i c a b o ut r

t h e e ce ss a y fo ms o f U n d e r s t a n di g ; M a th e ma t i cs a b o ut t h e r e
n r r n

s pa c e a n d
l a t io n s o f o ur r e pr es e n t a t i o n s o f obj ect s a s o ut of e a ch ot h er in
t i me ; L o g i c a b o ut t h e r e l a t i on s of o ur co n ce pt s of ob
,

ee t s a s in o r u n d e r e a ch o t h e r th
d
a t is a s i n di ffer e n t r e l a t i o n s
j , , , , ,

r es e ct i v e ly con t a i n i n a c o n t a i n ed B o t h a r e t h u s d e mo n s t a
p g n . r

t i v e o a b s o l ut e ly ce r t a i n s ci en ce s on ly a s e a ch d e v e l ops wh a t is
r

g i v e n wh a t is
g i v e n a s n ece s s a r y in t h e mi n d it s e l f T h e l a ws , .

d
of L o i c a r e u d d n t he me r e o s s i b ili t y o f a kn o w l e d e
g g r o n e o p g
t h r o ug h t he co n ce t s o f t h e U d e s t a n di n g a n th r o u h t h e se w e
g n r
p ,

kn o w o n ly b y c o mpr e h e n di n g t h e ma n y u n d er t h e o e C on ce r n n .

in g t h e n a t ur e o f t he obj e ct s d eli ver e d b y t h e S ub s idi a r y F a c ul t i e s

of P hilosop hy . L on d . 1 663 , P . i .
, b . n . , c. 4, p . Ba y n es , N ew A n a ly tic of L og ica l F or ms , pp 5 , .

d
22 . F or s e ve r a l a ut h o r it ie s for t h e use o f t h is 6, n ot e . ED .

te r m a mon g t he ol er E n g l is h l og icia n s , se e
32 L O GIC L E C T . III .

t o t he E l ab or a ti ve L og ic pr on oun ce s n othi n g b ut r est i ct s

, , r it s co n

g r ee
r

m
me n t ise a i r
g
d
s id e a t i o n t o t h e l a w s a cc o r di n g t o whi ch t h e i r a r e e me n t

.
1
or di sa

I t is of i t s e l f ma n i fes t y s ci en ce mu st ob e y t he l a w s of th a t ev e r

d
L og i c I f it d o es n o t s uch p e t e d e d s ci e n ce .
, r n

d g ti
L gi i th
is n o t fo un d e d o n r e ect i on a n is o n ly a n i r r a
o c s ene a ve
,
c on it i f t h
on o r ut .

t io n a l a b s ur di t y A ll i n fer en ce e v ol ut i o co n .
, n,

c a t e n a t i on is con d uct e d o n l og i c a l p i n ci pl e s
, p i n ci l e s w hi c h
p r r

a r e e v e r v a lid e v e i mper a t i v e e v er t he sa me But a e t e n si o n

,
r , . n x

o f a y s ci e ce t h o ug h L og i c is a b so l ut e ly i mpossi b l e ; fo b y co
d
n n r r n

fo mi n g t o l o g i ca l ca n o n s w e a cq ui r e n o kn o w l e g e r e ce i v e n o t h

d
r

in g n e w b ut a r e on ly en a b l e d t o r e n d er wh a t is a l r e a y ob t a i n e d
,

mor e i n t e lli g i bl e b y a n a ly si s a n a r r a n g e men t L og i c is o n ly t he

, d .

d
n e a t i v e co di t i on o f t r ut h o a tt e m t b m r e l o i ca l k o w l
2
g T
n
p y a e
g . n

e d e t o a mplify a s ci e n ce is a n a b s ur di t y a s r e a t a s if w e sh o ul
g g ,

a tt em t b a kn o wl e d g e o f t h e g r a mma t i ca l l a w s of a l a
p y g gu a e to n

di s cov e r w h a t w a s w r i t t e n in t hi s l a n g u a g e w i t h out a pe r u s a l o f t he ,

s e v e r a l w i t i n s t h e ms e l v e s B ut t h o u h L o i c ca n n t e t e n d
g r
g g . o x ,

c a n n o t a m li fy a sci e n c e b y t he di sco v e r y o f n e w fa ct s it is n t t o
p ,
o

b e s uppo s e d t h a t it d o e s n o t co n t i b ut e t o t h e pr o g e s s o f sci e ce r r n .

T he p og e s s of t h e s ci e n ce s co n s i s t s o t mer e ly i t he a cc umul a t i o n
r r n n

o f n e w ma t t e r b ut li ke w i s e in t h e d e t e ct i on o f t h e r e l a t i o n s s ub s i s t
,

i g a mon g t h e ma t e r i a l s a ccumul a t e d ; a n t he r e e ct i v e a b s t r a ct i o n
n

b y w hi ch t hi s is e ffe ct e d mus t n o t o ly fo ll o w t he l a w s o f L o g i c n
d
, ,

b ut is mo st po w e fully cul t i v a t e d b y t he h a b i t s o f l o g i c a l st udy

r .

d
I n th e s e i n t e r ca l ar y ob s er v a t i o n s I h a v e h o w e v er i s e n s i b ly e n , ,
n

c o a ch e
r u po n t h e s econ d u e s t i o n Wh a t is t h e U t ili t y o f L og i c ?
q ,

O n thi s q ues t i o n I n ow di ct a t e t h e fo ll o wi n g pa r a g r a ph

{I I V . A s the l
r u es of

ly t he fo r m of t h o ug h t t he U t ili t y of
on
L og ic d o n ot re
g ar d the ma t t er b ut
,

L og i c must in li ke ma n n e r b e v i e we d a s
22
1 U t il i t y f
, ,

d
li mi t e d t o it s i n ue ce o n o ur ma n n e r of
0

thi n ki n g a n n ot s oug ht fo r i a n y e ffect it ca n e e t upon

, n x r

w h a t we t hi n k a b o ut I t is th er e fo r e in t h e r s t pl a ce n ot t o
.
, , ,

b e co n s id e r e d u s e ful a s a M a t e i a l I n s t r u me n t t h a t is a s a me a n r , ,

o f e x t e n di n o ur kn o wl e d e b t h di s co v e y o f n e w t ut h s ; r
g g y e r

d
b ut me e ly a s a F o r ma l I n s t u men t t h a t is a s a me a n b y w hi ch
r r , ,

kn ow l e g e a l r e a dy a cq ui r e d m a y b e me t h o diz e d i n t o t h e for m
, ,

a cco mmo d a t e d t o t h e co di t i o s o f o ur un d e r s t a n di I t h e
g n n n . n

s e co d l an it i t t b d d a a M e di i n e of t h e mi d
p ce s n o o e r e
g a r,
e s c n

d Ba ch ma n n , L ogi k, E in le itun g ,
1 C f. 20 n cill on , E ssa is P hilosop hi ques , t
. 2 [A . u. p .

E it 1 828 E
. . D .
L E C T . III .
L ocI c . 33

t o the
n
t en t of r e medyi n g t h e v a r i ou s e r r or s whi ch o r ig i n a t e
ex

i t h e n a t ur e o f t he obj e ct s o f o ur kn o wl e g e b ut m er el y t o d ,

d
t he e t en t o f pur g i n g t h e mi n d o f t h os e e r or s whi ch a r i se
x r

f o m i n c on s e quen ce a n con fus i on in t hi n ki n g

1
r .

L og i c, h o w e v er , is s till of e mi n en t ut ili t y, n ot o n ly a s pr ese n t i n g

t o us t h e mos t i n t e r e st i n g o bj e ct of con t e mpl a t i on in t h e me ch a n i s m
o f h uma n t h o ug ht, b u t a s t ea chi n g h o w , in ma n y r e l a t i on s , t o

i mi n a t e t ut h f o m e r r or a n h ow t o met h o diz e o ur kn ow e g e
is
d d
l d
cr r r ,

i n t o sy s t m ; w hil e a t t h e s a me t i me in t ur n i g t he mi n d upon
e , ,
n

i t sel f it a ffor d s t o o ur hig h e r fa cul t i e s o n e of t h e i r mos t i n v ig or a ti n g

,

e x e r ci se s

q
A n o t h e r ut ili t y is t h a t L o g i c a l o e a ffor d s u s t h e me a n s
.

r e ui s i t e t o a cco mpli s h a r a t i o n a l cr i t i ci s m a n t
,

o co mmun i ca t e it s ,
n

d
r es ul t s .

Wh a t is n ow summa r ily st a t e d in t he pr e c e di n g pa r agr a ph I ,

ill ust a t e d in my l a st L e ct ur e in d et a il in s o fa r a s it w a s r e q ui s
r , , ,

it e t o di s en c u mb e r t h e r e a l v a l u e o f o ur sci e n ce o m th os e fa l s e
'

u t ili t i e s w hi ch in pl a ce o f e n h a n ci n g it s w or t h i n t h e o pi n i on of
,

t h e w or ld h a v e in fa ct ma i n ly c on t ib ut e d t o r e d uce t h e co mmon
, , ,
r

e s t i ma t e of it s i mpo t a n ce fa r b e n ea t h t h e t r ut h
r I n o w pr ocee d .

t o t e mi n a t e wh a t I h a v e t o s a y u n d e r t hi s h e a d b y a fe w w o r d s i n
r ,

e x o s i t i o n o f wh a t r e n d er s t h e c ul t i v a t i o n o f L og i c of n ui n e

d
e
p g
l og i c o e of t he mo st i mpor t a n t a n pr ot a b l e of o ur st udi es
n .

A d mi tt i n g t h er efo r e t h a t t hi s s ci e n ce t e a ch es n ot hi n g n e w
, , ,

t h a t it n e i t h e r e x t e n d s t h e b oun d a i e s o f kn o w l r

t d
d
L gi gi t
e d g e n o r u fo ld s t h e my s t e r i es w hi ch lie b e y o n d
o c ves u s , o a.
,
n
t i
c er a n e x t mi
en o n
e co mpa s s o f t h e r e e ct i v e i n t e ll e ct
,

i h h
t h a n
on o ver o u r t g t ou s. ,

th a t it o n ly i n v es t ig a t es t h e i mmut a bl e l a ws t o
w hi ch t h e mi n d in t hi n ki n g is s ubj e ct e s t ill i n a s mu ch a s it e vel d , , d
d
o ps t h e a ppli ca t i o n o f t h es e l a w s it b e st o w s o n u s t o a ce r t a i , ex , n

t e n t a d o mi n i o n o v e r o ur t h o ug h t s t h e ms e l v es
, A n is it n o t hi g . n

an d t h o ug h t s a n
n e ss t o t he e n
, d
t o w a t ch t h e s e c r e t w o ksh op in w hi ch n a t ur e fa b r i ca t e s co n i t i o n s

d
r

t o pe n e t a t e i n t o t h e s a n ct ua y o f s e l f co s ci ous
r

t h a t h a v i n g l e a r n t t o k o w o ur s e l v e s w e ma
g
r - n

, ,
y b e n
,

q g
d
u a li e d r i h t ly t o u n d e s t a d a ll e l s e ? rI s it n o t hi n

h e l m o f t h oug h t a n t o b e a b l e t o t ur n it a t o ur w ill ? F or t h r o ug h
a r ese a r ch i n t o t h e l a w s o f t hi n ki n
,

o ic
n
g t o s e iz e t h e

g L g g i v e s u s i n a ce r t a i n , ,

s or t a , p o s se ss i o n o f t h e t h o u g h t s t h e m s e l v e s I t is t r u e i n d e e d .
,

d
,

th a t t he mi d of ma n is like t he un i ve r se of ma t t e r g o v er n e d b y
n , ,

d d
e t er n a l l a ws a n foll o ws e v e n wi t h out con sci o us n ess t he in va r i
, , ,

a b l e ca n o n s of it s n a t ur e But t o kn o w a n un d e r st a n d it s el f; a n
.

1 Cf . K r ug , L og ik, 9 E
. D .

5
34
'

L 0G 1e . L E cT . 111 .

o ut of dl ess ch a os of ph aen omen a pr esen t e d t o t h e s en ses

t he b oun

an d g
r

a r r a n e me n t a n t h u s t o e s t a b li s d
t o fo m co n ce pt s t h r o ug h con ce pt s t o r e d u ce t h a t ch a os t o h a r mon y
h t h
,

e d omi n i o n o f i n t e lli e n ce
, g

d
o v e r t h e u i v e s e o f e x i st e n ce it is t hi s a l o n e whi ch c o n st i t ut e s
n r ,

ma s g a n d a n di st i n ct i v e pr ee mi n en ce
n

r M a n s a y s t he g r e a t .
1
,

P a sca l is b ut a r ee d
,

t h e v e r y fr a il e st in n a t u e ; b ut h e is a r ee d
,
- r

th a t t hi n ks I t n e e d s n o t t h a t t h e wh ol e un i v er se sh o uld a r m t o
.

c us h him
r H e di e s fr o m a n e x h a l a t i on fr om a d r op o f w a t e r But
.
, .

s h o u ld t h e u n i v e r se c o n s pi r e t o cr u s h him ma n w o uld st ill b e n ob l e r

th a t h a t b y whi ch h e fa ll s ; for h e kn ow s th a t he di e s ; a n of t he
n
,

d
v i ct o r y w hi ch t he un i v e r s e h a s o v e r him t h e un i v e r s e kn o w s n ot h ,

in g T h us o ur wh ol e di g n i t y c on s i st s in th oug h t
. L et .

u s l ab o t h e n t o thi n k a i g h t ; thi s is t h e fo un d a t i on of mor a li t y

2
r, ,
r .

I n t he w or ld of s en s e ill us i v e a ppe a r a n ce s h o v er a r o u d u s like ,

n

e v il spi r it s ; u n r e a l d r e a ms mi n g l e t h e ms e l v es

d
S pp l i i p t th
u es
wi t h r e a l kn owl e d g e ; t he a ccust ome d a ssumes
n ar e

cr it i f t th f m
e r on o ru ro

e r r or .
t h e ch a a ct e r o f ce r t a i n t y ; a n t h e a ss o ci a t i o n s
r

o f t h o ug h t a r e mi s t a k e n for t h e co n e ct i o n s o f n

We th us r e qui e a cr it er i o n t o di s cr i mi n a te t r ut h fr om
e x i s t e n ce

d
. r

e r or ; a n
r thi s cr it e r i o n is in pa r t a t l ea st s uppli e d t o us b y L og i c , , .

d
L og i c t e a ch e s us t o a n a lyz e t he c on cr e t e ma ss e s of o ur kn o w l e d g e
d
i n t o it s e l eme n t s a n t h us g i v e s us a cl e a a n di sti n ct a ppr e h e si o n
d d
r n
,

o f it s pa r t s it t e a ch e s u s t o t hi n k c o n si s t e n t ly a n
, w i t h me t h o d a n ,

an d r d
it t e a ch e s u s h o w t o b uild up o ur a ccumul a t e d kn o w l e d g e i n t o a r m
h a mon i o us e ice T h e s t u dy o f l og i c is a s n e ce s s a r y fo r
.
3

co r r e ct t hi n ki g a s t he st udy o f g r a mma r is fo r co r r e ct s e a ki n

w e r e it n o t o t h e w i s e a n
n ,

in i t s el f a n i n t er e st i g s t udy t o i v es
r d p g;
n n

t ig a t e t h e me ch a i s m of t he h uma n i n t e ll e ct in t he ma r v e ll o us
n

r o ce sses o f t h o u h t T h ey a t l e a st w h o a e fa mili a r w i t h t hi s
p g .
, ,
r

me ch a n i sm a e l ess e x pos e d t o t h e co v er t fa ll a ci e s whi ch s o e a s ily

,
r

d el ud e t h os e u a ccust o me d t o a n a n a ly si s of t h e s e p o ce s ses
d
4
n r .

But it is n ot o n ly b y a ffo r di n g kn o wl e d g e a n skil l t h a t L og i c is

dt d
I ig
nv

i g
t th U or a e s
th us u seful ; it is pe r h a ps e qu a lly co d uci v e t o
t h e s a me e n
e
b y b e s t o wi n g p o we r
n
T he r e t e r d .
n

d
er s a n n .

s i o n o f t h o ug h t u o n i t s e l f t h e t hi n ki f
p g o n

th o ug h t is a vig or o us effor t a n con se quen t ly a n i n vi g o r a t i g

d

, , , n

e x e r ci se of t h e U n d e st a n di ; an a s t h e u n d e s t a n di n
r i t h i
g g s n
e n r

s t r ume t of a l l s ci e n t i c of a ll
n hil os o hi a l s e u l t i L i b
p p c p c a, o o
g c y , n, ,

r ee mi n e n t ly c ulti v a t i n t h u n d e r s t a n di n i t hi t li k w i
p g e
g n s r e s p e c e se ,

d d
d
d
[ H ein r ich Rich ter ] [ U ber en G eg en s ta n
d
mp ar e
1
'

, F a ug r e .
) C o D iscuss io n s , p . 3 11 .

un en U m f a ng er L og ik, pp 3 , 4 , L e ipsic, . E D .

d
1825 E D ]
. . 3 C f Rich t er , L og ilc, p p 5 , 6 , 12 E D
. . . .

,
2 P ens es P i a r t i v 6 , ( vol 1 1 p 84 e
. . . . . . . . . 4 K r ug , L og ilc, 9 , p 26 E D . . .
L tzc r III L 0G I C 35

d
. .

v n i di ca t es i t titl e t o b e v i e we d a s t he b est pr epa r a t or y is

c ipl in e fo r P hil o s o phy a n
it s a n c en

t h e sci en ces a t l a r g e d .

T h e e is h o we ve r o n e u t ili t y w hi ch t h o ug h of a s ub o r di n a t e
r , ,

ki n d I mus t n o t o mi t t h o ug h I o n ot r eme mb e r t o h a v e s ee n it in
, ,
d ,

s i st e d o n b a n y l og i ca l w r i t e r I n r efe r e n ce t o thi s I
g i v e
y o u t h e
y .
,

foll owi n g pa a g a ph r r

if V . But L og i c is fur t h e r u seful a s affor di n g a N omen cl a t ur e

L
P
og
ar

s ci en
.

i cs,
V

.

as

ti "
U t i l i ty

a or

men l a
d
of

in g

o f t he l a w s b

IS
g ov e r n e d
y
an
whi
,
d
ch l e g i t i ma t e t hi n ki n

o f t h e V i o l a t on o f th es e

l a w s t h r oug h w hi ch t h oug ht b ecomes vici ous

g 0

,
u r e.
o r n ull .

I l lust r a t ion . I t IS sa id ,
in H u dib r a s}
Rh et or icia n

T hat a ll a s r ules

me h is

d
S er v e on ly b ut t o na tool s ;

an it ma y b e s a fely con fe s se d t h a t t hi s is o n e of t he pr i n ci pal utili

t es of R e t o r i c
i h A mor e kn o w l e d g e o f t h e r ul e s of Rh e t o r i c ca n
.

n o mor e e n a b l e u s t o c o mpo se w e ll , t h a n a me r e kn o wl e d ge of t he

r ul e s of L og i c ca n e n a b l e u s t o t hi n k w e ll T h e r e is r e q u i r e d fr o m .

n a t ur e, in b o t h , t h e fa cul t y ; b ut t hi s fa cul t y mu st , in b o th d e pa r t

men t s , b e c ul t i v a t e d b y a n a ss id u o u s a n a l s o a w e ll -di r e ct e d e x e r d
e r cis e d
ci s e ; t h a t is, in t h e o n e , t h e p o w e r s o f C o mpa r i s on mus t b e e x

di
a cc or

h
di n g t o t he
l
r u es

d L og i c I n so fa r t h er efo e t he
r u e s o f a so u n
l of a s o un d Rh e t or i c, in t he ot h er ,

a c cor n
g t o t e .
,
r ,

u t ili t y o f e i t h e sci e n c e is s o me t hi r m o r e t h a n a me e n a mi g of n r n
g
t h ei r t o ols But t h e a mi n
g of t h e ir . t o ol s n ,
I mp t f i
ti
or a n ce o

m l t
th o ug h in i t s e l f o f li t t l e v a l ue is v a l ua b l e a s t he
a sc
,

d
en c no e n c a ur e .

co n di t i on o f a i mpo t a n t fun ct i on whi ch w i t h n r , ,

W
d
o ut t hi s co uld n o t b e e for me d or d s t i th u h t b u t
, p o n o
g r v e o
g s ; .

w i t h o u t w o d s t h o ug h t s co u ld n o t b e x e d li mi t e d a n e p es s e d
r , , ,
x r .

T h e y a r e t h e e for e in g e e r a l t h e e ss e n t i a l co n di t i on of a ll t hi n k
,
r ,
n ,

d
i g w o r t hy o f t h e n a me
n , N o w w h a t is t u e o f h uma t h o ug h t i
.
,
r n n

e n e a l is t r ue o f L o i c a n R h t i i t i u l T h m l
g r , g e o c n
p a r c a r e n o e c a r . n

se e a n d
t ur e in t h es e sci e n ce s is t h e n o me n cl a t ur e of ce t a i n g e e a l a a ly
di st i ct i on s whi ch e x p ess t o t he i n i t i a t e d i a s i n g l e w o
n ,
r
r

,
n
n r n

r d
,

w h a t t h e u i n i t i a t e d co uld (s uppo s i g
n wh a t is n ot pr ob a b l e n

d d
t h a t h e co u ld pe r for m t he e l a t i v e p o ce s s e s) n e i t h e r u d e s t a d r r n r n n or

e x r e s s w i t h o u t a t e di o us a v a ue e i h a s i s ; w hil e in h is h a
p g p p n s r r ,
n ,

it w o uld a s s ume o n ly t he a ppe a a n ce o f a pa t i cul a r o b se v a t i on in

st e a d of a
p a t i cul a i s t a ce o f a
r
g e n er a l a
r na c k
T o t a ke a v e r y s i mpl e e x a mpl e t h e e is in L og i c a c er t a i n s ophi sm
n
g
r

o w l e d e d r ul e

r
r

n d n
r ,

1 P . C an t. i 89 E
. . D .
 L O G I C .
L E C I
'
. III .

o r a ct o f

mpl
ill eg a l i n t er fer en ce b y whi ch t w o t hin g s a r e per h a ps in a
v e y con ce a l e d a n r
,

ci r cui t o us ma n n e r ma d e t o d ,

d
E x a e
r o v e e a ch ot h e r ow t h e ma n un a c u a i t e d
.

p N q .
, n

wit h L og i c ma y pe r h a ps d e t e ct a n b e con v i n ce d of t h e fa ll a cy ;

dd
b ut h o w will h e e x pos e it ? H e mus t e n t er up on a l on g s t a t e
d d
me n t a n e x pl a a t i on a n a ft e r mu ch l a b or t o hi ms elf a n o t h er s
n ,

h e pr ob a bly o e s n o t ma ke his obj e ct i o n cl e a r a n d e mo n st r at i v e

a ft e ra ll But b et w e en t h os e a cq u a i n t e d w i t h L og i c t h e wh ol e
.
d ,

d
ma t t e r w o uld b e s e t t l e d in t w o w o r d s I t w ould b e e oug h t o s a y

dd d
. n

d
a n sh o w t h a t t h e i fe r e n ce i u e s t i on i n v o l v e d a ci r cu lu s i n con
n
q n

elu e o a n t h e r efut a t i on is a t o n ce u d e s t o o d a n a d mi t t e d
,
n It n r .

ddd
is in li ke ma n n e r t h a t o n e l a wy e r will e p ess t o a ot h er t h e r a ti o
eci en i o f a ca s e in a s i

cli e n t s w ill o n ly
g l e

e r l e x t h e ms e l v e s a
t e ch n i ca l e
.

h
pr es si o n ; whil e t h e i r
n

r s in t h e i r a t t e m t s t o d
x r

x
n

p p o t e p n

s e t fo t h t h e me r i t s o f t h e i r ca us e

r ea son i n
r

ff d d
t h a n e s t a b li s h a ce t a i n n u mb er o f d e cid e d a n
i
r

ef a
N o w if L o g i c did n o t hi n g mor e

e c i s e e x r e ss i o n s b
.

d e ci si ve r ul e s in
hi hd d ,

g an a, o u s b r
p p r
y w n c r

t o b i n g pa r ti cul a r ca s e s u d er t h e s e g e e a l r u l e s it w o uld co n fer

r n n r ,

o n a ll wh o in a n
y w a
y e m p l o y th e i r i n t e ll e c t t
ha t is o n t h e cul t i ,

v a t e s o f e v e r y h u ma n s ci e ce t he m o s t i mp o t a n t ob li g a t i on

d
r n r .

d
F or it is o ly in t h e po ssess i o n o f s uc h e s t a b li sh e d r ul e s a
n o f s u ch ,
n

a t e ch n i ca l n omen cl a t ur e t h a t w e c a n a cco m li s h wi t h fa cili t y a n

, p , ,

t o a n a d e q ua t e e x t e n t a cr i t i ci s m o f a y w o k of r e a s o n i n g
,
L og i n r .

d
ca l l a n ua e is th u s t o t h e n er a l r e a so e wh a t t h e n o t a t i on o f
g g g e
,
n r,

A r i t h me t i c a n s t il l mo r e of A l g eb r a
,
is t o t h e ma t h e ma t i ci a
Bot h e a b l e u s t o c omp e h e n d a n e x pr e ss in a fe w s i g i ca n t sy m
n r d ,

,
n

d
n .

b ol s wh a t w o uld o t h e r w i se o v e po w e r u s b y t h e i c o mpl e x i t y ; a n
d
,
r r

t h us it is t h a t n ot hi n g w o uld co t r i b u t e mo e t o fa cili t a t e a n n ex r

d
t e d t h e fa cul t y of r e a so i g t h a n a g en e a l a cqu a i n t a n ce wi th t h e
n n n ,
r

r ul e s a n l a n g u a g e of L og i c a n a d va t a g e e t e n di n g i n d e e d t o ,
n x

e v e y d e a r t m n t o f k o w l e d e b u t mo r e e spe ci a lly of i mpo t a n ce

r
p e
g n ,

d r

t o t h os e pr o fe s si o s w hi ch a r e o ccupi e d in i fe r en ce a
n

w i t h a b st r a ct ma t t e r su ch a s T h e o l og y a n L a w
,

I n o w pr o cee d t o t h e t hi d o f t h e p e li mi a y q u e st i on s v i r
c on v e r s a n t

r
d n

n
.

r
,
n

z .
,

H o w is L og i c di v id e d N o w it is ma i fe st t h a t ,
n
III D i i i f
L gi
e c
.

.
v s on s
thi s
o

q u e st i o n ma y b e v i e w e d in t w o r e l a t i o s ; n

for i a ski g h o w is L o g i c di v id e d w e e i t h er
, ,
n n ,

me a n h o w ma n y ki n d s a e t h e e o f L o g i c or i t o h o w ma y con r r ,
n n

s t it u en t pa t s is it di s t i b ut e d ?
r We ma y con sid er L og i c ei t h er a s
r
1

a u n i v e r s a l or a s a n i t e r a t e w h o l e n
, g , .

1 D ivisi on d r t ici a l , in ept

d
of L og ic in t o N a tu r a l a n A .

d d
H e h its e ach p o in t wi th n a tive for ce of min ,

W h ils t p u z z le L ogi c s tr ugg l e s fa r b e hin .

Cf . K r ug , L og i k, p 29 . . T r ox l er , L og ik, i 48 . .
L E C T . I II .
L 0G 1c . 37

I t is id er t h e for mer q uest i on r st ; for b efor e

n e ce ss a r y to con s ,

r o ce e di n t o sh ow w h a t a r e t he r t s o f w hi ch
p g p a
I Th Sp i f
a l og i c is ma d e up it is re q ui s i t e pr e v i o usly t o
. e ec es o
,
L i
o 0 c.
cr

d et e mi n e w h a t t he l og i c is o f w hi ch t h e s e pa r t s r

a r e t h e co m on e n t s U n d e r t h e fo r mer h ea d I t h e r e for e i u
p g v e
y
. o ,

t he fo ll o wi n g

ii V I L og i c, . c on sid er e d a s a G e n us or C l ass ma y in i ffer , ,

d
r e f:fgz ; o
I
o

d
ci e s A n . d
e n t r e l a t i on s b e di v id e d i n t o di ffe r e t S
, p
in t he r s t pl a ce co n s id e r e d b y
,
e

,
n

d
i s O bj e ct i v e a n S ub r e l a t i on t o t h e mi n d o r t hi n ki n s ubj e ct
g ,
j mv e
L og i c is di v id e d i n t o O bj e ct i v e a n S ubj e e
e '

ti ve
s
y s te
, or ,

ma ti ca
in t h e
an d l a n g uag e o f s o me old e r a ut h o s i n t o L og i ca
L og i ca ha bi tu a li s 1
.
r ,

By O bj ecti v e or S y s t ema t i c L og i c is mea n t t ha t co mpl emen t o f

E
d oct r i n e s o f whi ch t he s cie n ce of L og i c is ma d e '

x pl ica tion
j i o r H a b i t u a l L og i c is me a n t
.

u
p ; b y S ub e ct v e

t h e spe cul a t i v e kno w l e d g e o f t h e se d o ct i n e s whi ch a y i n di v id u a l

( a s S o cr a t e s P l a t o A r i st o t l e
) m
,
a
y p oss e s s a n t h e
p
,
a cti ca l ex
r

,
d n

r d ,

t er it y w i t h w hi ch h e is a b l e t o a pply th e m

d
.

N o w it is e v id e n t t h a t b ot h t h e s e L og i cs o r r a th e r L og i c con

B h h
,

si e r e dd
in t hi s t w ofold r e l a t i o n o ug h t t o b e pr o
o s e d t o hi ms e lf b y a a ca d e mi ca l i n s t r uct or
, ,

,
,

ii t li f s We must t h e r e for e n e l e ct n ei t h er L o i c con

gi se o c
p n .

a ie d
dd
ou z e

g l en g g , ,
.

i t
n s r uc ti on .si e r e a s a s y s t e m o f r ul e s is o n ly v a l u a b l e a s ,

t h e mi n d ; a n d
a me a n t o w a r d s l og i c co n s id e r e d a s a h a b i t o f

th er efo e a l og i ca l i n st r uct or o ug ht n ot t o t hi n k
,

th a t he ful l s h is d ut y t h a t h e a c co mpli s h e s a ll t h a t he is ca ll e d
r ,

on to e r fo r m if h
d
e li mi t hi mse l f t o t h e me r e e n o un ce me t o f a

p n

co d e o f o ct r i n e l e a v i n h i s pupil s t o t u n his i n st uct i o s t o t h e i r r n r

g ,

o wn a c c o un t a s b es t t h e y ma y O n t h e co n t a r y h e is b o un d t o r e c . r ,

olle ct t h a t h e s h o uld b e s o me t hi n g mo r e t h a n a b o o k ; t h a t h e o ug h t

d
n o t o ly hi ms e lf t o d e li v e r t h e o n e L og i c b ut t o t a ke c a r e t h a t his
n ,

u il s a c ui r e t h e o th er T h e for me r i d e e d h e mu s t
p p q o a s a co n
.
,
n ,

di t i o n of t he l a t t e r ; b ut if h e co n sid er s t he sy st e ma t i c l og i c whi ch
h e pr o o u ce s a s o f a n y v a l ue e cept in s o fa r a s his pupil s co n v e t
n n , ,
x r

it i n t o a n h a b i t ua l l og i c h e u n d e r st a n d s n o thi g o f t h e ch a r a ct e o f ,
n r

t h e fun ct i o n w hi ch h e a tt e mpt s t o pe r for m I t is th er e fo r e in cu m .

, ,

1 S ee T i mple r , p . 77 ; V oss ius , p 2 17 ; P a

. v a r i ous d ivis ion s of L O g ic , see T imp ler , L og i

d
cius .
[L og icce S y s tema , a ut hor e M C lemen te
. ca; S y st ema ,
l . i . c . 1, q . 1 3 20, p 40 56 , .

T imp ler o , H a n o via

d
1 6 12 V o ssius , D N G isb e r t ab I s en E a ta
d
P /u l os op hica ,
e, . e a t ur a oo r n ,

A r t ium, 1 i v
d 5 1 63 , p 95
. . S ir e L og ica , 0 ix P a cius , I n
e . .
[ C en t i . . . cl s eq e . D a ve n tr iae
'
P orp hy n i I sa g og en , p 2, e .F r a n cof, 1 697 O n
. . 1 64 3 . E D .
]
 i

38 L oG I C L E C T III

d
. . .

b en t d emic a l i n st r uct or t o o wh a t in him li e s t o i n d u ce

o n a n a ca ,

his pupil s b y l og i ca l e x e r ci s e t o di g e st w h a t is pr e se n t e d t o t h e m
, ,

d
a s a n o bj e ct i v e s y s t e m i n t o a s ubj e cti v e h a b it L og i c t h e ef or e in .
, r
,

b ot h t h e s e r e l a t i on s b e l o g s t o us a n n eith e c a n b e n e l e ct e d
g n ,
r

wi t h o ut co mp o mi s i n g t he ut ili t y of a co u s e li ke t he pr e s en t
r r .

if V I I I n . the se co n d pl a ce b y ,
l i
r e a t on t o it s pp ali ca t i on o r

d
n on a
ppli ca t i o
- n to j
o b e ct s, L og i c is di v id e d
P VII L o g i c, by
r ela
ar

t i on
.

to
.

o bj e c t s ,
i n to A b st r a ct or G en er a l ,
an mt o C o n cr e t e

A b s tr a ct or G en e r a l , or S pe ma l . T he for mer of h
t e s e i s ca ll e d ,

d d
mC on cr e t e
A r i s t o t e li a n s
d
Sp
i]
a or e'
b y t he G r eek S ta kex r t m) xwplg

d di d
01 a .

wpa n
y m v, an ,
by th e A r ab i a n a n L at i n

md
sc h ool me n, L whil
og i ca l ocen s
; e t he a t t er is en o m n at e ,
by

di
' '
the G ks , m mi) xp i yvf wa m a b y t he

-
r ee o e eV o et Ka . n
p yp a ta r wv ;

A r ab a n s a n i L at n s, L og i cal a ten s .

d
A b s t r a ct L og i c id e r s t h e l a w s of t h o ug ht a s pot en ti a lly a ppli
co n s

ca b l e t o t h e o bj e ct s o f a l l a t s a n s ci e c es b ut r n ,

d
E pl i i x ca t on .
a s n o t a ct ua lly a li e d t o t h os e o f a n y ; C on
pp
c r et e L og i c c o s id e s t h e s e l a w s i t h e ir a ct u a l a n i mme di a t e a ppli
n r n

d
ca t i o t o t h e o bj e ct ma t t e o f t hi s o r t h a t pa t i cu l a r sci e ce
n - T he
r r n .

d
fo mer o f t h es e is o e a n
r a l o e b e l o g s t o phil o s o phy
n ,
wh e ea s n n ,
r

t h e l a t t e r is a s mul t i for m a s t h e a t s a n s ci e n ce s t o whi ch it is r

r el t i ve
1
a .

T hi s di v i s i o n of L og i c d o e s n ot r e moun t t o A r i s t o tl e b ut it is ,

T hi d i i i
s gw
v s on o
e r t h e A p h r o di s i a n a
o
d
fo un d in his most a n ci e n t co mme n t a t o A l e x a n
a ft e r h im in mos t of n d r,

dth A ph r o d
, , ,
re m t t
ou n s A l o ex a n

er e i i an t h e o t h e r G r e ek L o
s g ci a s A l e x a d er i ll us i n . n

d
.

t a t es t he oppositi on of t h e l og i c di vo ce d fr om
r r

t hi n g s (p is wp yn m r ebu s a ml ls a a
) t o t h e l og i c a ppli e d t o
v, ,

t hi n g s ( y m a p yp ) y
i i i 7 ebu 8 app li ca ta b
xp

w

ev o et Ka . u /a tr a n a or v, ,

s i mil e T he fo r mer h e s a y s ma y b e r es emb l e d t o a g e omet r i ca l

d

.
, ,

g u e s a y a t r i a n g l e wh en co n s id e r e d a b s t r a ct ly a
r , ,
in i t s e l f ; n

w h e e a s t h e l a t t e r ma y b e r e se mb l e d t o t h e s a me t r i a n g l e a s co
r ,
n

dd
c e t el y e x i s t i in t hi s o r t h a t a r t i cu l a r ma t t e r : fo r a t i a n g l e c o n

d
r r
g p n

si e e i i t se l f is e v e o n e a n t he s a me ; b ut v ie w e d in r e l a t i o n t o
r n r

it s ma t t e r it v a r i es a cco di n g t o t h e v a i e t y of t h a t ma t t e ; for it
, r r r

is di ffe e t a s it is o f s il v e g ld l e a d a s it is of w o o d o f s t o e
r n ,
r, o , ,
n ,

e tc T h e s a me h old s g o o d of L og i c
?
G en er a l or A b s t r a ct L og i c .

K r ug d
d m
d
g a n um, p 23 q v
1 S 2 7 [ L ik 1 0 A ED A l ex a n er A ph r o 2
ee , p
og , ,
. n ] . . . . . . .

2 [ I sen oor n , E a t a , C en t i 55 ; C r e l l iu s . . is ien s is L O g ica m i ll a m a bj un c t a m s imi l e m

d
,

I s a g og e L og ica , p T h e il l ust r a t ion is

. ess e a it g ur ae g e o me t r icaa, u t p ot e t r ia n g ul o ,
ful ly g iven b y Ba l for e us , C ommen ta r ius in O r a m in se et pe r s e sp ect a t ur ; L og ica m ver o
 L E C T I II L O G I C 39

d d
.
. .

l wa y s o n e a n me ; b ut a s a ppl ie t o thi s or t o th a t obj e ct

is a t he sa

c o s id e a t i o n l i l
dd
m m x a n d er hi

of n r ,
it a
pp e a r s u t fo r S o f ar A e T s . .

a e a r a n ce o f m ul t i fo r mi t y I ma y , h o w e v e r , a i s n o t r e a l ; f or
pp ,

t h e mi n d h a s t r uly o n ly o n e mo d e o f t hi n ki n g o n e mo d e of r e a s o n ,

in g , o n e mo d e o f c o n d ucti n g i t s e lf in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t r ut h ,
wh a t e v er ma y b e t he obj ect on whi ch it ex e r ci s es it s el f L og i c .

I ll ust r a t e b y c om d
ma y th e r efor e b e ag a i n w ell compa r e d t o t he
a ut h o r i t y o f a n u n i v e r sa l e mpi r e of a n e m

d
p i o s

d
ar s n .

p i re
g o v er n i n
g t h e w or ld b
y c o mmon l a w s I n .

s u ch a o mi n i on t h e r e a r e ma n y r o v i n ces , v a r i o us re i o n s a n dif
p g ,

d
fe r e n t pr aefe ct ur e s T h e r e is on e pr aefe ct in A s i a a n ot h er in E ur ope
.
, ,

d
a t hi r d in A fr i ca , a n e a ch is d ecor a t e d b di ff e r e n t t i t l e s ; b u t e a ch
y
o ve n s a n i
rs o v e r n ed b t h e c o m m o n l a w s o f t h e e m i r e con
g g y p
fid e d t o his a d mi n i st r a t i on T he n a t u e o f G e n e r a l L og i c ma y . r

li ke w i se b e ill ust r a t e d b y a n ot h er compa i s on T he T h a me s for r .

,

d
i st a n ce i pa ssi n g L o d on is a si n g l e r i ve r is o n e w a t e r b ut is
n n n , , ,
-

t h e r e a ppli e d t o ma n y a n diffe e n t u se s I t is e mpl oy e d for d r i n k r .

i g fo r co oki g fo r b r e w i n g fo r w a s hi n g fo r i i g a t i on fo r n a v i g a
n ,
n , , ,
rr ,

t i on e t c ,
I n li ke ma n n e r L og i c in it s e lf is o n e : a s a s ci e n ce o r

g ,
.

a n a r t it is s i n l e ; b ut in it s a ppli ca t i o n s it is of v a r i o us a n,
,

m ul t i ,
.
d
for m use in t h e v a r i ous b r a n ch e s of kn ow l ed g e con v er s an t b e it w i t h ,

n e ce ss a r y o r b e it w i t h co n t i e n t ma t t e r O r fur t h e r t o t a ke t h e
, g n .
,

e x a m l e o f a co n a t e s ci e n ce if a n o n e w e r e t o la d w di ff e r en t
p g y y o n ,

r a mma s of a t o n ue a s t h a t ma b li d t t h di f f t u
g g r
y e a
pp e o ,
e e r e n
p r

e s of life h e w o uld b e j u st ly d e id e d b l l mm i i d d
p os , y a
g a a r a n s n e e r r ,

b y a ll me n ; fo r wh o is t h e r e s o i g n o a n t a s n o t t o kn o w t h a t t h er e r

is b ut on e g r a mma r of t h e s a me l a g uag e in a ll it s v a r i o us a ppli ca n

t i on s ? 1

T h us li ke w i s e t h e r e is o n l y on e me t h o d of r e a so i n g w hi ch a ll
,

t h e s ci e n ces i n differ e n t ly e mpl o y ; a n

,

a l t h o u h me n a e s e v e r a lly
g
dd n

r
,

o ccupi e d i

g
diffe en t pur s uit s a n a l t h oug h o n e is t h er e for e e n t itl e d
n

,
r

a T h eo l o i a n a n ot h e r a J ur i s t a t hi r d a P hy s i ci a n a n s o on
,

ea
, c h
,

, d ,

cu m r eb us j mil em ei em t r i
con un ct a m si d 1 S ee Ra mi S ch p 350, [ P
.
, . . Ra mi S cholae i n

d d
a n g u l o h uic a ut ill i ma t er iae i mp r e ss o N am . L iber a les A r t es , Ba s il e se, 1578 . U n us es t L n

t r ia n g ul i i n se u n a est et ea e m r a t i o ; a t pr o
d d d d
t etias S eq ua n a , mult os t umen us us e t v a r i os
a

d d d d d
v a r iet a t e ma t e r ias v a r i a A l i u en i m e st a r . a cco mmo a t us , l a v a n um, a q u a n um, v e h en

d
g en t e um a l i u a ur e u m, a liu
,
,

e u m a u t p l u mb eu m
l ig n eum, l a pi
T he p a ss a g e r e fe r r e
. d m u m, i r r ig a n u , c o q uen um : s ic un a es t

L eg ica , v a r ii et mul t ip li cis us us in pr e p osi ,

dd d
t o is p r o b a b l y o n e in t h e C o mmen t a r y on the t ion e n e ces s a r i a , p r ob a b il i, cap tiosa ; a r s t a
P r ior A n a ly t ics , p 2 , e A i . . . T he ist in ct ion men un a . S i G r a mma t ica s t r es a liq uis in ep

d
m a lte r a m m
i tsel f, t h oug h n ot t h e ill us tr a t i o n , is g iv e n t us n ob is i n st it u a t , un a ci vile ,

d
mor e ex a ct l y in t he l a n g ua g e o f t h e tex t b y a g r es t em, te r t ia m e v it is a mb o r um, mer it o

d d
so me of the l a t e r mmen t a t or s S ee t he I n
co . r i e a t ur a G r a mma t icis o mn ib us
, q
ui un a m

tr o
an

E
d u ct ion s

of
of A mmon ia s t o t h e C a teg or ies ,
P hil op on us to t h e P r i or A n a ly t ics .
G r a mma t ica m n or un t o mn ium ej us em l in
g u ae h omin u m c omm un e m
ED ] . .

D .
]
40 L O G IC L ee r III

d
. . .

di
e mpl oy s t he sa me pr o c ess es, an is g ov er n e d b y th e sa me l a w s, of
t h oug h t . L og c t sel f is, t h e r efor e , wid e ly i er
i i '

G en er a l L o g ic is
pp li
en t c fr o m t h e
a t i o n of L o
g u se
c t he a .

L g i i m if l dd
w Sp l
F or L og i c is a s t r i ct e d t o n o d et e r mi n a t e ma t t e r
e e c a
,

d
O c s an o an
ut 1s e x t e n d e d t o a ll t h a t 1 s t h e ob ect of r e a son
,

cience i b
pm f t h
w h i h it i pp li d
o e s n j
c an
sa i n t ellig en ce T he use of L ogi c on t he con
e . .
,

t r ar y a lth o ug h po t en ti a lly a pplic ab l e t o

, cv

m a tt e r is a l w a y s a ct ua lly ma n ifes t e d b i l r e fe r e n ce t o
er
y , y ps ec a

s o me o n e I n po i n t of fa ct L og i c in it s par ti cul ar a ppli ca t i on s n o

.

l on g er r e ma i n s l og i c b ut b eco me s pa r t a n pa r c el of t he a r t or s ci
e n ce in w hi ch it is a ppli e d
,
,

T h us L og i c a ppli e d t o t h e o bj e ct s o f
.
,

d ,

e o me t r y is n o thi n g e l s e th a n G e o me t r y ; L o ic a li e d t o the
g , g pp ,

obj ect s of phy s i cs n o t hi n g e l se t h an N a t ur a l P hil o sophy

, We h a v e .
,

i n d ee d ce r t a i n tr e a ti ses of L og i c in r efer en c e t o differ en t sci en ces

, ,

whi ch ma y b e v i e we d a s s ome t hi n g mor e th a n th ese sci e n ces t h em

sel v es F or ex a mpl e : w e h a v e t r e a t i s es o n L eg a l L og i c e t c ; b ut
.
,

s uch t r e a t i s es a r e o n ly i n t r o d uct i o n s o n ly me t h o d o l o g i e s o f t h e

a r t o r s ci e n ce t o w hi ch th e y r e l a t e

e x hi b it t h e mo d e in w hi ch a
F or s uch spe ci a l l og i cs o n ly
d
e t e r mi n a t e ma t t e r o r o bj e ct o f s ci

e n ce t h e kn o w l e d g e o f w hi ch is pr e s uppo sed mu s t b e t r e a t e d t h e
.

, , ,

co n di t i on s w hi ch

d
eg ul a t e t h e c er t a i n ty of in fe r e n ces in t h a t ma t
r

t er a n ,
t h e met h o d s b y w hi ch o ur kn o w l e d g e o f it ma y b e con

s t r u ct e d i n t o a s ci e n t i c wh o l e S pe ci a l L og i c is t h u s n ot a sin .

l e di sci pli n e n o t t h e s ci e n ce o f t he u n i v e r s a l l a w s of t h o ug ht b u t
g , ,

a c on g e r i e s of di sci pli n e s a s n ume r o us a s th e r e a r e s pe ci a l s ci e ce s

,
n

in w hi ch it ma y b e a ppli e d A b st r a ct o r G en er a l L og ic o n t he co n .
,

d
d
t r a r y in v i r t ue o f it s u n i v e r sa l ch a r a ct er ca n o n ly a n
,
a l on e b e ,

on e ; a n c a n e x cl u si v e ly p r e t e n d t o t h e di g i t y o f a n i n d e pe n d e n t n

s ci en ce T hi s th er e fo r e li ke wi se e x cl usi v e ly c on c e r n s us
.
, ,
.
 LECT URE IV .

I N T RO D U C T I O N .

L O G I C III . I T S D I V I S I O N S P U RE A N D M O D I FI E D .

on d
I N my l a st L ect ur e after t er mi n a ti n g t he con sid er a t i on of t he sec
,

d
d
i n t r o d uct or y q uest i on t ouchi n g t he U t ili t i e s o f L og i c I pr o
, ,

R pit l t i
eca u a
ce e e

t
on .
t o t h e t hi r d i n t r o d u ct o r y q u e st i o n
a t a r e t h e D iv is ip n s o f L og i c ? a n st a t e d d ,

t o y o u t h e t w o mos t g en e r a l cl a s s i ca t i on s of t hi s s ci e n ce Of
d .

th ese t he r st is t he di vi si o n of L og i c i n t o O bj e ct i v e a n S ubj e e
,

d
ti ve o r S y s t e ma t i c a n H a b i t ua l ; t he s e con d is it s di vi si o n i n t o
,

G en e r a l a n S pe ci a l o r A b st r a ct a n C o n cr e t e
,

T o spea k o n ly o f t he l a t t er A b s t r a ct o r G en er a l L og ic is l og ic
d .

v i e we d a s t r e a t i n g o f t h e for ma l l a w s o f th o ug h t w i t h o u t r e spe ct ,

t o a n y pa t i cul a r ma tt e rr C o n cr e t e o r S pe ci a l L og i c is l og i c v i e w e d
.

d
o r di n a t i on t o t h e e n

t h e s e is o n e a n dd
a s t r e a t i n g of th ese l a w s in r e l a t i o n t o a c e r t a i n ma t t e r a n

of s o me d e t e r mi n a t e s ci e n ce
in sub
T h e fo me r of
b e l on g s a l o e t o phil os ophy t h a t is t o t h e s ci en ce
n
.
,

, , ,

o f t he u n i v e r s a l
p i n ci l e s of kn o w l e d e ; t h e l a t t e r is a s ma n ifo ld
p r

a s t h e s ci e n ce s t o w hi ch it is s ub se v i e t a n
g
o f w hi ch it in fa ct r n ,
d , ,

con sti t ut e s a
pa r t vi th eir M et h o d ol o y
g T hi s di vi s i o n o f

d
,
z .
, .

l og i c is g iv e n b ut in diffe r en t t er ms b y t h e G r e ek A r i st ot e li a s a n
, ,
n

b y t he L a t i n s ch o ol me n T he G e ek di vi s i on d o e s o t r e mo un t t o
. r n

A ph r o di si a s a n
e n o u n ce d
,

I t is i n t o
,
d
A r i s t otl e b ut it is fo un d in his e a r li es t e x pos i t o r A l ex a n d e r of
h e w a s pr ob a b ly n o t t he r s t b y wh o m it w a s
w i f w L o i ca r eb u a v u l
,

.
x p p yf g ss n s aa t or v,
,

t h a t is L og i c me r e ly fo ma l L o g i c a pa r t fr o m thi n g s ; in o th e r
d
r ,
,

d
w o s a st a c
r b ,
t fr o m r a ll p a r t i c ul a r m a t t er ; a n S A - m; Xp ta eK r i

cv

o et

d
'
Ka i y p m a p yp f w L og i ca r ebu s app li ca ta t h a t is L og i c a s us e d
. v va n a or v
, , ,

e x e ci se d u o n thi n g s ; in o t h er w o r d s a s a li e d t o ce r t a i n
an
p
r
pp ,

S pe ci a l obj e ct s .

T hi s di st i ct i on of L og i c b y t h e G r e ek A r i st o t e li a n s see ms a lt o
n

e t h e r u n kn o w n t o mo d e n l og i ci a n s T h e di v i s i o n o f L o i c b y t he
g r
g .

s ch o l a s t i c A r i s t o t e li a n s is t h e s a me wi t h t h e r e ce di n

d
b ut t h e
p g ,

t er ms in whi ch it is ex pr e sse d a r e l ess p e ci s e a n un a mb ig uous r .

6
42 L oc1c L E C T Iv

d d
. . .

T
L d i l iy d l il id d d
hi s di vi s i on
og i ca o cen s
is
is
in to
ex
p
t he L
a ne
og i ca

as o
g
ocen s

c co n s
an

er e
L og i ca

as an
u ten s

a b s t r a ct
, T he
t he

m of it pr aece pt a

as a r ece t st e r u es, u tr a
or y , p p ve s
q
t he L l i id d
og i ca a i ten s , as og c co n s er e a s a co n cr e t e
p r a ct c e
,

li i h l
d d
uee ut it ur
1
a pp ca t o n o f t e se r u e s t o us e, q p r aece
pt is .

hi h l i di i i
T s sc i i o a st c v s on of L og c n to ocen s a n a ten s ha s, I s ee,

i d d b ee n by me of t he mor e mo e r n a u
d
n o t ce so

d d d
T he h ivis ion l h O
i fM e

t or s b ut it h a s b e e n a t og e t e r m s t a ke n , w hi ch
ic a L og
oce n s
ld h an
h
mi st a k en b y
h It wou n ot a ve b e e n , ha t e s e a ut or s b ee n

d
i ca n te n e,

d
so e d e
m mo w i hi h
m a ut h or s ,
a ar e of t he mea n n
g in w c t h e t er ms w e r e
l y d h y i e mp o e ,
an ha t e n ot b e en g n or a n t of

d dh whi h hl yy dd i Wt lf h l di i ti l ii
t he li it
mor e i it ex p h c e x pr e ss on of b y t he G r e eks . T us t he t e r ms

t he
as
ocen s a n

sa

t he
me
W l
as
a ten s

t at
ar e

di st i n cti on w il l n ot st a d t h e t e st of c i t i ci s m t he
o an
e mp
t e
o e

es
by

g na e
o

n
in t h e
to ma r k
sc
a

o a st c
s

r
n ct on n o t

o
g c, a n d
,

t e r ms t h e ms e l v e s h a v e b e e n r e pu di a t e d b y t h o s e wh o w e r e n o t
a wa r e t h a t t h er e w a s a n o ld e r a n a mo r e v a lid di vi s i on whi ch

th e y a l on e pr ope ly e x pr e sse d Wolf make s t he L og i ca ocen s r

2
d d
.
,

t h e me e kn o wl e d g e o f t h e r ul e s : t h e L og i ca a ten s t h e h a b i t or
r ,

d
d
d ex t e r i ty of a pplyi g t h em T hi s di st i n ct i on o f G e n er a l a n S pe
n .

cia l l o i c Wo lf a n W
d
an l o i ci a s li ke w i s e d e n o t e b h
t h l t at
g , e o g y n , ,

o f T h e o e t i ca l a n P r a ct i ca l L og i c
d
T h e s e t e r ms a r e in t h e mse l ve s 3
r .

b y n o me a n s a b e x r e ss i o n of t h e di s t i n ct i o n
a b ut t h o s e b wh m
p y o

t h e y w e r e e mpl o y e d u n fo r t un a t e ly did n o t li mi t t h e i r P r a ct i ca l
,

L o g i c t o wh a t I h a v e d e n e d a s S pe ci a l fo r u d e r P r a ct i ca l t h e y ,
n

i n cl ud ed n ot o ly S peci a l b ut li kew i s e M odie d L og i c o f whi ch

n , ,

we
H
a r e n ow

gav n
pl i
d
a in e th en thi s ex
to

p i m
s
p e ak .

d
d
a r y di v i s i o n o f L o i c i n t o G e n
g , ,
r

er al a S pe ci a l a n s t a t e d th a t G e n e r a l L og i c a s a l o e a b r a ch
n

,
,

o f phil oso phy is a l on e t h e o bj e ct o f o ur co n s id e r a t i o ; I pr oce e

,

n
n n

d
t o g i ve t h e di v i si on of G e n e a l L o g i c i t o t w o g r e a t s p e ci es o r
d
r n ,

r a t h er a r t s v iz i n t o P ur e o r A b s t r act a n M o di e d or C o n
p , .
, ,

cr e t e .

1T V I I I I n t he thi r d pl a ce con s id e r e d b y .
,

r e fe r e n ce t o t h e c i c ums t a ce s u n d e r w hi ch
ddd
P ar V III G en er a l
r n

d dd
L og i c, iv i e in t o
P u re an M o i e it ca n co me i n to ex e r mse b y us, L og i c

ddd
,

L og i c G en e r a l or A b s t r a ct di vid e d i t o
is n

P ur e an M o i e ;
-
a di v i si o n h ow e v er , , whi ch is pe r h a ps
Wo lf
d
'
I S mig lecn L og ica , D isp 1 1 q vi F o r sch o . . . . 3
.
,
P hilosophi a Ra ti on a lis , M 8 , 9 , 1 0, 12 .

l a stic a uth or it ies , s e e A q u in a s , I n I V M et a p h , . . E D .

[ C f S ta t t l er , S a ut er , a n
. M a ko ] .

d d

l ect . iv . S co t us , S up er U n iv P . orp hy r i t , q i
. .
[ S t a t t l e r , L og i ca , 1 8 , p 1 2 ; S a ut e r , P os it z o n es
.

dK d
E D . L og i ca , P . I . an I I , 1 7 7 8 ; I n s t i l L og , P I a n
. . .

K
[A ][ h is L og z k, 11 , p 30 C m II 1 7 99 ; P a ul u s

d d M ak e e r e k -G e C omp
2 s r ug se e . . o . e e, .

pa r e K a n t , L og ik, E in l e it un g , ii ED ] . . L og I n s t il P. . . I . an II 4th e it .
,
1 773 .
- ED .
]
 LE C T . Iv .
L O G 1c . 43

r at h erdi st r i buti on of a sci en ce i n t o it s pa r t s t h a n of a g en us

t he
i n t o it s spe ci es P ur e L og i c con sid e r s t he l a ws of t h oug ht
.

r o e r a s co n t a i n e d a p r i or i in t h e n a t u e o f p ur e i n t e lli g e n ce r
p p ,

i t sel f M odi e d L ogi c a g a i e x hib i t s t h es e l a ws a s modi e d

.
,
n,

d
in t h e i r a ct ua l appli ca t i o n s b y ce t a i n g e n e r a l ci r cumst a n ces r

e x t er n a l a n i n t er n a l con t i n g e t in t h emse l ves b ut b y whi ch ,

n ,

h u ma n t h oug ht is a lw a y s mor e or l ess i n uen c e d in it s ma n i

1
fest a t io n s .

P ur e id er s T h oug ht P r oper si mply a n in it self; a n

L og i c c on s

a a r t f o m t h e v a i o us ci cums t a n ce s b whi h
d d
p y c r r r

d
P L gi ur e o c.
it may b e a ffe ct e d in it s a ct ua l a ppli cat i o H u n .

man t h o ug ht it is e vid e n t is n ot e x e r t e d e x cept b y me n a n i di

, ,
n

v id ua l me n By me n th o ug h t is n o t e x e r t e d o ut o f co n n e ct i on
.
,

d
t er a n ,
d
wi t h t he o t h e r con st i t uen t s of t h ei r i n t ell e ct ua l a n mor a l ch a r a c
in e a ch i n di v id ua l t hi s ch a a ct e is v a r i o usly mo di e d b y
,

v a r i o us co n ti g e n t co n di t i on s o f di ffe e n t or i g i n a l g e i u s a n
n of
,
r

r
r

n d
,

d
diffe r en t ci r cumst an ce s con t ib ut i g t o d ev e l op diffe e n t fa cult i e s r n r

M d i d
an h a b i ts N o w t h er e ma y b e co n ce i ve d a s ci .
,

d
o L gi e 0 c.
e n ce whi ch con sid e s t h ought n ot mer ely a s ,
r

d et er mi n e d b y it s n e cessa y a n un i ver s a l l a ws b ut a s con t i n g en t ly r ,

a ffe ct e d b y t h e e m i r i ca l co n di t i o n s un d e r w hi ch t h o ug h t is a ct u a lly
p
ex e t e d ;

d d
r w hi ch s h o w s wh a t t h e s e co n di t i o n s a r e h o w t h e y im
,

ed e a n i n e a l mo dify t he a ct o f t hi n ki n a h w i
p n, g e , g
r ; n , o n ne , , ,

t h e i r i n uen ce ma y b e c o u n t e a ct e d T hi s s ci e n ce is M o di e d o r r .
,

Wh a t I h a v e ca ll e d M o di e d
C o n c e t e L og i c
d
r .

M d i d
N m l t f
L og i c is id e n t i ca l w i t h wh a t K a n t a n
en c a ur e
o t h er
o o

d
o L gi e e c.

p hil os oph e s h a v e d e n o mi a t e d A
pp li e d L o
g i c r n .

d
( g
A n ew a n te L o ils L og i ca app li ca ta
g ) T hi s e x r ess i o n I thi n k
p ,
.
2

i mpr ope r F or t he t er m A pp lie L og i c ca n

t m A ppl i d o n ly wi t h
.

d d
o r i e t y b e us e d t o d e n o t e S i l
Th e er e
p p p e c a r

d
L g o l c
o r C on cr e t e L og i c ; a n is in fa c t a b r i e f a n , ,

d
e x ce ll e n t t r a n sl a ti on of t h e t e r ms b

ig n a t e b y t h e G r ee ks a s t h a t 5 xp j
y w hi ch S

iy p
p e ci a l L o i c w a s
'
a p y
g
n , w A
es

n 1!
'
r o et Ka . v d d va cr t n a

r v.

d
s o in fa ct b y t h e L a t i n L og i ci a n s w a s t h e G r e e k e x r e s s i on r e n
, , p
d e r e d L e t u s co n s id er t h e me a n i n g of t h e t e m app li e
.

a s a ppli e d mu s t b e a
pp li e d t o some thi n
, g a n th a t s o m e t hi n
L og i c
g ca n , d r .
,

d
1 F or ist in ct ion of r ea s on

d d d in a bstr a cto a n q uet , p 23 6 , [ S a mmlun g er S chr i en w elche en

. d d
d
r e as on in co n cr et o
, g r o un i n g t he is t i n ct i on L ogi s chen C a lcul H err n P r of P lo ucquets bet r e en .

dd
,

of a n A b st r a ct ( or P ur e ) , a n a C on c r e t e ( or T ub in g en , 77 3 E
. D .
]
W Ka
dd
M o ie )L O g ic , s ee Bo y l e
s or ks , i v p 1 64
. . . 2 t , L og ik, E in l eit un g ii ; H off b a uer ,
n .

mb e r t [ N ew s ma n , K
d
S ee a ls o L a O rg / D ia n oi olo A nf a n g sgr im e er L og ik, 1 7 , 406 ; r ug ,

p ie , i 444 , w h o
d
sa y s t h a t t he s cie n ce s L og ik , E in l e itun g , l l ; F r ies , S y st em er
.
e
in g en er a l a r e on l y a pp lie l e g ics . C f P l ouc
. L og ik, 2 ED
. .
44 L 0G I c . a i . IV .

on ly b e an obj e ct or matt er N ow S pe ci a l L og ic is n e cessa r ily an

a p li e d l og i c ; t h e r efo r e t h e t e r m app li e
p if g i
.

v e n t o wh a t I w o uld
,

d ,

c a ll M o di e d L og i c w o uld n o t di st i g ui s h M o di e d fr o m S pe ci a l

L og i c
,

But fur t h er t h e t er m app lie a s g i v e n t o M o di e d L og ic

.
,
d
n

co n s id er e d in i t s e l f is w r o n g ; fo r in M o di e d L og i c t h o ug h t is n o
,

mor e co n sid e e d a s a ct u a lly a ppli e d t o a n y p ar t i cul a r ma t t e r t h an

r

in P u e L og i c r M o di e d L og i c o n ly c o n s id e r s t he n e ce ss a r y in
.

c o j u ct i o n w i t h t h e c o n t i n g e t c o n di t i o n s u n d e r whi ch t h oug h t is
n n n

a ct ua lly e x e r t ib le ; b ut it d o e s n o t con s id e r it a s a ppli e d t o o n e

cl a s s o f o bj e ct s mor e t h a n t o a n ot h er ; t h a t is it d o e s n o t co n s id e r ,

it a s a ct ua lly a ppli e d t o a n y b ut a s pot e n t i a lly a ppli ca b l e t o a ll

I n e v e r y po i n t o f v i e w t h e r e fo r e t h e t er m app li e a s g i v e n t o ,

M o di e d L og i c is i mpr o per ; w h er e a s if us e d a t
,

, d ,
.

, ,

pl y d
H W P p ly
O m a ll it o u ht t o b e u s e d a s a s y n o n y m for sp eci a l ;
r o er e '

g ,
o e '
whi ch I w o uld pos i t i v e ly h a v e d on e w e e it n ot ,
r

t h a t h a v i n g b e en un fo t un a t e ly b es t o w e d b y hig h a ut h o r i t y o n w h a t
,
r

I h a v e c a ll e d M o di e d L og i c t he e mpl o y me n t of it t o d e si g n a t e ,

d
a t o t a lly di ffer e n t di s t i n ct i o n mi ht e n e r a t e co n fus i o n I h
g g a v e .

t h e r e for e r efr a i n e d fr o m ma ki n g u s e o f t he t e r m I n i d eed .

,
n ,

d
t h a t a ll l o g i ci a n s who b efo r e K a n t e v er e mpl o y e d t he e pr e s s i on
,

A pp li e L og i c e mpl o y e d it a s co n v e r ti b l e wi t h S pe ci a l o r C o n cr e t e
,
,
x

d
d
L og i c I n n e it is t o b e ob s e r v e d t h a t t h e t e r ms p ur e a n ap
1
.
,

p
an
l i e

d a s u s ua lly e m l o y e d in o
, p pp o s i t i o n in t h e K a n t i a n

in t h a t o f G er ma n y in g e n e r a l a r e n o t pr o per ly r e l a t i v e a n
phil o s o hy
p
, d ,

dd
dd d d
c or r el a t i ve t o e a ch o t h er F or p ur e h a s it s pr o pe r co e l a t i ve in
mo ie or mix e ; app li e it s p oper r e l a ti v e in un app li e t h a t
is i vor ce f r om thin g s th a t is a bs tr a ct
.

r
rr

d ,

, , ,
.

B ut pa ss i n g fr om w o r d s t o t hi n g s I ma y ob s er v e t h a t it ca n b e ,

M d i d
d
u e s t i o n e d wh e t h e r M o di e d o r C o n cr e t e L o i c
q g
L gi t
b e e n t i t l e d t o t h e ig n i t y o f a n e s se t i a l pa t o f
o e o c no
n r
p p ly
ro er ti l an e ssen a
L o i c in e n e r a l fa r l ess o f a c o o di a t e s e ci es
p t f L gi
ar o O c. g g p ,
r n

d
as o o s e d t o P ur e o r A b st r a ct L o i c Y o u a re
pp g .

a w a r e fr o m wh a t I h a v e r e v i o usly s t a t e d u n d e r t h e s t in t r o u c r
, p
t or y q u e s t i o n t h a t L og i c a s c o n v e r s a n t a b out a ce r t a i n cl a s s o f
, ,

me t a l ph aen ome n a is o n l y a pa r t of t he g e n er a l phil o s ophy o f

n
,

mi n d ; b ut t h a t a s e x cl u s i v e ly co n v e r s a n t a b o ut w h a t is n e ce s sa r y
,

in t h e ph aen o me a o f t h o ug h t th a t is t he l a w s o f t hi n ki n g it is
n
, , ,

d
c o n t a di s t i
r u i h d f m
n E m i i l P y h l y t h t hil hy
g s e r o
p c a s c o o g o r a
p o sor
p ,

d
o f mi n d w hi ch is me r e ly o b s e r v a n t a n i n d uct i v e of t he men t a l
h aen o me n a a s fa ct s But if M odi e d o r C o n cr e t e L og i c b e co n si
p .

1 S ee Ba l fo r e us , [ R Ba lf or ei C omme n ta r i us
.
m ; a l ia m r eb us
s ep a r a t a a pp lica t a m et cu m us

d
in O r g a n um, q v con j un cta m

2 , p 22 .
G r aeci
. . .
-E D
]. .

a li a m i cun t L O g ica m a bj un cta m et a r eb us

 L E C T . IV . L O G IC 45

er e d e i t h er p as a G ar t
e n e r a l L o i c, t hi s di s c r i m
g or a s a spe c e s of i
in a t io n o f L og i c, a s t h e N o molo g y o f th o ug h t , fr o m P s y ch ol og y, a s

p
t h e P hee n o me n ol og y of mi n d , w ill n ot h old
r e su
pp os n i g a
F o r M o di e d L og i c,
kn o w l e d g e of t he g en e r a l an d.

t he i
co n t n
g h
en t
p as

ne me n a of mi n d , will
i t h e co mpr i se P s c t ush e r y h l o og y w i t hi n it s
s ph e r e o r b e i t s e lf compr i se d w i t hi n t he sp er e of P sy ch ol o y
,

But w hi ch ev er a l t er n a t i v e ma y b e p e fe r r e t he t wo s ci e n ce s a r e
g
r d
h
,
.

n o l o n er di s t i n ct I t is o n t hi s g r o un d t h a t I h o ld t h a t i r e a li t y n
g .
, , ,

M o di e d L og i c is n e i th er a n e s s e n t i a l pa r t n o r a n i n d epe n d e n t spe

P s y ch ol o g y a n d
ci e s o f G e n e r a l L og i c b ut t h a t it is a me r e mi x t ur e o f L o g i c a n
,

ma y t h e e fo e b e ca ll e d e i t h er L og i ca l P sy ch o l r r
d
, , ,

og y or P s y ch o l og i ca l L og i T h er e is t h us i t r ut h o n ly o n e
1
c. n

L og i c t h a t is P u r e o r A b s t r a ct L og i c
, ,
But w hil e thi s I t hi k .
,
n ,

must b e a d mi t t e d in specul a t i ve r ig or s t ill a s a ll sci en ce s a r e o n ly

o
g
r a n iz e d for h uma n e n d s a n as a
g e n e r a l con s id e r a t i on o f t h e
,
d , ,

mo di fyi n g ci r cumst a n ce s w hi ch a ffe ct t he ab st r a ct l a w s of t h o ug h t

in th e i r a ct ua l ma n i fe s t a ti o n s is o f g r e a t pr a ct i ca l utili t y I t r us t , ,

th a t I sh a ll n ot b e r eg ar d e d a s d efor mi n g t he si mpli city of t he s ci

e n ce if I fo ll o w t h e e x a mpl e o f mos t mo d e r n l o i ci a n s a n
, g a
( b e ,
dd
d
it u n d er pr o t est ) t o P ur e or A b st r a c t L og i c a pa r t o r a n a ppen di x , ,

u n d e r t h e n a me o f M o di e d L og i c I n di s t r i b uti n g t h e s ci e n ce .
,

th er e for e i n t o th e s e t wo pr i n ci pa l h e a d s y ou will a l wa y s I r e
, , ,

dd
q u e st k e e
p s,t ea dily i n m i nd t h a t in st r i ct r
p p o r i et y P u r e L o ic
g
, , ,

is t he o n ly s ci e n ce o f L og ic M o i e L og i c b ei n g on ly a s cie n
t i c a ccid e n t a mb ig uous ly b e l o n g i n g e i t h e r t o L og i c or t o P sy
,

ch ol o

T hi s
gy .

b ei n g un d er s t ood p
, I n ow r o cee d to st a et t o y ou t h e d
is

C on spe ctus

og ic.
of th e
an d
t r ib ut io n o f t h e g e n er a l s ci en ce i n t o it s pa r t s ;
a s it is of hi g h i mpor t a n ce t h a t y o u n ow

d
C our se of L
ob t a i n a c o mpr e h e n s i v e v i e w o f t h e r e l a t i o n of

th ese pa r t s t o e a ch o th er a n t o t he w h ol e whi ch th e y con stit ut e ,

w e t r a v el a n e ve y st g e
r ,
a in o d
in o r d e r t h a t y o u ma y cl e a r ly un d e r st an d t h e po i n t t o w a r d s whi ch
ur
p g
r o r e s s I s h a ll c o m pr i se thi s

w h o l e s t a t e me n t in t h e fo ll o wi n g pa r a g r aph whi ch I s h a ll e n d ea v or
,

t o ma ke s uf ci e n tly i n t elli g i b l e wi t h o ut much s ub se que n t ill us t r a

t i on T h a t ill us t r a ti o n h o we v er I will g i v e in my n e x t L e ct ur e
.
, , .

A s t hi s pa r a g r a ph is i n t e n d e d t o a ffor d y ou a c on spe ct us of t h e
e n s ui n
g C o ur s e in s o fa r a s it will b
e ,
o ccu i e d with L o i c I n ee d
p
h a r dly s a y t h a t y ou will n it some w h a t l on g I t is h o w e ver I
g
d .
,
,

b e li e v e t h e o n ly pa r a g r a ph o f a n y e x t en t whi ch I sh a ll h er ea ft er
,

b e ob li g e d t o di ct a t e .

1 [ S ee Richter , p 6 7 , [ U ber . d en G eg en sta n dd

d un en U mf a n g d ef L og ik, 1 7 , L eips ic, 1 825 E D .
]
.
46 L O G I C L E C T . IV .

l I X G E N . E RA L or A BS T RA C T L O G IC , we
h av e
d is di vid e d i n t o t wo a r t s, in t o
P ar Ix D is t r ibu se en ,
p
. .

L i mm 8
g
P U RE an i n to M O D IFIE D . Of th ese in
th e i r or d er .

P U RE

in g pr i n ci pl e s
L O G I C may , I thi n k
We ma y t hin k ; a n we ma y t hi n k w ell O n
.
,
b es t b e
foll ow
dd
di str i b ut e d upon t h e

t h e o n e h a n d t h e c on di t i o n s of thi n ki n g
,
o n o t i n v ol v e t h e

co n di t i on s of t hi n ki g w e ll ; b ut t h e co n di t i o n s o f thi n ki n g
n

w ell i n v o l v e t h e c on di t i o n s o f t hi n ki n g L og i c t h e r e fo e a s .
, r ,

t h e sci en ce of th o ug h t must n ece ssa r ily con s id e r t h e co n di t i o s

d
, n

o f t h e po ss i b ility of th o ug h t O n t h e o t h er h a n d t h e e n of
.
,

t he e n d
t h o ug ht is n ot mer e ly t o thi n k b ut t o thi n k w e ll ; th e r efor e a s
of a sci en ce mus t b e con for me d t o t he e n

e ct ma t t e r L og i c a s t h e s ci e n c e o f t h o ug ht mu s t di spl a y n ot
o f it s ob
,

d ,

j -
, , ,

o n ly t h e l a ws o f p o s si b l e b ut t h e l a w s of per fe ct t hi ki n g , ,
n .

L og i c th e r e for e n a t ur a lly fa ll s i n t o t w o pa r t s t h e o n e of whi ch

, , ,

i n v esti g a t es t he for ma l con di t i on s of mer e thi n ki n g ; t he oth er ,

t he for ma l co n di t i on s of t hi n ki n g w ell .

i I n r eg a r d t o t he for me r T he c on diti on s o f me r e
.

thi n ki n g ar e g i ven in cer t a i n e l e men t ar y r eq ui si t e s ; a n t h a t

a r t of L o i c whi ch a n a lyz e s a n c on s id er s t h es e ma y b e ca ll e d d d
p g ,

it s S t o i ch e i ol og y or D o ct r i n e of E l e men t s
,
T h e s e e l e me n t s .

a r e e i t h er L a w s or P r o d uct s

ii I n r eg a r d t o t he l a t t er a s per fe ct thi n ki n g is a n en a n
.
.

, dd ,
'

d
a s t h e e l e men t a r y mea n s b e i n g s u po s e d t h e c o n di t i o n s of a n
, p ,

a r e t he w a y s o me th o d s b w hi h it m b a cco m li sh e d

d
en c a e
y r
y p ,

th a t pa r t of L og i c w hi ch a n alyz es a n co n sid er s t h e me t h od s
o f p e r fe ct t hi n ki n
g m a
y b e c a ll e d it s M e t h o d ol o y o r D o ct r i n e
, g ,

of M eth o d .

T h us P U RE L O G I C is di vid e d i n t o t w o pa r t s i n t o S t oichei
d
-
,

o l o y o r t h e D o ct i n e o f E l e me n t s a n M e t h o d ol o y or t h e
g , r
g , ,

D o ct r i n e of M e t h o d O f t h e s e in th e i r o r d e r
. .

L og i ca l S t oi ch e i ol og y o r t h e d o ct r i n e con v er sa n t a b ou t t h e
,

e l e me n t a r y r e u i s i t e s o f mer e th ou h t I sh a ll di v id e i n t o t w o
q g ,

ar t s T h t f t h t t f t h F u d a me n t a l L a w s o f
p . e r s o e s e r e a s o e n

thi n ki n g ; in o t h er w or d s of t he un i v er s a l con di t i on s of t he ,

t hi ka b l e
n N oe t i c N o mol og y
T h e s econ d t r e a t s o f t he .

l a w s o f t hi n ki n g a s g ov er n i n g t he speci a l fun ct i on s fa cul t i e s

, , ,

or pr o d u ct s o f t h o ug ht in it s t h r e e r a d a ti on s o f C o n ce t i on ;
g , p

d
a s it is o t h e r w i s e ll d i
S mp e l h i J d
or A r e e s o u
, ca e pp n n
g , ,

men t a n Re a s o n i g
, D ia on e t ic n D y n a mi c
, .

T hi s s econ d pa r t of S t o ich e i ol og y will th er e for e fa ll i n t o , ,

m r. IV L oG 10 . 47

d
.

th r e e
g
din a t e di vi si on s c or r espon di n g t o th e se sever a l e
p
s ub or

r ees o f C o n ce t i o n J ud g me n t a n R ea so in, g S o mu ch for ,

d n .

t h e D o ct r i n e of E l e me n t s .

L og i ca l M e t h o d ol og y o r t h e d oct r i n e c on v er s a n t a b o ut t h e
,

r e ul a t e d w a y s o r me th o d s in w hi ch t h e me a n s of t hi n ki n g
g
a r e co n d uct e d t o th e i r e n d d
o f t hi n ki n g w ell is di v id e d i t o a s , n

d
ma n y pa r t s a s t h er e a r e me t h o d s a n t h e r e a r e a s ma y me t h
o s a s t h e r e a r e di ffe r e n t q u a li t i es in t h e e n d
t o b e di ffe e n t ly
,
n

a cco mpli s h e d

v i r t u es
N o w t h e pe r fe ct i o n of t h o ug ht con si st s o f t h r e e
,
-
.

C l e a r T hi ki n g D i st i n ct T hi n ki n g a n n dd
C on n e ct e d
, ,

d
T hi n ki n g ; e a ch o f t h e se v i t ue s is a cco mpli sh e d b y a i st i n c t
met h o d ; a n t h e t h r e e me t h o d s will con s e qu e n tly a ffor d t he
r

di vi sion of L og ic a l M et h o d ol og y i n t o t h r ee pa r t s .

T he r s t pa r t comp i s e s t h e me t h o d o f C l e ar T hi n ki n g or
r
,

t h e d oct r i n e o f I ll us t r a t i o n or D e n i t i on .

T he seco n d pa r t co mpr i s es t he M e th o d of D i s ti n ct T hi n ki n g ,

o r t h e d o ct r i n e of D i v i s i o n .

T h e thi r d pa r t co mpr i s es t h e M e th o d of C on ca t e n a t e d o r
C o n ect e d T hi n ki n g o r t h e D oct i e of P r o o f
n ,
r n .

T h e se pa r t s a r e o ly h o w e v er th r e e pa r ti cul a r a ppli ca ti o n s
n , ,

of M e t h o d ;

M e t h o d o l og y
t h e y t h e r e fo r e co n s t it ut e e a ch o ly a S pe ci a l
,

But such me t h o d ol og y or un i on of me t ho ol o
.
,

,
n

d
g i e s su
pp o s e s a pr e v i o us c o n s id er a t i on of me t h o d in
,

it s n o t i on it s spe ci e s a n it s co n di t i on s
,
g
d e n e r a l in

L og i ca l M e t h o d o l og y
,
.

d
,

wil l t h e efor e con si st o f t wo pa t s of a G e er a l a of a S pe

r r ,
n n

cia l t h e S pe ci a l b e i g s ub di v id e d a s a b ov e st a t e d
,
n S o much ,
.

fo r t h e d ist ib ut i o n o f P U RE L O G I C
r .

II M O D I F I E D L O G I C fa ll s n a t u a lly i t o T h r e e P a r t s
d d
. r n .

T he F i st P a r t t r e a t s o f t he n a t u e o f T ut h a n E r r or a n
r r r ,

o f t h e hi g h e s t l a w s fo r t h e i r di s cr i mi n a t i on A l e t hi ol og y , .

T h e S e co d t e a t s o f t he I mp e di me n t s t o thi n ki g wi t h t he
n r n ,

M e a n s o f th e i r Re mo v a l T h e s e i mpe di me n t s a i s e . fr om r ,

t he M in d ; F r o m t he Bo dy ; or F r o m E x t e n a l C i r cum , r

s t a ce s
n I n r e l a t i on t o t h e M i n d t h e se i mpe di me n t s o i g i n a t e
.
, r

in t h e S e n s e s in S e l f C o n s ci o usn e s s in M e mor y in A sso ci a

,
-
, ,

t i o n in I ma g i n a t i o
,
in Re a s o n in t h e fa cul t y of L a n g ua g e in
n, ,

t h e F e e li n g s in t h e D e s i e s in t h e Will
,

, I n r e l a t i o n t o t he
r , .

d
Bo dy t h e y o r i g i n a t e in T e mpe r a men t o r in t h e st a t e o f H e a l t h
, , .

I r e l a t i o t o E x t er n a l C i c ums t a n ces t h e y o r i g i n a t e in t h e i
n n r
,

v e s it ie s o f E d uca ti on o f Ra n k of A e o f C li ma t e o f S oci a l
r
g , , , ,

I n t er co ur s e e t c ,
.

T h e T hir d P a r t t r ea ts of the A id s or S ub s idi ar i e s of thi n k

48 L oG I C LEC T Iv

d
. . .

in g ; an thi i nk n
g is a id e d e ith e r ,
h r oug h t he A cqu i siti on T ,

T r o ug h h of K n owl e d e
t h e C o mmun i ca t i on ,
or , g .

T he fo r me r o f t h e s e s ub s idi a r i e s ( t he a cqui s i t i on o f kn o wl
e dg e
) c on si s t s O f E p e r i e n ce ( a n
,
t h a t ei th e b
x
y o u s e l v es dd r r

or b y o t h e r s) ;

t i on a n d
O f G en e r a liz a t i o n ( a n
A n a l og y ) a n dt hi s th r o ug h I n d u c
O f T e s ti mon y ( a n thi s e i t h e O r a l
,
d r

or W itte ) r U n d e r thi s l a st h e a d fa ll s t o b e c o n s id e r e d t h e
n .

C r e dib ili t y of Wit n esses t he A ut h en ti city a n ,

I n t eg r ity of
d d
Wr i t i n g s t he Rul e s of C r iti ci sm a n of I n t er pr et at i on
,
.

T he l a t t e r of t h e se s ub s idi a r i es t h e C o mmun i ca ti o n o f Kn ow l ,

e d g e is e i t h e r O n e s id e d o r Re ci pr o ca l
,
- T he for me r c on s i st s .

o f I n st r u ct i o n e i t h e r O r a l o r Wr itt e n
, t h e l a tt er of C on v er s a
ti on C on fe r en ce D i sput a ti on
, ,
.

S o much for t he dis t r ib uti on o f M O D I F I E D L O G I C .

T a b ul ar view of ppth eit e p a g e is a g e n e r a l t a b ul a r v i e w

O n the o os

d
of t h e D i v i s i on s o f L og i c n o w g i v e n
D i i i f L si
v s on s o o O
.

T h e fo ur t h a n ft h q u est i on s o f t he I n t r o d ucti on w o uld n ow

Wh a t is t he H i st or y
fa ll t o b e c sid d
d vi
o n e r e z .,
,

w h a t is t h e Bi b li og r a phy o f L og i c ? We r e
d
IV Th H i t y f e an s or o
,
L g
I w r i t i n g a b o ok a i v i n g a c o ur s e o f L e e
a? q t p t n ot
"

g n

D md
. ,
18 ue s I o n os
t u r e s u on L o c I w o uld c e r t a i n ly co s i d e r t h e s e i n
o e p g ,

dd
,

ues ti o n s in t h e i t r o d u cti o n t o t h e s ci e n ce ; b ut n
q
I w ould o t hi s w i t h t h e a d mo n iti o n th a t b e g i n e r s s h o uld pa s s

th e se o v er a n ma ke t h e ms e l ve s r st of a ll fa mili a r wi t h t h e o c
,
n

d
t r i n e s o f w hi ch t h e s ci e n ce is i t se lf t h e co mpl e me n t
?
F o r wh y .

T he hi s t o r y o f a s ci en ce is a n a r r a t i v e o f t he or d er in w hi ch it s
s e v e r a l pa t s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o pe d a n
r of t h e con t i b ut i o s w hi ch ,
d r n

h a v e b e e ma d e t o it b y differ e n t cul t i va t o s ; b ut s u ch a n a r a t i v e
n ece ssa r ily s u
pp ose s
n

a
p e v i ou s k o w l e
g e o f t he c o t e n t s o f t h e
r n d r

n
r

s ci e n ce a k n o w l e d e w hi ch is id e t i c a l wi t h a k o w l e d g e o f t h e n n
, g
s ci e n ce i t s e l f I t is t h e r efo e e v id e n t th a t a hi s t o r y o f L o g i c c a n
.
,
r , ,

o ly b e
n r o ose d w i t h a d v a n t a e t o th o s e wh o a r e a l r e a dy in s o m e
p p g
d egr e e fa mili a r wi t h L og i c i t s e l f ; a n a s i a co ur s e like t he p e s e n t
I a m b o un d t o pr esume t h a t y ou a r e n ot a s y e t co n v e r s a t wi t h t h e
d ,
n

n
r ,

s ci e n ce it fo ll o w s t h a t s uch a hi s t o y c a n n o t w i t h a n y pr opr i e t y b e
,
r

a tt e mpt e d in t h e co mme n ce me n t b ut o n ly t ow a r d s t h e c o n cl us i on , ,

of t he L ect ur es .

In r eg a r d t o t h e ft h q u i
e st o n , Wh at is t h e Bi b li og r a phy or

L i t e r a t ur e L og i c ? t h e s a me is t r ue , in s o
of
V T h e Bib li og r a ph y
kn o wl e d g e o f t h e b o oks w r i t t e n upon a
.

fa r as a
of L og ic.

i
s c e n ce is co r r e a t v e l i to a kn owl e d g e of it s his
t or y . A t t he sa me t i me ,
n ot hi n g co u ld b e mor e un
p ro t a b l e t h a n
50 L O G I C . L EC T . IV .

fo r me i t e t o y ou a l on g s e i es of w o ks t o whi ch y o u ha v e n o t
to r ec r r f '

a cc e s b y a ut h o s o f w h o m y o u p ob a b ly n e v e
s ,
r h e a d Oft e i l a r r r ,
n n n

u a e s w hi ch fe w o f y o u u d e r s t a d I t h e p e s e n t s t a g e o f y o ur
n n n r
g g .

s t udi e s it is ot e ui s i t e t h a t y o u s h o uld kn o w o f ma y b o oks b ut

d
r n
, q n ,

t h a t y u s h o uld e a d a t t e n t i v e ly a fe w
d
o r n on ma lta s e ma ltu m .

I sh a ll t h e e fo e a j u n a t l e a s t t h e c o n s id e a t i on o f t h e q ues t i on
r r o r , ,
r ,

Wh a t in g e a l a e t he pr i n ci pa l b o oks on t he s ci e ce of L og i c ?
en r r n

s i mply r co mme n di g t o y o u a fe w n o t a b so l ut e ly t he b es t b u t s uch

e n , ,

a s y o u ca

o f y o u ca n r e a d a n
n o

d
m s t e a s ily pr o cur e ; s uch a s a r e in l a n g ua g e s w hi ch most
w hi ch a r e of s uch a ch a r a ct er a s ma y b e s t udi e d
,

w i t h mo s t g en e r a l a d v a n t ag e
d 1
.

O f w o r ks in o ur o wn l a n g ua ge a s th o s e most a c cessib l e a n mos t ,

i n t e lli g ib l e t o a ll t h e e ar e un fo t un a t ely h a dly ,

r r r
G l
en e r a ti f no ce o

w k L gi
an
y w hi ch I c a n r e co mme n d t o
y o u a s e x hi b i t i
g n

d
or s on o c.

t he d o ct i n e s o f L og i c e i t h e r in pur i t y or co m r ,

p l e t e n es s T h e L og
. i c o f W a t t s o f D u n c a n a n o t h e r s a r e w or t h , , ,

r ea di a s b o o ks b ut n o t a s b ooks u on L o i c T h e E lemen ts of
g n , p
, g .

L og i c b y D r Wh a t e ly is upo n t h e w h ol e t h e o n e b e s t e n t i t l e d t o
.

y our a t t e n t i o t h oug h it is e r o n e ous in v a r i o us r e spe ct s a n i mpe r

n,
,

r
,

,
d
fe ct i mo r e n T he a b r id g me n t o f t hi s w o r k b y H i n d s co n t a i n s wh a t
o f t h e o i i n a l is m
.

g r os t w o r t hy o f s t udy in t he c o mme n c e me n t o f a ,

l og i ca l e d uca t i on I F r e n ch t h e r e a r e s un d r y w or ks d e s er vi g of
. n ,
n

d
y o ur a t t en t i o n (D a mi o n D el a r ivie r e ) ; b ut t he o n l y o n e w hi ch I
r
1
,

2

d
w o uld a t pr e se t ea n e stly r e co mmen t o y o ur st udy is t he cel e
d
n r ,

d
b r a t e P or t Ro y a l A r t of T hi n ki n g L A r t e P e s er a n a n o n y ,

n ,

d
mous w o k b ut t he a ut h o s of w hi ch w e e t he t w o di st i g ui sh e
r , r r n

d
J a n s e is t s A r n a uld a n N i co l e I t h a s b e e n fr e qu e n t ly r e p i n t e d ;
n r
, .

a n t h e r e is r e ce n t ly a s t e r e o t y e d e di t i o n b H a ch t t e of P a i s
p y ,
e ,
r ,

d
w hi ch ca n e a sily b e pr o cur e d T h e r e a e mo r e t h a n o e t a n s . r n r

d
x

l a t i on of t h e w o k i n t o L a t i n a n a t l ea st t wo E n g li sh ver si on s b oth
r
, ,
?
ba

g
d
I n L a t i n t h e r e is a v er y el eg a n t co mpen d of L o i c b y the l a te
ill ustr i o us D i l Wy t t en b a ch of L e yd e n Be s id es t he D ut ch e i
an e , .

t i on s w hi ch a r e h a n d s o me th e e is a ch e a i t ub li h e d b
,
p re
p p s y ,
r r n

P r ofe s s o r M aa s o f H a ll e w h o h a s h ow e v e v e t ur e d on t h e un w a r
, , ,
r, n

r a t a b le li b e t y o f s il e n t ly a l t e i
n r t h t t b id s o mi t t i w h at
g e e e s e
g r n x , n

h e did n o t co s id e a s a b s o l u t e ly i di s e n s a b l e for a t e t b o ok T hi s
n r -
p n x .

w or k ca n b e e a s ily pr ocur e d T h e r e is a l s o in L a t i n a sy st e m of .

d dd
d d
1 C our s P hi los op hie, t i v ; L ogi que, P a r is ,
e . .
b u r g h , 1 850; 2 e it io n , 1 851 . I n th e I n t r o

d d
183 7 -E D .
uct i on t o t h is v e r s i on w il l be fo un an

dd
2 L og iq ue C la s si qu e, P a r is , 1 829 E
. D . a c c ou n t o f th e v a r i ou s e it ion s an t r a n sl a

d d
3 A t h ir fa r s u p e r io r
an t r a n sl a t i o n h a s t ion s of t he wor k . E D .

s ub se q uen tl y a ppea r e by M r. Ba y n es , E in
L E C T . IV L OG IC 51

T his w o r k is , h o w e v e r , e x t r e me ly r a r e e v e n in I t a ly, a n
my yan ea r s
ddi i
L og i c b y G e n o v e s i , u n d er t h e ti t l e , C en uen s i s A r s L og i co-cr i ti ca
it w a s
b e for e I w a s a b l e t o pr o cur e a copy T h e r e w a s a n e t o n
.
.

of t hi s w o r k pub li s h e d in G e r ma n y in 1 7 60, a t A ug sb ur g , b ut t h e
i mpr e ss i o n se e ms t o h a v e b ee n small fo r it a l s o is o ut o f pr i n t T he
, .

an d
I t a li a n L og i c of G e n o v e s i h a s h o w e v e r b e e n r e pe a t e dly r e p i n t e d
,
, ,

,
r ,

t hi s w i t h t h e v a l ua b l e a ddi t i o n o f Ro ma g n o si is e a s ily o b t a i n e d
.

r e co m me d t o n
r

y o u i s B u r er s
g d y k B
,

u r e r s iciu s
g d
O f t h e o ld e r w i t e r s o n L og i c in L a t i n t he on e I w ould pr i n ci pa lly
. H is I ns ti l a

t io n es L og i cee is n o t a r a r e w o k t h o ug h a s t h e r e a r e n o r ece n t
r , ,

e di t i o n s it is n o t a lw a y s Wi t h out t r o ub l e t o b e ob t a i n e d
, .
 LEC T URE V .

P U RE L O G IC .

P A RT I S T O I C H E IO L O G Y

. .

SE C T IO N I . N O E T IC O N . T HE FU N D A M E N T A L LA WS OF
T H O G
U H T T H E IR C O N T E N T S AND H I S T O RY .

H t er mi n a t e d our c on sid er a ti on of t he v a r i ous quest i on s of

A V IN G

whi ch t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o L o i c is co m o s e d
g p ,

d
S t i h i l gy o c e o o
w e pr oce e d t o t he d o ct r i n e s w hi ch ma ke up t he
.

s ci en ce it se l f; a n co mme n ce t h e F i r s t G r ea t D i vi s i o n of P U R E L O G I C

t h a t w hi ch t r ea t s of it s e l e me n t a r y o r co n st i t u e n t pr oces s e s ,

S t o i ch e i ol og y But S t o i ch e i ol og y wa s a g a i n di v id e d i n t o t wo pa t s
. r ,

d
a r t whi ch c o n sid e r e d t he F un d a me n t a l L a w s o f T h o u h t
in to a
p g

t o an gd
in g e n e r a l a n i n t o a pa r t whi ch co n sid er e d t h es e l a ws a s a ppli e d
r e ul a ti n
g t
,

h
r a d a ti o n s of C o n c e t i on
e spe ci a l fu ct i o n o f T h o ug ht in it s v a ri o us

J u d m en t an R e a s on i n T h e t itle
n

d
g p g ,g ,
.
,

t h e r e fo r e o f t h e pa r t of L og i c o n whi ch w e a r e a b o ut t o e n t er is
, ,

d I S t oi chei olog y S I N O n the

P ur e L og i c, P ar t .
ecti on . oeti c .

F un a men ta l L a ws o f T h oug h t .

Be f h or e , owe v er , d es cen di n g h e s e l a w s it
t o t he con s id er a ti on of t ,

is n e ce ss a r y t o ma ke o e o r t w o p e li mi n a r y n r

d
Th h t
e f c a r a c er o
s t a t e me n t s t o u chi n g t h e ch a r a ct e r o f t h a t t h o ug h t
Th gh t i g
ou l n en e r a .

o f whi ch t h e y a r e t h e n eces s a y con di t i o n s ; a n r ,

o n thi s po i n t I i in t he s t l t h f ll wi ar a r a h
g v e , p a ce e o ,
o n
g p g p r ,

ll X . L og i c c on sid er s T h oug ht n ot a s t h e ope a t i on of

,
r

s on n i
P

b u
ar

t
. X .

of
t hi n ki n g b ut a s it s pr o d u ct ; it d o e s n o t
,

t r e a t o f C on cept i on J ud g men t a n Rea

C o n cept s J ud g me n t s a n Re a son i n g s d, ,
d
g , , ,
.

I h a v e a l r e a dy en d e a v or e d t o g i v e y ou a g e n er a l kn o wl ed g e of
w h a t is me a n t b y th oug ht Y ou a r e a w a r e t h a t .

d
T h oug h t as th e ob
t h i s t er m is in r e l a t i o n t o L o g i c e mpl o y e d in
j cet of L og ic.
, ,

it s st i ct e s t a n
r most li mi t e d sig i ca t io n n,

v iz as t he a ct or r o d u c t of t h e D i s cu s i ve F a cul t y or F a cu l t y o f
.
, p r ,
L E C T . V . L O G IC . 53

Re l a t i on s ; b ut it is n ow pr oper t o con s id er ,
t h e d e t e r mi n a t e n a t ur e of t hi s pr ocess , a n d so mewh a t mor e
t he
cl osely
s eci a l p oi n t o f
p
,

v ewi in whi ch it isg d e d b y t h e l og i ci a n re

I n a n a ct of t hi n ki n g t h er e a r e t h r ee thi n g s w hi ch w e can
ar

,
is
.

d
c r i mi n a t e in con sci ousn ess T h er e is t he ,
bj t f m
d
Th
t hi n ki n g s ubj ect t h a t is t h e mi n d or e g o
e su ec ,
or ,
, , ,
an m tt af th g hter o ou
whi ch e x er t s o r ma n ifest s t he t h oug h t ;
.

o f t h o ug h t ; a d
T h e r e is t he obj ect a b o ut whi ch w e t hi n k whi ch is c a ll e d t he ma tter
T h er e is a r el a t i on b e t w e e n s ubj e ct a n
n ,
ob
,

d
e ct o f w hi ch we a r e co n s ci o u s a r e l a t i on a l wa y s ma n i fes t e d in
j ,

so me d e t e r mi n a t e mo d e o r ma n n e r ; thi s is t h e f or m of t h o ug ht - .

N o w o f th es e t h e e L og ic d oes n ot co n sid er ,
r ,

e i t h er t h e s t o r t h e s e co n d
i fi g} f; c oun t a t l ea st n o di r e ct a ccoun t of t he r e a l
ht
tF
b
.
O s e o
I t t a ke s n o a o r .

( c

m; f
l

, ,
h
c a o

L gie c .
s ubj e ct o r of t he r ea l o bj ect o f t h o ug ht b ut is , , ,

li mit e d e x cl usi v ely t o t h e for m of t h oug h t T hi s .

s i er edd
h a s b e e n a l r ea dy s t a t e d But a g a i n thi s fo r m of t h o ug ht is con
b y L og ic o n ly in a c er t a i n a spe ct
.

T he for m o f t h o ug ht
, ,

ma y b e v i ew e d on t wo s id es or in t w o r e l a ti on s I t h old s a s h a s
b e e n s a id a r e l a ti o n b o th t o it s s ubj e c t a n t o it s obj e ct a n it ma y
,

a ccor di n ly b e v i e w e d e ith er in t h e o n e of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s o r in t h e
d .

,
d
,

g
o t h er .

t o t h e t hi n ki n g mi n d
I n so fa r a s th e for m o f t h o ug ht is con s id er e d in r e fe e n c e
t o t he mi n d b whi ch it is e x e r t e d

con s id e r e d a s a n a ct o r o er a ti on or e n e r y ; a n
y ,

i
it is

n t hi s r e la t i o n it d ,
r

p g , ,

b e l on g s t o P h aen omen a l P s y ch o l og y Wh er e a s in so fa r a s thi s .

,

dd
for m is co n sid er e d in r e fer en ce t o wh a t th o ug h t is a b out it is con
si e r e a s t he
p r o d u ct o f s u ch a n a ct a n i n t hi s r e l a t i on it b e

l o n g s t o L og ic T h us P h aen omen a l P sy ch ol og y tr e a t s of t h o ug ht
.
,
d ,
,

p p r o er a s co n ce ti on j u d me n t r e a s o n i n
p g g; L o,g i c o r t h e N o m o l o
g y, ,

o f t h e u n d e r s t a n di n t r e a t s o f t h o u ht r o er a s a con ce t as a
g g p p , p ,

j ud g men t a s a r e a son i n g Wh a t ely I h a v e a l r ea dy sh o wn y ou

, .
, ,

a mon o th r e r r or s in his d e t e r mi n a t i o n of t h e o bj e ct ma t t e r of -
g e

L og ic co n fo un d s o r r e v er s e s thi s ; fo r he pr opos es t o L og i c n o t

con s id e r e d a s a
,

t h o ug h t c o n sid e r e d a s a pr o d uct b ut r e a son i n g a l o n e ; a n

r o d u ci n o e r a ti on H e th
t h at t oo
us c on fou n d s L o ic
,
d ,

, ,

p g p g .

w i t h P h aen o me n a l P s y ch o l o g y .

Be it th e r e for e ob s er v e d th a t L og ic in t r ea ti n g of t he for ma l
, , , ,

l a ws of t h o ug ht t r e a t s of t h es e in r efe r e n ce t o th oug ht con s id er e d

,

as a r o d u ct ; t h a t is a s a co n ce t a j ud men t a r e a s o n i n wh e a s
p p g , g ; er , ,

P s y ch ol o g y a s t h e P haen ome n o log y of mi n d c o n sid e r s t h o ug h t a s

, ,

d
t h e p o d uci g a ct t h a t is a s c o n ce pt i on j ud me n t r e a s o n i n g
r n , g , , ,
.

o u h e r e s ee b ili y o f di s t i ui s hi
( Y y t h e w a
y t h e
,
u t t g g co n cep t a n
, n n

con ce ti on
p I t is u n fo t
. u n a t e t h a t we c a o t a l s o di s t i g ui s h mo r e
r nn n
 54 L O G I C L E C T V

d t d
.
. .

d i
p r ec se i ly j u g men an r e a so n n g i as
p ro d uci n g t f om a j ud g
a c s, r

me n t an d a r ea s o n n
g as p ro uct s .
)

h ought
ll XI T as t h e kn ow l ed g e of

d dm
.
P ar x i T h ou g h t , ,

d
, .

me i a te an co p l ex o e t hi g i
n el a t i o n n r n to a n ot h er ,
is a me d i
' '
c o g n 1 t I on
c om l e
.

ate a co n i t i on
p n
g x .

T he di stin ct i v e pe culi ar i t y of thi ki n g in g en er a l is th a t it ia n ,

v o l v e s t h e cog n i t i o n o f o e t hi g b y t h e c o g n i t i on o f a n o t h e

n
n

t hi ki g is t h e e fo e a me di a t e c o g i t i o ; an ,
n A ll
r r ,
n
r

n
.

n d
d d
E pl i ti
x ca on
is t h us di s t i n g u i sh e d fr o m o u r k o w l e d g e in pe r n

ce pt io ex t e r n a l a n
n ,
i n t e a l a n in i ma g i a t i on in b o t h of w hi ch
rn ,
n

d
a ct s w e a r e i mme di a t e ly c o i t i v e of t h e obj e ct e t e n a l o r i n t e r n a l
n x r
g , ,

en t e d in t h e o n e a e obj e ct e x t e r n a l or i
d
f t h n t er a l
p e
r s o ,
n re ,
n

d
r e s e n t e d ia t h t h I t h e P r e sen t a t i v e a n R e r e se n t a t i v e
p e o er . n p
F a cul t i es o ur k owl e d g e is o f s o me thi n g co n sid e e d di r e ct ly a n in
,
n r

i t s el f ; in t h oug h t o n t h e c on t r a r y w e kn o w o n e obj e ct o ly t h r o ugh

d
n
, ,

t he k o w l e d g e of a o t h er
n T h u s in pe ce pti o n o f e i t h e ki n d a n
n . r ,
r ,

in i mag i n a ti o n t h e obj e ct kn o w is a l wa y s a s i gl e d e t e r mi n a t e ob
,
n n

e ct ; wh er ea s in th o u h t n t h ou h t n e o bj e ct is
j g i g r e er
p p ,

a s o ,

o n ly kn o w n t h r o u h a n o t h e t h e e mus t a l w a y s b e a pl u a li t y o f
g r, r r

obj ect s in e v e r y s i l e t h ou h t L e t u s t a ke a n e x a mpl e o f t hi s

g g n .
,

in r eg a r d t o t h e s i mpl e s t a ct o f t h o ug h t Wh en I s e e a n i n di vid .

s a y B uce ph a l u s o r H ig h y e

d
u al - or wh e I r e pr e s e t him in r, n n
,

d
i ma g i n a t i on I h a ve a di r e ct a n i mmedi a t e a ppr eh e n si o n o f a c e r
t a i n obj e ct in a n t h r o ug h i t se lf w i t h ou t r efe r e n ce t o a ug h t e l s e
But wh e n I pr o n o u ce t h e t e r m H or s e I a m u n a b l e e i t h e t o pe r
n
,

r
.

c e iv e i n a t ur e o r t o r e es e n t in i ma i a t i on a n n e d e t e r mi a t e
n
p , g r
y o n , n

o bj e ct co r r es po n di g t o t h e w o r d n I ob t a i n t h e n o t i o cor r e spo d . n n

d
i g t o t hi s w o r d on ly a s t h e r e s ult o f a c ompa r i s o n o f ma y p e r
n ,
n

ce pt io n s o r i ma g i n a t i o n s o f B uce ph a l us H ig hye D o bb i n a n , r, ,

o t h e i n di v id u a l h o se s ; it t h e e fo e c o n t a i n s ma y r e e se t a t i on s
r r , p r r ,
n r n

u d e it h a s r efer e n ce t o ma y o bj e ct s o u t o f r e l a t i o
n

ca n o t n
r

p
,

oss i b l y b e e a liz e d in t h o u h t ; a r
g i t is i
n t o whi ch it
n co n s e u e c e o f
q
,

n d n

d
t hi s n e ce ss i t y o f r e p e s e n t i n g ( po t e n t i a lly a t l e a s t ) a pl u a li t y o f
r r

i n di vid ua l obj e ct s un d er t he n o t i o n h or s e t h a t it ob t a i n s t he e om ,
n

i a t io n co cep t t h a t is so me t hi g t a ke n u p o r a pp e h e d e d in con
n n , ,
n r n

n e ct io wi t h s ome thi n g e l s e T hi s h o we v er r e qui r e s a fu t h e r e x

n .
, ,
r

W
li
d
ca t i o h w f m f h h t f i t i t h h t
} t hi s I s d o e b t hi ki n s omet hi a n w e ca n t hi k a yt hi o ly
p n e
. n e
p e r o r a n a c t o t o u g o p o s v e o u g , ,

n n
y g n
g g n ,
n n n

b y t hi n ki g it a s e i s t i g w hil e a g a i n w e c a n n o t t hi k a t hi g t o
n x n , , ,
n n

e x i s t e ce pt in ce t a i n d e t e r mi a t e mo d es o f e x i st e ce
x r O n t he n . n

o t h e r h a n d wh e n w e er fo m a n a ct of n eg a ti v e th o ug h t t hi s is
, p r ,
L E C T V L O G I C 55

d
.

d
. .

b y t hi n ki n g
dh hi methi n g
on e so a s n ot ex s i ti n g in thi s or th a t et er mi
n ate mo d e , an w en w e t hi n k it a s e x i s ti
g in o d e t e r mi n a t e
n n

mo d e , w e ce a s e to t n k it at a ll ; it b ecomes a n o t hi n g a l og i ca l ,

n on en i y (n on en s L og i cum )
t t - .

I t b e i g t h u s u n d e r s t o o d th a t t h ought ca n on ly b e r ea l iz e d b y
n

d
thi n ki n g s o me t hih g ; it b ei n g fur t h e r un d e st oo d th a t t hi s s o me r

t hi g a s it is t h oug h t mu s t b e t h o ug h t a s e x i sti n g ; a
n , ,
it b e i n g n

s t ill fur t h e r u n d e s t o o d t h a t w e ca n t hi n k a t hi g a s e x i s t i n g o n ly

b y t hi ki g it a s e x i st i n g in t hi s t h a t a n
n n
r

d
t h e o t h e d e t e mi a t e , ,
d n

r r n

ma n n e r o f e x i s t e n ce a n t h a t w h e n e v e r w e ce a se t o thi n k s o me
,

t hi n g s o me t hi g e i st i g s o me t hi n g e i s t i n g in a d e t e r mi n a t e ma
,
n x n ,
x n

n e r o f e x i s t e c e w e c ea s e t o tnhi k a t a ll
,
t hi s I s a y b e i g u d e r n , ,
n n

s t o o d it is h er e pr o pe r t o ma ke y ou o n ce for a ll a c q u a i t e d w i t h
, , , n

t h e v a r i o u s t e ms b y w hi ch l o g i ci a n s d e s i g n a t e t h e mo d e s o ma n
r r

n e s o f c og i t a b l e e i s t e n ce
r I sh a l l th er e for e c o mpr i se th e se in
x .

t h e foll o wi n g pa a g r a ph r

ll XI I . Wh en we thi hi n g thi s is d on e b y con c e i vi n g

n k a t ,

it a s posse s se d of ce t a i n mo d e s o f b e i g
d
r n ,

P ar . XI I . T he var i or q ua li t i e s a t he s um o f t h e s e qu a li t i e s
,
n

c o n st i t ut es it s con cep t o r n oti on

( m
13
is: 222; 353 3222

1
e V l a, v

table ex i s t e n ce ar e vo ca ,

c m vo ca , con cep t u m, con cep t us n oti o) ,
.

d
S wa m i A s t h ese u a li t i e s or mo d e s ( m a m a qu a l
q ,

ly id e n t i e d w i t h t he
i ta tes , mo ) i ar e on

thi n g b y a men t a l a t t r ib ut o t e a e ca ll e d a ttr i butes ( m i h y

n, r Ka

y p
say o
po ao

d dd
t

r e i ca bles a n
t r i bu

r
ta
)
eva , a s i
e n o iI n ce a u h t o f a t hi

e
g
i ca m
t
d
e
is

t
o n ly
g
a
in

t
t
h
o

e
r

o
y
t

i
h
a
o

e
u

t
g h t h e m t h a t
c a ll e d p r e i ca tes

h w d b i
w e

n ,
r

r ,

p p r n,
s o r c e
g r es e s e o s e
g , ,
r n

d d
h er e u se d i t h e i r mor e e t e n si v e s i g i ca t i o ( i y ep m X p
n x n n e e e t
,

d hi h ly h y dh ll dh h h
ny p jn
Ka r la t
ny p ,

K a r o i
o ar o . Ka r
ny p neI/ a ,
O
p ce i ca ta , p r ce i ca bili a ,
r o

r ce ica m en ta ) a s it is on in an t r ou t e m t at we
p g r ec

d o r w a t it is, t e ma r /r s ,
og n iz e a t gn f a r e ca e n o tes , s i n s ,
g

d lly n otoc, s i n a , cha r a cter es , r i mi n a

cha r a cter s ( g i s c ) ; n a ,
as it
is ly
on h h h
d
h in h hi
an t r ou
g t e m t at w e b e co me a wa r e t at a t n
g
is po ss e s s e
ca ll d
d
e d d li
li d t i t
p
i
r o er
p
h y

i
d of a

t ies ,
p e cu

if
'
ar

er en ces ,
an

eter
e er m na e e x s t e n ce ,

mi n a ti on s ( p r Op r i eta tes
r o m, t h e e x s t
t e

,
ar e

t er mi n a ti on es ) . A s c o n s e q u e n t o n , o r r es u t n
g f
e n ce o f a t hi n g t h e y h a v e li ke w i s e
, ob a n et i d t he n a me o f con
s eq u en ts
( p ,
En o eva con sequ en ti al, Wh a t in r ea li t y has no

q u a li t i e s ,
ha s n o e x s t e n ce i in t h o ug h t , it is a l o g i ca l n on e n

ti t y ; h e
d h ol a s t i c a ph o i sm n on en tia
t he
n ce , e con ver s o, sc r -
,

na lla s a n t p r ce i ca ta . Wh at ag a i n ha s n o qua li t i es a ttr i b ut e d

, ,
 L O G I C L E C T V

d
.
. .

to it t h oug h a tt r ib ut ab l e
,
id t o b e in eter min ecl ( Bp ,
is sa d e i o r ov
-
,

i n cleter mi n a tu m) it is o n ly a poss ib l e o bj e ct of t h o ug h t 1
.

T hi s
p g ar a h ra
ph whi ch
a v e di ct a t e d th a t , y o u m i g ht b I
e m a d e

o ce for a l l a cq u a i t e d wi t h t h e r e l a t i v e t e r ms in
n n

Wh t
Em w d
P I i ti a mo n g l og i ci a n s r e ui r e s b u t li t t l e e l
X ca on ' a
u se q a n a x
m th k
o

in
p ,

im
s o i

b t ec
ti on I m a
y s t a t e h o w e v e r t h a t t h e mi d o n l
.
y n

d
g an oj .

thi n ks a n obj e ct b y sepa r a t i n g it f om oth e s ; r r

th a t is b y ma r ki n g it out or ch ar a ct er izi n g it ; a n i s o far a s it

,
n

d
d o es t his it e n cl os e s it wi t hi n c e r t a i n x e d li mi t s th a t is d et e mi n es
,
.

, ,
r

it . But if t hi s di s cr i mi n a t i ve a ct b e e x pr es se d in w or d s I pr e i ca t e
t h e ma ks n ot e s ch a r a ct e r s or d e t e r mi n a t i o n s of t h e t hi g ; a n
r , , ,
if
,

n d ,

a a i n t h e s e b e compr e h e n d e d in o n e t ot a l th o ug h t t h e y co s t i t ut e n
g , ,

it s co n cept or n ot i o
d
I t; for e x a mpl e I t hi n k of S o cr a t e s a s s o n of
n .
,

S op hr on i s cu s a s A then i a n a s p hi los op her a s p ug n os e th e se a r e

, , ,
-
,

d
o n ly so ma y ch a r a ct er s li mi t a t i o s or d e t e r mi n a t i o n s whi ch I pr e

d
n ,
n , ,

ica t e of S ocr a t e s which di sti n g ui s h him fr o m a ll o th er men a n , ,

t og et h er make up my n o ti on or con cept of him

But a s t h oug h t in a ll it s g r a a t i o n s of con ce pti on j ud g me n t a n
r ea s o n i n
,

s on ly r e a l iz e d b
d .

, ,
d
g i y t h e a t t i b u t i o n of , r

d
ft ib t i i
Th e a r u
c er t a i n q ua li t i e s or ch ar a ct er s t o t h e obj e ct s of;
on ?

g l t d
l
v o ve m th g ht ou 13
o r a b ou t wh i c h w e t hl n k ; s o th i s a tt r i b u t i o
b y la w s
is n
re u a e

d
.

r e ul a t e d b l a w s whi ch r e n d er a r ea t a t of
g y g p ,
r

thi s pr ocess ab sol ut ely n e ce ssa r y But w h en I spe a k o f l a w s a n of .

l w
a
Wh m a

pp l
as a
t by a
bl t
th ei r a b s ol ut e n e cessi t y in r e l a t i on t o t h o ug h t
I n f an
y
i ca
o u mu s t n o t s u
e o
pp o s e th a t th e s e l aws an

n e ce s s i t y a r e t h e s a me i n t h e w o r ld o f m n d a s
t h at d ,

i t m
i
fr ee n eg en ce .

in t h e w o r ld o f ma t t er F or fr e e i n t e lli g e ce s . n ,

a l a w is a n id e a l n e c e s s i t y i v en in t h e for m o f a e ce t w h i ch w e
g p p r ,

o ug ht t o fo ll o w b ut w hi c h w e ma y a l s o v i o l a t e if w e pl e a s e ;
,

wh e r e a s for t h e e i s t e n ces w hi ch con st i t ut e t h e u i v e se o f n a t ur e

,
x n r ,

d
a l a w is o n ly a n o t h er n a me fo r t h ose ca us es whi ch o pe a t e b li n dly r

u n i v e r s a lly in r o d u ci n er t a i n i n e v i t a b l e r e s ul t s

d
an p g c B y l a w of .

th oug ht or b y log i ca l n eces s i ty w e

,
o n o t th e r e fo e mea n a phy s i , ,
r ,

c a l l a w s u c h a s t h e l a w of
, g r a v it a ti on b ut a
g e n e r a l pr e cept w hi ch

w e a r e a b l e ce r t a i n ly t o v i o l a t e b ut w hi ch if w e o n ot o b e y o ur ,
,

d ,

wh ol e p o cess of thi n ki n g is s ui cid a l o r a b sol ut ely n ull T h es e l a w s

r ,
.

a r e co s e qu e n tly t h e i m
d
a r y co di t i on s of t he pos s i b ili t y of v a lid
n
, p ,
r n

t h o ug ht a n a s t h e wh o l e o f P ur e L o i c is o ly a n
, g a r t i cul a t e n

d e ve l opme t of t he v a r i o us mo d e s in whi ch th e y a r e a ppli ed t h ei r

n ,

c on s id er a t i o n in g en e a l con st it ut es t h e s t ch apt er in a n o r d e ly r r ,
r

1 [ S ch ul z e , L og i k, 13 . Roslin g , p

.
[ D ie L ehr en d er r ei n en L og ik, U l m, 1 826 . Cf .

K r ug , L og i k, 16 E D
.
]
.
LECT . v . L O G I C . 57

sy st e m of t he s ci en c e . N o w, in ex p a n n g l i i t o y ou thi s subj e ct ,

d met h o d I h all foll o wi n g : I

d
. t he p s ur s u e is t h e

d s h a ll , r st o f a ll, s t a t e in g en e r a l t h e n umb er a n
PM O f c on e

men

d
ti on of t h e fun a
S i n i c a n ce o f t h e l a w s a s co mmo n ly r e cei v e d ;
ta ] l a ws t h o ug h t g

d
.

I sh a ll t h e n mor e pa r t i cul a r ly c o n s i e r e a ch of

d
th ese b y i t self a n in r el a t i on t o t he oth e s t h e n d e t a il t o y ou t h ei r r

d
hi st o y ; a n a lly st a t e t o y ou my ow n v i e w s in r eg a r d t o th eir
r ,
n ,

d e d uct i on n umb er a n a r r a n g emen t

, ,
.

l XI I I . T he F un d a me n t a l L ws of T h oug h t or t he con di
a ,

t i on s of t h e t hi n ka b l e a s co mmon ly r e ce i v e d , ,
m
d
m
a r e fo ur 1 T he L a w o f I d en t i t y ; 2 T he
P a" x ' E '

. .

me n t a l

d
a L aw s of

T h oug h t L a w o f C o n t r a di ct i o ; 3 T h e L a w o f E x n .

d
.

e l usi o n or of E x cl u d e d M iddl e an 4 T he , .

L aw of Rea s on an C on s e quen t or of S uf ci en t Rea s on

, .

Of th e s e in t h e i r or d er .

1T XI V . T h e pr i n cipl e of I d en tity (p r in cipiu m I en ti ta ti s ) d

d
e x pr es se s t h e r e l a t i on o f t ot a l sa men es s in

d whi ch a con c ept st a n d s t o a ll a n l

P XI V L aw of
the r e a
ar . .

d
I en t i ty .

ti on of pa r ti a l sa men e ss in c it st a n s whi h d

t dh
t o e a ch of it s con st i t ue n t ch a r a ct e r s
,
I n o er or s it e . th w d ,

cl a r e s t h e i mpossi b ili t y o f thi n ki n g t h e co n ce p a n it s c a r a c

t e s a s e ci p o ca lly u n li ke
A o A
r

,
r r

d
I t is e x pr e sse d i t h e for mu a A i s
A ; a n b y A is d e n ot e d e v e r y l og i ca l t hi g e v e r y
r z
. n l
n ,

o d u ct of o ur t hi n ki n g fa cu lty co n c e pt j u d g me n t r e a s on
r
p , , ,
1
in g , e t c.

T he pr i n ci pl e
d
of I d e n ti t y is an ap
plic a ti on of t he pr i n ci pl e of t he
wh ol e a n of a ll its l
a b s o ut e e
q u i l
v a e n ce o f a
E p l i ti
x ca on
a r t s t a ke n t o e t h e r t o t h e thi n ki n thi
.

p g g o f a
g , n

b y t h e a t t r ib uti on of con st i t ue n t q ua li t i e s or ch a r a ct e r s T he co ce pt . n

o f t h e t hi n is a wh ol e t he c h a r a ct e r s a r e t he r t s o f t h a t wh o l e
2
g p a , .

d
T hi s l a w ma y t h e r e for e b e a l s o t h us e n o un ce d E v er y t hi n g is
, , ,

e u a l t o it se l fo r i n a l o i ca l r e l a t i on t h e t hi it n ce t
q g g an s co
p n

co i n cid e ; a s in L o i c w e a b s t r a ct a l t o e t h er fr o m t h e r ea li t y o f t he
g , g ,

thi n g w hi ch t he con ce pt r e pr es en t s I t is th er e for e t he sa me .

, ,

Wh e t h e r w e s a y th a t t he co n cept is e q ua l t o a ll it s ch a r a ct e r s or ,

t h a t t h e t hi g is e q u a l t o i t s e l f 3
n .

T h e l a w h a s like w i s e b ee n e x pr e s se d b y t h e for mul a Tu t he

, ,

1 [ 3 01111 12 6 3 L og ik, 17 . G er l a ch , L og ilc, 2 S ee S chul z e,L ogi k p 323 . . .

E D .

C f . K r ug , L og i k, 17 . E D . 3 S ee K r ug , L og z k, p 4 0 E . . D .
58 L O G I C .
LE C T . V .

p re di ca t e t he w h ol e , is t i d e pli citly whi ch in t h e subj e ct is

co n a n e x ,

con t a i e d i mpli ci t ly
n . It is a l s o i n v o l ve d in t h e a x i om N ota n otce
l
es t n o ta r ei ip s ia f
s .

d
T he l og i ca l i mpor t a n ce id e ti t y li es in t hi s t h a t of t h e la w of n

i t i s t he r i ci l e o f a ll lo i c a l a fr ma t i o n a
I t l g i n mp m m p n
s o ca o p e g n

d e i t i o A ex am le o m i
d ill ust a t e t h is
_ Th p i
e ip l f l
r nc e o a
pl t w o a
y b e
g nv en t o n . n r

d
l g i l f m t i
o ca a r a on a n r .

d
i i t on
e n

1 I a co n ce t
p w hi ch w e m a
y ca ll . Z t h e n , ,

c h a a ct e s a b a
r c a e t h o ug h t a s it s co n st i t u e n t s ; co ns e ue t ly
r n r
, , , q n ,

T hi i l l t t d
t he con cept a s a un i t y is e qu a l t o t h e ch a a ct e s , , r r
s us r a e
t a ke n t og e t h e r m
.

Z ( a b + c
) I f t h e f o er . r

b e a f me d s o a l so is t h e l a t t e r ; t h e r e fo e Z b e i n g ( a + b + c) is a
r ,
r , ,

is b is c ,
T o t a ke a con c e t e e a mpl e : T he co ce pt ma
. is a r x n n

co mpl e me n t ma d e u p o f t h e ch a a ct e s

d s u bs ta n ce ma ter i a l
d r r , , ,

o r g a n iz e a i ma te r a t i on a l of thi s ea r th in o t h e r
d d
,
n , ,

w o r d s ma n is s u bs ta n ce is ma ter i a l is or g a iz e i s a n i ma te is r a , ,
n , ,

ti on a l B ei n g a s e n t e r i n g i n t o e v e r y a t t i b ut i o n ma y b e di sch a r g e d
.
,
r ,

a s a ffo r di g o di st i n c t i o
n n n.

2 A gai
. s uppo s e t h a t i n, t h e e x a mpl e g i v e n t h e ch a r a ct e r a is ,
n ,

ma d e u p of t h e ch a r a ct e s l m n it fo ll ows b y t h e s a me l a w of r , , , ,

I d e n t it y t h a t Z a
(l m ) is l i m is T h e e t ma n

dd
s n co c n n
,
:
p , , , ,
.

co n t a i n s in it t h e ch a a c t e r a n i ma l a t h e ch a a ct e r a n i ma l con
r ,
n r

t a i n s in it t h e ch a r a ct e s corp or ea l o g a n iz e li vi g e t c r ,
r ,
n , . .

T h e s e co n d l a w is t h e p i ci pl e o f C o t a di ct i o o N o n con t r a r n n r n r -

di ct i o n ia r el a t i o n t o whi ch I sh a ll di ct a t e t he foll o w i g pa a g r aph

,
n r

ll XV . Wh
d et e mi n e d b y t h e a f r ma t i o n of
e n a n o b e ct j is r

a ce t a i n ch a r a ct e r t hi s obj e ct ca ot b e r ,
nn

d
P X w V L of
ar
h o u h t t o b e t h e s a me w h e
a
s u ch ch a a ct e r
. .

C on t r a
t
i ct i o n g n r

d
.

is d e n i e d o f it T he i mp oss i b ili t y o f t hi s is .

d
e n o un ce d in wh a t is ca ll e d t h e r i n ci l e o f C o t a i ct i n n r o
p p
r i ci i u m O o n tr a R A ss r t i o s
(p p n i ct i o n i s s e e
p g u n a n ti te
) a . e n

c o ce n i g a t hi g a e mut u a lly con t r a di ct or y w h e t he o e

rn n n r ,
n n

a s s e t s t h a t t h e t hi
r oss e ss e s t h e ch a r a ct e r w hi ch t h e o t h e r
g p n

a s s e t s t h a t it d o es n o t
r T hi s l a w is l og i ca lly e x p e ss e d i t h e . r n

fo mul ar Wh a t is con tr a di ct or y is un t hi n kab l e A n ot . 2

A 2 0, 07

A A Z O .

N o w, in t h e r st pl a ce , in r eg a r d t o t h e n a me
I t s p r op er na me
hi s l a w, it ma y b e o b s er ve d t h a t a s it e n
.

of t
j oi n s t h e a b s e n ce o f c on t r a di ct i on as th e i di spe n sa b l e
n c on di t i o n of

1 S ee K an t , L og ik, p 40 E . . D .
L E C T . V .
L O G I C . 59

t h o ug ht it ,
o ug ht
c a ll e d n ot t h e L aw of C on t r a di cti on b ut
to be , ,

t he L a w o f N o n co t r a di ct i o n o o f n on r ep ug n a n ti a - 1
- n r .
,

hi f ly b d i h f m l I t is
d

T s la w h a s e
q u e n t ee e n o u n c e r n t e o r u a n

d n ot b e ; b ut t hi s is e po se d t o sun d y obj e ct i on s
i mpo s si bl e t h a t t he s a me t hi g can a t on ce b e a n n

d dd
H w o e n oun ce .

x r .

I t is v a g u e a n t h er efo e u se l e s s ,
It o e s n o t i n di ca t e w h e t h r a
r
e .

r e a l o r a n o t i o a l e i s t e n c e is me a n t ; a n n if it mea t h e for me r
x n ,

th en is it n ot a l og i ca l b ut a me t a phy s i ca l a x i om But e v en a s a .

met a phy s i ca l a i o m it is i mpe fe ct ; fo r t o t he e x pr e s s i o a t on ce

x r n

s im u l) mu st b e a dd e d n th e s a me n the s a me r esp ect e t c

2
( i p la ce i , , ,
.

d T h s awi l h s li k e w i se b e e n ea
p e s s e d b y t h e fo r m u l a C on t r a x r

ict o r y a t t r i b ut e s c a ot b e u i t e d i o e a ct of co n s ci o u s n es s
nn But n n n .

t hi s is a l s o o b o i u s t o obj e ct i o n n F o r a j ud g me n t e x pr e s ses a s
x o .

ddo o d a u n ity o f c o s c i o u sn ess a s a co ce pt B ut w h e n I j u d g e t h a t

n n
g .

r ou n s u a r e a r e c o n t r a di ct o r y a t t r i b ut e s t h e r e a e fo un d in
a q n ,
r

t hi s j u d g me n t c on t a di ct o r y a t t i b ut e s b ut y e t a u n i t y of con
d
r r ,

s cio usn e s s T h e for mul a is t h e e for e v a g ue ly a n

. i a ccur a t ely ,
r ,
n

e x p esse d r .

T h e l og i ca l i mpor t o f t hi s l a w li es in it s b e i n g t h e pr i n ci pl e of a ll
l og i ca l n eg a t i on a n di s t i n ct i o n dd .

d d cti o a e co r d i at e a n r eci r oca lly el a t i v e d

pl f "
l
T
T h e l a w of I d e t i t y a n
p e n n c e O a
t h e l a w of C o n t r a n

d
l g o l
i ca g t ne a i on an

d is t i n c t i on . p i n r o n r ,

a n e i t h e r c a n b e e d uce d a s s e co d fr o m t h e
n n

d
o t h e r a s r s t ; fo r in e v e r y s u ch a tt e mpt a t d e r i v a t i o t h e s upp o s e d n,

s e c o d a r y l a w is i fa ct a l wa y s n e ce ss a ily p e s uppos e
d T h e se
d
3
n ,
n , r r ,

a e in fa ct o n e a
r ,
t h e s a me l a w di ffe r i n g o n ly b y a po s i t i v e a n
,
n ,

n e g a t i v e e p es s i o n x r .

I n r e l a t i o t o t h e t hi d la w t a ke t h e fo ll o wi n g pa a g r a ph
n r , r

1T XV I . T h e pr i n ci pl e o f E x cl u d e d T hi r d o r M iddl e v iz , .

d
b e t w e e n t w o co n t r a di ct or i e s (p r i n cip i um

521d
i ai
v O f
cclu s i M e ii uel T er t ii , e n o un ces t h a t
ii: E )
f

E 1 ,

di t i on of t oug whi ch compel s u s o f co n h ht ,

t w o r e pug n a n t n o t i o s w hi ch ca n o t b o t h co e i s t t o t hi k n ,
n x ,
n

e i t h er t h e o e or t h e o t h e a s e x i st i
n
g H e n ce a r i s e s t h e
g e r n . n

e al a iom

d
O f co t a di ct o y a t t i b u t i o s w e ca n o ly a f m
r x n r r r n n r
,

o n e o f a t hi n g ; a n if o e b e e pli ci t ly a f me d t h e o t h e r is im n x r ,

p li cit l
y d e ied A ei ther i s or i s n o t
n A ei t
. her i s or i s n o t .

By t h e l a ws of I d en t it y an dt C on r a di cti o n, I a m w ar r an te d to

K r ug
d
d
dd
1 C o mpa r e , L o ik
g , 5 18 E D . . 3 T his i s sh ow n mo r e i n et a il by H o ff b a ue r ,

K
d
2 C o mp a r e t h e c r i t icis m o f a n t, K r it ik . r. A n fa n g sg r u n e er L og ik , 2 3 . E D .

Rose n k r a n z

V .
, p 134 ,
. e . . E D . 4 S ee S ch ul z e , L og i k , 1 9 . E D .
60 L O G I C . LECT . V .

c on cl ud e fr om t r uth of on e con tr a dict or y pr opositi on t o t he

t he
d
L g i l ig i
o ca s
fa l s e h o o d of t he oth er a n b y t he la w of E x
cl u d e d M i
n
'

d
d
l e I a m w a r r a n t e d t o c on cl ud e fr om
ca n ce
,
,

d d
o f thi l w s a

t h e fa l s e h o o d o f on e co n t r a di ct o r y pr opo si t i on t o
.

t h e t r ut h of t h e o th er A n in t hi s li es t h e peculi a r fo r ce a n i mpor t
.

of t hi s l a s t p i n ci pl e F or t h e l og i ca l s i g n i ca n ce of t h e l a w of E x
r .

cl ud e d M iddl e co s i st s in t hi s t h a t it li mi t s o r s h ut s in t h e sph er e
n

d d
,

of t h e t hi n ka b l e in r e l a t i o n t o a f r ma t i o n ; for it d e t e r mi n e s t h a t , ,

d
o f t h e t w o fo ms g i v e n in t h e l a w s o f I d e n t i t y a n
r C o n t r a i ct i o n ,

an b y t h e s e l a w s a fr me d a s t h ose e x cl us i v ely poss i b l e t h e o n e or ,

t h e o t h e r mu s t b e a f r me d a s n e ce s sa r y
T he l a w o f E x cl ud e d M iddl e is t h e pr i n ci pl e o f D i sj un cti v e J u g
.

d
j ti J d
T h p i
un c
e ipl

vegm t
fD i
r nc

u
me n t s t h a t is of j ud g me n t s in whi ch a pl ur a li t y
o f j u d g me n t s a r e co n t a i n e d a n
e o

en s.
s
,

w hi ch s t a n d in
,

, d
s u ch a r e ci p o c a l r el a ti on th a t t h e a f r ma t i on of r

o n e is t h e d e n i a l of t h e o t h e r .

I n o w g o on t o t h e four t h l a w .

W
l XV I I thi n ki n g of a n obj e ct a s a ct ually ch a r a ct er
. T he ,

iz od b y posi t i v e or b y n eg a t i ve a t t r ib ut e s is ,

P ar . w x vn n ot l e ft t o t h e ca pr i ce o f U n d e st a n di n g
. L a of r

mm
d t h e fa cul t y of t h o ug ht ; b ut th a t fa cul t y
su er r

R
of e a s on an C on s e

q u en t .
mu st b e n e cessi t a t e d t o th i s or t h a t d e t er

so me thi n
g di ff
mi n a t e a ct o f thi ki g b y a kn o wl e d g e of
er e n t fr o m a n i n d e e n d e n t of, t h e
p
thi n ki n g i t s el f T hi s con di t i on of o ur u n d er st a n di n g is e x
.
p ,
r o ce s s of d n n

d
es s e d b y t h e l a w a s it is ca ll e d of S ufci e n t Re a s on
p r , (p ci
r i n ,

p iu m R a t i o n is S u
ci en ti s
); b u t
d it is m o r

ma t e d t he la w of Re a s on a n C on se quen t (p r in cip iu m R a ti on i s
et O o n s ecu ti on i s )
e p p

T h a t kn owl e d g e b y w hi ch t h e mi d is
.
r o e r ly e n o m i

d d
n e ces s i t a t e d t o a f r m o o s i t s o me t hi n e l se is c a ll e d t h e lo i
p g r
g ,

ca l r ea s on r ou n a n t ece e t; t h a t s o me t hi n e l se w hi c h
g o r , , g n

con s e u en t; a n
q
n

t h e r e l a t i o n

n t is c a ll e d t h e lo i ca l con n ecti o n o r
b d
t h e mi d is n e ce s s i t a t e d t o a f r m o r po s i t is ca ll e d t h e l og i ca l

e t w e e n t h e r e a son a n c o u s e
,

d
q u e , g c on s e qu e n ce T hi s .

l a w is e x pr e ss e d in t h e fo r mul a I n fe r n ot hi n g wi t h o ut a
n d o r r ea son
1
g oru

d
.

l i Re a s on G o n se
d
Re l a t i on s b et w een T he r e a t on s b e t w een an
Reas on an C on se'
q u e n t, wh e n co mpr e h e n d e d in a
p ure t h h ou
g t,
q uen t
t h e follo w mg
.

ar e :

1 . Wh en a r e a son is ex
pli ci t ly o r i m li citly
p g i v e n th en th er e must ,

1 S ee S ch ul z e , L og i k,

19, an d
K r ug , L og ik, 20 E
. D .
L E CT v L O G IC 61

d
.
. .

e x st i a con s e qu en t ; an , vi ce ver s a , wh en a con se

qu en t is g i v e n ,

t her e
2 W e h r e
must
t h e r e is n o
l
a s o e x st a r e a s on

r e a so n th e
i
r e c a n b e n o co
.

n s e
q u en t ; a n d ,

d
.

vi ce ve r s a w h e e t h e r e i s n or c o n s e
q u e n t ( e i t h e r i m p li ci t ly o r e x lic
p

dd
,

l
it y ) t h e r e c a n b e n o r e a so n T h a t i s t h e co n c e
p t s
. o f r e a s o a n o
,
f n

c on se que n t a s r eci pr o c a lly r el a t i ve i n v o l ve a n s uppo s e e a ch o t h e r

, ,
.

T eh l o g i ca l s i g n i c a n c e o f t h e l a w o f R ea s o n a n C o n s e
q u e n t li e s

d
in t hi s T h a t in v i r t u e o f it th o ug h t is co n st i
, ,

dd
L g i l ig i
o ca s n
t ut e i
ca n ce
n t o a s e r i e s o f a ct s a ll i n di s s o l ub ly c o n

d
o f t hi l w s a
e a ch n e ce ss a r ily i n fe r i n g t h e o t h e r
.

n e ct e r .

T h us it is th a t t he di s t i n ct i o n a n o ppo s i t i o n o f po ss i b l e a ct ua l a n
n ece s s a r y ma t t e r whi c h h a s b e e n i n t r o d u ce d in t o L og i c is a
,
oc
,

,
d
t r i e w h olly e x t r a n e ous t o thi s sci e n ce
n

I may ob s e r v e th a t Re a son is s o me t hi n g i ffe r e n t fr o m C a use

d

.

d ,

R m ea

d C
i
d c on e
ar
an

o u
C o n se q ue n t s o me t hi n g di ffe r e n t fr o m E ffe ct ;

d con cei ve d i n th ou ht sta n d t o e a ch ot h er i t he

th g h s
c
'

a u s e a n e ffe c t i n s o fa r as they ar e d ,

d
q ue n t ,
an a use a n
n
M t
ee . g ,

r e l a t i o n of r e a s o n an con s e q u e n t C a us e is .

t h u s th oug h t of a s a r e a l obj e ct w hi ch a ffor d s t h e r e a s o n of t h e

e x i st e n ce o f a n ot h e r r e a l obj e ct t h e e ffe ct ; a n
,

effe ct is t h o ug ht o f
,
d
a s a r e a l obj e ct w hi ch is t h e c on se ue n t of a n o t h er r e a l o bj ect t h e
, q ,

c a us e

s on a n ,
.

d
A cco r di n g ly e v e r y ca us e is r e c o g n iz e d in t h o ug h t a s a r e a
r
g
,

e v e y e ffe ct is r e co n iz e d in t h ou ht a s a c o n s e u e n t ; b ut
g q

d
t h e co n v e r s e is n o t tr u e th a t e v e r y r e a s o n is r e a lly con s id e r e d a ,

W
d
ca u s e a n e v e r y c on s e u e n t r e a lly con s id e r e d a n effe ct e mus t
, q .
,

th e r efor e ca r efully di s ti n g ui s h mer e r e a son a n me r e co n s e q ue n t

,

t h a t is id e a l or l og i ca l r e a son a n
,

d co n s e q u e n t f o m t h e r e a s on d ,
r
,

d d
whi ch is a ca use a n t he c on se que n t w hi ch is a n effect t h a t is r e a l , ,

o r me t a phy s i ca l r ea s on a n co n s e u en t
q .

T he e x pr e s s i o n log i ca l r ea s on a n con s equ en t r e fe r s t o t h e me r e

L gi l

ph y i l R
o

s ca
ca an
s y n t h e s i s o f t h o u h t s ; wh e r e a s t h e e x r e s s i o n
dM t metap hy s ica l r ea s on a n con sequen t d e n ot e s t he
e as o n an

g

d r ea l con n e cti on of e x i st e n ces H en ce t he a i om

e a
p
d . x
C on s e ue n t

d
q .

o f C a u s a li t y a s a me t a phy si ca l p i ci pl e is e s ,
r n ,

s e n t ia ll di ff e r e n t f o m t h e a i o m of Re a s o n a n C o n s e ue n t a s a
x
y r
q ,

e a ch o t h e r ; a t h e l a w o f Reas on a n
n d
l og i ca l p i n ci pl e Bot h h o w e v er a r e fr e que n t ly con fo un d e d wi t h
r .

mer ly fo un d it s pl a ce in t he s y s t e ms of M et a phy si c whil e it w a s

,

C o n s e q ue n t i n d e e d fo
,

d , ,
r

d dd d
n o t a t l e a s t e x li ci t ly n s id e r e d in t h os e o f
p ,c o ,

d d h a ppily e x pr ess a t o ce t he r el a ti on s b o t h of
L og i c T he t wo t e r ms co
G l ? f th
en er a O e
it ion a n con it i o e
. n n

d d d
t m c

d d
er s i i on t n an
. . n
C on t i i on e .

r ea son an con s e u en t, an o f ca us e an e ffe ct

q .

A c on di t i on is a thi n g w hi ch d e t e r mi n e s ( n e g a t i ly l ve at e a st
) t he
 62 L O G IC . L EC T . V .

it
e x s e n ce of a n o t

d h er ;
c on di t i o e d is a t hi n g wh ose e x i st e n ce is
t he n

d dd d
d e t e mi n e d i a n b y a n o t h e I f us e d in a n id ea l or l og i ca l sig i
r n r. n

c a t i o n co it ion a n con i t ion e i mpo t o ly t h e r e a s o n i co j u c

, n r n n n n

t i o n w i t h it s c o n se q ue t ; if u s e d i a r e a l o r me t a phy s i ca l s e n s e
n n ,

t h e y e pr e s s t h e ca u se in co n e ct i on w i t h it s effe ct
d
1
x n .

I h a v e n o w in t h e p o s ecut i o n o f o u r i q ui y i t o t he fun a me n
,
r n r n

t a l l a w s o f l og i ca l t hi ki n g t o s a y a fe w w or d s
f t h d in r e a r d t o t h e i r H i s t o y t h e i r hi s t o y b e i
n ,

d
H i t y s or o e e
r
g g ,
r n

d
l pm t f th f
t he n a a t i o n o f t h e o r d e r i n whi ch a n
ve o en o e un
rr of t h e ,
m t l L w
e en a f a s o

Th ou
g h t . p hil os o p h e rs b
y w h o m t h e y w e r e a t i c u l a t e ly ,
r

d e v e l o pe d .

O f t h e r s t t h r ee l a ws whi ch fr om th e i r i n t i ma t e cog i t i on ma y
, ,
n ,

n o t u r e a s o n a b ly b e r e g a d e d a s o ly t he t h e e
T h l w f Id
n r n r

l t dl p d
s id e s o r ph a s e s o f a s i n g l e l a w t h e l a w o f I d e n
e a t it y
o en
,

df tim
as e ve oi th e n e

or er o e.
ti t y whi ch s t a n d s r s t in t h e o r d e r o f n a t ur e
, ,

w a s i n d ee d t h a t l a st d e v e l ope d in t he o r d e of
d d r

t i me ; t h e a x i o ms of C o t r a di ct i o n a n of E cl ud e d M id l e h a v i n

d
x
n
g

d
b e en l o g e n o un ce d e e t h a t o f I d e n t i t y h a b e e n di sc i mi n a t e d
n ,
r r

a n r a i s e d t o t h e r a n k o f a c o o di n a t e pr i n ci pl e I s h a ll n o t t h e r e
r .
,

fo e n o w fo ll o w t h e o d e r in w hi c h I d e t a il e d t o y o u t h es e l a w s
r ,
r ,

b ut t he o d e r in w hi ch t h e y w er e ch r on o l og i ca lly g e n e a liz e d
r

T he p i n ci pl es o f C o t r a di ct i on a n o f E x cl ud e d M iddl e c a n b ot h
r n d r .

Th
t d
p i ipl
e

d
r nc f
b e t r a ce d b a ck t o P l a t o b y w h o m t h e y w e r e
e o u n ce d a n
es o
fr e que n t ly a ppli e d ; t h o ug h it w a s
n d ,

l d d M id d
C i i E
ct o n a n
n o t t ill l o a fter t h a t e i t h e r of t h e m ob t a i n e d
on r a x

g n

d
,
c u e l b e ca n e

tr a ce b k t Pl t ac o
a di s t i n ct i
a o.
v e a
pp e ll a t i o n T o t a k e t h e
p r i n ci l e
p .

,
o f C o t r a di cti on r s t

d
e mpl o y s b u t t he mo s t r e ma ka b l e p a ss a e s a r e fo un d i
g
T hi s l a w P l a t o fr e q u e n t ly
n

t
r h e P h ce o

d
.

n d ,

in t h e S Op hi s ta a n in t h e fo ur t h a s e v e n t h b o oks o f t h e R ep u bli c

d
2
,
n .

T hi s la w wa s h o w e v e r mo r e di s t i n ct i ve ly a n
t d
, ,
L w f C
e mph a t i ca lly e o un ce d b y A i s t o t l e
a o i c
on r a
I n on e n r .

d
tion mph t i lly
e a ca

en oun ce by A i tl p l a ce
r st o
h e sa ys :
e.
I t i s ma i fe s t t h a t n o o e c a n
,
3
n n

o ce b e a n
n n ot b e d
c o n ce i v e t o hi ms e l f t h a t t h e s a me t hi n g c a n a t

for t h us h e w o uld h o ld r epug n a n t opi i o n s

,
n ,

K
d d d t h is pr in c ipl e is n o t ma te_
I r ug , L og ik, pp 6 2 , 6 3 T h is ex posit i on
. . F or , i n as much as

d
of t he l a w o f Re a s on a n C o n seq u e n t oe s r ia l , i t is on ly a e r i v a t i on o f t h e t h r e e for

d d
n o t r ep r es e n t t h e A ut h o r s l a t e s t v i e w, In a ma l l a ws ; an in as mu ch as it is . ma t e r ia l , it

d
n o te

d
d d
t o t h e D is cus s w n s , p 1 60( w h er e a s i mila r . c oi n c i es w ith t h e p r i n c ip l e o f C a usa l ity , a n

d dd
oc t r in e h a b e e n m a i n t a in e i n t h e a r t icl e is ex tr a ~
l o g ica l
T h e L a ws o f T h oug ht ,
.

d d d d
a s or ig i n a ll y p u b l ish e ), he

T he l o g i so ca l le t h us t o t h r ee ,
sa y s : pr ope r ly , ar e re uce

d
ddd
c a l r e l a t io n o f Rea s on an C on s eq uen t , as mor e t h o se of I en t it y , C on t r a icti on , an E x

d d
tha n a me r e c or oll a r y o f the la w of N on con clu e M i le . E D .

d m co n
ict io n i n it s t h r ee p h a se s , is , I
tr a a en t
2 S ee P hat /1 0, p 1 03 ; S op his ta , p 252 ; Rep ub
.

f i
.

o p r o v n g, e r r on e ou s A n . a g a in , in th e
i v p 436 ; v ii p 525

d d
ED

d
lic,
me w o r k , . . . . . .

p 6 03 T he p r i n cipl e o f S u

sa . :

cz en t Rea s on s h oul b e ex clu e fr om L og ic . 3 M eta p h. , 1 iii ( i v

. . .
) 0 . 3 .
LECT V L O G I C

d
.
. .

an s ub v e r t r ut h Wh er efor e t t he r ea li t y of .
,

d e mon s t a t e r e d uce e v e r y t hi g t o t hi s a s t h e ul

dd
r n
,

t hi s is b y n a t u e t h e pr i n ci pl e of a ll o t h e r a x i o ms r . A n in se ver a l

d d
p a ss a
g es o f his Jlf etap hy s i cs , 1
in h is P r i or A na ly ti cs , a n in his2

P os ter i or A nal
y ti cs ,
3
he ob s e r ve s t hat
so me ha a tt em te
p to
d e mo n st r a t e t hi s pr i n cipl e a h a t t e mpt whi ch b e tr a y e d a n ig n o ,
-

d
r a n ce o f t h o s e t hi n s wh e r e o f w e o ug h t t o r e q ui r e a d e mo n s t a t i o n r
g ,

an o f t h o s e t hi g s w h er e o f w e o ug ht n o t : fo r it is i mp os si b l e t o n

d
d e mon st a t e e ve r y t hi n g ; a s in t hi s ca se w e must r egr ess a r e
g r ess t o i n n i t y a n

b e i mpo ss ib l e
r

a ll d e mo s t r a t i o n w o uld o n th a t s u

.

pp o s i t i on
,
d n
,

,
n

F oll o wi g A r i st o t l e t h e P e r i pa t e t i cs e st ab li s h e d t hi s l a w a s t he
n ,

hig h est pr i ci pl e of kn o w l e d g e F om t he n r
With t h P ip t t
.

e er a e
G r ee k A r i s t o t e li a n s it o b t a i n e d t h e n a me b
y
d
i th h ig h t p i i

d
cs e es r nc

whi ch it h a s s ub s e q ue n t l y b d e n o mi a t e d

d
l f k w l O h een n
p e o g no e e .
,

d dd)
t a in e i ts na me fr om t he p r i n cip le, or la w, or a x i o m, of co n tr a i cti on ,

d
t he G r e ek A r ist ote
( flwp a 3
7 7 ; w ac
a ews . T hi s me , a t ea s t , is
na l
l ia n s
fo un d mme n t a r i e s of A mmo n ius a n
.

in t h e C o

P hilopo n us, wh er e it is sa id t o b e t he c i t e r i o w hi ch di vid e s t ut

r n r h
fr o m fa l seh o o d t h r o ug h o ut t he un i ver s e o f e i s t x

d
Th S h lm e c oo en
T h e sch o ol me n in g e n e r a l t a ug h t t he
, 4
e n ce .
, ,
S ua r ez .

s a me d oct r i n e ; a n S ua e z e v e n s a y s t h a t t he r ,

l a w o f con t r a di ct i on h o ld s t h e sa me s upr e ma cy a mo n g t h e pr i n ci

p l e s o f e i s t e n ce x
?

A ft e r t h e d e cli e o f t h e A i st o t e li a n phil o s ophy ma n y c o n t r o v e r

si es a r os e t o u c hi n g t h e t ut h a s t ill mo e t o u chi
g t h e p i m i t
n

i v e r ,
r

n d r
,

n r

d
o r a i o ma t i c ch a a ct e r o f t hi s l a w S o me ma i n x r , .

d could b e p ov ed but r ove d on ly i n di r ectly b a

t a i e t h a t it w a s i n d emo n s t r a b l e ; o t h e s t h a t it
C t i
on r ov er s e s re
n r

d dd
d
sp ti g t h t
ec th n e ru an

c h t f t hi l w
a r a c er o p s a . y r ,

r e u cti o a a bs u r u m w hil e o t h e s a g a i n h e ld ,

r , ,

t h a t t hi s co uld b e di r e ct ly d o e a n t h a t co n s e q ue n t ly t h e l a w of n , , ,

C o n t r a di ct i on wa s n ot e n t i t l e d t o t he di g n i t y of a r s t pr i n ci pl e .
6

d
1 L i i ''
i 4 bu r wu ica l p i; bz/ r wu at a i pei
. . c . .
T b rea l
2 L c 2 ip! A nS l
_i
il T e a v. In A n a l. P os t , 1, i Xi f 30
. . . .
. . c . . .

d
3 L G 2
. .
b E D [C f A ug usti n us N ip h us S u essa n us,

dd
. . .

4 F o r t h e n a me see A mmon ia s In D e I n t er

d
, , In A n a l. P os t p 88 , e P a r is ,

d
. . .
,

p r et .
, C o mme n t , p 1 53 b ,
. e . A l . V e n et . 1 546 .

S ee [ A ls te ius , A r t ium L iber a l iu m S y s t ema

5

dd
P hi l o p o n u s , I n A n al P r p 1 3 b , 38 b , e

d
. . . .
,

d
V en et . 1 53 6 ( 8 v o ) , p 1 74 C O g n it i o a p r io r i e s t p r in c ip i
I n A n al p 3 0b , e
P os t A l
.

. . .

d
. . .
,
or u m ; i n t er q uae a g men u cit h o c , i mp os s z bile
V en et 1 534 T he la n g ua g e q u ote in t h e t ex t

d
. .

es t i em esse e t n on esse C o n s u le M eta p h

is n ea r l y a t r a n sl a t io n of A mmon ia s I n
.

C a t eg ,

d d d
.
,
' S u a r e z ii H oc , i n q ua m, t en e t p r i ma t um
u y ap l ami
i
p 1 40 a H

d
. .
y k a r oc a a is p ica )
i n te r p r in cipi a c og n o sce n i , s icut D eus i n ter

d d
a ms e l gi r l w ur wu 7 65V 511 e rea l p i; 61/ e r i n ci i a e ss n i

p p e .

? v b ti / 1 8 6 It a l T b A mmo n
4 4 5805
d d
ia z
p e
n 7 C f S u a r e z D isp uta t ion es M eta p hy s ime, D is p
6

d d
.
. . .

i us is foll o w e b P h il op on us , w h o sa y s ,
y
oS E r s
i i
iii t 3 . ED [ A l st e ius , E n cy clopw ia , 1 iii ,
. . . .

gfwyua l wa t/ n

T un c o rr ews P A r t /telog ia , 0 v ii.
p scu p 80
e 1r ay . .
 64 L O G I C .
L E C T . V .

In like ma n n er , it s fur t h er ma tt er ofe mpl oy me n t w a s ma d e a

d
co n t r o v er s y F i n a lly it w a s di sput e d w h e t h e r it w e e a n i mme
.

i a t e n a t i v e or a p r i or i d a t u m O f in t e llig e n ce ; o r w h et h er it
r
,

n
,

w e e a a p os ter i or i a n a d v e n t i t i ous g en er a liz a t i on f o m e x pe i

,

d
r

r r

en c e T he l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e t h a t it wa s on ly a n i d u ct i on w a s
.
, n ,

ma i n t a in e d b y L o cke T hi s O pi n i o n wa s h o w 1
.
,

e ve r v a lidly r e fut e d b L e i b n itz w h h w d

y o s o e , ,

n
th a t it is a d mitt e d t he mo me n t t he t er ms of it s
e n u ci a t i on a r e un d e r s t o o d a n th a t w e i mpli citly foll ow it e v e n ,
d
wh e w e a e n o t e x pli ci t ly con s ci o us of it s di ct a t e
n r L e i b n i t z in .
2
,

d
s o me pa r t s o f h is w o ks s e e ms t o id e n tify t he pr i n ci pl es of I d e n r ,

ti t y a n C on t r a di ct i on ; in o t h e s he di st i n g ui sh es t h e m b ut e d uces r , ,

t h e l a w o f I d e n t i t y o ut of t h e l a w of C o tr a di ct i o n I t is n e e dl e s s 8
n .

t o pur s ue t h e s ub s e q ue n t hi s t o r y O f thi s pr i n ci pl e whi ch in l a tt e r ,

I t t th d i d
ti mes ha s foun d n o e t o g a i n s a y t he n ecess i t y
d
n

m d b l ti t
by
u n i v e r s a li t y o f it s t ut h e x ce t a mo h
s ru en e
a
p n
g t ose r , n

d
o er n a so u s s.

p hil os o ph e s wh o in G e ma n y h a v e d r e a mt t h a t r ,
r ,

ma n is co mpe t e n t t o a cog i t i o n of t h e a b s o l ut e a n a s a cog n i t i on n

d
o f t he a b so l ut e ca n o ly b e es t a b li sh e d th o ug h po s i t i o n s r e pug n r

na t a n , t h e e fo r e o n l og i ca l p i n ci pl es mut u a lly e x cl us i v e t h e y
n ,
r ,
r , ,

h a ve fo un d it n e ce ss a r y t o st a t w i t h a d en i a l of t he fu d a me n t a l
d
r n

d
l a w s o f t h o ug h t ; a s o in t h e i r e ffor t t o so a r t o a phil o s ophy
n ,

a b o v e l og i c a i t e llig e n ce t h e y h a v e s ub ve r t e d t he co di t i o s of
n

h uma n phil osophy a l t og e t h e T h u s S ch elli g a n H eg e l p ud e t ly

n

r.
,

dd n

r
n

r e u di a t e d t h e pr i n ci pl e s O f C o t r a di ct i o n a n E x cl u d e d M iddl e a s n
p
h a vi g a y a ppli ca t i o n t o t he a b s ol ut e ; whil e a g a i n th o se ph ilos o
n n
4

a s C o us i n h o a t t e mpt a cog n i t i on o f t h e a b so l ut e w i t h o ut
p h er s
( ) w
a pr e li mi n a r y r e p u di a t i o n o f t h e l a ws o f L og i c a t o n ce i v o l v e

dd
,
n

d
t h e mse l v e s i c on t r a di ct i o n s t h e cog e cy O f whi ch t h e y o n o t
n en y ,
n
,

an fr o m whi ch t h e y a r e wh olly un a b l e t o e x t i ca t e t he mselv es r

f

1 E ssa y
,
B i . . ch . 1 1 . 4 E. D .
p o i n te dW o ut b y t h e l a tt er i n his G eschz cht e
'
d er

d d
2 N o uvea ua: E ssa is , B i . . oh . i 54 E
. . D . P hil os op hie , ( p er ke ,
ED [O n x v. .
.

j
d
3 C om a r e T h o ic e 44 , llI on a olog ie, 3 1, r e ect ion o f t h e L og ica l L a ws , b y S ch e l l in
g,
p ,

m
With N ou vea ux E s sa is
,
l . i . ch . i . 10; 1 i v . . H eg el , e t c , s e e Ba ch a n n , fi ber ie P hilosop hie,
Zi
.

dJ
d
ch . ii . 1 .
E D . mein er p 2 1 8, e
e t,en a , 1 8 1 6
. Bo l z a n o , . .

4 S ee S ch el l in g , V om I ch a ls P r i n cip er P hi Wissen scha ftslehr e, iv , L og ik, 71 8 S ig wa r t ,

dd . .

d d d
l os O p /t ie , 1 0; H eg el , L og ilo, b i i c 2 ; E n cy k . . . L og ik, 58 , p 42 , e 1 835 H e r b a r t , D e P r in
. . .

d d
lop a ie , 1 1 5 , 1 19 . S ch e ll i n g en ea v o r s t o cip i o L ogi co E x cl us i M e i i i n t er C o n t r a ict or i a

d d
t he p r in cip l e o f C on t r a ict i o n i n neg lig en G ott in g , 1 833 H a r t e n s t e in ,

a b r o g a te n on o, .

d
r el a t i o n t o t h e h i g h e r p h il oso ph y , b y a ss u m

d
. D e llI etho P hilos op hice L og icaz L eg ibus a s t r in
o

d d
i n g t h a t o f I en t i ty ; t h e e mpi r ica l a n t a g o
d
g en /l a , n ibus n on t er min a n a , L ip s ize , 1 83 5 .

d
n is m b e t w e en eg o a n n on -eg o b ei n g me r g e O n t h e l o g ica l a n me t a p h y s ica l s ig n i ca n ce
d
d d d d
in the i e n t it y of t he a b s o l ut e eg o . H eg e l of t h e p r i n c ip l e of C on tr a ict ion , see P lat
K
dd d
n e r , P hi l A ph , I 6 73 ,
d
r eg a r b o t h p r in cipl es a lik e
s a s va li on l y fo r . . . an an t, K r it ik .

t he n it e U n er st a n in g , a n as in a pplica b l e r ein en p 191 , e

V er n un 1 790 ] ,
. .

d
t o t h e h ig h er p r oces ses of t h e Re a s o n . T his 5 S ee t h e A ut h or s cr it icism of C ousin , D is

cussions , p 1 et seq
ED
iffer en ce b et ween th e t wo ph il os op h er s is . . .
L E C T V L O G I C 65

d
.
. .

But t hi s b y t he w a y , an on a s ub ec t j whi ch at
pr e se n t y o u ca n n o t
a ll be s upp o s e d t o un d t d
er s a n .

T h e la w of E xc u l ded
iddl e b e tw e e n t w o c on t r a di ct o i e s r e M r

Mi d d
L w a

l e.
f E o l d d S econ A lci bia es the dia l og ue in whi ch it is
moun t s a s I h a v e s a id a l s o t o P l a t o t h oug h t h e
xc u e

mo s t cl e a ly e pr ess e d mus t b e a d mi t t e d t o b e
d d ,

r x
,
, ,

sp ur i o u s I t is a l s o in t h e fr a g men t s o f P s e ud o A r chy t a s t o b e
d
1 -
. ,

d ically e n oun ce d by A r i stot l e i n ma n y pa ssa ges

fo un d i S t ob aeus I t is ex pli ci tly a n e mpha t 2
n .

d
E pl i itl y
x c e n oun ce

d
b y A i t tlr s o e.
b ot h o f his l ifetap hy s i cs ( 1 iii ( iv ) 0 an . . . .

o f h is A a l ti cs b o t h P r i or (1 i c 2 ) a n
n P os ter i or ( l i c I n
y ,
. . . . . .

t h e s t o f t h es e h e s a y s : I t is i mpo ss i b l e t h a t t h e e s h o u ld e i s t
r ,
r x

a m e di um b e t w e e n co n t r a di ct o y O pp o s i t e s b ut it is n e c ess a r y

d
n r
y ,

e i t h e r t o a f m o r t o d e y e v e y t hi n g of e v e r y t hi g

r A n his e x n r n .

r e s s i o n s a r e s i mil a r in t h e o th er b o oks C i cer o s a y s h at the

p t .

fo un d a t i on O f D i a l e ct i c is th a t wh a t e v er is ,

d d d
Ci ce r o
e n o un ce d is e i t h e r t r u e o r fa l s e T hi s is f o m
.

. r

his A ca emi cs (1 i i c a t h e r e a r e p ar a ll e l pa ssa g e s in his

. . . n

T op i cs ( 0 x iv ) a n hi s D e O r a t or e ( l ii c
. . T hi s l a w t h o ug h . . .
,

d
u n i v e r s a lly r ecog n iz e d a s a pr i n ci pl e in t h e G r e ek P e r i pa t e t i c s ch o o l

a n in t h e s ch o ol s o f t h e middl e a g e s o ly r e ce i v ed t h e di st i n ct i v e ,
n

d
a
pp e ll a t i on b
y w hi c h it is n o w kn o w n a t a c o m a r a t i v e ly mo d e n
p r

d
d a t e I o n ot r e coll ect h a v i n g met wi t h t he t e m p r i cip i u m ea:
3
. r n

clu s i me ii in a n y a ut h or o ld e r t h a n t h e L e i b

Ba umg a r t e n th o ug h Wo lf spea ks of
d d
B mg t
au a r en .
4 5
n it ia n z ,

t he cclu s i o
ec me ii i n ter con tr a i ctor i a .

d ti y
T he l a w d of I li ca t e d a s a co di n a t e
en t ,
I st at e , wa s n ot ex p or

L w f Id
r in ci l e t ill a co m a a t i v e ly r e ce n t e r iod T h
p p p p e r .

A d
t it y
e a li e st a u th o r i w h o m I h a v e fou d t hi s d o n e
a o en .

r n n ,

d
A t i

d
n o n us n r e as .

is A n t o n i u s A n d r ea s a s ch o l a r o f S co t us wh o , ,

our i sh e d a t t he e n of t h e t hi r t e en t h a n b e g i n i g O f t h e fo ur n n

t e e n t h c e n t ur y T he s ch o ol ma n in t h e fo ur t h b o ok of his C o m
.
,

me t a r y o f A r i s t o t l e s JI etap hg s i cs a co mme n t a r y w hi ch is full

d

n ,

o f t h e mos t i g e n i o us a n o r ig i n a l v i e w s
n n o t o ly a ss e r t s t o t h e ,
n

l a w of I d e n t i t y a c o or di n a t e dig n i t y with t h e l a w of C o n t r a di ct i o n ,

1 S e con d d '

A lcibia es
, p . 1 39 . S ee a ls o 80 n aeu s

dd
E lemen ta L og i ca , l 1 1 c 14 , [ p 1 72 , e . . . . d.

d C on t r a icen t iu m u s u s ex plica t u r un o
d
hi t 2 50 E D 1 603
p s a , p
. . . .

d d
a x i o ma te z C on t r a icen t i a n o n p o s s u n t
2 E clog ae c 2 , p 1 58 , e
. A . . . n twer p , 1 575 ; e

P a r t i i t om 1 , p 22 , e
. H e e r en
.

d
C f S imp li
. eo

d
e m si mu l e ss e y er a ; et n ecess a r iu m es t
. . .

c ius , I n A r i st . C a teg .
, pp . 9 7 , 1 03 , e . Ba s il , c on t r a icen t ium a lt er u m cu ili b e t r ei con ven

d d
1 551 .
E D . ir e , a l te r u m n on con ve n i r e .
ED .
]

d
3 L ea: con t r a i ctor ia r um, p r in cip iu m con tr a i '
4 M et a p hy s ica , 10 E D

d
d d
. .

cen ti u m ( se .
p r op os it ion um ) , as u s e in the

d d
ddd d
5 O n t olog ia
sch o ol s , i n cl u e the la w of C on t r a ict ion , M 52 , 53 .

an t he l a w of E x cl u e Mi le . S ee M ol i 6 Q uaesti o v .
p 21
. a, e . V en et . , 1 51 3 .
-E D .
66 L O G IC . L E C T . V .

d
b ut , a
g a ns i t
i t tl e he ma i n t a i n s t h at t he p i n ci pl e of I d en t i t y
A r s o ,
r
,

an n ot t he
p i n ci l e o f C o n t a di ct i o
p irs t h e o n e a b s o l ut e ly s t r n, r .

T he fo mul a in whi ch A n d e a s e x p es s e d it w
r a s E n s es t e s S ub r r n .

s e q u e t ly t o t hi s a ut h o t h e q ue s t i o n co ce i g t he r e l a t i v e p i o r
d
n r, n rn n r

it y o f t h e t w o l a w s o f I d e t i t y a O f C o n t r a di ct i o n b e ca me o e n n n

mu ch a g i t a t e d in t h e s ch o ol s ; t h o ug h t h e r e w e r e a l s o fo un d s o me
w h o a ss e t e d t o t he l a w o f E cl ud e d M iddl e t hi s s upr e me r a k
1
r x n .

d
L e i b n i t z a s I h a v e s a id did n o t a l wa y s di t i , ,
s n
L i b it e n z
i s h t h e p i n ci pl e s o f I d e n t i t y a n
.

g u O f C on t a r r

di ct i on By Wolf t he for mer w a s st yl e d t he p i ci pl e O f C e t a i t y

Wolf
.

(p i n ci i u m C er t i tu i n is ;
p
r
) b u t h e ,
n o m o r e d r n

2
r n ,

d t h a n L e ib n i t z hi ms e l f, s uf ci en t ly di s cr i mi n a t e d
.

b et we e n it an hi s w a s h o we v e d o e
th e l a w O f C on t r a di ct i o n. T ,
r, n

B mg t au
b y Ba umg a r t e n a o t h e r di s t i g ui s h e d fo ll o w e r
a r en
O f L eib i t z an
.

f om him it r e ce i v e d t h e n a me n d ,
3
,
n

r
n

o f t h e p i ci pl e o f P o s i t i o n t h a t i s o f A f ma t i o n o r I d e t i t y
d
r n r n ,
, ,

(p r i n ci i u m P os i ti on i s s i ve I
p en ti ta t i s ) t h e n a me b
y w hi ch it is ,

n o w u i v e r s a lly kn o w n
n T hi s pr i ci pl e h a s fo u d g r e a t e r fa v or in
. n n ,

F i ht c e
an
an c e
d
t he e y e s o f t he a b s o l ut i s t phil o s oph e r s t h a n th o se o f C on t r a di ct i on
E cl ud e d M iddl e By F i cht e a n S ch e lli n g
dS h l it ha s b een pl a ce d a s t he pr i ma y p i n ci pl e of all
x
,

r r
d
li gn
hil o s o hy e e l a l o n e s ubj e ct s it a l o n i
.

H g l p p H g g w t h }
,

d
e e .

t h e o t h e r l a w s of t h o ug h t t o a ig id b ut fa ll a ,
r

ciou s cr iti ci s m ; a n r ej e ct s it a l on w i t h t h e m a s b e l o i n t o that

g g g ,
n

d
l o w e r sph e e of kn o wl e dg e whi ch is co v e r sa n t on ly wi t h t h e r el a
r ,
n

d
ti v e a n n it e .
5

T h e fo ur th l a w t h a t o f Re a s o n a
d quen t whi ch sta d s a pa r t b y it s elf f om t he o t h e r
C o se , n n

d
L w f R
a O ea son an
n
, r

g d
C se t ue l
q
f t h e e w a s li ke t he l a ws O f C o t r a di ct i o n a n
'

r n

d
, ,
e co by P l tnlz e a o

an A i t tl r s o E x cl ud e d M iddl e r e cog iz e d b y P l a t o
e H e l ays ,
n .
6

d
,

it d own a s a pos t ul a t e o f r e a so n t o a d mi t n ot h ,

in g with o ut a ca us e ; a n t h e s a me is f e q ue n t ly d o e b y h is r n

sch o l a r A i s t o t l e Bo t h h o we v e in r e fe e ce 7
r .
,
r, r n
il y w r y v ae s.
' t o thi s p i n ci pl e e mpl o y t h e a mb i g uo us t e r m r ,
i} y T w : y ea e s.
'
r i st ot l e i d e ed di i
ca u s e
( l i ) A s t a n a a T LO V .
,
n ,
n

uish e s t h e l a w of Re a son a s t h e id e a l r i n ci l e o f kn o w l e d e
g p p g ( p 1 , <

d
dd
1 [ A l ex . A le s , I n A r is t M etap h , i v t
e . . . . 3 M et a p hy s ica , 11 E . D .

d W
C o mp a r e S u a r e z , D isp M eta ph , D isp iii
. . . . 3 . S ee F ich te , G r un la g e er g es a mmt en
4 is
A le x an p r o fes s es t o a g r ee w it h A r ist ot l e
er sen s eha slehr e , l S ch el l i n g , V om I ch , 7 . .

d d
i n g ivin g t h e r s t p l a ce t o t h e r i n ci l e o f E D
p p .

dd
d dd
C o n t r a ic tio n , b ut , in fa ct , h e i e n t i es i t 5 S ee p 64 a b o ve ,
,
n o t e 4 E . . D .

With t h a t O f E x cl u e M i l e , e qu ovis a r 6 P h ilebus ,

p 26 ED . . .

ma t io e el n eg a t io E 7 E
g A n a l P os t , ii 1 6 ; P hy s , 3; M et ap h ,
. D . . . . . 11 .
2 O n tolo
g ia , 55, 288 .
-E D . i 1 3 ; Rhe t
. . .
,
ii 2 3 . . E D .
L s cr V L O G I C 67

d
.
. .

P
3
7 7 9

ro
y wba ews,

d u ct i o n ,
p
d
i n cip i um cog n os cen i , fr om t h e r e a l pr i n ci pl e
r

( px )i T };
i y eve

o e wg , p r

s en
i n ci
)
p iu

dt
m en i ,

i)

p r i n ci i u m
1
.
p
By C i ce r o t he ax o
d
i m of r e a s on and
of

es

,
C i ce r o
T he S ch ool men
.

.
con s e
q u en w a s, in li ke ma n n er , co mpr e h en e d d
d e r t h e for mul a n ihil s in e
un ,
ca u s a ,
2
a fo r mul a

g
d opt e d
uis he dd un
by t he
er it t he
s ch ool men ; a l t h o ug h t h e y a ft e r

ra ti o d
es s en d i, an
,

t h e r a ti o
A
cog n os cen d
i t tl e di st i n
r s o ,

i .

I n mo d e r n t i me s, t he at t en ti hil h
on of p o s op er s wa s ca ll d thi
e to s

ten
L ib it
ti
e

on
ll d
n

t L w f S f
t
o
Re a son a n of C on a c o n fo un d e d t h e wh ol e
z

a
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e di c e o f h is p
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o so
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u
U n d er
i n ci pl es of
la w

t h e l a t t er
of L
d hilt dihyti
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on t he t wo pr

3
,

f i t R
i c en ea s on p .

d
.

la w a s I a v e me t on e h e co mp e h en d e d ,
h i d n ,
r ,

h ow ev e r t h e p i n cipl e of I en t t ; a in t h e for me r h e did n ot

,
r d iy n

s uf ci e t ly di scr i mi n a t e
n in t er ms t h e l a w o f C a us a li t y a s a r e a l , , ,

p i
r n ci l e f o m t h e l a w o f Re a s on p o pe r ly s o ca ll e d a s a fo ma l o r
p ,
r ,
r ,
r

id ea l p i n cipl e T O t hi s a x i o m h e g a v e v a i ous d en omi a t i o n s

r . r n ,

n o w c a lli n g it t h e

p l
p r i ci l e o f D e t e mi n i n

e o f S uf ci e t Re a so n a n
p
n ow t he
p n
g R
p
e a so n n o w t h e
p n i n ci

r i n ci l e O f C o n v e i e n ce o r ,
d r ,

n
r

A g r e e me n t ( con ven ien ti a ) ma ki n g it in it s r e a l r e l a t i on t h e g o u d , ,

r n

of a ll e x i s t e n c e ; in it s id ea l t h e g o u d o f a ll po s i t i v e k o wl e d e r n n
g , .

d
O n t hi s s ubj ect t h er e w a s a c e l e b a t e d co n t r o v e s y b e t w e e n L e i b n i t z r r

an D S a mu e l C l a r ke
r. a c o n t r o v e s y on t hi s a s o n o t h e r
p o i n ts ,
r , ,

e mi e t ly w o r t hy o f y o ur s t u dy
n n T he d o cume n t s in whi ch t hi s con .

t r o v e s y is co n t a i n e d w e e pub li s h e d in t h e E n g li s h e di t i o n un d e r
r

d
t h e ti t l e A collecti on f P ap er s whi ch p a s s e between th e la te lea r n e
,
,

o
r

d d d
M
t o the P
n L ei bn i tz

r i n cip les
an D
f
o
r . C la r ke, i n the y ea r s 1 7 1 5 a n 1 7 1 6 , r ela ti n g
N a tur a l P hi los op hy a n R elig i on , L on d on , d
t d
4
17 17 .

W lf o , t he mos i i st n g u s i h ed fo ll o w e r of L e ib n i t z ,
e mpl oy s t he
fo r mul a
i t r ea N ot hi n g is w i t h o ut a s uf c e n
W lf o
s o n w h y it is r a t h e r t h a n w h n o t ; t h a t is
.

y i t is , ,

if a y t hi n g is suppo se d t o b e ( p on i t ur es se) s o me thi n g a l so mus t

n ,

b e s uppo se d w h e n c e it ma y b e u d e s t o o d w hy t h e s a me is a t h e r
,
n r r

t h a n is n ot H e b l a me s t h e s ch o ol me n fo r co fus i n g r ea son
5
. n

( r a ti o
) w i t h c a us e
( ca u s a
) : b ut h is ce n s ur e e u a lly a
q pp li e s t o h is

d
d
d
ma s t e r L e ib n i t z a s t o t h e m a n A i st ot l e ; for a ll of t h e s e philos o
,
r

h e s t h ou h t h e y i n o t co fo un d t h e t w o r i n ci l es e m l o y e d n
p r
g , p p p ,

a mb i g u o us t e r ms t o d e n o t e t h e m .

1 M et a p h . , iv .
E D . or I d en t ity is
d
a ss ud me as t he fo un da t ion of

d d d
2 D e D i vin a t ion e, ii . 0. 28 . E D . a ll ma th ema tics an tha t O f S u f c ie n t Rea
3 S ee T h i o c e, 44 . M on a ologi e, 3 1 , 32 . s on a s t h e f oun a t i on o f n a t ur a l ph il o soph y .

E D

d d
.

S e e e sp ec ia ll y L e ib n it z
d L e t ter ,
4
s S e con 5 S e e F i sch e r

s L og ik, 59 , p 38 , e . 1 838 .
, .

p 20, in wh ich the pr i n cip le

. of C on t r a icti on C o mp a r e Wolf , O n t olog i a , 70, 71 E . D .
]
 8 L O G I C . L E C T . V .

T he L e ib n it ia n d o ct r i n e of t he un i ver sa li t y of t he la w of S uf
ci e n t Re a s o n

d
b ot h a s a pr i n ci pl e of e x i st e n ce
g d an
,

O f t h o ug h t e x ci t e d much di s cus s i o n a mo n g
D i i S U S S n re ar

dt i f th l w f
i g th
n L ib it i
e e n z an
t h oso pll e i s mo e pa r t i cu1a r 1y 0 f G e r ma n y
.

e p i ,
r .

d
oc r n e o e a o

S f i t R
u c en I n t he e a r l i e r h a lf o f t he l a s t c en t ur y so me con
eas on .
,

t r ov e r t e t h e v a lidi t y of t h e pr i n ci pl e o t h e s ,
r

a t t e m t e d t o r es tr i ct it A m o t h e r a r u me n t s it is a ll e e d b y
1
o
p g g g
. n , ,

t h e a d v oca t e s O f t h e for mer O pi n i o n if t h e pr i n ci pl e b e a d mi tt e d

, ,

th a t e ver y t hi n g must h a v e a sufci en t r e a son why it is r a t h er th a n ,

why it is n o t
d
o n t hi s hy po th e s i s e r r or i t s e lf w ill h a v e s uch a r ea
, ,

t h e r e for e mus t ce a s e for t h w i t h t o b e e r r or

d
2
s on a n , , , .

M a n y phil o s oph e r s a s Wo lf a n Ba umg a r t en e n d e a v or e d t o

, ,

d emon st r a t e thi s pr i n ci pl e b y t h e pr i n ci pl e of C o t r a di ct i o n whil e n

ot h er s wi t h b ett er succ ess sh ow e d t h a t a ll such d emon s t r a t i on s

, ,

w er e ill og i ca l
d
3
.

I n t h e mo r e r ecen t sy st e ms o f phil o s ophy t h e un i v er s a li t y a n ,

d
n ece s s i t y o f t he a x i o m o f Re a s o n ha s wi t h o t h e r l og i ca l l a w s b ee n

c on t r ov er t e d a n r ej e ct e d b y S pe cul a t or s on t he a b sol ut e
,

4
.
,

1 A s F e uer l in a n d D a r ies . S e e Ba ch ma n n ,
d
3 [ K ies ewet te r , A llg emein e L og ik, P . i p
. .

d d d
L ogi k , p . 56 , L e ip sig , 1828 ; C f D eg e r a n
. o, co mp a r e L ect ur es on ll/I eta phy s ics , ii pp 3 96 ,
. .

H is t . C omp . es S y st . e P hil , t ii p 1 45 , . . e . 397 , n o t es . E D .

1804 .
-E D .
4 [O u p r i n cipl e o f D o ub le N eg a t io n a s
With
d d
2 S ee Ba ch ma n n , L og ik, p . 56 . th e a n ot h e r l a w o f T h oug h t , see F r ies , L ogi k,

d
for eg oin g h ist or y of th e l a w s of T h o ug h t , 4 1 , p 1 90; C a l ke r , D en klehr e o er L og ile a n
.

co mpa r e th e sa me a ut h or , L ogi k, 1 8-3 1 . D ia lekt ik, 1 65 , p 453 ; Ben eke , L e/i r buch er
.

E D . L og ik, 64 , p .
 L E C T U RE V I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y .

SE C T IO N I . N O E T IC .

T HE FU N D A M E N T A L L A WS O F T H O U G H T T H E I R C L A S S IF I

C A T IO N AND I M P O RT .

H A V IN G c on cl ud e d tr o d uct or y Q uesti on s w e e n t er ed in
t he I n , ,

o ur l a s t L e ct ur e upon o ur s ci e n ce i t s e l f T he, .

R pit l ti
e ca u a on
r s t pa r t of P ur e L og i c is t h e D o ct r i n e of E le
.

me n t s or th a t whi ch con s id er s t he con di t i on s of mer e or po ssib l e

,

thi n ki n g T h ese e l e men t s a r e of t w o ki n d s t h e y a r e ei t h er t he

.
,

fun d a me n t a l l a ws of t h ought a s r eg ul a t i n g it s n e ce ssa r y pr o d ucts or ,

th e y a r e t he pr o d uct s t h emsel v es a s r eg ul a t e d b y th ose l a ws T he .

fun d a me t a l l a w s a r e fo ur in n umb er t h e l a w of I d en ti t y t h e la w
d
n -
, ,

d
of C o n t r a di ct i o n t h e l a w o f E x cl u e d M iddl e t h e l a w of Re a son
, ,

d
an C o n s e q ue n t T he pr o d uct s O f t h oug ht ar e th r e e
1
. C on ,

c e pt s o r N o t i on s ; J ud g men t s ; a n Re a son i n g s I n our l a s t , .

d
L e ct ur e w e c on s id e r e d t he r s t o f t h e s e t w o pa r t s o f t h e d oct r i n e

d
O f e l e me n t s a n

d I w en t th r oug h t h e g e n e r a l e x pl a n a ti on o f t h e con
,

t en t s a n i mpo r t O f t h e four l a w s a n th e i r hi st or y Wi t h out r e

c a pi t ul a t i n g wh a t w a s t h e n s t a t e d I s h a ll n o w pr o ce e d t o c er t a i n
,
.

g e n e r a l O b s e r v a t i o n s whi c h m a
y b e s u
gg
,
e s t e d in r e l ati on t o t h e fo ur

laws
An
.

d
r s t of a ll I ma y r ema r k th a t th e y n a t ur a lly fa ll i n t o t w o
, , ,

cl a sses T he r s t o f t h e se cl a ss e s con si s t s O f
.

d
G en er al b w ti o se a on s

t t h fo u t h t h i i l f I d ti t y C t di ti
d
e r e e r n c es o e n o n r a c o
i l
n ; e a t i on o e p
r p n , ,

E x cl ud e d M iddl e ; t h e s econ d co mpr e h en d s

d
fun m t l l w
a en a f a an s o

d
th m g ht
t h e pr i n ci pl e O f Re a s on a n C on se q ue n t al on e
Th
' f n e s a

mt t W 1a sses
.

d
0 0 0
T h i s cla S S ca t on i s fo un d e d b o t h o n t h e i er
i i

e n t r e ci r oca l c on n ecti on of t he l a w s a n on t h e di ffer e n t n a t ur e of

p ,

t h e i r r e s ult s .

I n t he r s t pl a c e in r eg ar d t o t h e di ffer en ce O f c on n ecti on b e
,

tw een t he l a w s th emse l ve s it is a t on ce e v id en t th a t t he r st th r e e,

1 S ee, h owever p 62 n ote 1

. E D
, , . .
70 L O G I C . L E C T . VI .

s ant d in a far mor e pr ox i ma t e

l i t o ea ch ot h er th a n t o t he r e a t on

fo u r t h T he r s t t h r e e a r e i d e e d s o i n t i.
,
n
,

ma t e ly co n e ct e d t h a t th o ug h it h a s n ot e v e n
d d
T hi l si t i c as s ca on n ,

d b e en a t t e mpt e d t o ca r r y t h e m up i n t o a hi g h e r
d d d
f un 1 o th 0

e
n e

ff
i f
er e n ce o co n n ec
n ci l e a t h o u h t h e v a r i o us a n on t a
t ion b tw t h l a ws
e een p pe g ri c , c n r i

th m l e se ves . t or y e n d ea v o r s t h a t h a v e b ee n ma d e t o e l e v a t e
o n e o r o t h e r i n t o a n a n t ece d e n t a n t o d eg r a d e d
d
,

o th e r s i n t o c o n s e u e n t s h a v e o n ly sh o w n b t h e i r fa il u e t h e im
q y , ,
r ,

o s s i b ili t y of r e u ci n t h e t h r e e t o o n e ; s till s o i n t i ma t e is t h e i r
p g
c o n e ct i on t h a t e a ch in fa ct s uppo s e s t h e o th er s
n , T h e y a r e li ke t h e .

d
th r e e sid e s of a t r i a gl e n ot t he s a me n ot r e d ucib l e t o u n i t y e a ch
n , ,

r e t e di n w i t h u l r i ht t o a r i o r c on s id e r a ti on ch if
p g n e
q a
g p a n e a , ,

c o s id e e d s t i vin in it s o w n e x i s t e n ce t h e e x i s t e n ce of t h e
n r
g g r ,

d d
o t h e r t wo T hi s i n t i ma cy O f r e l a t i on d o es n ot s ub si s t b e t w e e n t h e
.

d
r i ci l e o f Re a son a n C o n se ue n t a n e th r ee o t h e r l
p p
n
q t h aws ;

t h ey o n o t in t h e s a me n e c ess a r y ma n n e r s ug g e s t e a ch o t h e r in
, ,

o f th e i r r e s ul t s ; a n d
th ought T he ex pl a n a ti on of t hi s is fo un d in t h e di ffe r e n t n a t ur e
.

t hi s is t h e s e co n d s ubj e ct o f o ur con s id e r a t i o n .
1

I n t he s e co n d pl a ce th e n t he di st i n cti o n of t he fo u r l a w s i n t o , ,

t w o cl a sses is n ot o n ly w a r r a n t e d b y t h e di ffe r
o th d
d e n ce of t h e i r mut ua l d e pe n d e n ce in th o u h t b ut

d
niff e e r en ce
g , ,
o f th wh n t h
l i ke m s e b y t h e d i ffe r e n ce of t he e n wh i ch t h e
e en 1e e
,
tw o l c a sses l ly se ver a

a cco mpli h s t w o cl a s s e s s e v e a lly a c co mpli sh F o r t he r s t r .

d
.

th r e e l a ws n o t on ly s t a n d a pa r t b y t h e mse l v es
( fo r mi n
g a s it w e r e a s i n l e pr i n ci pl e v i e w e d in th r e e
, g ,
i ffer en t

a s e ct s

an
p
d ) b u t t h ,

in d e g r ee f o m t h a t e t er mi n e d b y t he la w o f Re a s o n a n C o n
,
r d
e y n e ce s s i t a t e a r es ul t v e r y di ffe r e n t b ot h in ki n d ,

d
s e q uen t T he di ffe r en c e in t h e i r r es ul t co n si st s in t hi s
. wh a t e v e r ,

v i o l a t e s t h e l a w s w h e t h e r of I d en ti t y o f C o t r a di ct i o n o r o f E x
, ,
n ,

cl ud e d M iddl e w e fe e l t o b e ab s o l ut e ly i mpo s s i b l e n o t o ly in
, ,
n

t h o ug h t b ut in e x i s t e n ce

n i o t e n ce t h e
p p o

i g a t hi g a t o n ce t o b e a n
w e r o f ma ki n
g a t hi g i ff
n o t t o b e o f ma ki
e

d d
T h us w e ca n n o t a t t r i b ut e e v e n t o O m
.

r en t fr o m i t se l f; O f ma k

a t hi n eit h e
n

n n
g g ,
n n r

t o b e n or n o t t o b e
S ph e r e of po ss i b ili t y a n
.

o f i mp os s i b ili t y ; a n d d
T h e s e t h r e e l a w s t h us d e t e r mi n e t o u s t he
thi s n ot me e ly in r

d
th o ug h t b ut in r ea li t y n ot on ly l og i ca lly b ut meta phy s i ca lly V e r y
iffer e t is t he r e s ul t of t he la w of Re a son a n C o n se que t T hi s
n

r i n ci l e mer e l y e x cl u d e s fr om t h e s h e r e o f
,

d
o si t i v e t h o u h t w h a t
n
.

p p p p g
w e ca n n o t c o mp e h en d ; fo r wh a t e v e r w e co mpr eh e n d th a t t h o ug h
r ,
r

whi ch w e comp e h e n d it is it s r ea son Wh a t t h er e for e vi ol a t es t he

r .
, ,

ca te d d
F or
see
a l a t er eve l op

D iscuss ion s , p 602 et seq E D

men t
.
of t h e A ut h or s ph il os oph y
. . .
as r eg a r dd s th e istin cti on h er e in d i
,
L EC T VI L 0G I C 71

d
.
. .

l a w of Re a s o n an C thi s la w b e c o me s
o n se qu e n t me r ely, in i
v rt ue Of
a l og i ca l z e r o ;
. a is w e a e th t t o t hi n k it a s un thi n kab l e
,
r co mpe ll e d ,

b ut n o t t o t hi k it th o ug h a ct u a lly n o n e x i st e n t s ubj e ct i v ely or i

n ,
- n

d
th o ug h t a s t h er efo r e a ct ua lly n o e x i st e n t o bj e ct i ve ly o r in r e a li t y
,

A n wh y it ma y b e a ske d d oes t he l a w o f Re a s o n an C on se q ue t
, ,
n-

d n
.

n o t e q u a lly d e t e r mi n e t h e s ph er e o f g en e r a l po ss i b ili t y a s t h e l a ws

o f I d e n t i t y C o n t r a di ct i o n a n ,
E x cl ud e d M iddl e Why ar e w e t o
,
d ,

v i e w t h e u n thi ka b l e in t h e o n e ca s e n o t t o b e e q u a lly i mpos s i b l e in

n

r e a li t y a s t he u n t hi n ka b l e in t h e o t h e r ?
,
S o me phil os oph e r s h a v e ,

d
o n t h e o n e h a n d a ss e r t e d t o t h e D e i t y th e po w e r of r e co cili n g co n n
,

t r a ict io n s ; whil e o t h e ot h e r a g e a t er n u mb er h a v e ma d e t h e
2
,
n ,
r

c o n ce i va ble in h uma n t h o ug ht t he g a ug e o f t he
W
g d
TW O t c oun er
o s si b l e in ex i s t e n c e h a t w a r r a t s u s it ma
p y .
,
i g ih e
b e a ske d t o con d e mn t h ese o ppos i t e p o ce d
re ar n
r
l mt
.
,
i i s f bjo t o ec i ve

p ib
o ss i li t y .
u r e s a s e
q u a lly u n
p hi l os0 p h ic a l ? I n a n s w er t o

thi s t h o ug h t he ma t t er b el on g s mor e p oper ly

,
r

t o M e t a phy s i c t h a n t o L og i c I ma y s a y a fe w w o r d s w hi ch h o w , , ,

e ver I a m a w a r e ca n n o t b y ma n y of y o u b e a s y e t a d e q u a t ely
, , , ,

u n d er s t o o d

d .

d
T o e y t h e un i v e r s a l a ppli ca ti on of t he r s t th r e e l a w s is in
n , ,

fa ct t o s ub v er t t h e r e a li t y of th oug ht ; a n a s thi s sub v e r si on is

,

d
i t se l f a a ct of t h o ug h t it in fa ct a n ihil a t e s it se l f
n ,
n .

Wh en for e x a mpl e I s a y t h a t A is a n th en s ay t h a t A is n ot
, , , ,

b y t h e s e co n d a ss e r t i o n I s ub l a t e or t a ke a w a y
Th ep ti w h a t b y t h e r s t a ss e r ti on I po s i t e d o r l a id
r es ec ve
, ,

d w ; t h o ug h t in t he on e ca s e un d oi n g b y
d
S ph er e s f h iw t e
o n

d
, ,
l
c a ss es f th l w o f e a s o
n e a t o n w h a t i n t h e ot h er I t ha b a f r ma
d e ne d g i
y
in t t d
th h t , ,

d
ou
g an

t i on d o n e But w h e n it is a ss er t e d t h a t A
dy t h i
us r a e ,
.
,

T o en
e i st i g a
e un ve r A n o n e x i st i n g a r e a t o n ce t ue
x n n - r ,
f the

d
1 p pl i t i

2 t th l w t
3 a ca
wh
on
a t d o e s t hi s i mply ?
o
I t i mpli e s t h a t n eg a ti o n
'

d
rs r ee a s. I s o
f m r r e s o n d t o n ot h i n f h
su b t th
ve r r e al i t y f e
a a r a t i
o
o n c o
p n
g o u t o t e

m i d t h a t t h e r e is n o a g e e me n t n o isa
d d
th h
ou t n r
g .
,

r e e me n t b e t w e e n t h ou ht a n s O bj e ct s ; a n

d
g g it

d
thi s is t a n t a moun t t o s a yi g t h a t t r ut h a n fa l seh o o d a r e mer ely n

d
e m t y s o un d s F o r if w e o ly thi n k b a fr ma t i on a n n e a t i on
n
p .
y g ,

an if t h ese a r e on ly a s t h e y a r e e x cl us i v e o f e a ch o t h e r it fo ll o w s
d , ,

th a t u l es s e i st e ce a n n on e x i st en ce b e o ppose d obj e ct i v ely in

d
n x n -

t h e s a me ma n n e r a s a f ma ti on a n n e at i on ar e o
g r
pp ose d s ubj ee

t iv e ly a ll o ur t h o ug ht is a me r e ill us i on
,
T h u s it is t h a t t h o s e w h o .
,

w ou ld a s s er t t h e poss i b ili t y of co n t r a di ct i o s b e i n g a t o n ce t ue
d
n r ,

in fa ct a n n ihil a t e t h e possi b ili t y of t r ut h it s e l f a n t h e wh ol e sig n i ;

c a n ce of th oug ht .

1 C mpa r e
o L e C ler c, L ogi ca , p . n . c . 3 ED
. .
 72 L oG I C . L E C T . VI .

d
. But thi s is n ot wh e n w e d en y t h e un iv er sal t h e a b so l ut e
t he cas e ,

a pli ca t i o n o f t h e l a w o f Re a s o n a n C u
p o s e

W h th a t a t hi n m
1 d
en I
i th d
B t t hi i
u t is
q ue t
s no n sa
y g
n . a
y b e o f ,

V V i l f
h e
whi ch I ca n n ot co n ce i v e t he poss i b ilit y (t h at is
en a O
,
th i
e un ve r sa l pp l i a ca '
'

b y co n ce i v i n g it a s t he con se qu e n t O f a ce r t a i n
d
t f th l w f R

d d
i on O e a o ea

s on a n C t r e a s o n ) I o ly s a y t h a t t h o ug h t is li mit e d ; b ut
o n se ue n n
q , , ,

wi t hi n it s li mi t s I o n ot d e y I o n ot sub ,
n ,

v er t i t s t u t h
,
But h o w it ma y b e a ske d is it sh o w n th a t t h o ug ht
r .
, ,

is t h us li mi t e d ? H o w is it s h o w n t h a t t h e i n con ce i v a b l e is n o t a n
i n d e x o f t he i mpossib l e a n t h a t t h o se phil os oph er s who h a v e e m ,
d
p l o y e d it a s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f t h e a b s ur d a r e t h e mse l v e s
g u il t y o f ,

a b s ur di t y ? T hi s is a ma tt e r whi ch w ill co me u n d er o ur c o s id e r a
ti on a t a n oth er t i me a n in it s pr ope pl a ce ; a t
r e s e n t it will b e s u f ci e n t t o s t a t e in
d _ r
n

T hi l w h w
s a i s o n n en e r a l
p g
l h t b th
t h a t t h e hypo th e s i s whi ch ma ke s t h e t hi n ka b l e
g en er a O o e e

m f bj ti

d
ea s ur e o O ec ve

p oss i b il i t y
t h e m e a s ur e O f t he
p os s b l e b r i n s t he
g p i n c
p l e i , r i

d
,

of Re a s on a n C o n se q ue n t a t on ce i n t o colli s i on
w i t h t he t h r e e hi g h e r l a w s a n t hi s hypot h es i s i t s e l f is t h u s r e d uce d ,

d
dd
a t o ce t o co t r a di ct i o n a n
n n a b s u di t y F or if w e t a ke a compr e r .

he n s iv e v i e w o f t he ph aen o me n a o f t h o ug h t w e sh a ll t h a t a ll ,
n

th a t w e ca posi t iv e ly t hi n k t h a t is a ll t h a t is wi t hi n t he j u is ic
n

d r
-
, ,

ti o of t he l a w of Re a son a n C o n s equen t li es b e t w e en t w o oppo

n ,

s it e po l e s of t h o ug h t w hi ch a s e x cl us i v e o f e a ch o t h e ca n n ot on

d
, ,
r,
,

t h e p i ci pl e s o f I d e t i t y a n
r n C o n t r a di ct i o n b o t h b e t u e b ut o f
whi ch o n t he p i n ci pl e of E x cl ud e d M id l e t h e on e o r t h e o t h er
,
r
n

d ,

,
r ,

must L e t u s t a ke for e x a mpl e a n y of t h e g e n e r a l obj e ct s O f o ur

.
, ,

kn o wl e d g e L e t u s t a ke b o dy o r r a t h e r s i n ce b o dy a s e x t en d e d is
.
, ,

i cl ud e d u n d er e x t en s i on l et us t a ke e x t e n si on i t s el f, or spa ce
n , .

N o w e x t e n si o n a l o n e will e hi b it t o u s t w o pa i r s o f co n t a di ct o y
,
x r r

i n con ce i v a b l e s th a t is in a ll fo ur in compr e h e s ible s b ut of whi ch

d
n
, , , , ,

t h o ug h a ll a r e e q ua lly un t hi n ka b l e a o n t h e hy po t h e s i s in
q ues ,
n ,

tio a ll t h e r e fo e e u a lly i m o ss i b l e w e a e comp e ll e d b y t h e l a w

d
r
n, , q p r , , ,

of E cl ud e d M iddl e t o a d mi t s ome t w o a s t u e a n
x ,
n e ce s s a y r r .

a n d
E x t e n si o
,
t h e n ma y b e v i e w e d e i t h er a s a wh o l e o r a s a pa t ;
n, ,

in e a ch a spect it a ffor d s us t w o i n cog i t a b l e co t a di ct o i e s

,
n r r
r

d
T a ki n g it a s a wh o l e spa ce it is e v id e t , n ,
BY E
mu s t e i t h er b e li mi t e d t h a t is h a v e a n e
X

a , , n ,

d
te n s i on A s a
c umfe r e n ce ; o r u l mi t e d t h a t i s h a ve n o
,

Wh ol e .
C ir n i , ,

en n o ci r cumfe r e n ce T hes e a e co t a di ct o y
, .
r n r r

s uppo s i t i o n s ; b o t h t h e e fo e ca o t b ut o e mu s t b e t ue
,
r r N ow ,
nn ,
n , r .

l e t u s t r y p o s i t i v e ly t o co mpr e h e d p osi t i v e ly t o con ce i v e t h e p os n , ,

s ib ilit y O f e i t h e r o f t h e s e t w o mut ua lly e x cl us i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s C an .

w e r ep e se n t or r e a liz e in t h oug ht e x t e n s i on a s ab s ol ut ely li mi t e d ?

r
L E C T . VI .
L O G I C . 73

'
w or d s w e me n t a lly
h e d g e r o un d the wh ol e of spa c e
'

in o t h er ,
ca n ,

co c e i v e it a b s o l ut e ly b o u d e d t h a t is s o t h a t b e y o d it s b o un d a r y
n n , ,
n

t h er e is n o o ut lyi n g n o s ur r o un di n g spa ce ? , ,

Sp a hh

d
i
T hi s is i mposs i b l e
X h 8 h
W
d w e ma n c1o se l) y a n y 1i mi t at i on O f t ll o ugli t we
h a t ev er co mpa ss of spa ce .

d
as a b l t ly b
so u e ou n e ,
. . .

u nthinka b l e y i ,

d
.

s h a ll n t h a t w e h a v e n o d i f cul t y in t r a n s cen d
.

in g t h es e li mit s N a y w e s h a ll n t h a t w e C a n n o t b ut t r a n s ce n d
.
,

t h e m ; for w e a r e u n a b l e t o thi n k a n y e x t en t of spa ce e x ce pt a s

wi t hi n a st ill u l t er i or spa ce o f w hi ch le t us t hi n k t ill t he po we r s of , ,

t hi ki n g fa il w e ca n n e v er r e a ch t he ci r c umfe r e n ce
n , I t is t h u s .

i mpossi b l e for us t o t hi k spa ce a s a t ot a li t y t h a t is a s a b s o l ut e ly

n , ,

b o u n d e d b ut a ll co t a i n i n g
, We ma y t h e r efor e la y d o wn t hi s r st
- n .
, ,

e x t e me a s i c o n ce i v a b l e
r n We ca n n o t t hi k spa ce a s li mit e d
. n .

L e t us n o w co n s id e r it s co t a di ct o r y ; ca n w e co mpr e h e n d t h e n r

d
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 74 L O G IC L E C T . VI .

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L E C T vi L 0G 10 . 75

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76 L O G I C .
L E C T VI

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.
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n .
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w e t h en r eg a r d o ur th o ug h t s a s t r u e ; w h e r e as if w e a r e n o t s a t i s
e o f t hi s w e d e e m t h e m fa l s e h o w w ell so ev er th e y ma y q ua d
, ,

1 S ee K an t , L og ik, E in leitun g , vii . K r ug , L og ik, 22 ; F r ies , L og ik, 5 42 E . D .

L E C T . VI .
L O G I C . 77

r ate i h a n y th eor y or s ys t em I t is n o t t h e r e fo r e in a y a b s ol ut e
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d
r e s o d e ce o f o ur t h o ug h t s w i t h t h e i r o bj e ct s
n n T he di s t i n c t i o n o f
p .

fo r ma l a ma t e i a l t ut h is t h us n o t o n ly u n s o un d in i t s e l f, b ut
n r

o ppo s e d t o t h e n o t i o n of t r ut h u n i ve r s a lly h e ld a n
r

e mb o di e d in a ll ,
d
l a n g ua g es But if thi s di st i ct i on b e i e pt t h e t i t l e of L o g i c a s a
. n n , ,

p os i t i v e s t a n d a r d o f t r u t h must b e d e n i e d ; it c a n o n ly b e a n e g a ,

d
t i v e c i t e i on b e i g co n v e r s a n t w i t h t h o ug ht s a n
d
n o t w i t h t hi s
r r ,
n
g n ,

wi t h t he possib ili t y a n n ot with t he a ct ua li t y of e x i s t e n ce

d
1
.

T h e p e ce di n g i n a ccur a cy is h o w e v e r of li t t l e mo me n t compa r e
r , ,

wi t h t he h e es y of a n ot h er cl a ss of phil o s oph e s r r ,

d h f ev er o n ly a ll ud e S o me of y o u may per h aps

t o wh o s e o b s e r v a ti o n s o t hi s po i t I c a n h o w
2 Th A b l ti t
e so u s s n n ,

d
'
P r oce e eh a Sh er '
, .
, ,
8 1 011 f tho l g l e o i ca
a d i f cul t y i b e l e vm t h t t m n t t h at
l a ws n
g e s a e e n i ,

d
.

th e r e is a co n s id er a b l e pa r t y of phil o s o ph e r s ,

ill ust r i ous for t he hig h e s t S pe cul a t i ve t a l e n t a n w h o se sy st ems if , ,

n o t a t pr e s e t w e r e a fe w y e a r s a g o t h e mo s t c e l e b r a t e d if
n , , ot t he , ,
n

mo st u n i v e r s a lly a ccr e di t e d in E ur ope wh o e s t a b li s h t h e i r me t a ,

p hy s i ca l t h e o r i e s O u t h e s ub v e r s i on o f a ll l o i ca l t r ut h
g I e fe t o
?
r r

d
t h ose phil o s oph e r s w h o h old t h a t ma n is c a pa b l e o f mo r e t h a n a
r el a t i v e ot i o n o f e x i s t e ce
n t h a t h e is c o mpe t e n t t o a k o w l e g e
n , n

o f a b so l ut e o r i n n it e b e i g ( fo r t h es e t e r ms t h e y u s e c o n v e t i b ly
)
d d
n r ,

in a n id e n t i t y o f kn o w l e d g e a n e xi st e n ce o f hi ms e lf a n t he ,

D i v i n ity
d
T h i s d oct r i n e w hi ch I S hall n ot n o w a t t e mpt t o ma ke
.
,

o u u d e st a n

d
n is d e v e l o pe d in v e r y v a r i o us s ch e me s ; t h a t is t h e
r
y , ,

di ffe en t phil osoph er s a t t e mpt b y v e y di ffe en t a n con t a di ct or y

d
r ,
r r r

me t h od s t o a r r i v e a t t he s a me e
, ; a ll th ese s y s t e ms h o w e v e r n , ,

a g ee in t hi s t h e y a r e a ll a t v a r i a n ce wi t h t h e fo u
r , l o g i ca l l a w s r .

o f t h es e l a ws ; a n
,

d
S o me i n d e e d a r e e st a b li sh e d o n t h e e x p e s s d e n i a l o f t he v a lidi t y
o t h e s w i t h o ut d a r i g o v e r t ly t o r ej e ct th e i r a u
r ,
n
r

r d
t h o it y a r e s till b u il t in v i o l a t i o n o f t h e i r pr e cept
r ,

t a ict io n r e ma i n a c i t e r i o n o f fa l se h o o d if L og i c a n r
I fa ct if co n
t he l a w s o f ,
.

d
n ,

t h o ug h t b e n o t v i e w e d a s a n ill u s i on t h e phil o s ophy o f t h e a b s o l ut e

in a ll it s fo r ms a d mi t s o f t he mo s t di r e ct a n e a s y r e fut a t i on
, But
,

d .
,

on thi s ma t t er I o n ly n o w t o u ch in o d er t h a t y o u ma y n o t b e

d
,
r

i g o a n t t h a t t h er e a r e phil o so ph e r s a n phil os oph er s of t he hig h

n r ,

e s t n a me w h o in pu r su i t O f t he p h a t o m o f a b s o l ut e kn o w l e d g e

d d
n
, , ,

a e co t e n t t o r e pu di a t e r e l a t i v e kn o wl e g e l o g i c a n
r

t h o ug h t
n

T hi s h a ll uci n a t i o
. is h o w e v e r upo n t he w a e a
t h e l a ws of
nas ,

d d ,
, ,

n ,
n

e a c h o f t h e s e t h e o i st s co n t r a di ct s h is b r o t h e r L og i c a n
r C o mmon ,

S e s e w ill a t l e g t h r e fut e t h e m a ll
n n .

Be for e l e a v i n g t he c o n s id er a ti on of thi s s ubj e ct it is n e ce ss a y t o ,

r

1 E s ser , L og ik, p 65-6 E . . D . 2 S ee a b ove , p 64 ,

. n ot e 4 . E D .
78 L O G I C . L E C T . VI .

n o t ce i a mi st a ke of D r. Re id , w hi ch it is n ot mor e re m k bl
ar a e

g d
M i t ks a f R id
e o i
h
h a t he sh o uld h a ve co mmi t t e d t h a n t h a t ot h e r s
e n
t
a v e b e e n fo un d t o fo ll o w a n a
pp l a ud it a s t he d ,

d
t C pt i

d
re ar o o n ce on

c o r e ct i o n o f a g e n e r a l e r r o r I n t h e fo ur t h
.

r .

E s s a y on the I ntellectu a l P ower s a n in t he t hi r d ch a pt e r e n t i t l e , ,

'
t h e r e is t h e foll o wi n g pa s s a g e
'
l
M z s ta lees con ce n i g C on cep ti on r n , ,

whi ch a t o ce e x hi b i t s n ot o ly his o w n o pi n i on b ut t h e u n i v er s a li t y
n n ,

o f t h e d o ct r i n e t o w hi c h it is oppo se d :

T h e r e r e ma i n s h e s a y s a n o t h e r mi s t a ke co ce r n i n

con ce p n
, , g

R id t d
t i on whi ch d e se r ve s t o b e n o t i ce d
,
I t is t h a t .
,
q e uo e
o ur co n c e t i on o f thi n g s is a t e s t of t h e i r
.

p p os

s ib il it

ce t i
y

on
,

t o b e po s s i b l e ; a n
,

d
s o t h a t wh a t w e c a n di st i n ct ly c o ce i v e w e ma
y
o f wh a t is i mpos s i b l e w e c a n h a v e n o con
c o n cl ud e n

,
,

p .

d hi s opi n i on h a s b e en h eld b y phil os oph er s for mor e th a n a h un

T
d

r e d y e a r s w i t h o u t co n t r a di ct i o n o r di s s e t a s fa r a s I kn o w ; a n
,

if it b e a n e r o r it ma y b e o f s o me u s e t o i n q ui r e i n t o it s o r i g i n a n
r ,

t h e ca u s es t h a t it h a s b een s o g e n e r a lly r ece i v e d a s a ma x i m wh os e

n ,

, d ,

t r ut h co uld n o t b e b r o ug ht i n t o d o ub t .

I ma y h e r e ob se r ve t h a t t hi s li mi t a t i on of t h e pr ev a l e n ce of t he
O
p i n i o n in
q u e s t i o n t o a v e r y mo d er n
p e r i o d is a lt o e t h e r i n cor r e ct
g
it w a s e q u a lly p e v a l e n t in a n ci e n t t i me s a n a s ma n y pa ss a g e s c o ul
r ,
d d
e a s ily b e q u ot e d f o m t h e G r e e k l og i ci a s a l o n e a s D r
r Re id ha s n .

d
u o t e d fr o m t h e hil o so h e r s of t h e c e n t u y r i or t o hi mse l f D
q p p p r r . .

Rei g o es o n

O ne fr ui t l e ss que sti on s a g it a t e d a mon g t h e sch ol a st ic
of t he
hil o s o ph e r s in t h e d a r k a g e s w a s Wh a t is t h e cr i t e r i on o f t r uth ?
p ,

A s if me n co uld h a v e a n y o t h e r w a y t o di s ti g ui s h t r ut h fr o m er r or
d
n
,

b ut b y t h e r i g ht us e o f th a t po we r o f j ud g men t whi ch G o ha s
g i ve

t hnem .

D e s ca r t e s e n d e a v or e d t o put a n e n t o thi s c on t r o v e r s y b y d ,

cl e a ly a n
r d
ma ki n g it a fun d a me n t a l pr i n ci pl e in his sy st e m th a t wh a t e v e r w e
di st i n ct ly pe r ce i v e is t r ue ,

T o u n d e r s t a n d thi s pr i n ci pl e of D esca r t es it mu s t b e o b s er v e d
.
,

u n d e s t a n di
r
g ; a n i n e
n x
pl a i n i g thid d
t h a t h e g a v e t h e n a me o f p er cep t ion t o e v e r y po we r o f t h e h u ma n

s v e r y ma x i m h e nt e ll s u s ,

t h a t s e s e i ma g i n a ti on a n u i
d
t ll t i n ly di ffe r e n t
re e e on ar e o
n , p n c , ,

mo d e s o f per ce i v i n g a n s o t he ma x i m wa s un d er st oo d b y a ll his
,

fo ll o w e r s .

T h e l e a r n e d D r C udw o r th s e e ms a l so t o h a v e a d opt e d thi s pr i n
.

T h e cr i t e r i on o f t r ue kn o w l e d g e he sa y s
d
is o n ly t o b e

c ipl e

.
, ,

l ooke d for in our kn o wl e d g e a n con cept i on s th emse l ve s : for t he

l C ollect e d
W or ks , p.3 76-8 E . D .
L EC T . W . L O G 1C . 79

en t

d
i t y of a ll t h e or eti ca l t r ut h is n o t hi n g el se b ut cl ea r i n t elli g ib ili t y
d ,

a n wh a t e v e r is cl e a r ly co n ce i ve d is a n e n t i t y a n a t r ut h ; b ut t h a t
w hi ch is fa l se D i vi n e p o w e r i t se l f ca n n o t ma ke it t o b e cl ea ly a n
,
r d
d
di s t i n ct ly u d er s t oo d A fa l seh oo d ca n e ve r b e cl ea r ly c o n ce i v e
o r a pp e hen d e d t o b e t r ue
r
(E
n

ternal an i mm
.

u ta ble M or a li t
y p

.
n

d , .

172
T
et c .
)
hi s C a r t esi a n ma x i m s e ems t o me t o h a v e le t he w a y t o t h a t
n o w u n d e r c on s id e r a t i o n w hi c h s e e ms t o h a v e b e e n a d o t e d a s t h e
d
p ,

W
p p
d
r o e r c or r e ct i o n O f t h e fo r mer h e n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f D e s ca r t e s

d e cli e me n b eg a n t o s ee t h a t w e ma y cl e a r ly a n di st i n ct ly con
n ,

ce iv e w h a t is n o t t r u e b ut t h o u h t t h a t o ur c o n ce t i o n th ou h n ot
.

d
g p , g ,

in a ll ca s es a t e s t O f t r u t h mi g h t b e a t e s t of po s s i b ili t y
T hi s i n d e e d s e e ms t o b e a n ece s s a r y co n s e q ue n ce O f t h e r e ce i v e
d o ct r i n e of id ea s it b e i n g e v id e n t t h a t t h e r e ca n b e n o di st i n ct 1 m
.
,

.

d
d
a e e i t h e r in t h e mi n d o r a n ywh e r e e l s e o f t h a t w hi ch is im o s
g , p ,

s i bl e .

con cei ve s u ch a thi n g w h e

. .
, d
T h e a mb i g uity o f t h e w o r d con ceive w hi ch w e o b se ve
E s s a y i ch a p i a n t he co mmon ph r a s e o l og y o f s a yi g we ca n n ot
w e w o uld s i g n i fy t h a t w e t hi n k it im n
,

n ,
r ,

os s i b l e mi ht li ke w i se co n t r i b ut e t o t h e r e c e t i o n O f t hi s d o ct r i n e
p g , p .

d
But w h a t e v e r w a s t h e o r i g i n O f thi s O pi n i on it s e e ms t o pr e v a il

,

u n i v e r s a lly a n t o b e r e ce i ve d a s a ma x i m
, .

T he b a e h a v i n g a n id e a O f t h e pr opos iti o n pr o ve s t h e thi n g n o t

r

t o b e i mpo ssi b l e ; fo r O f a n i mpo ssi b l e pr opo siti on t h e r e ca n b e n o

id e a .D r S a mu e l C l a ke

. r .

O f t h a t whi ch n e ith er d o es n or ca n e x i s t w e ca n h a v e n o id e a

.

L o r d Boli n g b r oke .

T h e me a s ur e O f i mpossi b ility t o us is i n con ce i v a b l e n es s t h a t o f ,

w hi ch w e h a v e no id e a b ut t h a t r e e ct i n g upo it it a ppe a r s t o b e ,
n ,

n ot hi g w e pr o n o un ce t o b e i mposs i b l e A b er n e t hy

n -
;
. .
,

I n e v e r y id e a is i mpli e d t h e poss ib ili t y O f t he e x i s t e n ce O f it s

O bj ec t n o t hi n g b e i n g cl e a r e r t h a n t h a t t h e r e c a n b e n o id e a o f a n
,

i mpo ssib ili t y or con ce pt i on O f wh a t ca n n ot ex i st

,
D r P i ce

.
. r .

I mpo ss i b il e e st cuj us n a ll a m n ot ion e m for ma r e po s s uin us ; po s

d

s ib il e

e co n t r a , c ui a l iq u a r esp o n
'

e t n o t io .

W li O o n tolog .

I t isli sh e d ma m in me t a phy si cs t h a t w h a t e ve r t he
an e st a b x i ,

mi n d con cei v es i n cl ud es t he id e a O f pos s ib l e e x i s t e ce o in o t h e r

,
n ,
r

w o r d s t h a t n o thi n g we i ma g i n e is ab so l ut e ly i mpo ss i b l e

,
D . .

H u me .

d
I t w er e e as yp t l
to must er
h o i t i e s fo r up ma n y ot h er r es e c a b e a ut r

t hi s ma i m a n I h a v e n e v e r fo un d o e t h a t c a ll e d it in q ue s t i o
x ,
n n.

I f t he ma i m b e t r ue in t he e x t e n t whi ch t h e fa mo us Wol us

x

h a s g i v e n it in t h e pa ss a g e a b o v e q uo t e d w e sh a ll h a v e a sh o r t o a d , r

t o t h e d e t er mi n a t i o n O f ev e r y q u es t i o n a b o ut t h e pos s ib ili t y o r im o
80 LO G I c . L E C T VI

d
. .

W
p o ss i b
,
ility o f thi n s
g e n

r
ee d O . ly l
do ok i n t o o ur o wn b r e as t a n

t h a t li ke t he U i m a n T h ummi m w ill g i v e a n i n fa lli b l e a n s w e r I f ,

n ,

A n d
w e c a n c on ce i v e t h e t hi g it is po ss i b l e ; if n o t it is i mpo s s i b l e
n ,

s ur e ly e v e y ma n ma y kn o w wh e t h e r h e ca n con ce i v e w h a t is

a f me d o r n ot
r .
r
, .

O t h e r phil o s oph e r s h a v e b e e n s a t i s e d wi t h o n e h a lf O f t he

p o s s i b l
i mpo ss ib l e
e b ut t h e y o n ot s a

y t
.

h d
ma x i m O f Wolus T h e y s a y t h a t wh a t e v e r w e ca n con ce i v e is
,
,

a t wh a t e v e r w e ca n n o t co n ce i ve is

O n t hi s I ma y r ema r k t h a t D r Re id s cr i t i ci sm O f Wo lf must b e

, .

a d mi t t e d in so fa r a s t h a t hil o s o h e r ma i n t a i n s ou r i n a b ili t y t o co n
p p
ce iv e a t hi g a s po ss i b l e t o b e t h e r ul e o n whi ch w e a e e n t i t l e d t o
n
,
r

r o n o un c e it i m os s ib l e B u t D R id n ow a d v a n ce s a d oct r i n e
p p r e . .

whi ch I ca n n o t b ut r eg a r d a s r a di ca lly er r on eous .

d
I ca n n o t h e l p t hi n ki g e v e n t hi s t o b e a mi s t ake whi ch phil os o

n

h e r s h a v e b e e n un w a r ily l e i n t o fr o m t h e ca u s es b e fo r e me n t i o n e d
p , .

M y r e a son s a r e th es e
1 Wh a t ev e r is s a id t o b e possi b l e or impo ss ib l e is e x pr e s s e d b y
.

a pr opo s iti o n N o w wh a t is it t o c o n c e i v e a pr opo si t i on ? I t hi n k

.
,

it is o mor e th a n t o un d e r s t a n d di st i n ct ly it s me a n i n g I kn o w n o
n .

mo r e th a t ca n b e me a n t b y si mpl e a ppr e h en s i on o r co n ce pt i on , ,

wh en a ppli e d t o a pr opo si t i o T he a i o m t h e r efo r e a mo un t s t o

n . x , ,

t his z E v e r y pr opos i t i o n O f w hi ch y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e me a n i n g
, .

di st i ct ly is po ss i b l e I a m pe r s u a d e d t h a t I un d er st a n d a s di s t i n ct ly
d
n , .

t h e mea n i n g of t hi s p o pos i t i o

g e th er e u a l t o the thi r
q
tog eth er g r ea ter th a n the thi r
a s O f thi s A n
y dd
A n y two s i es of a tr i a n g le a r e t o
r

t
,
w o s i e s o
f a tr i
n,

a n le a r e
g
e t t h e s t O f th e s e is i m oss i b l e
, d
y p r .

N o w t hi s is a s i n g ul a r mi s un d e s t a n di n g of t h e sen s e in whi ch it r

C it i i d
d
h a s b e e n a l w a y s h e ld b y phil os oph e s t h a t wh a t
d
r ,
r c z e
is con t a i ct o y is con ce i v e d a s i co ce i v a b l e a n
.

r r n n

i mposs ib l e N O phil os oph e I ma ke b old t o s a y e v e r d ea mt of

1
. r, ,
r

d
d e n yi n g t h a t w e ca n di st i n ct ly un d e st a n d th e mea n i n g O f t h e pr opo r

s it ion t h e t e r ms o f w hi ch w e r e co g iz e t o b e co n t r a di ct or y a n
,
as n , ,

c o t r a di ct o r y t o a n n ihil a t e e a h o t h e
n
,
Wh e n we e n o un ce t he pr o
c r .

p os i t i o A
O f t h e t e ms A a n
i s
n, n ot A

r
w e

n ot A
c l
an d
e a ly c o m r e h e n d t h e s epa r a t e me a i n
, p
p ,
r

d
a l s o t he i m o r t O f t he a sse t i o n O f
g
r
n

t h e i r id e n t i t y But t hi s v e r y un d e r s t a n di n g con s i s t s in t he co
.

scio u s n e s s t h a t t h e t w o t e r ms a r e co n t a di ct o r i e s a n

it is i mpo ss ib l e t o u n i t e t h e m in a me n t a l j ud g men t th o ug h t h e y
t h a t a s s uch r , d n

s t a n d u n i t e d in a v e b a l p o pos i t i o r I f w e a tt e mpt t hi s t he t w o
r n .
,

mu t u a lly e x cl us i v e t e ms n o t o n ly ca ot b e th oug ht a s on e b ut in
r

fact a n n ihil at e e a ch o t h er ; a n t h us t h e r esul t in pl a ce of a posi t iv e d nn

,
,

1 S ee t h e A uth or s n ot es,

Rei dW
s or ks , p 3 77
. . ED .
L EC T . VI . L O G IC . 81

j ud g men t i
, s a n eg a ti on
th oug h t S O fa r D r Re id is w r on g But
of . . .

h e is n o t g uilty of t he a b sur dity a t t i b ut e d t o him b y D r G le ig h e r .

d oe s n ot s a y a s b y th a t w r i t er h e is ma d e t o s a y t h a t a n y t w o
d

, ,

s id e s o f a t i a n g l e ma y b e co n c e i v e d t o b e e q ua l t o t h e thi r d a s
r is ,

t in e t ly a s a n y t wo s id es of a t r i a n g l e ma y b e con cei ve d t o b e g r e a t er
th an t he t hi r d T h e se a r e n ot D r Re id s w or d s a n
.
1
n ot hi n g h e

s a y s w a r a n t s t h e a tt r i b ut i o n O f s u ch e x pr es s i on s t o h im in t h e se n s e
r
.

,
d
,

in whi ch t h e y a r e a tt r i b ut e d H e is ma d e t o h old n ot mer e ly th a t .

,

w e ca n un d e r st a n d t w o t e ms a s con t r a di ct or y b ut t h a t w e a e a b l e r ,
r

q uo t e R d
t o co mb i n e t h e m in t h e u i t y of t h oug ht A fter t h e pa ss a g e a l r e a dy
e id g oes o n t o ill u s t r a t e in v a r i o us
, p o i t s
n

o f v i e w t h e ,
.

n ,

s upp ose d e or O f t h e hil os o h e r s ; b u t ll h y t hi s

rr
p p a s a e s a s on

h e a d or ig i n a t es in t h e mi scon cept i on a lr ea dy s h own of t he opi n

io n h e co t r o ve r t s it is n e e dl e s s t o t a ke a n y fur t h e r n oti ce O f his
n ,

a r ume n t s
g .

We h a ve t h us c on sid er e d t he c on diti on s O f L og i c in so fa r a s cer ,

t a i n l a ws or p i n cipl e s a r e pr escr i b e d ; we h a ve r
P t l t
os u a es o f L gi o c
n ow t o c on s id e r it s con di t i on s in s o fa r a s ce r
.

t a i n post ul at es a r e d ema n d ed O f th ese th er e a r e mor e t h a n on e .

b ut o n e a l o n e it is h er e r e qui s i t e t o s i g n a liz e for a lth oug h it b e n e

'

c e ss a il e d in t he s ci en ce s t r a n e t o s a it h as b l o i ca l

y
r s u pp os g y y g , , ,

an d
w r i t e r s n o t o n ly b ee n a lw a y s pa sse d o v e r in sil e n ce b ut fr e qu en t ly
,

i n con s i st e n tly vi ol a t e d T hi s postul a t e I compr i se in t he foll ow .

,

in g pa r a g r a ph

1T X V I I I . T he on ly p ost u a e of l t L og i c whi ch re
q i
u r es a n a r

P ar X . V I II . T h e l og i
d ema n d th a t
t icul a t e
b e for e d ea li g w i t h a j u g men t o r r ea son i n g
e n o un ce

n
men t is
d t he ,

d
ca l p o s t ul a t e .
e p es s e d in l a n g ua g e t h e i mpor t o f it s
x r ,

t er ms sh ould b e fully u n d er st oo d in oth er w o s L og i c post u r ,

l a t e s t o b e a ll o w e d t o st a t e ex pli cit ly in l a n g uag e a ll t h a t is

i mpli citly con t a i n e d in t he th oug ht .

T hi s po st ul a t e c a n n ot b e r efus e d I n poi n t of fa ct a s I h a v e s a id .
, ,

L og i c h a s a l wa ys pr o ce e d e d o n it in o v e r t ly e ,
x

d
T hi p t l t os u a e
r e s si n a ll t he s t e s o f t h e me n t a l
s can
p g p p r o c es s i n
no t b f
e r e use .

r ea so n i a ll t h e iti f yll i m
g r
p po os o n s o a ns o
g, s ;
w h e r e a s in common pa l a n ce o n e a t l ea s t O f t h e se s t eps o r p op o s i
,
r , r

t i on s is u s u a lly l e ft un e pr e ss e d T hi s po s t ul a t e a s w e s h a ll h a v e
x .
,

o cca si on t o O b s e v e in t h e s e ue l t h o u h a fun d a me n t a l co n di t i o n
q r
g ,

d
o f L o i c h a s n ot b e e n co n s i s t e n tly a ct e d on b l i i i t h i
g , y o
g c a n s n e r

d eve l opmen t of t he sci e ce ; a f om t hi s omi ssi on h a v e a i sen n n r r

1 A rt . M etap h y sics ,

d
Ehwy clop ce uz Br it a n n ica , 7th e d it .
, p 62 0
. E . D

11
82 L O G IC L E C T VI

d d
. . .

much
L og i c
f i an d eci en cy a n e r r or in our pr es en t syst e m of
co n us o n

T he ill us tr a t i on of t hi s pos t ul a t e will a ppr o pr i a t ely n

. i ts d
p l a c e o n o c ca s i o n o f it s a ppli ca t i o n s I n o w a r t i cul a t e ly s t a t e it
.
,

an at
p d
b e ca us e it i mme di a t e ly foll o w s in o r d er t he g e n e r a l a x i oms o f t h e
s ci e n ce r ese n t I on ly b eg t h a t y o u will b e a r it in mi n d
, ,

ma y h o w e v e r b efor e l e a v i n g t he s ubj ect O b se v e

I .

r
, , ,

d
wh a t h a s a l r e a dy I b e li e v e b ee n me n t i o n e d

pli d lh d
im
T hi s p t l t os u a e
( , , ) ,

d hl S stat emen t a li es t o L o i c i n en er a l t h a t
i t i
t h a t A r i st o tl e st a t e s of s yll og i s ti c a n
n e oc r n e
o f co ur se
e
, ,
o f S y ll g m o is , a ccor

i g t A r is t o l e
n o t . pp g g
t h e d octr i n e of syll og i s m d e a l s n ot w ith t h e e x ,

t er n a l e x pr e ssi on o f r e a son i n g in o r di n a y l a n g ua g e b ut wi t h t he
d
,
r ,

i t er n a l r ea s on i n g of t he mi n d it se l f But of thi s a g a i n a n mor e

n .
1
,

fully in t he pr oper pl a ce s
, .

I n li ke ma n n e r w e mi g ht h er e a s is d o n e in M a th ema t i cs pr e
, , ,

mi se ce t a i n d en iti on s ; b ut th e se it will b e mor e con v e i e n t t o

r n

s t a t e a s th e y o cc ur in t h e pr og r e s s of o ur d e v e l o pme n t I t h er e .

for e pa s s on t o t h e S econ d S e ct i on of t he D oct r i n e of E l e men t s ,

whi ch is o ccupi e d with t he P r o d uct s of T h oug h t ; in oth er w or d s ,

with the pr oc esses r eg ul a t e d by t he pr evi ous c on diti on s .

1 A n a l. P ost , i 10
o t 0 ED .
 LECT URE V I I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N I I .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I . E NN OE M A T IC O F C O N C E P T S O R N O T IO N S .

A . O F C O N C E P T S IN G E N E RA L .

I C ON CLU D E D ,
in my
l a st l ect ur e a ll th a t I thin k it n ecess a r y t o ,

sa y in r e g a r d t o t h e F un d a me n t a l L a w s O f T h oug ht or t he n e ce s ,

dd
sa r y co n di t i o n s of t h e t hi n ka b l e T he di s cuss i o n I a m a w a r e must .
, ,

h a ve b e en foun d so mew h a t r y a n e ven a b st r use ; n ot t h a t t h er e ,

is t he s ma ll es t di f c ul t y in r e g a r d t o t he a ppr e h e n si on of t he l a ws
th e mse l ves for th es e a r e a ll s elf e vid e n t pr opo sit ion s b ut b e ca use
,
-
, ,

th o ug h it is n e ce ssa r y in a sy st e ma ti c v i e w of L og i c t o commen ce

d d
wi th t he e l e men t a r y pr i n ci pl es of t h o ug h t it is i mpo ssib l e in spe ak
in g o f t h ese a n t h e i r a ppli ca t i on n o t t o e mpl o y e x pr e ssi o n s o f t he ,
, ,

a n ce w i t h w or d s a n d
mo st a b st r a ct g en er a lit y a n e v e n n o t t o s uppo s e a cer t a i n a cq ua i n t
t hi n g s w hi ch h o w e v e r o n l y n
n a t i on in t he s ub se q ue n t d e v e l o pme n t of t h e s ci e n ce
,

,
th ei r ex pla , ,

.
d
H a v i n g con sid er e d t h e e for e t h e fo ur L a w s of T h oug ht wi t h t h e
,
r , ,

o n e P o st ul a t e o f L o g i c whi ch con s t i t ut e d t he
p d
,

Th e t f F i r st S e ct i o n o f t he D octr i e o f L og i ca l E le
ro uc s o n

J d dR wh i ch i s con ver san t ab out L o i ca l P r od uct s

T h gh t c
ou pt
me n t s I n o w pr oce e d t o t he S e con d t h a t
on ce s
,
ugm t en s an ea

swi g n s. g .

d
T h e s e pr o d uct s t h o ug h id en t i ca l in ki n d a r e o f , ,

th r ee di ffer en t d egr e e s ; for whil e C on cept s J ud g men t s a n Re a , ,

s on in s a r e a ll e u a lly t h e r o d uct s o f t h e s a me F a cul t f C m

g , q p y O o
p ar

dt f C mp i
Th ese ll pare an a
q
ro d
i son t h e y s t ill fa ll i n t o t h r e e cl a sses a s t he a ct
,

co n s e ue t ly t h e r e s ult o f t h e a ct is o f a
, n ,
,

d
,
,

dll m d r e a t er o r a l e ss S 1 m li ci t h h
uc s o o a r s on
g
,

p y T e s e t r ee e e es g r

j d
a
an i ti

d
a o ca on s

ugm t en
a r
.
e a ll in fa ct s t r i ct ly o n ly m o di c a t i o n s o f ,
t h e
,

s econ d a s b o t h con ce t s a n a i n s ma y b e
p r e , s on g
r e d u ce d t o j ud me n t s ; for t h e a ct o f j ud i n t h t i t h t f
g g g a s e a c o , ,

a fr mi o r d e n yi n n e thi f t h i t h ht i t h t i
g n
g o
g o a n o e r n o u g n s a n ,

whi ch t he U n d er st a n di n g or F a c ulty O f C o mpa r i son is e ssen ti a lly

84 L O G I C . L E C T . V II .

e x pr es s e d By a n t icipa t ion z A c on c ept is a j ud g men t ; for on

.
,

t h e o n e h a n d it is n ot hi n g b ut t h e r e s ult of a for e g o n e j ud g me n t o r
s e r i e s o f j ud g me n t s x e d a n
,

r e cor d e d in a w o d , a si n ; a n

is o n ly a mpli e d b y t h e a n n e x a t i o n of a n e w a t t r i b ut e t h r oug h a
g itd r d ,

c o t i n u a n ce o f t h e s a me pr o ce s s
n

is t h us t h e sy n t h e s i s or co mpl e x i on a n
O n t he o th e r h a n d a s a co c e pt
t h e r e cor d I ma y a of
.

, d ,
,

d
d
n

o n e o r mo r e p i o r a ct s O f j ud g me n t it ca n it is e v id e n t b e a n a lyz e d
r , , ,

i t o t h e s e a g a i n ; e ve r y co n cept is in fa ct a j ud g me n t or a fa s cicu
n , ,

l us of j ud g me t s
,
d
t h es e j ud g men t s o n ly n o t e x pli ci t ly d e v el ope d
n

in t h o ug h t a n n ot fo r ma lly e x pr e ss e d in t e r ms .

A g a i n a r e a s on i n g is a j u d g me n t ; for a r ea s on is o n ly t h e a fr ma
,

ti on of t he con n ect i on of t wo t hi n g s wi t h a t hi r d a n t h r o ug h th a t ,d ,

thi r d w i t h e a ch oth er I t is th us on ly t he s a me fun cti on of t h oug h t

,

whi ch is a t w or k in C on ce pt i o n J ud g men t a n
.

Rea s on i n g ; a n
th e se e x pr ess n o r ea l n o esse n t i a l di s t i n cti on of o pe r a t i on b ut
, , d d
,

, , ,

d e ot e o n ly t he di ffe r en t r el a ti on s in whi ch w e ma y r eg a r d t he i n di
n

vi s i b l e a ct o f th oug h t T h us t h e co n sid e r a t i on of co n ce pt s ca n n o t
.

be e ffe ct e d o ut of a ll r e l a ti on t o a n w i t h o ut e v e n s o me a ti ci pa ti on
,

, d n

of t h e d o ct r i n e of j u d g me n t s
,
T hi s b e i n g p e mi se d I n o w pr o ce e d . r ,

t o t h e co n s id e r a t i on of t h e P r o d u c t s o f T h o ug h t v i e w e d in t h e
th r e e r e l a t i on s of t he th r ee d eg r ee s of C on cepts J ud g men t s a n , ,
,

,
d
Rea so n i n g s 1
.

U n d e t h e S econ d S ect i on of S t oi ch e i ol og y C on cept s or N ot i o s

r ,
n

for m t h e s t ch a pt er r .

N o w in t r e a ti n g o f C on cept s t h e or d e r I s h a ll fo ll o w is thi s I
, ,

s h a ll in t h e r s t pl a ce t e a t of t h e m in g e n e a l ;
, ,
r r

d f t he for mer or en e r a l h ea d will be con sid er ed

I Of C pt
in t h e seco n d t r e a t o f th e m i speci a l U n d er
. on ce s or
n

d
, .

N tio on s , or er o

i i
s cus s on g , , ,

Wh a t t h e y a r e ; H ow t h e y a r e p o d uce d
d
.

r .

U d e r t h e l a tt er or speci a l h ea th e y w ill b e con s id e e d u d er

n

t h e i r v a r i o us r e l a ti o n s A n
,

h e r e I ma y ob ser v e t h a t a s y o u
. d ,

, ,
r n

O b t a i n n o i n fo r ma ti on fr o m D Wh a t ely in r e r.

232 33122232? a r d t o t he i m a y l a w s of th o ug h t h
8 1 8
g p t e se r r ,

d d
0 11

ce p t s
l a w s b e i n g i n fa ct a ppa r e n t ly u n k o w n t o e v e y n r

d
,

B i t i sh l og i ci a n O l or n e w r s o y o u will n , ,

b ut li t t l e o n o a i fr o m his E lemen ts t o w a r d s a n u n d e r st a n di g o f
r n

cuse d
t h e d o ct i n e o f co n ce pt s
r H is o mi ssi o n in thi s r e spe ct c a n ot b e e x
.

b y his e o r in r eg a r d t o t h e O bj ect ma tt er of L og i c ; th a t obj e ct

rr
,

-
,
n

y o u w ill r e coll e ct b e i n
g o n h is v i e w o r,
r a t h e o n e o f h is v i e w s n o t ,
r ,

t h o ug ht in g e n e a l o r t h e pr o d uct s o f t he c ompa r a t i ve fa cul t y in

r ,

1 [H u me
,
T r ea t is e f
o H ma n
u N a t ur e
,
Bk . i .
p r eh en si on is imp ossib le w ith out u g men t
K
j d .

p a r t iii 7 J a c T h o ma s in s , P hy si ca , p 295]
d C o mp a r e a ls o r ug , L ogi k, 23 , A n m ii p 70 .
. . . . . . .

1 12, wher e he h ol s t ha t si mple ap

'

[ c x hx ED
. . .
]
L E C T V II . . L O G I C .

th e ir t h r e e d egr e es b ut r e a s on i n g or a r g umen t a ti on a l on e for ev e n

,

o n t h e hy pot h e s i s t h a t L o g i c is t h us li mi t e d s t ill a s t h e d o ct i n e o f

r e a so i g ca n o n ly b e s ci e n ti ca lly e v o l v e d o ut O f t h e
n n o ct r i n e o f
, ,

d r

con ce pt s t he co n s id e r a t i on of t he l a t t e r fo r ms t he i n di spe s a b l e
,
n

co n di t i o n o f a s a t i s fa ct o r y t r e a t men t o f t he for me r But n ot o n ly is .

Wh a t e ly s d o ct r i n e of con ce pt s or in his l a n g ua g e of t he pr o ce ss
d d

, , ,

of s i mpl e a ppr e h e n s i o n me a g r e a n i mper fe ct it is ev e n n eces sa r y

, ,

t o fo r e w a n y o u th a t it l e a d s t o con fus i o n a n
d
r er r o r T h e e is a . r

fun d a men t a l di st i n ct i on of wh a t is ca ll e d t he E x ten s i on a n t h e

C omp r ehen s i on o f ot i o n s a di st i n ct i o n w hi ch
d
n
,

Wh t ly b i ly a e in fa ct a s y o u will n
a us ve for ms t he v e r y ca di n a l , ,
r

d
mp y t h t m E
f o i n t o n w hi ch t h e w h o l e t h eo y o f L o i c t ur n s
e o s e er S x '

t
en si o n C mp
p
an o re
g r .

h i ti bl
en s o n as con vep
B u t n o t o n ly i s t h i s d
e.
i s t i n ct i o n n o t e x
p l a n e d it is i ,

n ot e v en a r t i cul a t e ly s t a t e d n a y t h e v e r y w or d s ,

whi ch l og i ci a n s h a v e empl oy e d for t h e e x pr essi on of t his co n t r a st

d
'

a r e a b s o l ut e ly u s e d a s s y n on y mo us a n co n v e r t i b l e I n s t e a d t h er e .
,

for e of r efer i n g y ou for i n fo r ma t i o n in r eg a r d t o o ur pr es en t O bj e ct

,
r

O f co n s id e r a t i on t o D r Wh a t e ly I a m sor r y t o b e co m e ll e d t o
, .
p ,

ca ut i o n y o u a g a i n s t u tti n con d e n c e in his u id a B u t t

p g g n ce o r e .

t ur n T he foll owi n g I di ct a t e a s t he titl e O f t he r st h ea d t o b e

.
,

c on sid er e d

N
A Of C
in
on cept s
A . OfC on c ept s or N o ti on s in G en er a l : Wh t a
ot i o n s g e n er a l
h ey 9
.

Wh at t h ey a r e.
ar e t

t he
In a n swer n

i
i g thi s
dc
q u es t o n , i
dly
l et u s,

t he
r st,
n a t ur e of
c on sid er
t he t
the
hi n g
me a n i n g of
d
d
ex r ess o n s ; an se on ex
pr e ss e
p , ,
.

'
l XI X; C on cep t or n oti on
( Z
r/ vo w , w m ua , vorjpt a ,

con cep ti o, n oti o

) ,
ar e t e r ms e mpl oy e d a

F a n XI X i bl e b ut whil e t h ey d en ot e t h e s a me
C o n ce p t s c on v e r t , ,
m or th e

; gf
g
thie
n
g t h e y d e n ot e it in a di ffer en t
p o i n t of ,

v iew C on cep ti on t he a ct of whi ch con cep t .

,

is t h e r esult ex pr e ss es t h e a ct of c o mpr e h en di n g or gr a spi n g up

,

d
1 In

d G r eek ,th e t er ms w oza

'

d
l ius , L ex i con P hilos op hi cum,
80, lv A ia ua r a
p 890, v . N d
m ta , .

( w ona a r m s) 1r fy 0i a ( rr wonr C f p 3 10, v C on

d
uv na a uc an I) . . . . .

d d
,

m
I
I n tm h m E D ] O n l on/wa r .
i
1
( em { 13


ON n o thin g o f e ir wonua
.

V t o sa y
j A r i st o t l e D I n t erp r Wa t m C

d
se e e c l an l z , o
m ) mo r e
.
, ,
.

l es s ob ecti on ~
.

a r e a ll
'
vona a r s , or
men ta r ius 327 In A r ist o t l e , D A n ima ,

d
e
p
mor e mb i g uously
. .
,
a b l e , a s a ll or less a us e for
l i u ' cc 6 4; Ma 'r a
"

8 8 9
j 7 et o

d
11 0 are

d
.

the ob e ct or pr o uct~ of t h o ug h t , in a n a ct o f
mea n i n g
. .

cl e a r ly e q u i va le n t t o con cep ts i n our ,

C on ce pt i on or , as i t h a s b ee n u su a ll y ca ll e

w3
,

[ 0 6 , H W 03V r a w 5O t a zper
d
b y t he l o g icia n s , S impl e A ppr eh e n sion S ee
. v 70 "

d d
.

d
7 06 m m, 1r epi 5 owe { o n 7 b f Se

Bl emmi a s , E p it ome L og i ca [ c v H ep) E mu

. . cu o s
. ,

l ml m x/ S ea ls
i
a a s, p 31, . e . 1 605 .
E D E ug en i os , L og i ca ica l 7 b ipe os 7 6 A nS es , T lS

S te ph a n u s , T hesa ur us , v N o us ; H ock er , C la vis

'
.
ED ] .

P hil A r tist , v N opa r a , p 22 7 et s eq M icr a e

. . . .
 86 L O G I c . L E C T . V II .

i n to
d ity t he v ar i ous qua liti es b y w h ich a n obj e ct is ch a ra ct er
un

iz e ; n oti on ( n oti o ) a g a i n s i g n i es e i t h e r t h e a ct of a pp e
,

h e n di n g s i g n a lizi n g t h a t is t he r emar ki g or t aki n g n ot e of

,

n
r

, , , ,

t h e v a i o us ot es ma r ks o r ch a r a ct e s of a n O bj e ct whi ch it s
r n , ,
r ,

u a li t i e s a ffo r d ; o r t h e r e s ult of t h a t a ct
q .

In L a ti n , t he w or d con cip er e in ,
it s ma n y p i
v a r o us
p li ca t i o ns a ,

d
a l wa y s e x pr e ss es e t y mo l o y w o uld i di
d ,
as t he g n

I l lust r a te , e m

ca t e, t h e pr o cess of e mbr a ci n g or co mp r ehen in g

pl oy me n t
d ar ti cul a t e a n a lysi s of the h r a ses in w hi chythe
of t he a ni mo
1 mm i
the ma n y
h o wn b a n i n to the on e, a s co u ld be s
con c p er e a n
an imi w m mm s p

d
,

t er m o ccur s I t w a s a ccor di g ly un d e r t hi s .
,
n
,

en e r a l s i n i c a ti o n t h a t t hi s w o r d a n it d i t i w
g g s e r v
, a v e s e r e a n a

d d
l og i ca lly a ppli e d t o t he O per a t i on o f mi n d A imo vel men te con . n

c ip e e a s u s e

ddd
b y C i ce r o P li n y S en e ca a o t h er Roma n w i t e r s
r , n r
, , , ,

me a n s t o comp r ehen or un er s ta n t h a t is t o emb r ace a mul t i t ud e , ,

o f di ffe r e n t O bj e ct s b
y t h e i r c o

d
mm o n
q u a li t i es

th ought ; a n a n imi con cep tu s w a s in like ma n n er a ppli e d b y t h e

i n t o on e a ct o f

, ,

a n ci e n t w r it e r s t o d e n ot e t hi s o e r a ti o n or it s r e s ul t
p
me n t
T h e e m l oy
p
o f con cip er e,
,

con cep tu s , an
.

d con cep ti o,

as

d p w W th Wi th out the ex l a n a t or y a d un ct wa s of a l a t er
Of
t ech n i ca l t e r ms in t h e P hil o s op of M i n d hy
t d
, ,
t us , a n con ce t , i

ou ja t un c p j ,

d
,

i n t r o d uct i o n w a s i d ee d on ly possi b l e a ft er ,
n ,

th e y h a b ee n l on g fa mili a r ly u se d in a ps y ch ol ogi ca l r el a t i o But n .

wh e n s o i n t r o d u ced t h e y co t i n ue d t o b e e mpl o y e d b y phil osoph e s

,
n r

com r ehen s i on a n
p as o
pp o s e d t o t h e me r e a
,
d
in g e e r a l in t h e i r pr o per si g n i ca t i on a s co n v e r t i b l e wi t h th oug ht or
n

pp r ehen s i on o f S e s e n

o r I ma i a t i on N ot i n d e ed th a t e x a m l es e n o u h ma n ot b e
g n .
p , g y ,

a dd uce d o f t h e i r a b u s i v e a li c a t i on t o o ur i mme di a t e c o i t i o s o f
pp g n n

i n di v id ua l obj e ct s l on g b efo e M r S t e w a r t for ma lly a ppli e d t he

,
r .

t er m con cep ti on t o a ce r t a i n a ccid e n t a l fo r m of r epr e se n t a t i o n t o

t h e si mpl e r epr o d u ct i o n o r r e pe t i t i o n o f a n a ct O f pe ce pt i on in
d
r

i mag i n a t i on I n u s i n g t h e t e r ms con cep ti on a n

d
1
. con cep t in t h e

s e s e whi ch I h a v e e x l a i n e
n I t h e r e fo e e mpl o y t h e m n o t on ly in r
p ,

s t i ct c o n fo r mi t y t o t h e i r
r r a mma ti ca l me a n i b ut t o t h e me a n i n
g g g n ,

whi ch t h e y h a v e g en er a lly o b t a i n e d a mon g phil osoph e s

d
r .

T he t e r m n oti on li ke con cep ti on e x p e s se s b ot h a a ct a n

,
it s ,
r n

r o d u ct I s h a ll h o wev e r a s h a s co mmo ly n
p .
, ,

i i y d
Th t m
e er
bee d on e u s e it o n ly in thi s l a t t er r e l a t i o
n n
b y th
.
,
h
3 21
o e 8

,
T h s w o r d h a s l ke con cep ti on b e e n s o me t mes
i ,
i , i

a b u s i v e ly a li e d t o d e ot e o t o n ly o ur k o w l n
pp n n

e d g e O f thi n s b y th e i r c o mmo n ch a r a ct e r s b ut li ke wi se t o i n cl ud e
g , , ,

1 S ee L ect ur es on M ta p hy sics , p 452 . s eq . ED .

L V II L O G I C 87

d
E C T . .

t he mer e pr esen t a ti on s O f S en se a n r epr esen t a ti on s O f P h a n t a s y .

T hi s a b us i v e e mpl oy men t h a s, h o w e ver , n ot b e e n so fr e q ue n t in

r e fe r e n c e t o t hi s t e r m a s t o t h e t e r m con cep ti on ; b ut it mu s t b e

a ckn o w l e d g e d , t h a t n o t hi n g ca n b e i ma g i n e d mor e v a g ue a n v a cil d

l a t i n g t h a n t he me a n i n g a tt a ch e d t o n oti on in t he w r i t i n g s of all
Br i t i s h phil o s oph e r s, wi t h o ut e x cept i on
d
S O mu ch for t he e x pr es .

i
s on s con cep t an n oti on . I n ow
g o on to t h at whi ch th e y ex
p r ess .

1T X X h n s i on O f a n i n di
C i
1
. In ppo ur e o n s c o us n e s s a re

v id ua l obj e ct th er e ma y b e di s ti n g ui sh e d ,

d
t h e t wo foll o wi n g c og iti o n s :
-x x
P ar
T he n
-
( ) b N atur e of th e
i mme d i a t e a n i r r e s e ct i v e kn o wl e d e w e
t hin g ,
p g
h a ve of the i n di v id ua l O bj ect a s a compl e ,

d
men t of cer t a i n q ua li t i e s or ch a r a ct e r s con sid e r e d si mply a s ,

b e l on g i g t o i t s e l f n T he me di a t e a n . r e l a ti v e k o w l e d g e n

w e h a v e o f thi s O bj ect as compr i s i n g qu a liti es o r ch a r a ct er s ,

co mmo n t o it w i t h o t h er O bj e ct s .

d d
T he fo r me r of t h es e cog i t i o n s is th a t c on t a i n e d in t h e P r e n

s cut a t i o s o f S e n s e e x t e r n a l a n
n i n t er n al a Repr ese t a t i on s
, ,
n n

o f I ma i n a t i o n T h e y a r e o n ly o f t h e i n di v id ua l o r s i ul a
g .
g r n .

d
T he l a t t e r is th a t co n t a i n e d in t h e C o cept s of t he U n d er n

s t a n di n g a n is a kn owl e d g e of t h e co mmon g e n er a l or un i
, , ,

v er sa l .

d
T h e con ce i vi n g a n O bj e ct is th e r e for e it s r e cog n i t i on me di , ,

a t e ly t h o u h a co n ce t r a a C o c e t is t h e co i t i on o r
g p ; n n
p g n

id e a o f th e g e e a l ch a r a ct er or ch a r a ct er s poin t o r po i n t s in
n r , ,

whi ch a pl u a li t y of O bj e ct s coi n cid e r .

T hi s re
q i
ill ustr a t i on a n it will b e b e st a ffor d e d b y
u r e s so me
c on s id e i g t h e hi st o r y of o u r kn owl e d e O ur
,
d
r n
g .

ill t t d
C o n cept th i s,
me n t a l a ct i v i t y is n o t r st e x er t e d in a n a ppr o
e r na

tur e by f
us r a e re
e er a l co mmon r o e r t i es O f
.

h e n S i on O f t h e
g p p n

wl d
e r e n ce t th hi t y

d
o e s or

o f k
ou r g no thi ne
g s e.O n t h e co t r a r y O bj e c t s a
. e o
g i n a lly n ,
r ri

O bj t
ted d t i on s T he r ud e ma t er i a l s fur n sh e d b y S en se
e se n t e d t o u s in c o n fus e d a n i m r fe ct
ig i
ec s a r e o r ll y na
p e r ce
r
p e
p p
dmp f t p p r eta in e d in M emor y r e od uce d b Re mi is
p r e se n m f co n use
. . i ,

d
an i e r ec e r ce

ti on s p y ,
r n

dd
,

ce n ce a n re e se n t e d in I ma i n a t i o n t h e U n
p g ,
r ,

d
e r s t a n in e l a b or a t e s i t o a hi h er k o wl e d e s i m ly b m
g g g n
p y e a ns n ,

d
of C om a i so A b s t a ct i o T h i m y t f C m i
p a r nn ne
p a r a c r o o
p a r s o n
. r

is exe r t e d upon t h e i n di v id u a l obj e ct s of P er cepti on a n I ma g i n a t i on

1 O n t his and
d t h r e e fo ll o w in g p a r a g r aph s
dd et s eq .
[ M e ita tion esd d
c C og n i t ion e V er ita te,

d I eis E D ]
a pp l y L e ib n it z s

is tin ct ion o f I n t u it ive a n et . .

S y mb olica l K n o wle g e, see O p er a 11 . i p 14

. .
88 L O G I C L E C T V II

df l
. . .

l I n t he multit u d e ity of th ese O bj e ct s cer t a i n mp

a on e . an co ex ,

a t t r i b ut e s a r e o un d t o pr o d uce s i mil a o t h er s r,

dA b t ti v a t i on of this fa ct d et er mi n es a r e e ct i ve con
f C mp i
t o p o d uce di ss i mil a r i mpr e ssi on s
O f ces o o ar
T he O b s e r
r ,
.

s on an s r ac on

or a tt ti
en on .

s id e r a t i o n o f t h e i r p ope r t i e s O bj e ct s a r e in r .

d
t e t io n a lly c o mpa r e d t og e t h e r fo r t he pur po s e of di s co v e i n g t h e i r
n r

s i mil a i t i e s a nr di ffe e n ce s Wh e n t hi g s a r e fo un d t o a g r e e or t o
r . n

d
di s a g r e e i cer t a i n r e spe cts t h e co n s ci o usn ess is b y a n a ct of v oli
n , ,

ti on co n ce t r a t e d upon t h e obj e ct s w hich t h us par t i a lly a g r ee a n

d
n
, , ,

in t h e m u pon t h ose q ua li t i es in or t h r o ug h whi ch t h e y a g r e e ; a n

,

b y t hi s co n ce n t r a t i on whi ch co n s t i t ut es t he a ct ca ll e d A tten ti on
wh a t is e ffe ct e d ? O n t h e O bj e ct s a n qua liti e s th us a t t e n t i v ely d ,

c on sid e r e d a st r on g li g ht is sh e d ; b ut pr eci s e ly in pr opor t i on a s

,

th es e a r e ill umi n a t e d in co sci ousn ess t he ot h er s t o w hi ch w e o n , ,

d
n o t a t t e n d a r e t h r o w n i n t o ob s cu i t y
,
r .

T he r e sul t o f A tt e n ti on b y co n ce n t r a t i n g t h e mi n d upo n ce r t a i n
,

ua liti e s is t h us t o wi t hd r a w o r a b st r a ct it f o m
q ,
r

dA b t ti d d dd
A tf m
a ll e l s e I n t e ch n i ca l l a n g ua g e w e a e s a id t o
P i i
r esc S on en
i i .
,
r
an s r ac on are

l ti
cor r e a n am es f
ve p r esci n t
or
h e
p h a en o me n a wh i c h w e e x c l u s i v e ly

th e sa m p e co n s id er
r ocess , T o p r es ci n to a tten . an t o a bs tr a ct , , ,

d
a r e me r e ly di ffe r e n t b ut C o r e l a t i v e n a me s for r

Wh en
d d
t h e s a me pr oce ss ; a n t h e r s t t wo a r e n e a r ly con v er t i b l e .

w e a e s a id t o p r es ci n a q ua li t y w e a e me r e ly s uppo se d t o a tt e n d
r
,
r

t o th a t q u a li t y e x cl us i v e ly ; a n wh en w e a b st r a ct w e a e pr ope ly ,
r r

s a id t o a bs tr a ct f r om t h a t is t o th r o w o th er a t t r i b u t e s o ut o f a o
, ,

c oun t I ma y O b se v e t h a t t he t er m a bs tr a cti on is v e r y O ft en ab u
. r

s iv ely e mpl o y e d By A b s t r a ct i on w e a e fr e q uen t ly s a id t o a t t e n d

. r

e x cl us i v e ly t o c er t a i n h n ome n a t h t wit w hi h w h
p ae os e o c e a , , ,

d
s t r a ct ; wh e r e a s t h e t e r m a bs tr a cti on is r o e r ly a li e d t o the
, p p pp

d
u a li t i e s whi ch w e a b st r a ct fr om b b t t i f m m w
q ; a n
y a s r a c n
g o s o e e r ,

a r e e a b l e d t o co n s id e r o th e r s mo r e a t t en t i v e ly
n A t t en t i on a n .

A b st a ct i on a r e o n ly t h e s a me pr o ce s s v i e w e d in di ffer e t r e l a t i o n s

d
r n .

T h e y a r e a s it w e r e t he pos iti v e a n
,
n e a t i ve
, g p ol es of t he s a me

a ct
l
.

d
By C o mpar i s on t h e poi n t s O f r e se mb l a n ce a mon g th i n g s b e i n g
,

th us di sco v er e d a n b y A t t en ti on c on sti t ut e d i t o e cl us i ve o h
,
n x

j e ct s ; b
y t h e sa m e a c t th e y a r e a l so r e d u c e d i n co n s ci o u sn e s s f o m r

mul t i t u d e t o un ity Wh a t is me a n t b y thi s will b e a ppa r e n t fr o m

.

t h e foll o wi n g con s id er a ti on s .

1 S ee L
Bach ma n n , L og i k,
ect ur es on

M eta p hy si cs , p 4 74
44 . C omp a r e
.
, a
n

K an t
d L og i k,
L ogik,
6; K r ug
,
L og ik, 49 ED
[ S ch ulz e ,
.

28 ; D r ob isch , L og ik, 1 4 , p 11 ct s eq ]
.

. .
,
L E C T . V II . L O G I C 89

W e a r e co n sc ous i l
h a t w e ca n r epea t our a ct s of con
to our se v es t

d d
s cio us n es s t h a t w e ca n t hi k t h e sa me t h o u h t n
g
m
f m m l t d
Th
T hi s a ct o r t hi s t h o ug h t is a l
e re u on
o ver a n over

pl m d
.
, ,
J t
ec s ro u ti u e
w y l i t y t h e s a me t h o u h ma n i fe s t e d a t

d ill t t d
a s i n r e a
to i y
un t _ ex a e g ,

an us r a e di ffer e n t t i mes : for n o o n e ca n i mag i n e t h a t in

.

T h g ht i m
ou h e r e e t i t i on o f o n e a h e s a me t h o u h t h e
?
s " a?
t p t g n
,

id
d
th e m sa Wh l e i e 8

t
c on e n t s a r e i l
h as a
p
en t ca
l u r a li t y o f t h o ug ht s ; fo r he is c o n s ci o us
.

th a t it is on e a n t he sa me th oug ht whi ch is
r e pe a t e d s o l o n g a s it s co n t en t s r e ma i
,
id en t i ca l n .

N o w t hi s r e l a t i on of a b s ol ut e si mil a i t y w hi ch sub si s t s b e t w e en
,
r

t h e r e pe t i t i o n s of t he s a me t h o ug ht is fo un d t o ,

O bj t t
ec s a l e th
h old b et wee n o ur r e pr es en t at i on s of t he r es em
o e a

m Whe n
dt g h ila r ua li ti e s o n ly a s t h ese ua lit i es a ffo d a
m
g
sa e
b li n g q ua li t i e s O f obj e ct s T w o O bj e ct s h a v e s im .

a bl e t o is in ui s

t hei r g iti co n on s q q r

d
,

s i mil a r pr e s e n t a t i on in s e n s e o r a s i mil a r r e pr e

sen t a t io n in i ma i n a t i o n a n u a li t i es a r e t o us co mpl e t e ly s i mil a r

g q , ,

w h e w e a r e u n a b l e t o di s t i g ui s h t h e i r cog n i t i o s
d
But wh a t w e

n n n .

c a n n o t di s t i n g ui s h is t o us t he s a me ; t h e r e fo r e O bj e ct s w hi ch
, , , e ,

d
t er mi e un di st i n g ui s h ab l e i mpr e ssi on s upon us a r e per ce i v e d a n
d
n ,

r e r ese n t e d in t he s a me me t a l mo di ca t i o n a n a r e s ubj e cti v e ly

p n ,

t o us pr e ci s e ly a s if t h e y w e e obj e ct i v e ly id e n t i c a l r .

But t he c on s ci ous n e ss of id e t i t y is n o t me r e ly t h e r e s ul t o f t he n

i n di sce r n ib l e si mil a r i t y o f t ot a l O bj e ct s it is ,

e q ua lly t h e r e s ul t o f t he s i mil a i t y o f a n f
id
Th e i c on sc ousn e ss
y o r

t it y i
en q lly t h e i r pa r t s pa r t i a l ch a a ct e s
s e ua
F or b y a h r r .

s t r a ct in O b ser va t i o f o m t he u a li t i es oi ts

d
n
ty
ar i f oy f th an o
g e
q p n r , ,

p i
ar t al h t c f i n
a r ac er s whi c h O
o
b j e c t s di f
f e r a n li m i t i n
g i t t o t h ose ,

o bj t ec s in w hi ch t h e y a g r e e w e a r e a b l e t o con s id er ,

th em a s id en t i ca l in cer t a i n r e spe ct s h o we v er ,

di v er s e t h e y ma y appe a r t o b e in o t h er s whi ch fo r t he mome n t

w e t h o w o ut of v i e w
r F o r e x a mpl e : le t B C a n
. D r e pr e s en t a
,

, ,
,

d ,

s e r i e s o f i n di vid u a l obj e ct s w hi ch a ll a r e e in

b li n g a t t r i b ut e s o f y y y a n
o s ses s i t h r e se mb li n t t-
g

r i b ut e s i o u
p,

N
d
o s se ss i n g t h e r e s e m

s e v e r a lly di ffer in e a ch r e spe ct i v ely

,

o w in s o fa r a s
p g e n
n o n
g a , , .
,

w e e x cl us i v e ly a t t e n d t o t h e r es e mb li n g q ua li t i e s w e in t h e r s t , ,

p l a ce O b s cur e o r r e mov e o ut o f v i e w th e i r n on r e semb li n

, g c h ar a c -

t er s i o u w hil e w e r ema i n e cl usi v ely c on sci ous o f t h e i r r e s em

, , ,
x

b lin g q ua li ti e s y y y But in t h e se con d pl a ce t h e q u a li t i e s

.
, ,

ex

d p e sse d b
y y y y d t m i i u i t i
d i w hi h w re
r e e e s co n e e e e s c e a
r n n
g v n r
g
un a b l e t o i st i n g ui sh a n whi ch w e th e r efor e co n sid er a s t h e
"

, , ,

We th er efor e v i e w t he t hr ee si mil a r qua lit i es in t h e th r ee

d
s a me .

differ en t obj e ct s a s a l so id en t i ca l ; w e con sid er t he y in thi s t he y

in t h a t a n t he y in t he thi r d obj e ct a s on e ; a n
,
in so fa r a s t he
12
,
d ,
90 L O G I C L EC T . V II .

t h r e e O bj ect s pa r ti cipa t e in t hi s on en e ss or id en tity we r eg a r d t h em

a s a l s o t h e s a me

B
I n o t h e r w o r d s w e cl a ssi fy B C a n D un d e r y
D
.

d
a r e it s i n di v id u a l s o r s pe ci es se v e a lly
, , ,
,

d ,

y is t h e g e n us C an , , ,
r

di st i n g ui s h e d f o m e a ch ot h e r b y t he on r es emb li n g pr ope r t i e s i
d
r n -
, ,

d
N o w it is t h e po i n t s O f s i mil a i t y t h us di s co v e e d a n
o u ,
.
,
id e n r r

t i e in t h e u ity o f con sci ousn e s s whi ch c o n st it ut e C o n cept s o r

n ,

N ot i o n s .

I t is e v id e n t t h a t t h e s a me pr o cess o f C o mpa r i s on a n A b st r a c d
t i o n ma y b e a g a i n pe r for me d on t h e co n ce pt s t h u s fo me d
ar e in li ke ma n n e r co mpa r e d t og e t h e r a n
,
T hey
,
r .

, d
d
G l i ti
en er a z a on
t h e i r po i n t s of r e s e mb l a n ce n o t ed e x cl us i v e ly
.

.
,

c on s id er e d a n r e d u ce d t o o n e in t h e s y n t h e s i s o f t h o u h t
, g T hi s .

d
r o ces s is c a ll e d G en er a li z a ti on th t i t h o ce s s o f e v o l vi n t h
p ; a s e
p g e ,
r

d
e n er a l or o n e o ut o f t h e i n di v id ua l a n m i
g a n ,

ty l d
C pt
on ce ti
fo ld
s or
N ot i o n s a n
on s
co n ce pt s a r e a l s o s o me t i me s
.

su P er IY uo uS S e

l
d es i n a t e d b
g y t h e s t yl e o f g en er a l n oti on s

d
g en er a .

g e n er a l co ce ti on s
p T hi s is s u e r u o us ; fo r in
p n .
,

r o r i e t y o f s e ech n o t i o s a n co n ce t s a r e i n t h e i r v e y n a t ur e
p n r
p p p , , ,

g e er a l ; w hil e t h e o t h e r c og n i t i v e mo di ca t i o n s t o whi ch t h e y a r e

o ppo se d
n

p e r ce pt i on s a
,
i m a i n a t i on s
g h n d
a v e in li ke ma n n e r ,
-
, ,

th e i r e ssen ce in t h e ir i di v id ua lity n .

Id
By t h e w a y y o u ma y h a v e n o t i ce d th a t I n ev er u s e t he t er m
i ea
,

T he r e a s o of m d
y .o n e m l o y me n t O f
p n n -

ea
,
r eas on
why t h a t w o d is t hi s : T h er e is n o pos s i b l e di v e r s i t y r

dd wh h usu e d a n i t w ould o ly co fuse ou w er e I d

O t g l ly mpl y u ar
f m i i hi h h m
f
re e
w h ot b e e n

O e a n n
g n c t a t t e r a s n

d p ;
d
o

e ,
an s en se i n ic
r n n
it i i ll y
s oc ca s o n a use
y ,

b y t h A th e u t o a tt e mpt t o e n ume a t e a n
or . e x pl a i n t h e m I r .

ma y h o w e v e r o c ca s i o n a lly n ot e s ch e w t he
, ,

w or d but if y o u ev er h ea r it f o m me I b eg y ou t o O b s er ve t h a t I
d
r , ,

d
a p ly it in a l o o se a e r a l si n i c a t i o n t o co m h n d t he
p , g e g n
p e n e ,
r

r e s e t a t i o n s of S en s e t h r e se n t a t i o n s o f P h a n t a s y t h
p n e r e
p ,
an e ,

W
d
c o ce t s o r n o t i o n s of t h e U d e r s t a n di
n e a e i w a t f
p g n o a n . r n n

e e ic te m t o e h w d
g n r
p r es sr t e se ; a t h e
x o r r ep r e s en t a ti o n
(r e
p n
r e

s en ta ti o
) whi c h s i n ce
, t h e t i m e o
,
f L e ib n it z h a s b ee n c o m m ly , on

us e d b y t he hil h O f t he C on t i e t I h a v e r e s t i ct e d t o n n r
p o s o
p e s r ,

d en ot e wh a t it o ly ca n in pr op i ety e pr ess t he i mme di a t e O bj e ct

, n r x ,

o r p o d uct o f I ma i n a ti on
r
g W e a e li ke w i se i w a n t of a
.
g en er a l r , ,
n

an d
t e r m t o e pr e ss wh a t is commo n t o th e pr es en t a t i on s of P e r cept i on
x

t h e r epr ese t a t i o s o f P h a t a s y t h a t is t h e i i di v id ua li t y a n
n n n , ,
r n d
,

i mme di a cy T he G e ma s e pr e ss t hi s by t he t e m A n s cha u un g
. r n x r
,

whi ch ca n o ly b e t a sl a t e d b y i n tu iti on (a s it is in L a t i b y G en
n r n n

ma n s ) w hi ch li t e a lly me a n s a lookin g a t T hi s e pr e s si o ha s
,
r . x n ,

h oweve r b een pr e occupi e d in E n g li sh t o d en ot e t he a ppr eh en si on

,

L V II L O c 10 91

E C T . .
.

we h a ve lf e vid en t t r ut h s a n it s a pplic a ti on in a differ en t sig

of se -
,

n i ca t io n w o uld t h e r e fo r e b e t o a ce r t a i n e x t en t li a b l e t o a m
, , ,

bj g uit y I s h a ll t h e e for e co n ti n ue fo r t he pr e se n t a t l e a st t o
.
,
r , ,

d
,

s t r ugg l e o n w i t h o ut s uch a co mmo n t e r m t h o ug h t h e n e ce s si t y t h us ,

i mpos e d of a l w a y s opposi n g pr esen t a ti on a n r epr ese n t a ti on t o con

c ept is b oth t e di ous a n pe r pl e x i n g d .

{l XXI . A c on cept ti on th us i n vol v es

or n o T he r epr o
s e n t a t ion o f a pa r t o n ly o f t h e v a r iOus a t t r i
m"
z
fgizz b ut e s o r ch ar a ct e r s of w hi ch a n i n di v id u a l
d
a r a

d
O

x x x ( a) A C o bj e ct is t h e s um an co n s e u e n t ly a ffo r d s
P ar . . on
q , ,

o n ly a o n e s id e d a i n a d e qu a t e kn owl ed ge
335342333 3 3 ;
1 - n

o f t he thi n g s whi c h a r e th ou h t un d er it
g .

T hi s is t oo si mpl e t o r e qui r e a n y commen t a r y I t is ev id en t th a t .

wh e n w e t hi k S o c a t es b y a n y O f t he co n c e t s

d
n r
Exp li i c a t on .
p ,

A then i a n , G r eek, E u r op ea n , ma n , bip e , a n i

ma l bei n g th r o w o ut of v i e w th e fa r
d
r e a t er n umb e r o f
t
, ,
e g
ch a r a c t e r s o f whi ch S o c r a t e s is t h e c o mpl e men t an t h o se li ke , ,

wi se whi ch mor e pr o i ma t ely d et er mi n e o r co n sti t ut e his i n divid u

,
x

a li t y I t is li ke wi s e e v id e n t th a t in pr o por t i on a s w e thi n k him

.
, , ,

b y a mo r e g e n e r a l co n cept w e s h a ll r epr esen t him b y a s ma ll e r

b un dl e of a tt r ib ut es a n
ar t i a l a n dc on se quen t ly r e pr e sen t him in a mo e
n e s id e d ma n n e r h if thi
,

n k him a s A the
d ,
,

,
r

p o T u s w -
e .
,

n i a n w e s h a ll t hi n k him b y a
,

t hi k him b y G r eek
n an

d
g r e a t e r n umb er O f
q
in li ke ma n e r o ur r e pr e s e n t a t i o n will d
u a li t i e s th a n if we

,
n ,

b e l es s a n l e s s a d e q u a t e a s w e t hi k him b y e v e y hi g h er co n cept
in t h e s e r i e s E ur op ea n ma n bip e a n i ma l bei n g
,
,

, ,
n

d, ,
r

1T XX I I . lt of a compa r i
A c on ce
pt or n o ti on a s , t he r esu

s o n n e ce s s a e sse s a r e l a t i o n I t is r ily ex p r
XX ( ) , .
,

d
d
P ar II b A C on

t h e r e fo r e n o t cog i z a b l e i n i t s e lf ; th a t i s i t
. .

c ep t a ff o r s n o a bso .
,
n ,

a o r s n o a b s o l ut e o r i r r e s e cti v e obj e ct o f
'

d
l ut e j w
o b e ct O f kn e l
e
p
g e.
kn o w l e d g e b ut ca n o n ly b e r ea l i z e d i n co ,
n

s cio u sn es s b a
y pp lyi n
g it a s a t e r m o f r e l a t i on t o on e o r mo r e , ,

o f t h e O bj e ct s w hi ch a r e e in t he i t i n t s o f r e se m
g p o n , o r
po

b l a n ce whi ch it e pr e s s e s x .

In thi s pa r agr a ph ( if I ma y a ll ud e t o wh a t y o u ma y n ot a ll b e

d
a w a r e o f is c o n t a i e d a ke
) y t o t h e w h o l e m y s t e r y
n o f G e n e r a liz a t i o n

d
an G en e r a l T e r ms ; fo r t he wh ol e di sput e s b e t w e e n t h e C o n cep
t ua list s a n N o mi a li st s (t o s a y n o t hi g of t he Re a li st s ) h a v e o n ly
n n

a r i se n fr o m con ce t s h a v i n b e e n r e a r d e d a s a ffor di n i
p g g g a n rre
92 L O G I C L E C T V II

d
. . .

d i d
en t obj e ct of th o ug ht hi s ill usion ha s
1
s
p e ct iv e an n epen T .

a r i s e n fr o m a v e r y s i mpl e ci r cums t a n ce O bj ect s .

T hi p sg ph ar aco mpa r e d t og e t h e r a r e foun d t o po sse s s ce r t a i n

ra oon

t m
a a ky t
s
a t t r i b ut e s
e o
whi ch as r o d uci n i n di sce r n i b l e
p g
dG l
, ,
my t y f G
s er l o en er a i
m o d i c a t i o n s i n u s a r e t o us a b sol ut e ly S i mi l a r
ti
.
z a on an en er a ,

T m er s. T h e y a r e th e r efor e con si d e r e d t h e s a me
,
T he
, .

d
r e l a t i on of s i mil a r i t y is th us con v e r t e d

id en t i t y a n the r ea l pl ur a lit y of r es emb lin g qua li t i e s in n a t u e is

,

fa ct i t i o usly r e d uce d t o a u n i t y of th oug ht ; a thi s un i t y ob t a in s a

in to

n dd r

n a me in whi ch it s r e l a ti v i t y n ot b e i n e x r esse i s still fur th er

g p , ,

r e mo v e d fr om ob ser v a t i on .

But t he mome n t we a t t empt t o r epr esen t t o our s e l v e s a n y of

th e se con c ept s a n y of t h e se a b st a ct g en er a li t i es
d
,
r ,
Wh i mm

dd
a s a b s o l ut e obj e ct s b y t h e ms e l v e s a n
o ut o f
er e n 00
. , ,
th e g l ty f
en e r a i o a.
r e l a t i on t o a n y con cr e t e o r i n i V i ua l r ea l i t i e s ,
pt

d
con ce .

t h e i r r e l a t i v e n a t ur e a t o n c e r eappea r s ; for w e
n
p
it a lt og eth er i mpo ssib l e t o r epr e sen t a n y of t he qua li t i e s e x
r e s se d b
y a co n c ept

d
e x ce pt as a tt a ch e d t o s ome i n di v id u a l a n
,

d et er mi n a t e obj e ct ; a n th ei r wh ol e g en er a li t y con si st s in t hi s
d
,

o it un d er a n
,
d
th a t t h o ug h we must r ea liz e th em in th ough t un d er some si n g ul a r
of t h e cl ass w e ma y y T h u s for e x a m p l e w e. ca n , ,

n o t a ct ua lly r epr es en t t h e b un dl e of a tt r i b ut e s c on t a i n e d in t h e

c on cept ma n a s a n ab s ol ut e O bj ect b y it s el f; a n a par t fr om a ll t h a t

, , d
r e d uce s it fr o m a g e n e r a l c og n iti on t o a n i n di v id ua l r e e s e n t a t i on
p r .

We can n ot g ur e in i mag in a t i on a n y obj ect a d e qua t e t o t he g e n er a l

n ot i on or t er m ma n for t h e ma n t o b e h er e i ma g i n e d mus t b e
n e ith er t a ll n or s h or t n e ith er fa t n or l ea n n e ith e r b l a ck n or whi t e

n e i t h er ma n n or w o ma n
,

n e i t h e r y o un
g ,n o r ol b u t a l l a n
y e t
,

d
,
d ,

n o n e o f th es e a t o n c e .

d
T h e r e l a t i v ity o f o ur c o n cept s is t h us sh ow n
in t he co n t r a di cti on a n ab sur di t y of t h e opposit e hypoth es i s .

1 F or a full accoun t of this d ispute , see L ectur es on M etap hy sics , p 477 et

. s eq . E D .
 LEC T URE VI I I .
f or t e:

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y .

S E C T I O N II O F . T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I . E NN O E M A T I C .

A . OF CONCEPT S G E N E RA L ; B
IN . IN SP E C IA L I . T H E IR ,7 ,

O BJE C T I V E RE L A T I O N Q U A N T IT Y .

IN l a st L e ct ur e w e b eg a n the S econ d S e cti on of S t oicheiol

our ,

og y t h e c on s id er a t i o n of t he P r o d uct s of T h o ug ht
,
T he pr o d uct .

R ecapt l u a w t h
on i
o f t h o ug h t ma y b e c on s id e r e d a s C o n ce t s a s

J ud g me n t s a n a s Re a s on i n s
g th es e h o
p
w e v e r d ,

d
. , , ,
f th
ur er pl ex ta n a i on
a r e n o t t o b e V i e w e d a s t h e r e s ul t s o f d i ffe e n t
an m tmt i us on .
r

fa cul t i es fa r l ess a s pr oces se s i n d e pe d en t of

, n

e a ch o th er for th e y a r e a ll o n ly t h e pr o d u ct o f t h e s a me e n e r y in
, g
diffe r en t d eg r ees or r a t h er in s impl er or mor e c ompl ex a ppli ca t i on s
,

t o it s O bj e ct s .

I n t r ea t i n g of C on c ept s whi ch for m t he s ubj e ct of t he F i r s t ,

d
t h e m in g e n e r a l a nd
C h a pt e r o f t hi s S econ d S e ct i o n I s t a t e d t h a t I s h o uld r s t co n s id e r
th e n con s id er t h e m in spe ci a l ; a n in my l a st
,

L e ct u e I h a n ea r ly co n cl ud e d a ll th a t I d e e m it r e q ui s i t e u d e r
r
,

d ,

n
,

O ig i n
r an
,
d
t h e fo r me r h ea d t o s t a t e in r eg a r d t o th e i r pe culi a r ch a r a ct e r t h e i r
t h e i r g e n e al a ccid en t s
,

I r s t o f a ll e x pl a i n e d t h e
r .

d , ,
,

me a ni n g of t h e t w o t e r ms con cep t a n n oti on w or d s con v e t ib l e

d
- r
, ,

w i t h e a ch o t h er b ut s t ill sev er a lly d e n o ti n g a

,
iffer e n t a sp ct of e

d
t he s i mpl e O per a t i o n w hi ch th e y e q ua lly e x pr ess N o ti o n b e i n g
.

.
,

r el a t i v e t o a n e x r es s i n g t h e a pr e h e n s i on t h e r e ma r ki -
p p g ,
n ,

t h e t a ki n g n o t e o f t h e r e s e mb li g a t t r i b ut e s in o bj e ct s ; con cep t
,
n ,

t h e g r a spi n g up or s y n t h e si s of t h e se II] t he un ity o f t h o ug h t .

d
H a v i n g s h o w n w h a t w a s pr o per ly e x pr e ss e d b y t h e t e ms n oti on r

d
an con ce t o r con ce ti on I w e n t o n t o a mor e a r t i cul a t e e l an a
p , p , p x

d
ti on of t h a t w hi ch t h e y w e r e e mpl oy e d t o d e n o t e A n h e e I .
r

a a i n s t a t e d w h a t a C o n ce t o r N o t i on is i n i t s e l f a n
g p ; i c o t a s t n n r

t o a P r ese t at io n o f P e ce pt i o n o r Re p e s e n t a t i o
r of P h a t a s y n, r n n .

O ur kn w l e d g e t h r o ug h e it h er of t he l a t t e r is a di e ct i mme di a t e J
o , r , ,
 '

94 f
L oG I c LECT V III

d
. . .

i r r e spe ct i ve d et er mi n a t e i n di vid ua l a n a d equa t e c ogn i t i on ; t h a t

, , ,

a ll it s a t t r i b ut e s a n d
is a s i n g ul a r o r i n di vid u a l O bj ect is kn o w n in i t s elf b y i t s e l f t h r o ug h
w i t h o ut r efe r en ce t o a ug h t b ut i t s e lf A con
,
, ,

d
c ept o n t he co n t r a y is a n i n di r e ct me di a t e r el a t i ve i n d e t er mi n a t e
,
r , , , , ,

an a t i a l c og n i t i on of a n y o n e o f a n u mb e r o f O bj e ct s b ut n ot a n
r
p ,

a ct u a l r e p e s e t a t i o n e i t h e r o f t h em a ll o r of t h e wh o l e a t t r i b ut e s
r n ,

o f a y o e obj e ct
n n .

t he o ig i n a n
r dd
T h o ug h it b e n ot s t r i ct ly w i t hi n t h e pr ov i n c e of L og i c t o e x pl a i n
fo ma t i o n o f o ur n o t i o n s t h e l o g i ci a n a ss umi n g a s
r , ,

d a t a t he l a w s a n pr o d uct s of t h oug ht a s t he ma t h e ma t i ci a n a s
,

d ,

d
d
s ume s a s d a t a e x t en s i on a n ,
n u mb e r a n t he a x i o ms b y whi ch
,

t h e i r r e l a t i o n is e t e r mi n e d b o t h l ea v i n g t o t h e met a phy si ci a n
,

t h e i n q ui y i n t o t h e i g d ; t hi s n o t wi t h s t a di g I d e eme d
d
r r r o u n s n n ,

it n ot i mp o pe r t o g i v e y o u a v e r y b r i e f s t a t e me n t o f t h e mo d e a n
r

s e t a t io n s a n
n
p d
c i c ums t a n ce s in w hi ch o ur c o n ce pt s a r e e l a b o r a t e d o ut o f th e pr e
r

r e r e s e n t a t i o s o f t h e s ub s idi a r y fa culti e s n D i ff er e n t .

O bj e ct s a e co m l e men t s p a r t ly o f s i mil a p a r t ly of di ffe r e n t a t t r i r,

p r ,

b ut e s .

t o o ur o g a n s a n r d
S i mil a r q ua li t i e s a r e t h o s e whi ch s t a n d in s i mil a r e l a t i o n
fa cul t i e s a n wh er e t he s i mil a r i t y is compl e t e
,
d r

t h e e ffect s w hi ch t h e y d e t e r mi n e in us a r e b y u s i n di scer n i b l e
u s t h e y a r e t h e r e fo r e v i r t ua lly t he s a me a n
, ,
t h e s a me w e a cco r d
in g ly co n s id e r th e m t o b e t h o ug h in di ffe r e n t O bj e ct s ; pr e ci s ely a s
To
,
,

d ,

,
.

, ,

w e co n s id e r t h e t h o ug h t of t h e s a me obj e ct t o b e i t s e lf t he s a me
w h e n r e pea t e d a t i n t e r v a l s a t i e r e n t ti me s in con s ci o u sn e s s
T hi s b y w a y o f pr efa ce b e i n g un d e r st oo d I s h o w e d t h a t in t he
d ,

, , , ,

fo r ma t i on of a co n cept o r n ot i on t he pr oce ss ma y b e a n a lyz e d i n t o ,

fo ur momen t a I n t h e r s t pl a ce w e must h a v e a pl ur a li t y of o h
.
,

r ese n t e d or r es en t e d b b idi y f lti T h

j e ct s
p r e
p y t h e s u s a r a c u e s e s e .

on d
fa cul t i e s mus t fur n i s h t h e r ud e ma t er i a l fo r e l ab or at i on I n t he s ec
p
s t a n di n
l a ce t h e obj e ct s t h u s s u
,

c o m a r e d t o e t h er a n
pp li e d
h
a re b
y
e i r s ev er a l
a n

d
a ct o f t h e U n d er

ua li t i es j ud g e d t o
,
.

g p , g t q ,

b e s i mil a r o r di ss i mil a r I n t h e thi r d pl a ce a n a ct o f v o li t i on

.
, ,

ca ll e d A tt en t i o n

r e co n iz e d a s s i mil a r
g ; a n th a t co n c e n t r d
c on c en t r a t es c on s ci ousn ess on t h e qua liti es t h us
,

a ti o n b y a t t e n t i o n o n th e m , ,

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i n vo l v es a n a b str a ct i on of con s ci ous ess fr o m t h os e w hi ch h a ve
t h r ow n a s id e a s di s si mil a r ; fo r t he po w er of
n

d
con s ci o u sn e s s is li mit e d a n it is cl e a r o r v i vid pr e ci s ely in pr opor
,

t i o n t o t h e s i m li ci t y or O n en e s s o f it s O bj ect A t t en t i o n a n A h
,

p .

s t r a ct ion a e t h e t wo r o l e s o f t h e s a me a ct of t h o ug ht ; t h e y a r e
p
li ke t he opposi t e sca l es in a b a l a n ce t h e on e must g o up a s t h e

d
o th er g o e s d o w n I n t h e fo ur t h pl a ce t h e q ua li t i e s whi ch b y com
.
, ,

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p r
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e x cl us i v e obj e ct o f t h o u h t th es e a e a l r ea dy b thi s pr o ce s s
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 L V II I L O G IC

d
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.

id en t i e d in c on sci ousn ess ; for th e y a r e on ly j u g e d si milar i n a s ,

much a s t h ey p o d uce in us i n di scer n ib l e effe ct s T h e i r sy n t h e si s in

r .

c o n s ci o us n es s ma y h ow e ver for pr e ci s i on s sa ke b e s t a t e d a s a
, , ,

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r r

d ,

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a ct s b ut a r e o ly s o di st i n g ui sh e d a n
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pp o s e t h a t t h e me n t a l se n t e n ce whi ch mus t b e a n a

ly e in o r d e r t o b e e x pr e s s e d in l a n g u ag e h a s a s ma n y pa r t s in ,

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ma y t h e mse l v es b e s ubj e ct e d t o th e s a me pr ocess b y whi ch t h e y

w e e e l a b or a t e d f o m t he co n cr e t e r e a li t i e s g i v e n in P e r cepti on a n
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, g n

a a i n id e n ti fy t h es e in t he s y n t h e s i s o f c o sci o u s n e ss ; a n
g t hi s n d ,

r oce s s o f e v o l v i n g co n ce pt s o ut o f co n ce pt s w e ma y g o o n p e r
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for mi n g un til t h e g e er a liz a t i o n is a r r e st e d in th a t ul t i ma t e or pr i
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ma y co n cept t h e b a si s i t se lf o
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h e d o n ly a l a r g er or small er po r t i on of t he wh ol e a t t r ib ut e s b e l on g
n

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p n .
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b e h e ld up a s a n a b sol ut e O bj e ct t o co n s ci o us n e s s
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'
n .

of t h e i n di v id u a l o bj e ct s th e y cl a ss i fy a n wh e n v i e we d in r el a t i on , d
96 L O G I C . L E C T . V III .

to it t hby can b e r epr esen t e d in i mag i n a ti on ; b ut th en a s so a ctu

, ,

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r n

whi ch t h e y a r e r e pr ese n t e d T h us it is th a t t he g en er a li t y or un i .
,

v e r sa lit y of c o n ce pt s is po t e n t i a l n o t a ct u a l T h e y a r e o ly g e n er , . n

a l s i n a s mu ch a s t h e y ma y b e a ppli e d t o a n y o f t he v a r i o us O bj e ct s
,

th e y co n t a in ; b ut w hil e t h e y ca n n ot b e a ct ua lly e li ci t e d i n t o con

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.

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, n

w or d ; for t h e suppo si t i on of t hi s i n v o l v e s n umer o us con t r a di ct i on s .

Of a d
A n e x i s t e n t h or s e is n o t a r e l a t i o n b ut a n e t e n d e d O bj e ct po s s ess e d
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.

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b ut if o f a d et e mi n a t e g ur e it mu s t b e th a t o f s o me o e of t h e
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ma n y di ffer e n t g ur es un d e r whi ch h o s e s a ppe a r ; b ut t h en if it b e r ,

o n ly o f o n e o f t h e se it c a n n o t b e t h e e e r a l c o n ce pt of t h e o t h e r s n
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,

h a ve t he a ct ua l r epr es en t a t i on of a t hi n g c ol or e d whi ch is n ot t he ,
L E C T . V III . L O G IC . 97

r e pr e s e n t a t o n i of a d e t e r mi n a t e co o r , l th a t is, i t h e r whi t e
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or g ra ,
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g .

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fe st t h a t co n ce pt s h a v e o n ly a po t e n t i a l n o t a a ct u a l u i v e s a l
, , n ,
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But it d o e s n ot fr o m t hi s foll o w t h a t c o n ce pt s a e mor e w or d s
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,

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t h a t we a r e c a pa b l e o f a ppr e h e di g r el a t i o s a
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n n n ,
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t h e e l a t i o n o f si mil a i t y a n
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r r r n

v e r s y b e t w e e n t h e co n ce pt u a li s t a n n o mi n a li s t o r i i n a t es in t h e
g
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t a t io s o f I ma g i n a t i o n a n
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r

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n
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o f t h e di s put e a mo n g t h e phil oso ph e r s ; o f t he m o s t me t a phy s i ca l

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c o un t r y i E ur o pe n I n G er ma n y t h e q ue s t i o n of n o mi n a li s m a n
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.

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r e r es e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s ub s idi a r y fa cul t i es B ut t hi s
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, p , p ,

t a t ion a s a b so l ut e a t t ib ut es I sh a ll t e r mi n a t e t h e co n s id e a t i o n
r . r

o f co n ce pt s in g e n e r a l b y t h e fo ll o wi n g p a r a g r a ph

s t a t ed b e s id e s th e i r i n a d e qu a cy a n
,
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,

l a n g uag e

ll XXI I I T he c on cept th us for me d b y a n a b str a cti on o f

.

t h e r esemb li ng fr om t h e n o n -r e s emb li n g q ua li t i es of o bj e ct s,
w o u ld a g a i n fall b a ck i n t o t h e co n fus i o n a n in n it u e fr o m d d
E
1 S ee t h e A
D .
uth or s n ote, Rei dW
s or ks , p . 41 2 ; an d L ect ur es on M et a p hy s i cs , p . 4 77 et s eq .
 9 L O G I C L E C T . V I II .

l r
h

d er e d pe r ma n en t
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whi ch it h as b e e n ca ll e d o ut , wer e it n ot r e n

for co n s ci o usn e s s b y b e i n g x e d a n r a t i e d ,

in a v e r b a l s i g n C o n s id e e d in g e n er a l
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,

t h o ug ht a n l a g ua g e a r e r e ci pr o ca lly e n

g u a g e. p
an
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p
p
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e r fe ct i o n s o f t h e o t h e ; b ut w i t h o u t
n

l a n g ua g e t h er e co uld b e n o kn owl e d g e r e a liz e d of t he e s se t i a l

p o pe t i e s of t hi n g s a n
r r d
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,
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st a t e s.

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id er a t i o n pr oper ly of w hi ch t h e co n s

b e l o g s t o L og i c b ut a fe w w o d s ma y n o t b e n , r

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,

i n fa ct o ly o b t a i n s t h e u s e of his fa cul t i e s in ,
n

O b t a i n i n g t h e u s e o f s p ee ch fo r l a n g ua g e is t h e i n di sp e sa b l e me a n n

o f t h e d e v e l o pme t of his n a t ur a l p o w e s wh e t h e r i n t e ll e ct ua l o r
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mor a l .

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,

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.
a r n ,

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n it is o n ly t he e x a gg e r a ti o n o f a t ut h r

d
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,
n n

e n s a b l e co n di t i o n o f e v en t h e s i m l er
p e n e r i e s o f kn o wl e
g
p g e .

L a n g ua g e is t he a ttr i b ut i o n o f si g s t o o ur cog n i t i o s of t hi n g s n n .

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r

g
t h e fo r ma t i on a n a
pp
q
li d
r e ce i v e a si n ; c o n s e u e n t ly t h a t kn o w l e d e whi ch is d e n o t e d b

ca t i on o f a w o r d m
g
ust h a v e
p
, y
r e ce d e d t h e ,

s y mb o l w hi ch d e n ot e s it S pe e ch is t h us n o t t h e mo t h e r b ut t h e
.
,

d ot h er l d h h
d
o m f k w e B u t t o u in e n e r a l w e mu st h o ld
g o o e , g n
g g
, ,

t h at l a n g ua g e a s t he pr o d uct a n ,
co r e l a t i v e o f t h o u g h t mus t b e r ,

v i e we d a s os t e r i or t o t h e a ct o f t hi n ki n i t s e lf ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d
p g ,

d
it mu st b e a d mi t t e d th a t w e co ul d n e v e r h a v e r i se n a b o v e t h e v e r y
,

l o w e st d eg ee s in t he s ca l e o f t h oug h t w i t h o ut t h e a i o f s i g n s
r , .

A si g n is n e ce s s a r y t o g i v e s t ab ili t y t o o ur i t e ll e ct u a l pr o g r e s s
,
n ,

t O e s t ab lish e a ch st e p in o ur a d v a n ce a s a n ew s t a r t i g po i n t for

f n -

o ur a d v a n ce t o a n o t h e r b e y o n d .

A co un tr y ma y b e o v e r un b y a n a r me d h o s t b ut it is o n ly r ,

co n q u er e d b y t h e est a b li sh me n t of fo t r e s s e s Wor d s a r e t he r .
L E C T . V I II . L O G I C . 99

for tr es ses of t h ought . T h ey

d omi n i o n o v er
e n ab e us l to r ea liz e o ur

w h a t we h a v e a l r e a dy o v e r r un in t h o ug h t ; t o
M t l p
en a ll t
o er a
ma ke e v er y i n t e ll e ct ua l con que st t he b a s i s of
on s o

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c a a s n'

p r O . r
b l
.

is e n sa t e, an i s

l t
,e a i t t
onh o ill
es e u s t r
,
a t i o n : Y o u h a v e a ll h e a r d of t h e
p r o ce s s

o f t un n e lli g o f t u n n e lli n t h r ou h a s a n d b a n k n -
g g , .

I n thi s ope r a t i on it is i mpo s si b l e t o s ucce e d un l e s s e v e r y fo ot n a y , ,

a l mo s t e v e r y i n ch in o ur pr o g r e s s b e s ecur e d b a n a r ch o f ma s o n r
y y

dd
, ,

b efo r e w e a t t e mpt t h e e x ca v a t i o n o f a n o t h er N ow l a n g ua g e is t o .
,

t h e mi pr e ci s e ly wh a t t he a ch is t o t he t un n e l
n T h e p o w r
e r o f .

t hi n ki n g a n t he po w e o f e x c a v a t i on a r e n o t d e e n d e n t o n t h e
r
p

d
w or d i t h e on e ca s e o n t he ma s o n w o k in t he o t h er ; b ut w i t h out
n ,
- r

t h e s e s ub s idi a i e s n e i t h er pr o ce s s co uld b e ca r i e d o n b e y o d it s r u
r , r n

ime n t a r y co mme n ce me n t T h oug h th e r e for e w e a ll ow t h a t e v e r y

.
, ,

mov e me n t for wa r d in l a n g ua g e must b e d e t er mi n e d b y a n a n t e ce

p a n ie d
d e n t movemen t for wa r d in th o ught ; st ill un l e ss t h oug h t b e a ecom
a t e a ch po i n t of it s e v o l ut i o n b y a c or r es o n di n
p g e v ol ut i o n ,
,

o f l a g u a g e it s fu t h e r d e v e l op me n t is a r r e st e d
n ,
r T h us it is th a t .
,

hi h i f hi h l y f U d di
d
t h e
g e r e x e r t o n s o t h e
g e r f a c u t o e r s t a n n
g
t h e n ,

cl a ssi ca t i on O f t he obj ect s pr ese n t e d a n r epr esen t e d b y t he sub si

di a r y po wer s in t h e for ma t i on of a hi er ar chy of n ot i on s t he con n ec ,

d
ti o n of th es e n ot i on s i n t o j ud g men t s t he i n fer e n ce of on e j ud g men t ,

fr om a n oth er a n in g e n er a l a ll o ur con sci ousn e ss of t he r el a t i on s

, , ,

s o d e n o mi n a t e
n

an dd
o f t h e u i v e r s a l t o t h e pa r t ic ul a r con se qu e n tly a ll s ci e n ce s t r i ct ly

e v e r y i n d u cti v e kn o wl e d e of t h e
, g p a st a n
,

d
fut u e f o m t h e l a w s o f n a t ur e n ot o n ly t h e s e b ut a ll a s cen t
r r

fr o m t he sph e e of sen s e t o t he sph e r e of mor a l a n r e lig i ous in t elli

r

e n ce a r e a s e x pe r i e n ce p o v e s if n ot a l t o e t h e i m o ss i b l e w ith o ut r
d ,

g , , g p ,
r

a l a n g u a g e a t l e a s t po ss i b l e t o a v e r y l o w d e r ee
, g .

A d mi t t i g e v e n t h a t t h e mi n d is ca pa b l e o f cer t a i n el e me n t a r y
n

d
con ce pt s wi t h o ut t h e x a ti o n a n

a e b ut s a r ks w hi c h w o uld twi n kl e o ly t o e x pi e ; a n
r
p
s i n a t ur e o f l a n ua e s t ill t h e s e
g g g
it
dr e ui r e s
q n r d d ,

w o r d s t o g i v e th e m pr o mi n en ce a n b y e n ab li n g u s t o coll e ct a n , ,

e l a b O i a t e t h e m in t o n e w co c e pt s t o r a i s e o ut o f w h a t Wo u ld o t h

d d
n ,

e w is e b e o n ly s c a t t e r e d a n
r t r an srt O i y s c i n till a ti on s a v i vi d a n

en d ur i n g lig ht .

I h er e t er mi n a t e p d t o t h ethe G
S p e c a con si

e r a t io n of C on ce pt s t h a t is t o v i e w t h e m in
e n er a l an d r oce e i l d
,
B Of C pt
N ti
.

i
th
on ce
e i r s e v e r a l Re l a t i o n s
s or
N ow in a l og i ca l po i n t .
,
o p i l
on s n s ec a .

of V i e w th e r e a r e it s e e ms t o me on ly t h ee , , ,
r

o ss i b l e r e l a t i on s i w hi h co ce t s c a n b e co n s id e e d ; fo t h e o ly
p c p n n r r n

r e l a ti o n s t h e y h o ld a e t o th e i r obj e ct s t o t h e i r s ubj e ct o r t o e a c h
r , ,
1 00 L 0G I c . LECT . V III .

o th er . re a l ti on
h e ir obj ect s t h e y a r e c on sid er e d a s in clu
In to t ,

s i v e of a
g r e a t er o r s ma ll er n u mb e r o f a t t r i b ut e s t h a t is a s a li ca
pp , ,

b le t o a g r e a t e r o r s ma ll e r n umb e r o f obj e ct s ; t hi s is t e ch i ca lly n

s t yl e d t h e i r Q u a n ti ty I n r e l a ti o n t o t h e i s ubj e ct t h a t is t o t h e
. r , ,

mi n d i t s el f; t h e y a co sid e r e d a s s t a n di n
g in a hi h e r o r a l o w e r
g re n

d eg e e of con s ci o usn e ss t h e y a r e mor e or l ess cl e a r mor e or l e ss

r , ,

di st i ct ; t hi s in like ma n n er is ca ll e d t h e i r Q u a li ty I n r e l a t i on
n , , .

d
n ate o d
t o e a ch o t h e r t h e y a r e co n s id er e d a s t h e s a me o r di ffer e n t co or i
,

s ub o r di n a t e d t o e a ch o t h e r ; t hi s is t h e i r R ela ti on st r i ct ly
r
,

s o c a ll e d

d
U n d e r th ese t h r e e h ea d s I n ow th er efor e pr ocee d t o
1
.
, ,

t r e a t t h em ; a n r s t of th e i r Q ua n t ity , , .

l XXI V . A s a c o n ce p t or n oti on is a th oug ht in whi ch a n

, ,

d
i n d enit e pl ura li t y of ch a r a ct e r s is b oun d
P ar . XX IV .
Q ua n

my u i n t o a un l t
y o f co n s c1 o u s n ess , a n a l
p pp i

d
of C on c e p ts of

cab l e t o
i n d e n it e pl ur a li t y of ob ect s a j
d
tw o k in a: I n t en s iv e
an ,

d
an E x t en s i v e
c o ce pt 1 s t h e e fo r e n e ce s s a r i ly a ua n t t y
. t

n r i
q , , ,

a u a n t i t y v a r yi n g in a mo un t a ccor di n g t o t h e g e a t e r r
an
q

d
o r s ma ll e r n u mb e r s o f ch a a ct e s o f whi ch it is t h e compl e me n t r r ,

an t h e g e a t e r o sma ll e r n umb er o f thi n g s o f whi ch it ma y

r r

b e s a id T hi s qu a n t i t y is th us of t w o ki n d s ; a s it is e i t h e r a n
.

I n t e n s i v e o r a n E x t e s i v e T h e I n t e r a l o r I n t e n s i v e Q ua t i t y
n . n n

o f a co n ce t is d e t e r mi n e d b y t h e eat er o s ma ll e r n u mb e r
p g r r

o f co n s t i t u e n t ch a r a ct e s c o n t a i n e d in it T he E x t e a l o r E x r . rn

t e s i v e Q ua n t ity of a co n ce pt is d e t er mi n e d b y t h e g r e a t e r or
n

d
s ma ll e r n umb er o f cl a s si e d co n ce pt s o r r ea li t i es con t a i n e d u n

it T he for me r ( t h e I n t e s i v e Q ua n t i t y) is c a ll e d b y s o me
d
e r . n

l a t t e G e e k l og i ci a n s t he ep th
r r b y t h e L a t i n l og i ca l
w i t e s t h e comp r ehen s i on ( comp r ehen s i o gua n ti ta s comp r e
r r ,

hen s i on i s cmnp leaz us o r q u a n ti ta s comp la int s )

,
T he l a t t er ( t h e
,
.

cia s t h e br ea th ( wh t e) ; b y A r i s t o t l e f) w p xiy

6w p x S
n ,

b
'
t h e l i ca l w it e s
2
o
d
E x t e n s i v e Q ua n t i t y ) is ca ll e d b y t h e s a me l a t t e r G r e e k L og i

f t h e w e s t e
ow p x w
L
'
a ro
-

ti
,
e to , T
e te e ,

7 e ; ie
y eao g ra t r n o r a n r

w o ld t h e ex ten si on o r cir cui t ( ewten s i o gu a n ti ta s ex ten s i on is

r , , ,

d d
d d
1 O n t h e ir r e l a t i on t o t h ei r or ig in a s ir e ct By r el a t ion to e a ch ot h er th ey h a ve re

or in ir ect , see E sser , [ S y stem er L ogi k, 4 9 , l a t i on s t r ictl y s o ca ll e .

j
p 96
d
d
. . E D .
] By r e l a t ion t o t h e ir sub e ct t hey h a ve
M e m .
-
N B N . ot io n s ma y be t hus b etter cl e a r n ess a n

d ist in ct n e ss

d
( T his l a st h a b et t er b e r e l eg a t e t o M et h o
M emor a n a
.

d d
ol og y )
t o th emsel ves t h ey h a v e th e
. .

By r e l a t i on

d
2 S ee L ect ur es on M et a p hy s ics , p 4 74 n A r is
of c omp r e h e n s i o n
. .

q ua n t i ty

d
ot u se wepz ox i) a s a sub st a n t i ve ,
.

t otl e oes n

j
By r el a t i o n

t h e q u a n t it y o f ex t e n si on
t o t h eir
.
ob e ct s t h ey h a ve
T h ese t w o t h us e mpl oy e d
t h oug h t h e v er b ,

i n t his sig n i ca tion , e

b oth a ct i ve an

.
p a ssive , is
g A n a l P r i or .
. .

q ua n t it y i n g en er a l . i 2 7 ; E l m iii 5 E D
. . . . .
L V I II L O G I C 1 01

d
E C T

dli
.
. .

a mbitus , gu a n ti tn s a mbitus ) ; an ke wi se t he o ma i n or

sp her e o f a n o t o n i ( r eg i o, sp hoer a ) 1
.

i
T he I n t er n a l Q ua n t t iy of a n o ti on , it s I n t e n s i o n or C o mpr eh e n .

s on , i is ma d e
h os e di ffe r e n t a t t i b ut e s o f up o f t r
G l E pl i t i
en er a x ca on
w hi ch t h e co n ce pt is t h e co n ce i v e d s um ; t h a t
is t h e v a i o us ch a r a ct er s co n n e ct e d b y t h e c o n cept i t s e lf i n t o a
,
r

s i g l e wh o l e in t h o ug h t
n T h e E t e r a l Q ua n t i t y o f a n o t i o n o r it s
. x n

e x t e n s i on is on t h e o t h er h a n d ma d e up o f t h e n umb e r o f obj e ct s
, ,

w hi ch a e t h o ug h t me di a t e ly t h r o ug h a c on cept
r F o r e x a mpl e t h e .
,

a tt r i b ut e s r a ti on a l s en s i ble mor a l e t c g o t o con s ti t ut e t h e i t en

, , , .
,
n

s i o n o r i n t e r n a l q u a n t i t y O f t h e c o ce pt ma n wh e r e a s t he a t t ib ut e s n r

E u r op ea n ,
A mer i ca n , p hi los op her , t a ilor , et c .
, g o to ma ke up a co n
a
c ept hi s or t h a t i n di vid ua l ma n T hes e t w o q ua n t i t i e s a e n ot
of t . r

c on v e r ti b l e O n t he co n t r a r y th e y a r e in t h e i n ve r s e r a t i o o f ea ch
.
,

o t h e r ; t h e g r ea t e r t h e d e pt h o r c o mpr e h e n s i o n of a n o t i o n t h e l e ss

it s b r e a d t h o r e x t e n s i o n a n vi ce ver s a Y o u w ill o b s e ve li ke ,
d . r ,

w i s e a di st i n ct i on whi ch h a s b ee n t a ke n b y t h e b e s t l og i ci a n s
,
.

d
Bot h q ua n t i t i es a r e s a id t o con ta i n b ut t h e q ua n t ity o f e x t e n s i o n
is s a id t o con t a i n u n er it ; t he qua n ti t y of co mpr e h en si o n is s a id t o
c on t a i n i n it .

By t he i n t en s i on c o mpr e h en si on o r d ept h o f a n oti on w e t hi n k

, , ,

t h e mos t qu a li t i e s of t h e fe w e s t O bj e ct s ; w h e r e a s b y t h e e t e s i o n x n

o r b e a d t h of a co n ce pt w e t hi n k t h e fe we s t u a li t i e s of t h e mos t
r
q ,

obj e ct s I n o t h er w o r d s b y t he for me r w e s a y t h e mos t of t h e

.
, ,

l ea st ; b y t he l a t t er t h e l e a st o f t he mo st , .

A g a i n ; y o u w ill ob se v e t he t wo fo ll o w i n g di st i n ct i o n s : t h e r st
r
,

t h e e x o s i t i on of t h e co m r e h e n s i o n o f a n o t i o n is c a ll e d it s
p p
D e n i ti on ( a s i mpl e n ot i o n ca n o t t h e r e fo r e b e d e n e d ) ; t h e n , ,

s e co n d t he e x po s iti o n o f t h e E x t e n s i on of a n o t i o n is ca ll e d it s
d

,

D ivis i on ( a n i n di vid ua l n o ti on ca n n o t b e i v id e d ) .

j
d d dd d
P orp hy r i i , I s a g og e, cc i u ; C li ic m
1 [C f . . . . v iii a e e x ten sive . P o r ph y r ius a ute l oq ue b a tur

d d
ta n . I n P orp /z y r ii P r a
ica bil ia , cc . i ii. .
[p 37
. e . h ic e ex t en si v a co ll e ct ion e , i eo ix it , g e n us

d d
1 579 ; p r e x e t o h is C ommen t a r y on t he C a t e sse ma g is co lle ct iv u m .
Q u ot e b y S tahl,

d d dd d
eg or ies , r st p ub lish e in 1 49 6 . A h oc Reg ulus P hil os op hicw, t it . x ii .
, r eg . 5, p . 38 1 .

d
b r ev it e r icit u r , q u o e sse ma g is c o ll e ct ivu m C f . r eg . 6, e . L on on , 1 658 .
E D .
] [ P or t

d d d
mn l t or um p o t est in tell ig i u p l iciter : un o Roy a l L og ic, P i . c . 6, p . 74 . e . 1 71 8 . Boe

d d
mo o i n t en s ive , e t s ic species ma g is est co l lec t h ius , I n tr o u ct i o a S y ll og is mos , O p er a , p 5 6 2 .

d
t i va q u ia ma g is un it a u n a t a ; a l i o mo o ex
, I n T op ica C wer o n is C o mmen t a m ,
lib i . .
,
O p er a ,

d d
t en s ive e t sic, g en u s e st ma g is c o ll ect iv u m, p 76 5 e
. Ba s iles , 1 570
. . . Reus ch i u s ,
S y s t e ma
'

d
q ui a mult o p lur a s ub s ua a un a t ion e c a un t
d d
, L o g icu m, pp 1 1 , 92 ; Ba u mg a r t en , A cr oa sis
.

dd
q ua m s ub s pe ciei a mb itu U n e s pe c ies et L og ica , M 56 . 57 , e H a l es M a g eb u r g ze , 1 7 73
.

ddd
.

g en u s s e h a b en t s icut uo uce s q u o r um a l t er .
K m s , L oe ik, 2 6 ; S ch u l z e L n g ilc 3 0; E ss e r .

d
.

h a b e t ex e r c it um p a r v u m se v a l e u n a n ime m L og ik 34 et s eq E u g e n i cs p 1 04 f t S N }

d
. .
, . .

a lt e r e x e r ci t u m ma g n u m se i v e r sa r um
E w ow3v BaiS
p)

, c . iv . H e ous 7 6
,
fa ct ion um I l l e en im ma g is coll i it in te n s i ve lHA
g xa T ov s ._ E ]
.
, D .
1 02 L O G I C . L E C T . V I II .

Wh at foll o w s is in
fur th er ill ust a t i o n of t he pa r a gr a ph N ot i on s r .

o r c o n ce pt s s t a n d in a n e ces s a y r e l a t i on t o c e r r
S p i l ill t t i
t a i obj ect s t h o ug h t t h r o ug h t h e m ; fo w i t h o u t
ec a us r a on
n r
,
o f P g ph
ar a A ra
m hi hi h e r e C o uld e x i s t n o
.

t ity s o e t g t o t k o f t n n
c on ce pt i q s a ua n . ,

t h o ug h t n o n o t i o n o c o n ce t
p
,
B u t i n s o fa r n, .

a s w e t hi n k a n obj e c t t h r o u h a c o ce t w e t hi n k it a s

a s co t a i e d u d e r
n n

ce t o f it s obj e ct o r obj e ct s
g
t h a t co n cept : a
n

w e t
,

hi
p
i s o fa a s w e t hi n k a con
n k it a s a u n i t y co t a i n i n
p a r t o f or n

n d ,

n r
,

p , g n ,

a ct u a lly o r o t e n t i a lly in it a l u r a li t y of a t t i b u t i o s O t f t h
p p , u o e r n .

r el a t i o o f a co n ce t t o it s obj e ct it n e ces s a r ily r e s ul t s th a t a con

n
p ,

c e pt is a q u a n t um o r u a n ti t y ; fo r t h a t w hi ch co n t a i s o n e o r mo r e
q n

un i t s b y w hi ch it ma y b e me a s u e d is a q u a t i t y

But t he q ua n ti t y o f a co n ce pt is o f t w o a
r

t w o oppos it e ki n d s
,

,
n

n d .

,
.

ki d l I t
T hi q
n
s

sz
it y f t w
ua n t

i .
o

n e n s ve .
o
n

,
d
C o s id e i n t e r n a lly t h a t is a s a u n i t y whi c h
r

ma y a n g e n e r a lly d o e s con t a i n in it a pl ur a li t y
o f p a r t s o r co mpo n e n t a tt i b ut e s a co n ce t h a s
,

r
,

p ,

a ce r t a i n u a n t ity w hi ch ma y b e ca ll e d it s i n ter n a l o r i n ten s i ve

q ,

d ua t i t y T hi
d
s is g e n e a lly c a ll e d it s comp r eh en s i on s o me ti me s it s
r
q n .
,

ep th ,
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,
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t h s e v e a l a t t r i b ut e s or ch a a ct e r s w hi ch g o t o con s t i t u t e t h e t o t a l
e r r ,

c o ce pt a r e s a id t o b e co n t a i n e d i n it
n ,
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,

ma n is co mpose d o f t w o co n s t it uen t pa r t s o r a t t i b ut es t h a t is of
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t w o pa r t i a l con ce pt s
d r a t i on a l a n a n ima l;
,
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r a tio a l a n a i ma l a r e o ly a n a n a ly t i ca l e x pr e
n n n ssi o n of t h e s n
y
t h e t i c u n i t y of t h e con ce pt ma n But e a ch o f t h e s e pa r t i a l con .

c e pt s w hi ch t og e t h e r make up t h e co mpr eh en si on of t h e t ot a l
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t hi p
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s en

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t h e co s t i t u e n t s o f t h e s y n t h e t i c un ity a n i ma l

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,

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a r ts a a i n r e r e l a t i v e w h ol e s di v i sib l e i n t o ot h e n stit ue t
p g ,
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p p n

w hi ch a s s i mpl e s t a n d a s a p i ma r y or u l t i ma t e e l e me n t i n t o w hi ch
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t h e s r i e s ca n b e r e s ol v e d
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.
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LEC V III L O G I C 1 03

d
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d r oe i ca tu m p r ce i ca ti es t p r ce ica tu m s u b s o n ly
1
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a s pe ci a l e n u ci a t i o n o f t h e g e e r a l p i n ci pl e t h a t t h e pa r t o f a p a t
n n r ,
r

is a p a t o f t h e w h ol er Y o u w ill h e e a ft e r s e e t h a t t he C o mp e .
-

,
r ,
r

h e s io o f o t i o n s a ffo d s o e o f t h e t w o g e a t b r a ch e s o f r e a s n
n n n r n r n o

i g w hi ch t h o ug h ma v e ll o u sly o v e r l o oke d b y l ogi ci a s is a t l e a s t

n r n ,

d
, ,

d
of e q u a l i mpo r t a n ce wi t h t h a t w hi ch t h e y h a v e e x cl us i v e ly d e v e l

o pe d a n

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whi ch is fo un d e d o n t he o t h er ki n d of qu a n t ity e x hi b it e
,

b y co n ce pt s a n t o w hi ch I n o w p o ce e d ,
r .

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2 E t i
.
whi ch co t a in s un d er it a pl ur a lity of cl a ssi fyi g
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a tt r i b ut e s o r s ub o di n a t e co n c ept s a n
.

in t hi s
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r e s e ct it h a s a n oth e r q ua n ti t y whi ch ma y b e ca ll e d it s ex ter n a l or ex

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ten s i ve q ua n t i t y T hi s is co mmo n ly ca ll e d it s ex ten s i on ; s o me t i me s
.

it s sp her e o r oma i n , sp heer a , r eg i o, qua n ti ta s a mbi t us ; a n , b y t h e

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t h e t o t a l co n ce pt c on t a i n s , a r e s a id t o b e co n t a i n e d u n er it , b e ca us e ,
h oldi n g t h e r e l a t i on t o it o f t he p a r ti cul a r t o t h e g en e a l t h e y a e s ub r , r

d
or di n a t e d o r r a n g e d un d e r it F o r e x a mpl e t h e co n ce pt s ma n ho s e .
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mor e g e n e a l But a s e ach of t h e s e s ub or di n a t e con ce pt s is its elf a

r .

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,
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c on ce pt s it fo ll o w s a g a i n o n t h e a x i o m o r s e lf e v id e n t t ut h t h a t a
, , ,
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a r t of a a r t is a p a r t of t h e w h o l e a n a i o m w hi ch u w ill h
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x ,

a ft e r s e e co n sti t u t e s t h e o n e pr i ci pl e o f a ll D e d uct i v e r e a s o n i n n
, g ,

it fo ll o w s o n thi s a x i om t h a t w h a t e v er is c o t a i n e d u d e r t he p
, , n n

t i a l o mo r e pa r t ic ul a r co n cept is con t a i n e d u n d e r t h e t o t a l o r mo e
r , r

d
e n e r a l co n ce pt T h u s fo e x a m l e tr i a n le is c o t a i e d u n d e r
g p .
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fg ;
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,

tr i a g le equ i la ter a l tr i a n g le e t c will li ke w i s e b e co t a i n e d u n d e r

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fg i u re b
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ch w e ma y a ccor di n g ly t hi n k a d e s c i b e t h e m , , n r .

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, ,

d
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p t h e i r C o m r e h e n si o n a n
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O pp ose t h th o eac o er

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1 04 L O G I C . L E C T . V III .

oth er th e ma x i mum o f t he on e b e i n g t h e mi n i mum of

,
th eoth er .

O n thi s I g i v e y o u t h e fo ll o w i g pa a g r a ph n r

l XXV . A n ot o n i
g
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mum, th a t is, is t he con c ept o n e in w hi ch a
p l ur a li t y o f a t t r i b ut e s ca n n o l o g er b e di st i g ui s h e d i t is n n ,

c a ll e d s i mp le ; w h e r e a s i n as mu ch a s it s a t t i b ut e s s t ill a d mi t of

di s c i min a t i on it is ca ll e d comp lex or comp ou n

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,
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of d e t e r mi n a t i o n s o r a t t i b ut e s it co t a i n s u n d er it Wh en r n .

t h e E x t e n si o o f a co n c e pt b e co me s a mi i mu m t h a t is w h e n it
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c o t a i n s n o o t h e r n ot i on s u n d e r it it is ca ll e d a n i n i vi u a l
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n n

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r eh e n s i o n
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s t r a ct f o m o n e o r mor e o f it s a tt i b ut es I di mi n r r ,
I ll t ti us r a on .
is h it s co mp e h e n s i o n T h u s wh e n f o m t h e c on r .
,
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c ept ma n e q ui va l e n t t o r a ti on a l a n ima l I a b s t a ct f o m t h e a t t r ib ut e
, ,
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o d e t e r mi n a t i o n r a ti on a l I l e s s e n it s i t e r n a l
r ua n t i t y B ut b y t hi s n
q , .

d
di mi n ut i on o f it s co mp eh en s i o I g i ve it a wid er ex t en si on ; for wh a t r n

r e ma i n s is t he co ce t a n i ma l a n t h t i m l m b
p e c o c e
p n a n a e r a c e s ,
n

u n d e r it a fa r r e a t e r n umb e o f bj t t h t h t m
g o e c s a n e co n c e
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r , , r n

a r a r a h it ma b r o er t o i u l t h f ll w i
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r e s ol v e ,
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. D e
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a lly th e l ti on of t h e C ompr e h en si o n a n of t he E x t e n s i on
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an I d
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,
A S i mpl e n ot i on c a n n o t b e d en e d ;
i v id ua l n oti on c a n o t b e di v id e d
n n
.

1
.

T he r e a s on o f t hi s
it i on of t he t wo qua n t iti es is ma n ife st in
o ppos

a mo me n t fr om t h e c on s id er a t i on o f t h e i r s e v ,
f th
e a l n a t ur e s T h e c o mp e h e n si on o f a co n cept is
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or e o ar a

g ph
ra s.
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p n

t h e c on c ept is ma d e u p ; a
di st i n g ui shi g ch a r a ct er s a ttr ib ut e s of whi ch
d
t h e e x t e n s i on o f a con ce pt is n ot hi n g
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t h e con ce pt c on t a i n s t h e mo r e mi n ut e ly it w ill ,

di s t i n g ui s h a n d e t er mi n e a n th a t if it con t a i n a pl e u m of is ,
n

t in ct iv e ch a r a ct er s it mu s t con t a i n t h e di s t i n ct i v e t h e d e t er
,

mi n i n g ch a r a ct er s of some i n di v id ua l obj e ct H ow o t h e t w o . d
ua n t i t i e s n o w st a n d I n r e g a r d t o t h e co mpr e h e n s i o n o r d e t h it
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, , n

p l e me n t o f t h e wh ol e a tt i b ut e s of a n i n di v id ua l obj e ct whi ch b y

t h es e a t t r i b ut e s it t hi n ks a n
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di s cr i mi n a t e s fr om ev e r y oth e O n
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,

t he c o n t r a r y t h e e t e n s i on o r b r e a dth o f t h e co n cept is h er e a t it s
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mi n i mum ; for a s t h e e x t e n si o n is g r e a t in pr opor t i o n t o t h e n um

,

b er o f obj e ct s t o whi ch t h e c o n ce pt ca n b e a ppli e d a n a s t h e obj e ct

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in g o ut o f t h e compr e h e n s i o n o f t he co n ce pt t h a t is a b st r a ct i g
d
, , n

fr om t h os e a t t r i b ut e s whi ch b e l on g i g e x cl usi v ely t o e x cl usiv ely is

,
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t in g uish t he i n di v id ua l
,
w e a t on ce di mi n i s h t h e co mpr e h e si on
b y r e d uci g t h e s um o f it s a t t ib ut e s a n
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,

a m lify t he e t e n s i o n o f
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t he c ce pt b y b i n g i g w it hin it s s ph e r e a ll t h e o bj e ct s w hi ch t h e

d
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ch a r a ct e i st i cs n o w th r o w n o ut o f t he compr e h e s i o n ha
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v io usly e x cl u d e d fr o m t h e e x t e n si on C on t i n ui g t he pr o ces s b y . n ,

d
a b s t r a ct i o n w e t h r o w o ut of t h e s u m of ua li t i es co n s t i t ut i t h e
q g n

c omp e h e n s i o r ot h e r di s c i mi a t i n g a tt r i b ut e s a n
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r n
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e t e n s i o n is pr o po r t i o n a lly a mpli e d b y t h e e n t r a n ce i n t o it s s h e r e
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p
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O f a ll t h os e obj e ct s whi ch h a i s ly b e e n d eb a r e d by t h e
d
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d et e mi i g ch a r a ct e i st i cs l a s t di s ca d e d T h us p o ce e di g a n
r n n r r . r n ,

a t e a ch s t e ej e ct i n f r om t h e c o m r e h e n s i on t h o se h t
p g p c a r a c e rs

[ S y n on y ms
dd
1 of A b st r a cti o n 1, A n a l y s is 1 A
:
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n a l y sis

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.
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S y n on y ms of D et er min at ion or C on cr etion

1 06 L O GIC L E C T . V II I .

whi ch foun d t h e pr ox i ma t e i mpe di men t s t o t he a mpli ca t i on of

ar e

t h e e x t e n s i on of t h e con cept w e a t e a ch s t ep di mi i s h t h e fo r me r ,
n

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e x t en s i on a t it s ma x i mum I me a n t h e con cept of B ei n g o r E x i s t

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.

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i , ,

wh ol e s ; for wh ol e s a r e o ly t he compl eme n t of a ll t h ei r pa r t s a n n ,

a s wh ol e s a e o n ly b
y u s cl e a ly co mp e h e n d e d a s w e di s t i n ct ly

d
r r r

compr e h e n d t h e i r p a r t s it fo ll o w s

d
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,

e x t e n s i o n ma e a ch b e a n a lyz e d i n t o it s pa r t s ; a n T h a t t hi s
y ,

d
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r
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b e cl e a r ly a n di s t i n ctly u n d e st o o d But a s t h e t wo qua n t i t i e s a r e
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of a n o os i t e n a t ur e it is ma n ife st th a t t h e t w o p oce ss e s of a n a l
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s is will like wi s e b e O ppo s e d T he a n a ly si s of t he i t e s i ve or

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d o w n a c c o u t t h a t is a s t h e

me t h o d s of cl e a r a n of di sti n ct thi n ki g for t hi s w ill for m t h e ma t n

r

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t e r o f a spe c i a l di scus s i on in t h e S e co n d P a r t o f L og i c o r M e th o d
o l og y b ut s i mply in s o fa r a s it is r e u i s i t e t o spe a k o f th e m in
, q
ill ust r a ti o n of t he g en er a l n a t ur e of o ur con cept s
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.

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.

y it s ,

c ept s of w hi ch it is
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con ce pt u d e r whi ch it i mme di a t e ly s t a n d s a

n
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d
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n n , n ,

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n r n

t h e hi g h er con ce pt u n d er whi ch it s t a n d s ; t h e di ffe en t i a l q ua li t y

, r

1 T h is

ED ]
,

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l ike oth er I og ica l r e l a t i on s, ma y b e t y pi e d by a s en sib l e gu r e .
[ S ee b el ow , p 1 08 . .
D ri e r . V III .
L O G I C . 1 07

th e l ow er c on c ept b y w hi ch it is di stin g ui sh e d fr om t he oth er con

,

d
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, , , .

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co ce pt ma n co n s id e r e d a n a n i n t e n s i v e q u a n t ity o r co mpl e x us of
n ,

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r e a s o n b e i n g t h e ch a r a ct e r i s ti c or di ffe r e n t i a l q ua li t y b y whi ch ma n

is di s t i n g u i s h e d fr o m t h e o th e r con ce pt s or speci es whi ch st a n d

co o di a t e d w i t h it s e l f; un d er t h e g e n us a n ima l th a t is ir r a ti on a l
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r n , ,

ani ma l or br u te .

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h e n sio n y e t it is r eg ul a t e d b y t h e e x t e n s i on t h e e x t en s i o n r eg ul a t
,

in g t h e or d e r in w hi ch t h e co mpr e h en s i o n is r e s o l v e d i n t o it s pa r t s .

T h e e x pos i t or y a n a ly s i s o f a co n cept a n e x t en s i v e w h o l e o r ,

u a n t um is di r e ct ly O ppose d t o t h e r e ce di n
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d d
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.

c on cept a if c on d uct e a r i g h t r e sol ve s it i n t o it s pr ox i ma t ely

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l ow er co cept s b y a ddi n g a tt i b ut e s w hi ch a ffo r d th eir di st i n g ui sh

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p l e t a ki g t h e hi g h est c o n ce pt t h a t o f en s o r ex is ten ce b y a ddi n g

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d
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t o it t h e diffe r e n t i a l co n cept s p er s e or s u bs ta n ti a l a n n on p er s e
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n o t s i m le e ui v a l e n t t o com ou n
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d

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q ,
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di v id e b y s en ti en t o a n ima l a n n on s en ti en t o r veg eta ble A n i

d
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,

ma l w e ma y di v id e b y r a t ion a l a n i r r a ti on a l a n so on t ill w e , ,

r e a ch a co ce t w hi ch a s t h a t o f a n i di v id ua l O bj e ct is in fa ct
p n ,
n , , ,

n ot a e n e r a l co n ce t b ut o n ly in r o r i e t y a s i n g ul a r r epr e s e n t a
g p p p ,

ti o n .

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, , ,

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co n ce pt i n t o it s co mpon e n t
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I d
d
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n

d
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o ly a s i n g l e a t t r i b ut e it mu st b e in e n a b l e ;
n ,

an

e al c
r
a a i n t h a t a s D i v i s i o n is t h e a n a ly s i s o f a hi h e
g
p on
,

c e t i t o ot h e s l o w e r a l enss g e n e r a l
g
if
i n di v id ua l t h a t is o ly a b un dl e of i di v id u a l qu a li t i es it is i n di
a

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v i s i b l e is ih fa ct n o t a o p e r o r a b s t r a ct co n ce t a t a ll b u t on ly a r
, p , , p ,

co n c e t e e s e t a t i on o f I ma i n a t i on
pr re
g r n .
1 08 L O G I C . L E C T . V I II .

d d d
D ia g r a m r epr esen t
T he foll owi n g D i agr a m r epr esen ts Br e a dth 1

mg E mm a
D epth wi t h t h e r e l a ti o n s of A f r ma t i on a n
an
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an ,

C on cepts ,
N e g a t i on t o t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s .

d
SCHE ME S OF T H E T wo Q U A N T I T IE S .

L in e o f B r ea th .

G r oun d f
o

I n t h e pr e c e di n g T a b l e th er e a r e r epr esen t e d : b y A A et c , , .
,

t h e hi g h es t g e n us or wid est a tt r i b u t e ; b y Y t h e ,
E pl
x ti
an a on
l o w es t spe ci e s or n a r r o we st a t t ib ut e ; whil s t
.

er a a n d
t h e o th e r four h or iz on t a l s e r i e s o f v o w e l s ty pify t h e s ub a l t e n g en
sp eci es or t h e i n t e r me i a t e a tt r ib ut e s
, d
T he vowels a r e .
r

r e s e r v e d e x cl us i v e ly fo r cl a s s es o r co mmon

con s on a n ts z z

s i v e a r e n o t ca it a l s
,

,

d q u a liti es ; wh e e a s t h e

z ( a n whi ch t o r en d e r t he con t r a st mor e ob t r u

r e r ese n t i n di v id u a l s or s i n ul a r s
,
,

E ry
r

, p ) p g v e ,
.

hig h er cl a ss o r mor e common a ttr i but e is s uppos e d ( i co for mit y n n

wi t h l og i ca l pr e ci si on ) t o b e di ch ot omiz e d t o b e di v id e d i n t o t wo
b y a l o we r cl a s s o r a tt r i b ut e a n d
it s co n t r a di ct o r y or n e g a ti v e
T hi s co n t r a di ct o r y of w hi ch o n ly t h e co mmen ce me n t a ppe a r s is
,
,

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ma r ke d b y a n i t a li c v o w e l pr e ce d e d b y a pe r pe n di cul a r li n e
,

s ig n ifyi n n o t o r n on a n l u t t h m i n us o f t h e m at h
g a n a o
g o s ,o e

d d
e ma t icia n s T hi s b e i n g un d e st o o d t h e t a b l e a t o n ce ex hi b i t s t he
. r ,

d
r ea l id e n t i t y a n r a ti on a l di ffe r e n ce s o f Br e a dt h a n D epth whi ch , ,

d
th oug h d e n omi n a t e d qua n ti ti es a r e in r ea li t y o n e a n t he sa me , , ,

ua n t i t y v i e w e d in cou n t er r e l a t i on s a n f m it d N t h
q , r o o pp os e e n s o .

d
in g is t h e o e whi ch is n o t p r o t a n to t h e o t h er
n ,

I n B r ea th t h e s upr eme g e n us (A A e t c ) is a s it a ppe a r s a b so

,

, , .
.

, ,

l T h e D ia r a m a n

A uth or s D
g
i scuss ion s ,
d
p 699
r e l a t i ve

.
t e x t t o en
701 E D
-
. .
d of L ectur e ar e ex tr acte d d b y t he E i t or s fr om th e
LEC T . V I II . L O G IC . 1 09

l ut ely t h e g r e a t e s t wh ol e ; a n i ndi vid ua l ( z) ab sol ut ely th e sma ll e st

p
p
ar t ; wh e r e as t h e

r
i n t e r me di a t e cl a sses a r e e a ch o f th e m a r e l a t iv e
a t o r s p ci e s b y r e fe r e ce t o t h e cl a s s a n
e ,
cl a s s e s a b o v e it ; a
n d
r el a t i v e w h ol e or e n us b y r e fe r e n ce t o t h e cl a s s or cl a ss e s b e l o w
g ,

it I n D ep th : t he i n di vid ua l is a b s ol ut ely t he g r e a t e st wh o l e t he
. ,

hig h e s t g e n u s is a b s ol ut e ly t h e sma ll e st pa r t ; w hil st e v e r y rel a ti v e ly

l ow er cl a ss o r spe ci es is r e l a t i v ely a g r e a t e r w h o l e t h an t h e cl a ss
, ,

cl a sse s o e e a a b o v e it
r Tn h e t wo q u a n t i t i e s a r e t h us
r a s the
g , ,
.
,

di ag a m r ep ese t s pr e ci sely t h e i n v e s e of e a ch o t h er T he g r e at er
r r n ,
r .

d
t h e B e a d t h t h e l e s s t h e D e pt h ; t h e g e a t e r t he D e pt h t h e l e s s t h e
d
r ,
r ,

d
Br e a d t h ; a n e a ch wi t hi i t s e l f; a ffo i g t h e cor r e l a t i v e di ffer e ces
,
n r n n

d
o f w h ol e a n

d
a t e a ch t h e e fo e in o o s i t e r e s e ct s con ta i n s a n
p r
pp , p ,
r r , ,

But for di st i n ct i on s s a k e it is h er e c o n v e n i en t t o

i s con ta i n e .
, ,

e mpl o y a di ffe e ce n o t a l t o g e t h er a r b i t a y o f e x pr e ss i o n We
d d
'
r n r r ,
.
,

s h o uld s a y z co n t a i i g a n

d
c o t a i n e d u n er for Br e a d t h ;

n n n ,

co n t a i i n g a n co n t a i n e d i n for D ept h T hi s di s ti n ct i on whi ch

n , .
,

h a s b e e n t a ke n b y s ome mo d e r n l o g i ci a n s t h o ug h u n kn o w n t o ma n y
o f t h e m w a s n o t o b s er v e d b y A r i s t o t l e
,
We n him (t o s ay n oth .
,

d
d
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in g o f ot h e r a ci e n t l og i ci a n s) us i n g t h e e x pr e ss i on ON p { i

n or cv i/ a t

px w fo r e i t h e r w h ol e
n e ,
T h oug h di ffe r e n t in t h e or d e r of t h o ug ht.
,

( r a ti on e

( )
re E
)
a.c
t
h
h e t w o q u a n t i t i es a r e id e n t i ca l in t h e n a t ur e o f t hi n g s

s upp ose s
,

dt h e o t h er ; a B e a d t h is n o t mo r e t o b e is n d r d ,

t in g uish e fr o m D epth th a n t h e r e l a t i o n s of t h e s id e s fr om t h e r e l a
, ,

ti o s of t he a n g l e s of a t r i a g l e I n effe ct it is pr eci sely t he sa me

n ,
n .

r e a so i wh th r w e a r u e in D e t h is ( i e a s s ubj ect

g n n e e p z
, g ,
. .
,

c o n t a i s i n it t h e i n h e r e n t a tt r i b ut e so me Y ; a ll Y is s o me U ; a ll
n
)
U is so me 0 ; a ll O is so me I ; a ll I is so me E ; a ll E is so me A ;

d
th er efo r e, z
'is so me A or wh et h er we ar ue in Br e a d th ,
S ome
g
A is ( i . e. a s c a ss, c onl t a i n s un er it t h e s ub e c j t p ar t
) a ll E ; so me
E is me I is a ll O ; s o me O is a ll U ; s ome U is a ll Y ;
a ll I ; s ome
'

so

Y is z ; t h er efo r e, s o me A is

T h e t wo r ea son i n g s, i n t e r n a lly

an d
id en t i ca l , a r e ex t er n a lly t h e con v er se of ea ch oth er ; t h e pr emi se
t er m, whi ch in Br e a d t h is maj or , in D ept h is mi n or I n sy llo .

g i sms a l s o, wh er e t h e c o n t r a s t o f t h e t w o q u a n ti t i e s is a b o li s h e d ,

d
d
t h e r e , wi t h di ffe r e n ce of g ur e, t he di ffe r e n ce s of maj or a n mi n or
r e mi s e a n t m f ll li k w i e I n t r uth , h o w e v er , co mmon lan
p e r a e s .

d t
u a i it u m f r o os i t i on s, is h e r e r h a s mor e cor
g g e n s e n o n ce e n o p p p e p
r e ct

F or a s
p an

is o n
p
it
hil
ly
hi oso h g g ca l th an
n ic a l l a n ua e o f l o i c i t s e lf

a n equ a ti on o n ly a n a r ma ti on of i en ti ty or
g

i ts n eg a ti on whi ch is in e i t h e r qu a n t i t y pr opose d ; t h e r e for e t h e

t he t e c
d .

, , ,

d d
s ub s t a t i v e v e b s i s n o t) u s e d in b o t h c a se s s p e a ks mo r e a ccu
n
( i r , , ,

h i
d dd
r a t el h of t he
y t a n t, e e
p r e s s o n con ta i e
( o rx n o t con t a i e ) i , n n ,
n

n er of t h e o th e r I n fa ct t h e
o n e con ta in e
, ( o r n ot con ta i n e
) u , .
,
110 L os I C L E C T V III

d
. . .

two qu a n ti ti es a n the two gua n tica ti on s h a ve by l og i ci a n s b ee n

l
n eg e ct e d tog ether .

T hi s T a b l e ( t h e pr i n ci pl e of whi ch b e c omes mor e pa l pa b ly e m d

o n st r a t iv e w h e t h e p a r t s o f t h e t a b l e a r e t u r n e d i n t o t h e p a t s of a
n r

c i r cul a r m a chi e ) e x hi b i t s a ll t h e mut u a l r e l a ti o s o f t h e co un t e r

l
n n

ua n t i t i e s I t r e r e s e n t s t h e cl a ss e s a s a se r i e s of r e s e mb l a n ces
p
q .
,

t h o ug h t a s o n e ( b y a r e pe t i t i on o f t h e s a me l e t t er in t h e s a me
s e i es) b ut a s r e a lly di s t i n ct ( b y s e pa r a t i n g li n es)
r ,
T h us A is o ly .
,
n

A n ot A , A A e t c ; s o me A i ma l is n ot s ome A n i ma l ; o e cl a ss
, , ,
. n n

of A i mal s is n ot all ev e r y or a n y o t h e r ; thi s A n i ma l is n ot t h a t ;

n , ,

d d
'
S o cr a t e s is n o t P l a t o ; z is n ot O n t he ot h er h a d E is E A ; z . n ,

d
an Y is Y U 0 I E A ; e v e r y l ow er a n hig h er l e tt er in t he s er i e s
c o a l e s ci n g u i n t e r upt e dly i n t o a s e r i e s of r e ci pr o ca l s ubj e ct s a n
n r

r e di ca t e s a s s h ow n b y t h e a b s e ce o f a ll di s c i mi n a t i n li
p , g n es n r .

T h us S ocr a t e s ( ) is A t h e i a n ( Y ) G r e e k ( U ) E ur opea n
z

n M an , ,

g
I
( ) ,
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r amma t i ca l a n
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dd l
A n i ma l A
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g
, O f
W
co u r s e t h e s e r i e s mu st b e in

e mus t n ot co ll a t e n o t i on s
r
.

a b s t r a ct a n n o ti o n s co n cr e t e T he T a b l e s h o ws t h e i n v e r s e
c or r e l a t i on of t he t wo qu a n t i t i es in r espe ct of a moun t F or e x a m .

p l e A ( i e .A .A ,
t h e hi g h,
e s t g e n us r e r es e n t e d a s h a v i n
p g s ix

t i me s t h e Br e a dth o f Y ; w hil st Y ( i e Y A ) t he l o w e s t sp e ci es
'

.

.
, ,

h a s six ti me s t h e D e pt h o f A T he t a b l e ma n i fe s t s a ll t he .

cl a ss e s a s in th ems e l v e s u n e a l s ubj e ct i v e id e a l ; for t h e se a r e

,
r , ,

mer ely ct i on s or a r t i ce s o f t h e mi d for t he c on ve n i en ce o f t hi n k n ,

d
in g . U n i v e r s a l s o ly e i s t in n a t ur e a s th e y c e a s e t o b e un i v e s a l
n x , r

in t h o ug h t ; t h a t is t h e y a r e r e d uce d fr o m g e n e r a l a n
a t t r i b ut e s t o i n di vid u a l a n co n cr e t e
q u
,

a liti e s A d Y a
a b s t r a ct

r e o n ly t r uly .

d
-

obj e ct i v e a s di s tr i b u t e d t h r o ug h z z in t h a t ca s e t h e y
et c ; a n , ,
.

a r e n ot u n i v e r s a l s A s Bo et hi us ex pr e ss e s it :
. O mn e q uo d es t e o ,

uo d est s i n g ul a r e e s t T h e o p os i t i on
p of cl a s s t o cl a ss
q ,
.
,

th r oug h co t r a di ct or y a tt r ib ut es is di st in g ui sh e d b y li n es di ffe r en t
n ,

fr om t h os e ma r ki n g t h e s epa r a t i on of on e pa r t of t he s a me cl a ss

d
f o m a n ot h er
r T h us A n i ma l o r S e n t i e n tly o r g a n iz e d (A ) is con
.
, ,
-
,

t r a s t e w i t h N ot a n i ma l or N o t s e n t i en t ly o r g a n iz e d
-
,
A ) b y li e s
- -
,
n

t hi cke r t h a n t h os e whi ch me r ely di s c r i mi n a t e on e a n i ma l ( A f r om

)

a n ot h e r
( )
A 2
.

1 A ma ch in e
d ddof t h is k in wa s con st r u ct e d 2 S ee fur t her in D iscussions , p 701 . et seq .

d m
b y th e A ut h or , a n use i n t he cl ass-r oo to ED .

il lustr a te t he octr in e of the tex t - E . D .

 L E C T U RE IX .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N II .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I . E NN OE M A T IC .

B . OF C ON CEPT S IN S P E C IA L II . T H E IR S U BJE C T I V E RE L A
T IO N Q U A LIT Y .

H A V IN G c on cl ud e d
id er a ti on of t he r el a ti on o f co n cept s
t he co n s

t o th e i r o bj e ct s t h e r e l a ti o n in w hi ch t h e i r ,
R l ti fC pt
e a on o

bj t
Q ua n t i t y is g i v e n
on ce s
I n o w pr o cee d t o con s id er ,
t th i
o e r su ec .

th e i r r e l a t i on t o t h e i r con ce i vi n g subj e ct t he
r el a ti o n in w hi ch is g i v en t h e i r Q ua li t y T hi s co n s id e r a t i o n o f t h e .

q
o f E l e me n t s a o ug h t ,
d
u a li t y o f c o n ce pt s d o e s n o t in my o pi n i o n b e l on g t o t h e D o ct r i n e
,

in s ci e n ti c r i g o r t o b e a dj our n e d a l t o
n ,
,

e t h e r t o t h e M e t h o d o l og y a s a v i r tu e or p e r fe cti on o f t h o ug ht
g ,
.

y ,

t h e fo me d o ct i n e I s h a ll o s o t oo a n
r

l o wi n g pa r a g r a ph
r r

.
,
,

d
A s l og i ci a n s h o w e e r h a v e g e n e r a lly t r ea t e d o f it li ke w i s e un d er
c o mmen ce wi t h t h e fol , d
1T XXV I I . A c on cept or

n e s s o f a ce r t a n
i
n ot o n

i
is t h e
pl ur a lity
un ity
of a
in con s

t t r i b ut esd
ci o us
,
an

d
P XXV H T he

Q
ar

u a l ity

of C
'

on c e p ts
it co n s e q u e n t l y s upposes t he p O Wer f 0

c on s i s t s hi n ki n g t h e se b o t h s epa r a t e ly a n t o
i n i t s l o g i ca l t ,
m
e t h er : ut a s th e r e a r e ma n y d i
I

232: B
t r p er '

r a a t on s
g g
in t h e co sci ousn ess with whi ch t h e ch a r a c
d
n

t er s of a con cept ca n b e t h oug ht s e ver a lly a n in conj u ct i o n n,

t h e r e will co n s e q ue n t ly b e ma n y g r a d a ti on s in t h e a ct u a l P e r
fe ct ion o r I mpe r fe ct i o n o f a n ot i on I t is thi s pe r fe ct i o n o r .

i mpe r fe cti on whi ch con s tit ut es t he l ogi ca l Q ua li t y of a co n

1
c e pt .

p
th us
I t is
a cc om a n i e s
t he g r ea
t he
t er
con c e t
p
or

an d s ma ll er
it s
d eg r ee of c on s ci ousn e ss whi ch
o bj e ct th a t d e t e r mi n e s it s
, q u a li t y ,

1 K r ug , L ogi k, 30. C f E sser , L og ik

. . 45 et seq . ED .
112 L O G IG .
L E C T IX

df
. .

an a c cor di n g
whi ch it is ca ll e d l og i ca lly per fect or l og i ca lly
to
i mper e ct N ow t h e r e ma y b e di st i g ui sh e d t w o d eg e e s o f t hi s
.
,
n r

l og i ca l pe r fe ct i o t he n a t ur e of which is summa ily e pr ess e d in t he

n, r x

foll owi n g pa r a g a ph r .

XXV I I I T h e r e ar e t w o d eg r ees of l .

d t h e l og i ca l pe r fe ct i on of c o n ce pt s vi

d d
P XX
an V IH T he - z .,
,

d t h ei r C lea r n es s a n t h e r D i s ti ctn es s a n
tw o eg r e e s of th e
i n
l o g i ca l p er f e c t i on an , ,

Im p er co n s e q u e t ly t w o O ppo s 1t e d e g r ees o f t h e i r
f e c t i on of C on
n ,

d m
d d

cep t s, t h eir C lea r
co i es pon d i n g I m e i fe ct I o n
. . .

p vi t ll ei r r
7
z

d
,
-

D is t cg ,
.
n ess an

th e
d
T h e se
d d four ual i ti es e x ess t he er fe ct i on a n 1 m
O bs cu r i ty a I n is ti n ctn es s
n es s. an t h eir O h n ir .

s cu r ity an In is
w e ne q r
t ss. p p
e r fect o n o f co ce t s I n t m B u t
p p e e es i n x r .

b e t w e en th e s e e x t r e me s t h er e li e a n i n d e n i t e n umb e o f i n t e r r

me di a t e d eg r ees .

A co n ce pt is s a id t o b e clea r ( cla r a ) w h en t h e d e g r e e o f ,

d
con sci o u s n e s s is s uch a s e n a b l e s u s t o di st i

r
g u i
fr om o t h e s ; a n obs cu r e ( obs cur a ) w h e n t h e d eg r e e of co
s h it a s a w h o l e

,
n

d d
s cio usn es s is i s uf ci e n t t o a cco mpli s h t hi s

to be
n A co n cept is s a id
i s ti n ct ( i s ti n cta p er sp i cu a ) w h en t h e d e g e e o f co n
s cio u sn es s is s u ch a s e n a b l es u s t o di s cr i mi n a t e f o m e a ch o t h e r
, ,
.

r
r

dd dd
t h e s ev e r a l ch a r a ct e s o r con s ti t ue n t pa t s o f whi ch t h e co n
c ept is t h e s um ; a n i n is tin ct or co f u s e ( i i s tin cta con
r ,

n
r

n ,

f u ,

fo r t hi s is w a t i n d
s a i mp er sp i cu a

dd
) wh e n t h e a mo u n t o f co n s ci o u sn e ss r e q ui s i t e
,

C onf u se ( co f u s a ) ma y b e e mpl o y e d a s
t h e g e n us i cl udi n g obs cur e a n n
n

i n i s tin ct
g . n ,

T he i
d
ex d p d d
r e s s on s

li d
d
i i lly
clea r n es s an obs cu r i ty , an i s ti n ctn es s an

i n i s ti n ctn es s , as a
pp e to c o n cept s , o r g na

O r ig in al d t i di ti
a ppl ica t i on ii en ot e ce r a n mo ca on s of v s on ; fr o m

d
f t he
O

clea r n ess ,
i i th y w
ex
,
l i lly
p r ess i n S
obs cur i t y , e t c .
d d v s on e , er e an a o
g ca ex ten e t o t he

u s t at e d
I ll r h by M eg
lly ot er s e n se s, to I ma g i n a t i on , an n a to

en ce to th h t
visi on . h l ou
g . I t ma y , t e r e fo r e , e n a b e u s t h e b e tt e r

i d
h d h i d y li i to co mpr e en t e r s e co n ar a
pp ca t o n , to
c id th i i ii
d
i iz
d m
on s er e r t r ve T o L e bn t 2
we ow e t h e pr e c se is t in c
p .

ti on o f c o n ce i l di i f pt s n t o c e ar an s t n ct , a n ro m him I b or r o w t h e
fo ll i ill
ow n i g d l
u st r a t o niy . In a r kn es s t he co mp et e o b sc ur t of

n ig ht we se e n ot hin g ,
t h er e is no p e r cept on , i no dis cr i mi n a

K r ug
d d
1 C o mpa r e , L og ik, 3 1 et s eq E D . E ssa is , L . i i . ch . x x ix . T h e il l ust r a t ion , h ow
Ka
d d
of
[ Bui e r , L og ique , 3 45 cl s eq . n t, Kr . . r . e ve r , oes n ot o ccu r in e it h e r t h ese p a s

K
d d d
V er mm , B ii T r a n s D ia l . . .
, a rt . i .
, p . 41 4 , 3 sa g es . I t w a s p r ob a b l y b or r ow e fr om r ug ,

d
e .
L og l k, 3 1 , a n a tt r i b ute to L eib n i tz by an

d dd
2 S ee h is ZlI ea ita t ion es

e C og n iz ion e , V er ita te o ve r sig h t
E D . .

et I eis ( O p er a , e m
. E r an n , p . N ouvea ux
L EC T . IX . L O G I C .

i f
d
i on of obj ects A s the lig ht d a wn s t he obsc ur ity

h W
.

d eep a n un ifor m sen sa ti on of d a r kn ess is mo ie w e a r e con

e e s ome thi n b ill l
,

dd ,

s c o u s o a c a n
g e e s , g u t a r e s t u n a b e to ,

di sti n g ui sh it s fe a t ur es w e kn o w n ot wh a t it is A s t h e lig h t
,
.

in cr e a s es t he outlin es of wh ol es b eg in t o a ppear b ut st ill n ot with

, ,

a di s ti n ct n e s s s uf ci en t t o a ll o w u s t o per c e i v e th e m co mpl e t e ly ;

b ut wh e n thi s is r en d er e d poss ib l e b y t he r i si n g i n t en s i t y of t h e ,

light w e a r e th en s a id t o se e cl ea r ly We th en r e cogn iz e moun

, .

t a i n s pl a i n s h ouses tr ees a ni ma l s et c th a t is we dis cr i mi n a t e

, , , , ,
.
, ,

th es e obj e ct s a s wh ol es a s un i t i es fr om ea ch oth er But th e i r , ,

.

a r t s t h e ma n ifo ld of which th e se un iti es a r e t h e s um t h e i r

p , ,

a r t s s till l o s e th ems e l v e s in e a ch o th e r th e y a r e s t ill b ut i n di s

p ,

t irict ly v i s i b l e A t l en gt h wh en t he d a yli g ht h a s fully spr un g we

.
,

a r e e n a b l e d li ke wi s e t o di s c r i mi n a t e th e i r p a r t s ; w e n o w see is d
,

t in ct ly wh a t li es a r oun d us But still w e s e e a s y et on ly t he wh ol e s

whi ch lie pr ox i ma t ely a r oun d us a n of th ese o n ly t h e pa r t s whi ch
.

,
d
t h e s ma ll e r d
oss e s s a cert a i n siz e T h e mo r e di s t a n t wh o l e s a n
p .
,

a r t s o f n e a r e r wh o l es a r e st ill s e en b y u s o n ly in th e i r c o nj o i n t
p ,

r es ul t o n ly a s th e y c on cur in ma ki n g up th a t w ho l e whi ch is for u s

,

a v i s i b l e mi n i mum T h us it is th a t in t h e di s t a n t for es t or o n t h e
.
, ,

di st a n t hill w e per ce i ve a g r een s ur fa ce b ut w e s e e n ot t he s ev er a l

,

l ea v es whi ch in t he on e n or t he s ev er a l b l a d es of gr a s s whi ch in
, , ,

t he o th er e a ch con t r i b ut es it s effe ct t o pr o d u ce t h a t a mo un t o f
,

d d
i mpr essi on w hi ch our con s ci ousn ess r e qui r es T h us it is t h a t a ll
whi ch we o per ce i v e is ma d e up of pa r t s whi ch we o n ot per ce i v e
.

d ,

an c on s ci o usn ess is it s elf a co mpl emen t of i mpr essi on s w hi ch lie

b e y o n d it s a ppr e h en s i on C l e a r n e s s a n di s ti n ct n ess a r e t h us o n ly
1
. d d
,

d
r el a t i ve F or b et w een t he e x t r e me o f ob s cur i t y a n
. t he ex t r e me
of di s t i n ct e s s th e r e a r e in v i s i on a n i n n i t y of i n t er me di a t e
n , e

N o w t he s a me t hi n u i n th o u ht F w m i t h
g r ee s .
, g occ r s g o r e a
y e er .

b e c o n sci ous on ly of t h e co n c ept in g en er a l o r w e ma y a l s o b e co n

s ci ous o f it s v a r i o u s c o st it u e n t a t t r i b ut e s o r b ot h t h e co n ce t a n
n
p ,
,

d d
ni ez d
it s pa r t s ma y b e l o s t in th e mse l v e s t o c on sci o us n e s s a n o n ly r e cog
t o e x i s t b y e ffe ct s whi ch i n di r e ctly e v id e n ce th e i r e x i s t e n ce
,

d
T h e pe r fe ct i on of a n o ti o n a s I s a id is c on t a i n e d in t w o d eg r e e s, ,

db di st i n ctn ess ; a n of c our se t he O pposit e vi ces

o r in t w o v i r t u e s v iz

d
in it s C l e a r n e ss a n in it s
, .
,

d d
Cl ea r n ess an o
, ,
scur ity i
as n pt con ce s .

o f ob s cur i t y a n i n di st i n ct n ess a ffor d t w o e

r e e s or t w o v i ces con s t i t ut i n i t s i m r fe cti o n A t i
g g , p e co n c e
p s .

d
s a id t o b e clea r wh e n t h e d e g e e o f con s ci ous n es s b whi
r c h it is
, y

d
a cco m a n i e d is s uf ci e n t t o di s cr i mi n a t e wh a t w e thi n k in a n
p
th r oug h it fr om wh a t w e thi n k in a n t h r oug h oth er n oti on s ;
,

1 S ee L ectur es on M etap hy sics , p 24 1 . cc seq . ED .

15
 1 14 L O G I C L E C T IX

d
. .

wh er ea s if t he d eg r ee of c on sci o usn es s b e s o r emi s s th a t t hi s a n

o th e r c o ce t s r un i n t o ea ch o t h e

b e o bs cu r e
p n i
I t is e v id e t t h a t C l e a n e s s a n
.
t h a t ca s e t h e o t i on is s a id t o

o b scu i t y a d mi t o f
n
r, n

r d n

v a i o u s d e g r e es ; e a c h b e i g ca p a b l e o f a l mo s t i n n i t e g r a d a t i o n s
r n ,

a cco di n r a s t h e o bj ect o f t h e n o t i o n is di scr i mi n a t e d w i t h g r e a t er

g
o r l e s s v i v a ci t y o r pr e ci s i o fr o m t h e o bj e ct s o f o t h er n o t i o s
n A n .

c on ce pt is a bs olu tely clea r wh en it s obj e ct is ,

b m my l e a r
db l t ly h i s a bs olu tely obs cur e wh en i t s O bj e ct ca n b e
di st in g ui s h e d f o m a ll o t h er obj e ct s ; a co n ce pt
Th e a so C
r
an a so u e o

s me ,

d
o .

di st i n g ui sh e d fr om n o ot h e obj e ct But it is r .

o n ly t h e a b s o l ut e ly cl e a r a n t h e a b so l ut e ly ob s cu e w hi ch s t a n d r

d
o o s e d a s c o n t r a di ct o r y x t r e mes ; f r t he m t i n at
pp e o s a e n o o n ca

o n ce b e r e l a t i v e ly o r c o m a r a ti v e ly cl e a r an r e l a t i v e ly or co m
p ,

p a a t iv e l
r
y o b s c u re A b s o l u t e ly o b
. s cur e n o t i on s t h a t i s c o n ce t s
p , ,

wh o se o bj e ct s ca n b e di st i n g ui s h e d fr om n bthin g e l s e e x i st o n ly in ,

th e or y a n a b s ol ut e ly ob s cur e n o t i on b e i n
g in fa c t n o n ot i on a t , ,

a ll . F o it is of t he v e r y e ss e n ce o f a c o cept th a t it s obj e ct
r n ,

s h o u ld t o a ce r t a i n d eg r ee a t l e a s t b e co mpr e h e n d e d in it s e culi a r
, p , ,

c on s e q ue t ly in it s di sti n g ui s hi g ch a r a ct e r i st i cs But on t h e
n ,
n , .
,

ot h e r h a n d of n ot i on s a b s ol ut ely cl e a r t h a t is n ot i on s w h ose
, , ,

obj e ct s c a n n o t pos si b ly b e co n fo un d e d wi t h a ug ht e l se wh e th e r ,

kn o w n o r u k o w
s e ss e d o f v e y fe w a
n

r
n n

co s e q ue n t ly
,

,
d
o f s u ch n o ti o n s a li mi t e d i n t e lli e n ce is

o u r h uma n
n ,
g
co n ce t s a r e
n
p
p o s

, ,

r o e r ly o ly a mi x t ur e of t h e o p o s i t e q u a li t i e s clea r o r obs cu r e
p p ,
n
p
a s a ppli e d t o t h e m me a n i n g on ly t h a t t he o n e q u a li t y o r t h e o t h e r
,

is t h e p e p o d e a n tr I n a l og i ca l e l a t i o n t h e ill ust a t i on o f n o t i on s
n r . r ,
r

c on s i st s in t he r a i s i n g t h e m fr om a pr epon d er a n t ob scu i t y t o a p e r r

p o n d e r a n t c l e a r n e s s or fr om a l ow e r d e r e e t o a hi h e
g g

S o r
1
.

much for t h e q ua li t y of C l e a r n es s o r ob scu i t y co s id e r e d in i t s el f! r n

d
d
B ut a C l e a r con ce pt ma y b e e i t h e r D i s t i n ct o r
T h D i ti m
I d
e s nc ess a n

n i ti t
s fC
n c n e ss o I n di st i n ct ; t h e di s t i n ct n e s s a n
on i n di s ti ct n ess n

d
of co ce p t s a r e th e r e for e t o b e c o n s id er e d a a r t
ce Pt S
n
p
fr o m th e ir C l e a r n e ss a n ob s cur i t y .

But b efo e e t e r i n g u pon t he n a t ur e of t h e di s t i n ct i on it s el f; I

r n

th d
g i f i l mi f
s of ca f
ma y o b s e r v e t h a t w e o w e t he di s cr i mi n a t i on of
D i st i n ct a n I n di st i n ct f o m C l ea r a
ce O
d
O b s cu r e r d
n

d d
is t t
i s i n c i on

i o n s t o t h e a cut e n e s s o f t he tz
.

D u e t o L ei b nit n o t z . g ea t L e b n i r i .

By t he C a r t e s i a n s t h e i st i n ct i on h a n o t b e e n
t aken t h o ug h th e a ut h or s o f t he P or t R oy a l L og i c come s o n ear ,

t h a t w e ma y w ell ma r v e l ho w t h e y fa il e d e pli ci t ly t o e n o u n ce it x
2
.

1 E sse r , pp 91 , 92 , .
[ L og i k, 46 .
E D .
] D esca r tes a n d L ei b n i t z
t h e A pp en ix t o , se e d
ch . ix
d F or mp a r is on
dd
2 P ar t I . .
- a co of t h is M r Ba y n es s t r a n s l a t ion o f t h e P or t Roy a l
.

st a t e men t of t he istin cti on wi th t h os e of L og ik, p 423 ( secon e it i on ) E D

. . .
LEC T IX L O G I C 11 5

d
.
. .

T h oug h L ocke

y
p ub li sh e d
d
ea r s s ub s e ue n t t o t h e
s ta n q in g
his E
so
p a er
p
ssa

me ve
y C on cer n i n g H u ma n U n er

d
L k

d
oc e.

in w c L e i b i t z t h e n a v e y y o un g ma n hi h n r

ha a mon
, g o t h e r v a l ua b l e ob se r v a t i o n s
p r omul a t e d t hi s
g i s t inc ,

t io L o cke did n o t a d v a n c e b e y o d t h e li mit a l r e a dy r e a c e b y

n, n h d
t he C a r t es i a n s ; i n d e e d t h e pr a i se s t h a t a r e s o fr e q u e t ly l a v i s h e d
,
n

o n t hi s hil h r for his d o ct r i n e c on ce r n i n t h di ti n cti o n s o f

p o s o
p e g e s

d d
I d ea s t he co n di t i o s o f D en i t i o n e t c o n ly pr o v e th a t h is
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.
,

d
e n co mi a s t s a r e i n o r a n t o f w h a t h a b e d e a in ma n y r e
g en o n n , ,

sp e ct s fa r b e t t e r d o n e b D e s ca t es a n h is sc h oo l in f act w i t h
, y ,
r ,

r e g a d t o t h e C a r t e s i a n P hil os o h y in
r e n er a l it mus t b e c o n fe s s e d
p g , ,

an d
th a t L ocke h a s ma y e r or s t o ex pi a t e a i s i n g p a r t ly fr om o v e r si g h t
p
t r in e s
a r t ly fr o m t h e mos t u n a cco u n t a b l e mi s a
n

pp
r

e h e n s i
I t is a l mos t n e e dl es s t o s a y t h a t t h os e w h o in t hi s cou n t r y
.
o n o f i t s oc
,
r

r d ,

, , ,

h a v e w r i t t e n on thi s s ubj ect po st e i or t o L ocke h a v e n o t a d va n ce d

a st e
p b e y o n d h im ; fo r t h o u h L e i b i t z b e o ft e n me t i o n e d a n

e v e n o cc a s i o n a lly u ot ed b
g
ur Br i t i s h hil
,

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r

n
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n ,
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o f n o n e w h o p o s se s s e d a s y s t e ma t i c a c u a i n t a n ce wi t h h is

ht a l
, m os t s a
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er s o f h is s ch o o l .

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itnc on n
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n

a s di ffe e n t fr o m o t h e r c on ce t s
p B ut w e m a
r
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it lf

d
se .

di s c imi a t e a w h o l e fr o m ot h er wh ol e s w e ma y
r n ,

iscn mi a t e a co cept f o m o t h e r co n ce pt s t h o ug h w e h a v e o ly a

n n r ,
n

c o fus e d k o w l e d g e o f t h e p a r t s of whi ch t h a t w h o l e
n n o o f th e r

ch a r a ct e s of w
,

hi ch t h a t co cept is ma d e up T hi s ma y b e ill us
d d
r n ,
.

t ate b y t h e a a l og y o f o ur P e ce pt i v e a n
r n r
1 l1 t b y fh
Re p e se n t a t i v e F a cul t i e s We a r e a ll a cq u a i n t e d
e
r .

d d
an a ol gy f P pt o e r ce i on
W i t h ma n y s a a t h o u s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s ; t h a t 1s
an Rep r esen ta t i on y , , ,

d
.

w e r e co g iz e s u ch a s u ch a c o u t e a n ce a s n n n n

t h e co u n t e n a n ce o f J o h n a n a s n o t t h e co un t e a n ce o f J a me s

d d
,
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d
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,
r ,
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n .

an c e r t a i n kn o w l e d g e But t h e co un t e n a n ce s w hi ch w e t h us is
.
,

t i g u ish f o m e a ch o t h e r a e e a ch of t h e m a co mpl e me n t ma d e up
n r

o f a g e a t n umb e r o f s e pa a t e t a i t s o f fea t ur e s ; a n
r
,
r

r
,

it mi g h t a t r
,

d ,

s t v i e w b e s upp o s e d t h a t a s a w h ol e is o ly t h e s u m o f it s p a r t s
r , ,
n ,

a cl e a r c o i t i o n of a w h ol e co un t e n a n ce c a n
n o n ly b e r e a liz e d
g
t h o ug h a di s t i n ct kn o w l e d g e o f e a c h o f it s co n st i t u e n t fe a t ur e s
r .

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n r n r .

F o r h o w fe w o f u s a e a b l e t o s a y o f a n y t h e mo s t fa mili a r fa ce
r , ,

wh a t a r e t he pa r t i cul ar t r a i t s whi ch g o t o for m t he g en er a l r es ult ;

1 16 L O G IC L IX

d
E C T

dl d
.
. .

an y e t th a t a cc oun t w e h e si t a t e n e i t h er in r eg ar d t o c r o wn
, o n ,

d
kn ow e g e of a n i n di vid ua l n o r in r eg a r d t o t h e kn o wl e d g e o s
p ,

s e s s e d b y o t h er s S uppo s e a wi t n e ss b e a dd u c e .

n a co u r e 1 e n t i t y or n o n
m in a ti o n b tw l i f I
o j us i ce o pr o v c

ddth pp
e een e

i d e n t i ty of a ce r t a i n 1 d i v i d ua l Wi t h t h e

th d
n
an ea su o se s
p p
er e

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e iff b tw
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e ee n
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ia m
Egag
?
n e
whi ch h e h a c h a ce d t o s e e w o uld t he co un n ,

s e l b e a ll o w e d t o i n v a lid a t e t h e cr e di b ili t y of t he

d
w i t n e s s b y r s t o f a ll r e q ui i g him t o s pe cify t h e v a r i o us e l e me t s
, ,
r n n

o f whi ch t he t o t a l li ke n es s o f t h e a ccus e d w a s com o u d e d a n

p n ,

th en b y sh o wi n g th a t a s t h e w i t ess e i t h er c o uld n ot spe ci fy t he , n

s e v e r a l tr a i t s o r sp eci e d wh a t did n o t a r e e wi t h t h e fe a t ur e s of
, g
t h e a ccuse d h e w a s th e efo r e i n co mpet e n t t o pr o v e t h e id e n t i t y or
, , r ,

dd
n o n id e n t ity r e qui r e d ?
-
T hi s w o uld n o t b e a ll o w e d F or t h e c o ur t .

d
w o uld h old th a t a ma n mi g ht h a v e a cl ea r per cept i on a n a cl e a r

d
re e s e n t a ti o n of a fa ce a n
r u f whi h h w r he ha n ot
p g e o c o e v e r , , ,

s epa r a t e ly c o n s id e r e d a n co uld n o t se pa r a t e ly i ma g e t o hi mself;

,

d
t h e co n st i t u e n t e l e me n t s T h us e v e n t h e j udi ci a l d e t e r mi a t i on of
life a n d e a t h s uppo s es a s r e a l t he diffe e n ce b e t we en a cl e a r a
a di s t i n ct kn o wl e d e : fo r a di s t i n ct kn o w l e d e li e s in t h e kn o w l
,
.

,
,

r
n

d n

g g
e d e o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t pa r t s ; w hil e a cl e a r kn o wl e d g e is o n ly o f
g
t h e c o n s t i t ut e d wh ol e .

C on t i n u i n g our ill u st a t i o s fr o m t he h uma n co un t e n a n ce : we r n

a ll h a v e a cl e ar kn o w l e d g e of a y f ace w hi ch w e n

I t mti
F th ur er
h a v e s e e n b ut fe w of u s h a ve di s t i n ct kn o wl
S on
,
f m th h m
ro e u a n coun
e d e e v e n o f th o s e Wi t h wh i ch w e a r e fa m l a r ;
te n a n ce g i i

co un t e n a n ce
b ut t h e pa i n t e r w h o h a v i n g l o oke d upo n a
ca n r e t i r e a n ,
r e r o d uce it s li ke n e s s in d e t a il
p d
d d
h as
, ,

n e ces sa ily b o t h a c l ea r a n a di s t i ct kn o w l e d e o f it N o w wh a t n
r
g .
,

is t h us t he ca se wi t h pe ce pt i on s a n e
p e s e n t a t i o n s is e u a lly t h e
q r r r ,

c a se w i t h n o t i on s We ma y b e a b l e cl e a r ly t o di s c i mi n a t e o e
. r n

c on ce t f o m a n ot h e r r a l t h o u h t he d e
g g ee o f c o sci o us n e s s d o es r n
p ,

n ot e n a b l e u s di s t i n ct ly t o di s cr i mi n a t e t h e v a r i o u s comp on e n t ch a r

a ct e r s o f e i t h er c o n c e t fr o m e a ch o t h e r

n n
p T h e C l e a n e ss a n

D i s t i ct e s s o f a n o t i on a e th u s n o t t h e s a me ; t h e fo mer i v o l v e s r
t h e . r

r n
d
me e ly t h e po w e r o f di st i n g ui s hi g t h e t o t a l o bj e ct s o f o ur n o t i o n s
r n

f om e a c h o t h e ; t he l a t t e r i n v o l ve s t h e po we o f di s t i n g ui s hi n g t he
r r r

s e v e r a l ch a r a ct e s t h e s e v e r a l a t t r i b ut e s o f w hi ch t h a t o bj e ct i s
r , ,

t h e su m I n t h e fo me r t he un i t y in t h e l a t t e r t he mul t i pli ci t y
. r , ,

o f t he n o t i on is ca ll e d i t o r e li e f n .

an d
T he di st i n ct n e s s o f a c o n ce pt s upp o se s h o w e v e r t h e C l e a n es s ;
ma y t h e r e fo e b e r eg a r d e d a s a hi g h e r d e g r e e o f t h e s a me
ua li t y o r pe r fect i on
,
r ,
, , r

d
T o t h e di s t i n ct n e ss of a n oti on o v er a n

q .
,
L E C T . pg L oG I C . 117

a b ove it s g en er a l cl ear n ess th e r e

q i d th r e e c on diti o n s
,
ar e r e u re
,

T he cl e a r
e h e n s i on of it s s e v e r a l ch a r

d
a r
pp

d
Sp i lec a it i conf a ct e r s o r co mp o n e n t pa t s ;
on s O
T he cl ea r con r
om m a o
df t cl ear r eco n it i on of the n ex us b whi ch the
h D f
t r a s t o r d i s cr i mi n a t i o n o f th e s e ; a n
t e S c e ss 0 0 0

3 T

he
d
,
,
C o n cept ,
an o i s

e g r e es , g y
s e v e r a l pa r t s a r e b o un d u p i n t o a u i t y o r w h ol e n .

A s t h e cl e ar n ess s o t h e di st i n ct n e s s of a n o t i on is s us ceptib l e
d

, ,

of ma n y d e g ees A co n ce pt ma y b e ca ll e d
r . i s ti n ct wh e n it in ,

v o l v e s t he a mo un t o f c o n s ci o us n e ss r e q ui r e d t o di s cr i mi n a t e fr om

e a ch o t h e it s pr i ci pa l ch a r a ct r s ; b ut it is s o much t he mo r e

t i n ct I
r

o o t i o n t o t he
n

t u m b f t h h
e

t
is d
, p p n r
g e a e rr n e r o e c a r a c e r sr

a ppr e h en d e d ;

d
I n pr o po r t i o n t o t he g e a t er cl e a r n e ss o f t h e i r r

d
di s c i mi n a t i on ; a n
r I n pr o po r t i on t o t h e pr e ci s i on w i t h w hi ch
,

t he mo d e of t h e i r con n e ct i o n is r e cog n iz e d But t h e g e a t er is . r

t in ct n e s s is n ot e x cl usi v e ly or e v e n p i n ci p a lly d e t e r mi n e d b y t he r

r e a t e r n umb er o f t h e cl ea ly a r e h e n d e d ch a r a ct e r s ; it d e e n d s
g pp r
p
s t ill mo r e on t h e i r s upe ri or i mp or t a n ce I n pa r ti cul a r it is of mo .
,

men t wh e t h er t he ch a r a ct er s b e po si t i v e or n eg a ti v e i n t er n a l or ,

e x t er n a l e r ma n e n t o r t r a n s i t o r y pe cu li a r o r c o mmon e s se n t i a l or
p , , ,

a ccid e n t a l o r i g i n a l or d e r i v e d
,
F r o m t h e mer e c on s id e r a t i on of t h e
.

differ en ce s sub s i st i n g b etw e en a t tr ib ut es th er e e mer g e th r e e r ul es

'

t o b e a t t e n d e d t o in b e s t o w i n g on a con ce pt it s r e qui sit e di st i n ct

n e ss . I n t he s t pl a ce w e s h ould e n d ea v or t o di s c o v e r t h e pos i
r ,

tiv e ch ar a ct er s of t h e obj e ct con ce i v e d ; a s it is our pu r pose t o

k o w w h a t t he o bj e ct is a n
n n o t wh a t it is n o t ,
d
Wh en h o w e v er .
,

d ,

a s is n ot un f e q ue t ly t h e c a se it is n o t a t o ce e a s y t o
r n i s cov er
,
n

r e ct e d
wh a t t h e pos i t i v e a t t r i b ut e s a r e our e d e a v or sh ould b e r st di
t o t h e d et ect i on o f t h e n eg a t i v e ; a n thi s n ot o n ly b e ca use
,
n

d
it is a l wa y s a n a d v a n ce in k ow l e d g e wh en w e a scer t a i n w h a t a n n ,

obj e ct is n o t b ut li ke w i s e b e c a u se t h e di s cov e r y o f t h e n e g a t i v e
, , ,

ch a r a ct e r s c on d u ct s u s fr e q ue n t ly t o a di s cov e r y of t he po s i t i v e .

d
I n t h e s e co n d pl a ce a mon g t he pos i t i v e qua liti e s we s h o uld s eek
d

,

o ut t h e i n t r i n s i c a n p e r ma n e n t b e fo r e t he e x t r i n s i c a n

for t h e fo r me r g i v e u s a pu e r a n
t
mor e d e t er mi n a t e kn o wl e d g e of
r d
r a n s it or y ;

a n obj ect t h o ug h thi s obj ect ma y li ke w i se a t t h e s a me ti me pr e

,

s e n t ma n y e t e r n a l r el a t i o s a n
x mut a b l e mo di ca ti on s A mon g n d ,

.
,

t h e p e r ma n e t a t t r i b ut e s t he pr ope r o r pe culi a r a lw a y s me r it a

p n ,
n

r e fe r e ce if fo r n o o t h e r r e a son b e ca u se t h r ou h t h e m a

t h oug h t h e commo n qu a li t i es c a n t he pr oper or pe cu li a r n a t ur e o f

r
g
,

n o t, ,
n d
,

t h e obj e ct b e co me k o w n t o us n .

I n t h e t hi r d pl a ce a mo g t h e pe ma n e n t ch a r a ct e r s w e O ug ht
d

n r
,

r st t o h un t o ut t h e n e ce ss a r y or e s s en t i a l a n
f om t h e m t o t h e c on t i n g en t o r a ccid e n t a l ; a n
r
th e n t o d escen d
thi s is n ot on ly
,

d
118 L O G I C . L E C T Ix

d
. .

b e ca use we th us g i v e
d er a n con n e cti on t o o ur n oti on s b ut or , ,

likew i se b e ca use t he co n t i n g e t ch a r a ct e r s ar e fr e q u e n t ly o ly t o
,
n n

b e co mpr e h e n d e d t h r oug h t he n e ce ss a r y 1
.

d
But b efo e l e a v i n g t hi s pa r t o f o ur s ubj e ct it ma y b e pr ope r t o
r ,

ill us tr a t e t he di s t i n ct i on of C l e a r a n D i st i n ct
d
d n ot i o n s b n e o r t w o c on cr e t e e x a m l e s
Th i ti ti f
e s nc
y
on
o
O
p O f .

ll t t d
D i t nC n o'
m
ai S
a y thi s w e h a v e cl e a r b ut n o t di st i ct n on n
t i on s i by
us r a e g n

t
c on cr e e ex a mpl ti o n s T h us we h a v e a cl ea r b ut n ot a di st i ct
es ,
.
, ,
n ,

n oti on of c o l or s soun d s t a s t e s s me ll s e t c

w e a r e fully a b l e t o di s t i g ui s h r e fr o m whi t e t o di s t i g ui sh a
a cut e f o m a g a v e n o t e t h e v o i ce o f a f i e n d f o m th a t o f a s t r a n
r r
F or
n
,

d r
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r
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n
.

d
e r t h e s ce n t o f r o se s f o m t h a t o f o n i o s t h e a v o r of s u a m '
r
g , g o n ,
r

th a t of v i eg a r ; b ut b y wh a t pl ur a lit y of s epa r a t e a n e un ci ab l e
n n

d
ch a r a ct e r s is t hi s di s c i mi n a t i o n m a d e ? I t is b e ca us e w e a e u n a b l e

d
r r

t o o t hi s th a t w e c a n n o t d escr i b e s uch pe r cept i on s a n

, r e r e s en
p
t a t io s t o o t h er s
n .

I f y o u a sk o f me sa y s S t A ug ust i n e
d wh a t is T i me I kn o w

.
, , ,

Wh at d oes t hi s me a n ?
if y o u o n o t a sk me I k o w
d
2
n ot ; ,
n .

S i mply t h a t h e ha a cl e a r b ut n o t a di sti n ct n ot i on of T i me , , .

O f a t i a n g l e w e h a v e a cl e a r n o ti o n wh e n w e di st i n g ui s h a t r i
r ,

a n l e fr o m o t h er u e s wi t h o u t s e ci a lly co n s id e r i n t h e ch a r a c
g g p g r ,

t e r s whi ch con st i t ut e it w h a t it is But wh e n w e t hi n k it a s a por .

ti on of spa ce b oun d e d b y t h r e e li n es a s a g ur e w h os e t h r e e a g l es ,
n

a r e e u a l t o t w o r i ht a l es e t c th e n w e ob t a i n o f it a di st i n ct
q g g n ,
.
,

c on ce pt .

We n ow come t o t he con si er a t i on of t he quest i on H ow d oes d ,

o
H W th D i t i m
f Ca
O

pt
on ce ff t d
e
t h e D i s t i n ct n e s s o f a co n ce pt st a n d a ffe ct e d b y
i

is a
nc

ec e
eS S
t h e t w o q u a n t i t i e s of a co n cept ? a i r ef n d n

e e n c e t o t hi s po i n t I w o uld in t h e s t l a ce r
b y th t w q e t i tio ua n es r
p , ,

o f aC pt on ce di ct a t e t o y o u t he foll owi n g pa r ag r a ph

11 X XI X A .
p l
s a con c eptur a li t y of ch a r a ct e r s b o u n d u
is
i t o un i t y a n a s t h a t pl ur a li t y is co n t a i n e d
n

a r t ly in it s I n t e s i v e pa r t ly u d e r it s E x
a

,
p
d
d t e si v e u a n t i t y it s D i st in ct n ess is i like
P X X I x D i s t in c t n
ar . .

p n ,
l t em al an E x

f
es s n

n
er n e l . q n , , ,

ma n n e r I n r e l a t i on t o t h e s e q ua n t i t i e s
0

, ,

p ly
ar t an I n t er n a l or I n t en s i ve pa r tly a n e x t er n a l or E x t e n si v e ,

D i s t i n ct n e ss .
3

In l
e x p a n a t on o f i thi s it is t o b e O b s er v ed th a t a s t h e di st i n ct
, , ,

n e ss o f a co n ce pt is co n t a i n e d in t h e cl e ar a ppr e h e n s i o o f t h e n

1 E s ser
, L og ik, 4 7 , p 9 3 -95 E . D . 3 K r ug ,
L og ik, 34 ; E sse r , L ogi k, 48 .

2 C o n ess ions , x
f i 0 14 E D
. . . . ED .
L E C T . IX .
L O G I C . 11 9

i
v a r o us a t t r ib ut es of w hi ch it is t h e su m, as it is t h e su m of t h e se
i
a ttr ib ut es
t e r e l a t i o n s whi ch con
in t wo oppos ,

d
E pli ti
x ca on .
s t it ut e in fa ct t w o o pp osi t e q ua n t i t i e s or w h o l es
, , ,

an a s th e se w h ol e s a r e s e v e r a lly c a pa b l e of ill us t r a t i o n b a n a ly s i s
y ,

it foll o w s t h a t ea ch of th es e a n a ly s e s will con t r i b ut e it s pe c uli ar

r
,

sh a e t o t he g e n e a l di s t i n ct n e ss o f t h e c o n ce pt r T h us if t he is
t in ct n es s o f a n o t i o n b ea s r e fe r e n ce t o t h a t pl ur a li t y w h i ch con s t i
r
.
, d
ta t es it s comp eh e si on in ot h er w or d s t o th a t whi ch is con t a i n e d
r n , ,

i n t h e c on ce pt t he di s t i n ct n ess is d e n o mi a t e d a n i n ter n a l or i n
, n

ten s i ve di s t i n ct e s s o r di s t i n ct es s o f comp r ehen s i on

n , O n t h e o th er
n .

h a n d if t he di st i n ct n ess r efe rs t o t h a t pl ur a li t y whi ch co sti t ut e s

,
n

d
t he e x t e si on of t h e n o t i o in o t h er w o r d s t o wh a t is c o t a i n e d
n n, n
,

u n er it in t h a t c a s e t h e di s t i n ct ess is ca ll e d a n ex t er n a l o r ex ten
, ,
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s i ve di s t i n ct n e s s a di s t i n ct n ess o f ex ten s i on
, I t is o ly w h e n a . n

n ot i o n co mb i n e s in it b o th of t h e s e spe ci e s of di sti n ct n e ss it is o n ly ,

d
wh en it s pa t s h a ve b ee a a lyz e d in r e fer e ce t o t h e t w o qu an
r n n n

t i t i e s t h a t it r ea ch es t h e hig h e s t d eg r e e o f di s ti n ct n e s s a n
, o f pe r

fe ct i on .

T he I n t er n a l D i sti n ct n e s s o f a n o ti on is a cco mpli s h e d b y E x po si

D it i
e n d
D i i
on a n
t i o n o r D e n i t i on t h a t is b y t h e e u mer a t i on
of t h e ch a r a ct e r s o r par t i a l n o ti o n s co t a i n e d in
v
, ,
n

n
i
s on .
it ; t h e E x t e r a l D i st i n ct n ess a g a i n o f a n ot i on n , ,

is a cco mpli sh e d th r o ug h D i vi s i o n th a t is th r o ug h t h e e n umer , ,

atio no f t h e obj e ct s w hi ch a r e co n t a i e d u n d e r it T h u s t h e co n n .

c e pt ma n is r e d e r e d i t e s i v e ly mor e di s t i n ct

t h a t ma n is a r a ti on a l a n i ma l
n nw h e n w e d e cla r e
it is e d e r e d e x t e s i v e ly mo e is
n

r n
,

n r d
t i n ct wh e w e d ecl a r e t h a t ma n is p a r t ly ma le pa r t ly f ema le ma n
1
,
n ,
.

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,

ch a r a c t e r s i t o it s pa r t i a l o r co st i t uen t a tt ib ut e s in t he l a t t er
,
n n r ,

w e r es o l v e it i n t o it s s ub o r di n a t e co ce pt s o r i n fer i o r g e n e a In n ,
r .

s i mpl e n ot i o n s t h e r e is th u s poss i b l e a n e x t en

d sive b ut n ot a n i ten si v e dist i n ct n ess ; in i n di

,

S impl tie no on s a
,
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f dd
f m
v id u a l n o t i on s t h e r e is poss ib l e a n i n t e n s i v e
n it f 1 ex fe n s
, .
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ua f n o i on s o

an
b ut n ot a n e x t e n s i v e d i st i n ct n e ss T h us t he , .
2

n ess . c on ce pt s ex i s ten ce g r een s weet e t c th ough a s , , ,

.
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d
a b s o l ut e ly o r r e l a ti v e ly s i m l e
p
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t h e ir

n
c o mpr e

t h ey
,

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o n o t t h e r e fo e a d mi t o f d e n i t i o n ; s t ill it ca n n o t b e s a id t h a t

d
,
r ,

t h e y a e i ca pa b l e o f b e i g r e n d e e d mo r e di s ti n ct
r n F o r o we n ot
n r .

a n a lyz e t he l u a li t i e s o f w hi ch t h e s e con ce t s a r e t h e s um w h e n
r
p p ,

w e sa y t h a t e i st e n ce is e i t h er id e a l or r e a l t h a t g r e e n is a y e ll o wi s h
,
x ,

1 K r ug , p 95 , [ L og ik,
. 34 . E D .
] 2 E s ser , L og ik, 5 48 .
-E D .
1 20 L 0G I C . L E C T . 1X .

d
d
or a b l ui sh gr een ,th a t sw e et is a pun g en t or a ma w ki sh sw ee t ?
an

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o w e n o t b y thi s a n a ly s i s a t t a i n a g r e a t e r d eg r ee o f l og i ca l

,
,

r fecti on t h a n wh e n w e thi n k th em o n ly cl e a r ly a n
,

a s w h ol e s d > 1

i

A c on c ept h as th er e for e a t t a i n e d it s hi g h es t

, , ,

hig h t p m t f
o i n t of di s ti n ct n es s wh en th e r e is s u ch a con
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ls c ess O on
s cious n e s s of it s ch a r a ct er s th a t in r e n d e r i n g it s ,

d
.

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p ,

which a s s i mpl e a d mi t of n o d en i t i on a n in r en d er in g it s e x t e n
, , , ,

s i on di st i n ct w e t o uch on n o ti on s whi ch a s i n di v id ua l a d mit of n o

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ul t e r i or di v i s i o n I t is t r ue i n d e ed th a t a di sti n ct n es s of thi s
.
, ,

d egr e e is on e which i s on ly id e a l ; th a t is on e t o whi ch w e a r e ,

a l wa y s a r ox i ma ti n b ut which w r e a b l e a ct ua lly t o
pp g , e n e v er a

r e a ch

d
I n or d er t o a ppr o a ch a s n ea r a s possi b l e t o thi s id e a l w e
.

must a l wa y s i n qui r e wh a t is c on t a i n e d in a n wh a t un d er a n ot i on
an
,

e n d e a v or t o o b t a i n a di s t i n ct c on sci o usn e s s of it in b oth r e l a

, d ,
,

ti on s Wh a t in thi s r esea r ch r st pr esen t s it self we must a g a i n

.

a n a lyz e a n e w

t o e x t e n s i on ; a n
,

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d escen di n g fr om t he hig h er t o t he l ow er fr om
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the g r e a t er t o t h e l ess w e o ug ht t o s t op o n ly wh en our pr oce ss is
a r r est e d in t h e i n i v id ua l or in t he s i mp
,

le
.

1 K r ug , L ogi k 34, A n mer k i pp 95, 96 E D

. . . . 2 E sser , L og ik, 8
4 ,p.96 ED. .
, ,
 L E C T U RE X .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N II O F . T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I . E N N O E M A T IC .

I M P E RF E C T I O N OF C ON CEP T S .

I T is

I mp f ti er ec fC
n ow n e ess a r

on o
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tic e a n I mper fe cti on t o which c on c ept s
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y to no

in t h e e x posi t i on of
it n e c e ss a r y t o e mpl o y a n e x pr e s d , d
ce pts .

s i o n whi ch t h o ug h it ha s t h e hi g h e s t phil o soph

, ,

ic a l a uth or it y for it s use I w o uld st ill in con se que n ce O f it s a mb i g ui t y

, ,

in E n gli sh h av e a v o id e d if thi s c ould h a v e b e e n d on e w i t h o ut

, ,

com r o mi s i n t h e k n o wl e d g e o f wh a t it is i n t e n d e d t o e x r e ss
p g p .

T he e x pr e s si on I me a n is i n tu i tive in t h e p a r t ic ul a r si g n i ca t i on in
,

whi ch it is use d b y L eibn itz a n t h e c on t i n en t a l phil osoph er s in

e n e r a l t o d e n ot e w h a t is common t o o ur di r e ct a n t
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,

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g , o s

c og n i t i on of i n div id ua l O bj e ct s in S en se o r I ma g i n a t i on ( P r esen
t a t ion or Re pr e s e n t a ti on ) a n
s y mb o lic a l cog n iti on of
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l a n g ua g e in t he U n d er st a n di n g But on thi s h ea d I w ould r st

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of al l dict a t e t o y ou t h e foll owi n g pa r a g r a ph

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11 XXX ti on or c on c ept is t he fa ctiti ous wh ol e or

. A s a no

un ity ma d e up o f a pl ur a lity o f a tt r i b ut e s ,
XXX m
d
P I
ar .
a wh ol e t oo oft en of a v e r y c om l e x
. p er
f a ct i on s of C on c e p t s . p

d
multi pli city ; a n a s thi s multi plici t y is on ly
me n t a lly h eld t og e th er i n a smuch a s t he c on c ept is x e d a n ,

r a ti e d in a s i n or w or d it f tly h th t i it
g ; r e
qu e n a ppe n s a n s , ,

e m l o y men t t he w or d d oes n ot su t t h wh l m t f
p , gg e s e o e a o u n o

th oug ht for whi ch it is t h e a d equa t e e x pr ess i on b ut on t he

c on tr a r y we fr equen tly g i ve a n t ake t he sig n e ith er with an
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1 M e d d it a tion es e C og n i zion e, Ver i ta t e et I deis , O p er a , e dd . E r man n , p 80. . ED .

16
1 22 L O G IC . L E C T . X .

o b scur e or i di s t i n ct co sci o usn es s of it s me a n i g or

n n n ,
even

w i t h o ut an a ct ua l c o n s ci o us es s o f it s si g i ca t i o n a t a ll
n n .

T hi s li a b ili t y t o t he v i ce s of O b s cu r i t y
i an ddi In i
s t n ct n e ss a r s e s,

F o m t h e v e y n a t u e o f a con ce pt w hi ch is
d
r r r ,
I ll t t i
t h e b i n di g u p of a mul t i pli ci t y in u i t y ; a n
us r a on .

n n

d
F o m it s d e pe n d e n ce up o n l a g ua g e a s t h e e ces sa y co di t i on
r n ,
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d
o f it s e x i s t e ce a n s t a b ili t y
n I n co se q ue ce of t hi s w h e n a . n n ,

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p e e g p n ,

f e q u e n t ly w on t t o use t he t e m b y w hi ch it is d en ot e d w i t h o ut a
r r ,

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cl ea r o r di s t i n ct co n s ci o u s e s s of t h e v a i o u s ch a r a ct e r s o f w hi ch n r

t h e n o t i o n i s t he s u m ; a t h us it is t h a t w e b o t h g i v e a n
n t a ke ,

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n

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r n - r

me t a l s l a r g e pa y me n t s a r e ma d e i b a g s of mon e y pu po r t i n g t o
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co n t a i n a ce t a i n n u mb e r o f a c er t a i
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l e a st a ce r t a i n a moun t in v a l ue N ow t h ese b a g s a r e oft e n se a l e d .
,

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d
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p n ,

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n

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n

for
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r
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w hi ch t h e y pa ss c u r e t I n thi s st a t e o f m a t t e s it is h o w e v e r
r n . r , , ,

d
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n b e co mmi t t e d a n t h at a
, y r r r ,

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t a i s a n ot h e
n o r whi ch in fa ct ma
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on ey at n n n

N o w t h e ca s e is s i mil a r in r e g a d t o n o ti o n s
d
a ll . A s t he se al e d r .

b a g o r r ou lea u t e s t i e s t o t h e e n u me a t e d s um a n g i v es u ity t o r ,
n

w h a t w o uld o th e r wi s e b e a n u n co n e ct e d mul t i t ud e o f pi e ces ea ch

o ly
n e r ese t i
p r
g i t s se
p na r a t e v a l ue ; s o t h e s i
n
g o r w o r d pr o v e s a

r a ti e s t h e e i s t e n ce o f a c o n ce t t h a t is it v o uch e s t h e t yi n g up o f
x
n

n
,

n d
p , ,

a ce t a i n n u mb e
r o f a t t r i b ut es o r ch a r a ct e s in a s i g l e co n ce pt
r r n ,

se a ate a
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r

e ct e d r e
p
n e s e n t a t i o n s o f v a l ue
nn S o far
r t h e .

d
a a l o y is ma n i fe s t ; b ut it is o n ly
n en e a l T h e ba
g t h e
g uar a n r
g g .
,

t e e d s um a n t h e co s t i t u e t c o i n s e r e s en t in a s t ill mo r e p o x i

d
r
, pn n ,
r

d
m a t e ma n e r t he t e m t h e co n ce pt a n t h e co n s ti t ue n t ch a a ct e r s
n r , ,
r .

d
F o r in r e g a d t o e a ch w e ma y o o e of t wo t hi g s
r ,
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h a n d we ma y t e st t he b a g t h a t is o pen it a n a s ce r t a i t he a ccu
, , , ,
n

d
r a cy o f its s t a t e d v a l u e b u ti o u t t h e pi e ce s whi ch it ur
y c o g , p
n n

o t s t o co n t a i n ; o
r w e ma a cc e t a p a ss t h e b a
g w i t h o u t s u ch
p y p r n ,

a cr i t i ca l e u me a t i o n n I t h e o t h e r c a s e w e ma y t e s t t h e g e n e a l
r .

t e r m pr o v e th at it is v a lid fo r t he a moun t a n qu a lity of t h o ug ht of

,
n ,

d r
 L EC T . X .
L O G I C . 1 23

w hi c h it i s t h e s i g n b y p s r e a di n
g o u t i n
,
c on s ci o u s n es s t he v a i o us r

d
c h a r a c t e r s o f w hi c h t h e c o n c e t
p p o f e s s e s t o b e t h e c o m p l e m ern t ; or

we m a
y t a k e a g i v e t h e t e rnm wi t h o u t s u ch a n e v o l ut i o n .
1

I t is e v id e t f o m t hi s t ha t n o t i on s or co n ce pt s a r e p eculi a r ly
n r

li ab l e t o g r e at v a g uen ess a a mb ig ui t y a n t h a t th e i r sy mb ol s a r e
,

n d ,
d
li a b l e t o b e pa ss e d a b o ut w i t h o ut t h e pr oper ki n d o r t he a d e q ua t e ,

a mo un t of t h o ug h t ,
.

T hi s i t er e s t i n g s ubj e ct h a s n ot es ca pe d t h e ob s er v a t i on of t h e
d
dd
n

d
p hil o soph e r s of t hi s co u n t r y an b y t h e m it ,

d
T h l i b il ity t
e a m ha s i o a fa ct w ith g r e a t i n g e n ui t y b ee n ill us
,
n ,

zifhjig tfrj hj h a he ma e r h a b e f r h m
t r a t e ; b ut a s t h e y a e a ppa r e n t ly ig n o r a n t
d
g v s
r
c e a n

Br i t i s h p hil t t t tt o e t e e n a e d t he
p h os o er s g g , ,

d
,

a t t e n t i on o f s un d y for e ig n phil os oph er s b y r ,

wh om it ha s b een e v e n mo r e a b ly ca n v a ss e d a e x p ou n d e d I
d n ,

s h a ll in t h e e pos i t i o n o f thi s po i t a l s o

d d
,
x o j u s t i ce t o t h e ill us t i o u s
n , r

t hi n ke s t o wh o m is ue t h e h o n or of h a v i n g o r i g i n a lly a n
r mos t
s a t i sfa ct o ily di scus se d it r .

T h e foll o wi n g pa ss a g e fr o m M r S t e wa r t will a ffor d t h e b e s t fo un .

t d
d a t i on for my sub s e qu e n t r ema ks : I n t he r

St w t q
hi
e

bj t
ar
l a s t s e ct i o n I me n t i o n e d D r C a m b ell a s a n in
uo e on
p .

{
d d
s su ec .

e n io u s d e fe n d er of t h e s y s t e m o f t h e N o mi n
g
a l ist s a n ,
I a ll ud e d t o a pa r t i cul a r a ppli ca t i on w hi ch he h a s ma e
o f t h e i r d o ct i n e T he r e a so n i n g s w hi ch I h a th e n in v i e w a r e t o
r .

b e fo u n d in t he se v e n t h ch a pt e o f t h e s e co n d b oo k of his P h ilos o r
d ,

l of R het or i c in whi ch ch a pte r h e r o os e s t o e x l a i n h o w it

p y a , p p p

w r it er a n
,

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h a ppe s t h a t n on sen se s o oft e e s ca pe s b e i n g d e t e ct e d b o t h b y t he
n

t he r e a d e r .

n

T he t i t l e is so me w h a t l udi c o us in a g a v e r r

hil o s o hi ca l w o r k b ut t h e di s ui s i t i o
q t
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p r e e d co n

d
n x
p p , ,

t a i s ma n y a cut e a n
n
p r ofo un d r e m a r k s o n t h e n a t ur e a

of s i g s b o t h a s a me di um o f c o mmun i ca t i on a n
n ,
p o w
a s a n i n st r u me n t
e r

, d n

o f th o ug ht .

C a mpb e ll s specul a t i o n s wi t h r e spe ct t o l a n g uag e a s a n i

D r. n

s t ume n t o f t h o ug h t se e m t o h a v e b e e n s u
r
R f t H m
e er s o u e.
g ,

ed b h e fo ll o w i a ss a e in M H m
g e s t y t g p g u e s n r.

T r ea ti s e of H u ma n N a tu r e I b e li ev e e v e r y o n e who e x a mi n e s

d d
t h e si t u a t i o o f his mi d in r e a s o i g w ill a g r e e wi t h me t h a t w e
o n ot a n e x di s t i ct a
n
n n

d
c o mpl e t e id e a s t o e v e r y t e r m w e ma ke
n n
n n , ,

d
u se o f ; a th a t i t a l ki g of G ov er n me t C h ur ch N eg o t i a t i o n
n n n n , , ,

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200 E . D . 2 P ar t i . 7 E . .
 24 L O G IC L E C T X
dd
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th ese s ub e c s ,

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n , p .

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i mme di a t ely per ce i ve t h e a b sur dit y of th a t pr opo siti on .

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,

d
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h e h a s e n d e a v o r e d t o e x pl a i n in w h a t ma n n er o ur h ab i t s o f t hi n ki n g
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an
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d
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t h em

t r e a t i se
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.
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A d
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n C mp b l l a e
fa mili a r t o u s we a r e a bl e t o r ea son b y me a n s
.

of w o r d s with ou t e x a mi n i n g in e v er y i st a n ce t h e i r s i g n i ca ti o n
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a ll t he a c u i r e d r e l a t i o n s of t h e s i n s h a v e b e co me cu s t o ma r y t o
q g )
us . T h e co n s e que n ce is th a t a n u n us ua l a ppli ca t i on of a n y t e r m
,

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d
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mi d w h e n in a n y d e g r e e puzzl e d with t he si g n s t o t h e kn o wl e d g e
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.

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But in ma tt er s t h a t a r e b y n o me a n s fa mili a r or a r e t r ea t e d in a n
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r ,
i e r e n t .

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d

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, , , .
 L O G I C .
25

T hi r ly ,

dW
h e n th e t er ms e mpl oy e d a r e v er y a b s t r a ct , a n d c on

s e que n t ly o f v e r y e x t e n s i v e s ig n i ca t i o n .

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li a bl e t o b e a b us e d b y a n i mpr o per o r un me a n i n g a ppli ca t i o A

n .

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e n ce t h e y fa mili a ly u s e w o d s w hi ch t h e r i t y f l r u
g p pro e o a n
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r n x ,

i .
,
Wor ks ,
v ol . 1 1 . ch a p. iv 5.
2 C o mpa r e E s sa y , B . IL , ch . xx n 7; IL ,

x x ix . 9 ; ii . x x x i. 8 ; ii i , ix 6 ; iii
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x . 2 E
. D .
1 26 L O G I C L E C T X
d
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an d
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,

wi t h o ut t a ki n g t h e pa i n s n e ce s sa y t o s ett l e in t h e i r mi n d s e r

d d
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,

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.
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c o n d e n t ly w i t h o ut mu ch t r o ub li n g t h e i r h e a d s a b out a cer t a i n
,

e d me a i n g : wh e eb y b es id e s t he e a s e of it t h e y o b t a i n thi s
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b e i g a ll o n e t o g o a b o ut t o d r a w t h o s e me n o ut of
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t ake s w h o h a v e n o s e tt l e d n o t i o n s a s t o
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.

d
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of

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r r , , , ,
n

ish phil o s o ph e r s L ocke is e n t i t l e d t o t h e wh ol e h o n o r o f t he ob s

,

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o f H ume s d o ct r i n e t h e t w o o th e r hil os o h e r s r o fe ss o n ly t o

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w d
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I n t ui t i v e a n S y mb olic a l in whi ch di s ti n ct i o n is in v ol ,

1 E s sa y con cer n in g H uma n U n dd er s t a n in g , v ol . n .

p 22 8 ;
.
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 L O G I C . 1 27

t he p h aen o men on in q uest i on I t is t h e e st ab li sh men t o f .

t hi s di st i ct i o n li ke wi s e w hi ch h a s s upe r s e d e d
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d
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) y
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t he me mo a b l e di s t i ct i o n o f I n t ui t i v e a n
r n S y mb o li ca l kn o wl e g e ,

a di s t i ct i on n ot ce t a i n ly u k o w n t o t h e l a t r hil h
n r e n n of
p o s o
p e s r

thi s count y b ut whi ch fr o m t h e i r n ot poss essi n g t e ms in whi ch p e

r , , r r
 1 28 L O G IC L E C T X

d
. . .

cis ely to e mb ody it

lw a y s r ema i n e d v ague a n i n appli cab l e t o
,
h as a

c ommon use S pe aki n g of t he a n a lysi s of compl e x n ot i on s he s a y s :

.
,

F o r t h e mo s t pa r t h ow e v e r especi a lly in a n
d

, ,

d a n a ly s i s o f a n l n th w e o n ot v i e w a t o n c e
L h it t
f
e n z 0 0
y e g ,

wl d
I t t
n ui i ve a n S y mb l o
s 1 mul i n t u e mur ) t h e wh o l e ch ar a ct e r s or
ic a l kno g e e. ( n on

a tt r i b ut e s o f t h e t hi n b ut i l a ce o f th es e w e
g n
p ,

e m l o y s i g n s t h e e x plic a ti on of w hi ch i n t o wh a t th e y s i g n i fy w e a r e
p , ,

w on t a t t h e mo men t of a ct ua l t h o ug ht fo r t h e s ake o f b r e vi t y t o
, , ,

omi t kn o wi n g or b eli e v i n g th a t w e h a v e t hi s e x pli ca t i on a l w a y s in

,

o ur po w e r

s a n d e q u a l s id es) I d d
T h us wh e n I thi n k a chiliog on ( or polyg o n o f a t h o u
.
,

o n o t a l w a y s c o n s id e r t h e v a r i o us a t t i b ut e s
,
r ,

o f t h e s id e of t h e e u a lity a n
, q
t h e s e w or d s ( w h ose mea n i n g is ob scu r e ly a n
o f t h e n umb e r a th o u sa n d b ut u s e

t o t h e mi n d ) in li e u of n ot i on s whi ch I h a v e o f th e m b e ca use I
,

i mper fe ctly pr e se n t e d d ,

r e me mb er th a t I , p o s se

d
s s t h e s i g n i ca ti on of th e se w or d s th oug h

th e i r a ppli ca ti on a n e x pli ca t i on I o n o t a t pr e sen t d e e m t o b e d d

,

d
n e ce ss a r z thi s ki n d o f t hi ki I a m u s e d t o c a ll bli n or s m
y g n n
y
boti ca l : w e e mpl o y it in A l g eb r a a n
u n i v e r s a lly An . d in A r i t h me ti c b ut in fa ct
c e r t a i n ly wh e n t h e n o ti o n is v e r y co m l e x w e

c a n n ot thi n k a t on ce a ll t h e i n g r e di en t n ot i on s : b ut w h er e thi s is
, p
,

os s i b l e t l t i m u h i t i i b l I ca ll t h e co n i t i o n
p a e a s n a s c ,
a s s
p o ss e
g
i n tu i ti ve O f t h e pr i ma r y e l e me n t s o f o ur n o ti on s t h e r e is g i v e n
.
,

n o o t h er kn o wl e d e th a n t h e i n t uiti v e : a s of o ur com os it e n ot i o n s
g p ,

d
th er e is for t he mo st pa r t poss ib l e on ly a sy mb oli ca l F r om t h ese
, , .

co n sid e r a t i o n s it is a l so e v id e n t th a t o f t h e t hi n s whi ch w e i
g , s

t in ct ly kn o w w e a r e n o t con sci o us of t he id e a s e x cept in s o fa r

a s we em l oy a n
p i n t u i t i v e co n i t i on
g A
th a t w e o ft en fa l s ely b e li ev e t h a t w e h a v e in our mi n d t he id ea s
n i n d e e d it h a
pp e n s ; d
,
,

p l oy ha
,
g
bd
of t hi n s ; e r r o n e o us ly s u

e e n a
pp li e d a n
pp os i

e p
g
li c
t h
ated an

it is a mb i g uo usly ex pr e ss e d w h a t s o me a sser t t h a t w e ca n n ot
d
a t c e r t a i n t e r ms w hi ch w e e m

it i
n ,

s n o t t r ue a t l ea s t
x d ,

, ,

s pe a k con ce r n i n a n y t hi n g un d e s t a n di n g wh a t w e s a wi t h ru t
g , y o ,

h a v i n g a n id ea of it a ct ua lly pr e sen t F or we fr equen tly a pply a n y .

ki n d o f me a n i n g t o t h e s e v e r a l w or d s o r w e mer e ly r e coll e ct u s , ,

t h a t w e h a v e fo r me r ly u n d e s t o o d th em b ut b e c a us e we a r e co n t en t
wi t h t hi s b li n d thi n ki n g a n o n ot foll o w out t he r eso l ut i o n of
t h e n o t i o n s it h a
,
r

d
d ,

e n s th a t co n t r a di cti on s a r e a ll o we d t o lie hid

pp, , ,

whi ch per ch a n ce t he c ompos i t e n ot i on i n v ol v es T h us a t

.

,

r st si g h t it mus t s e e m th a t w e co uld fo r m a n id ea o f a ma x i mum

, ,

d
( mot us cel e r r imi) fo r in u s i n g t h e t er ms we u n d e r s t a n d
v e l o ci t y
,

d
w h a t w e s a y ; w e s h a ll h o w e v er t h a t it is i mpo ss ib l e for t he
n , , ,

n o t i on of a u i k e s t mo ti o n is s h o w n t o b e c on t a di ct or y
q c an r , ,

th er e for e i n con c ei vab l e L et us s uppos e th a t a wh eel is t ur n ed

, .
,
L E C T . X .
L O G I C . 1 29

wi t h
t hat if
a ve o

on e of
l ci t y
it s
a b so u e

s poke s
l t ly at it s ma x i mum ;
b e pr o d uce d , it s o ut er e n w il l b e mo v e d
e v er

d
y on e
p e r ce v e s i

mor e r a pidly th a n t he n a il s in t h e ci r cumfe r e n ce o f t h e w h e e l ; t h e

mot i on th e r efo r e , of
d
th es e is n ot a ma x i mum whi ch is co n tr a y t o , r
,

t h e hy po t h e s i s a n t h er e fo r e i n v o l v e s a co n t a di ct i o n

r .
, , ,

T hi s q uot a t i on will s uf ce t o s h o w y o u h o w co r r e ct ly L e i b n i t z a p

E t f th i d

ec i ti
o
p r eh e n d e d t h e n a t ur e o f co n c e t s a s o p os e d t o

s s nc

d
p
t h e pr e s e n t a t i on s a n r e pr es en t a t i on s o f t h e s ub
p
d
d
,

si ia y fa cul t i e s ; a n t h e i n tr o d u ct i o n of t h e t e r m
3 iii 1 iy s
0 L b it e n on
r

d
1 08 0 ) o er .

mzfy f S y m b oli ca l kn o w l e d g e t o d esi g n a t e t he for me r , ,

an t h e t e r m I n tu i tive kn o w l e d g e t o co mpr e h e n d

t h e t wo l a t t er t er ms w hi ch h a ve e v e r si n ce b e come cl a ss i ca l in his
,

o wn c o un t y

d
h a s b e s t o w e d o n t h e G e r ma n l a n u a e o f hil os o hy
r , g g p p ,

i t hi s r e s pect a po w e r a n pr e ci s i o n t o whi ch th a t of n o o t h e r n a t i on
n ,

c a n l a y cl a i m I n c on s e que n ce o f thi s whil e t he phil o s oph e s o f

.
, r

thi s coun t y h a v e b e en a ll a l o n g pa i n fully e x poun di g t he phaen o m

r n

d
e n o n a s o n e o f t he mo s t r e co n di t e a ca n a o f ps y ch o l og y in G e ma n y r ,
r

d
it ha s fo r a ce n t ur y a n a h a lf s ub s id e d i n t o o n e of t h e e l e me n t a r y
r
,

o ct i n es o f t he s ci e n ce o f mi n d I t w a s in co n s e q ue ce o f t h e
es t a b li sh me n t o f t hi s di sti n cti on b y L e i b n i t z th a t a p e culi a r e
,

es
n

x
p , r

s i on B i; ) w i d h y m b li l i
( eg r co n ce p t u s a s a pp p r o r a t e t o t e s o c a n o t o n s

dd
o f t h e U n d e r s t a n di n
g i n co n t r a s t t o t he i n t ui t i v e , p r es e t a t i o s of

S e n s e a n r e pr es e n t a t i o n s o f I ma g i n a t i o n whi ch l a s t a l so w e e fur ,
n

r
n

d
'
n ish e ivit h t he di st i n ct i v e a ppe ll a t i on s o f i n tui ti on s (A n s cha uu n
g e n i n t ui tu s
, ) T h u s it is t h.a t b y a m o r e c o i o us a n
p , w,
e ll a p
-

p o i n t e d l a n ua e
g g p hil os o hy h a s in G e r ma n y
p ,
b e e n r a i s e d a b o ve , ,

an d
v a r i o u s co t r o v e s i e s w hi ch mer e ly in co n s e q ue n c e of t h e p o v e r ty

g
S e cu l a t i o n s B
n

ut t o r e t u
g
t o the m
r ,

v a u e n es s o f it s E n li s h n o me cl a t ur e h a v e i ly o ccu i e d o ur

e r e l o i ca l u
,

e s ti on
p n , d
p .
, g q rn .

T he d o c t r i n e of L e i b i t z in r eg a r d t o thi s n a t ur a l i mpe r fe cti o n of

n

Th d
d
o ur co n ce pt s w a s n o t o v e r l o oke d b y his di s ci l e s
p ,

i t d b y th d
dd
i t i ti
e p nc
I sh a ll r e a d y o u a pa ssa g e fr o m t he L e ss er
on a
s
an

o ic o f Wo lf
p r ec a e i i e sc
L a w or k a b ov e a c e n t u r y o l
pl f L ib i t
es o e n g z .
, a n ,

whi ch w a s r espe ct a bly t r a n sl a t e d fr o m G e ma n r

i n t o E n g li sh in th e y e a r 1 7 7 0 T hi s t r a n sl a t i on is n ow r a r e ly t o b e me t
.

w i t h w hi ch ma y a cco un t fo r it s b e i n g a ppa r en tly t ot a lly u kn o wn t o

d
o u B i t i sh
r
,

p
r hil oso
p h er s ; a n
y p d
e t u o n t h e wh o l e wi t h a ll it s fa ul t s , ,
n

an i mpe fe ct i on s it is pe r h a ps t he mo st v a l uab l e w o r k o n L og i c ( t o
r ,

s a y n o t hi n o f t he P or t R o a l L o i c in t h e E n li s h l a n u
g y g ) g g g a e .

By Wo r d s w e u su a lly ma ke kn o w n o ur
W lf q t d W d
d

,
uo e

or t m
o

er wh s,
th oug ht s t o o t h e r s : a n
.

at.
or s
th us t h e y a r e n o t hi n g

b ut utt er e d a r t i cul a t e si g n s o f o ur t h o ug ht s for

t he i n for ma ti on of o th e r s : for e x a mpl e if o n e a sks me wh a t I a m ,

17
1 30 L O G I C L E C T X
d
. . .

hi n ki n g of
t ,
an w I an s er , the s un ; b y t hi s w or d I ac
q ua n i t him
wh a t obj e ct my h h t o ug ts ar e t hen e mpl o y e d a b o ut .

I f t w o p e r s o n s, t h e r e fo r e , a r e t a l ki n g t o g e t h er , it is r e q ui s i t e, in

o r d e r t o b e u n d e r s t o od , r s t , t h a t h e w h o s pea ks , s h a l l j o i n s o me

i
n ot o n o r me a n i n g to ea c h w o r d ; s e c o n dly , t h a t he wh o h e a r s sh a l l
,

j oin t h e v e r y s a me i
n ot on t h a t t h e spe a ke r d o es .

dd

C on s e q ue n t ly , a ce r t a ni n o t on i or mea n i n g mus t b e con n e c e t d
wi th ,
an t h e r e fo r e s o me t hi
h w or d n
g h e s ig n i e d by, ea c .

N o w in o r e r t o kn o w wh e t h e r w e u d e r st a n d wh a t w e speak
,
n ,

o r t h a t o ur w o r d s a r e n ot me r e e mpty s ou n d w e o ug h t a t e ve r y , ,

w o r d w e u t t er t o a sk o ur sel ves wh a t n ot i on o r me a n i n g w e j oi n
,

th er e wi t h .

F or it is c a r e fully t o b e ob ser v e d th a t w e h a v e n ot a l w a y s t h e ,

n o t i on o f t h e t hi n r e se n t t o u s o r in v i e w
g p , ,

p ki g s ea th i k n
wh e n w e spe a k o r t hin k o f it ; b ut a r e sa t i se d
n :

w d t
i g th m i g f O
n
e
wh ea n n
en w e i ma g i n e w e s ui cien t ly u n d e r s t a n d
d d
lw y

d
or s no a a s

a tt en t e o wh a t w e s pea k if w e thi n k w e r e co ll e ct t h a t ,

d
,

w e h a v e ha a t a n o th er ti me t he n ot i o n whi ch

is t o b e j o i n e d t o t hi s or t h e o t h er w or d a n t h us w e r epr e s en t t o

o u s e l v e s a s a t a di s t a n ce o n ly
r ,
or ob s c ur e ly t h e t hi n g d e n ot e d , ,

b y t he t e r m 9 c , .

H e n ce it us ua lly h appe n s th a t wh e n w e c omb i n e w or d s t o ,

dd
e th e r o e a ch o f whi ch a a r t a mea n i n

w d
g t p , g o r
H o" With t or
n ot i o n a n s w e r s w e i ma i n e w e u n e r s t a
s ou
wh t
j m b g a ,

d
a e H .

zig i
y
w e u t t er t h oug h t h a t w hi ch is d e n o t e d b y s uch ,

co mb i n e d w o r d s b e i mpo s s i b l e a n c o n se ue n tly
q , , ,

an d
ca n h a v e n o me a n i n g ; for th a t whi ch is i mpos s i b l e is n o t hi n g a t a ll ;

of n o t hi n g t h e r e ca n b e n o id ea

n ot i o n o f g o ld a s a l so o f i r on
F or i n st a n ce w e h a v e a
b ut it is i mpo ss i b l e t h a t i r o n ca n a t
.
,

, ,

d
a n y t i me b e g old ; c on s e q ue n tly n e ith er ca n w e h a v e a n y n o ti o n
,

o f i r on g o ld ; a n

d
e t w e u n d er s t a n d wh a t eo l e me a n wh e n th e y
-
y p p
men ti on i r on g ol - .

I n t h e i n s t a n c e a ll eg e d it c er t a i n ly s t r i ke s e v er y o n e a t r s t
d

,

Fu t h p rd b ut et t h er e a r e a t h ousan d i n st a n ces in w hich it

th a t t he e x pr essi o n ir on g ol is a n e mpt y soun d ;
er r o ve .
-

y
d oes n ot so e a sily st r ike : F or ex a mpl e wh en I s a y a e ct ili n ea l t w o ,
r

li n e g u e co n t a i n e d un d er t wo r igh t li n e s I a m e qua lly w ell u n d er

r ,
-
,

d d
s t oo d a s w h e n I s a a r i ht li n e d t i a n l e a g ur e co n t a i n e d un d e r
-
y g g r ,

th r ee r i g h t li n es : a n it sh o uld se e m w e ha a di st i n ct n ot i on of
-

b ot h g ur e s 13 c H o w e ver a s w e s h ow in g e o me t r y t h a t
, .
,

d
t w o r i gh t li e s ca n n e v er c on t a i n a spa ce it is a l s o i mpo s s i b l e t o
- n ,

for m a n ot i on o f a r e ct ili n e a l t w o li e d g ur e ; a n co n se q u en t ly - n , ,

th a t ex pr essi on is a n empt y soun d J us t so it h old s wi t h t he v ege .

a r . X .
L O G IC 1 31

t ab

p l
le s ou pl l
a n ts s u pose d t o b e a
of p
a n t s a e e n ab l e d t o v eg e t a t e a n
r g
,
sp i r it ua l b e i n
g
dwh e

r o w : fo r t h ou h t h o s e w o r d s
g
r e b y ,

t a ke n a p a r t a r e i n t e llig i b l e y e t in t h e i r co mb i n a ti on t h e y h a ve n o
,

ma n n e r of me a n i n g J us t so if I s a y t h a t t he A t tr a cti v e S pi r i t or
.
,

p hil o s o ph e r s a t thi s a
y i
,

d
A t t r a ct i v e C o r d a s L i n us ca ll s it or t he A tt r a cti v e F o r ce a s s o me
s a n i mma t e r i a l
p
,

r i n ci l e s u er a dd e d t o
, p p
,

ma t t e w h e r eb y t he a t t r a cti on s in n a t ur e a r e per fo r me d ; n o n o ti on
r,

o r me a n i n g ca n poss i b ly b e j oi n e d with th e s e w o r d s

a l so b e l o n g t h e N a t u a l S y mpa t hy a n A n ti pa t hy o f P l a n t s ; t h e
r d
T o t hi s h ea d .

Ba n d o f Ri ght o r l a w (vi n culu m j u r i s) use d in t h e d e n i t i on of ,

O b li g a t i o n b y C i vili a n s ; t h e pr i n ci pl e of E v il of t he M a n i ch e a n s
, ,

e t c}

i c,
dd
Ra t ion a l T houg hts on t he P o wer s of
d
the G

d ma n f Ba r on Wol us 54 57 ;
1 L or er c.
og o
, p .

the H ma n
u Un er s ta n in g . T r a n sla t e f m
ro L on on , 1 770 E D
. .
 LECT URE XI .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

E C T I O N I .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I . E NN OE M A T IC .

I II . RE C I P RO C A L RE L A T I O N S OF C ON CEPT S .

A .
Q U AN T IT Y OF E XT E N S I O N S U B O RD IN A T I O N AND CO
O RD IN A T I O N .

I N O W pr o ce e d t o the thi r d an d
l t as Re l a ti on of C o n cept s , th a t
o f co n ce pt s

t o t h e i r obj e ct s a n
h e r T he t w o
to
t o t h e i r s ubj e ct g d
eac h ot

a v e th e i r Q ua n t i t y a n
.

Q ual
f o r me r r e l a t i o n s o f n o t i on s

d
d
it y . T hi s t h e r e l a t i o n of n o t i o n s t o e a c h o t h e r g i v e s wh a t is
, ,

e m h a t i ca lly a s t r i ct ly d e o mi a t e d t h e i r R ela ti on I t hi s ri
g n n n
p n .

o r ous si n i ca t i on t h e Re l a t i o n o f C o n cept s ma y b e t h u s d e e d n
g ,
.

1[ X XX I . T he Re l a t i o n pr oper
ti on s con si s t s i t h o s e of n o n

d et e mi a t i on s o r a t t r ib ut e s w hi ch b el o g
d d
r n n

R m
P X XX
M
t o th e m n o t v ie w e a s a pa r t a n
L e "
in t h e m ,
r o ca l R e l a t i on s of

s e l v e s b ut a s r e ci r o ca lly co m a r e d C o
C on c e p ts ,
p p , . n

c e pt s c a n o n ly b e c o m a r e d t o e t h e r w i t h
p g
r e fer e n ce e i t h e r T o t h e i r E t e n s i on ; o r
, , T o t h ei C o m x ,
r

r eh e n si o A l l t h i r r e l a t i o n s a e t h e e fo e d e e n d e n t o n t he
n
p e .
p r ,
r r ,

o e o r o n t h e o t h e r o f th e se ua n ti t i es
1
n
q .

1T X XX I I . A s d epe d e n t upon E x t en s i on co ce pt s s t a d
n ,
n n

t o e a ch o t h e r i t h e v e mu t u a l r e l a t i o s
XXX d n n ,

d
P ar II U n er
O f E cl u s i o n ; O f C o ex t e s i o ;
. .

x n n
E x t e n s i on .

O f S ub o r di n a t i on ; O f C o or di n a t i on ; a n
O f I n t e r s e ct i on .

1 . O ne co n c e
pt l d e s a n oth er
ex c u , w h en no
p ar t of the on e

c oi n cid e s wi t h an
y p ar t o f t h e o th e r . 2 . O n e c o n ce
pt is coex

1 Cf . K r ug ,
L ogi le , 36 E
. D .
2 S ee dia g r a m, p 1 3 3 . .
1 34 L O G I C . L EC T . XI .

t en s i ve wi t h a n oth er wh e n e a ch ha s t h e sa me n umb e r o f s ub
,

o r di a t e co n c e pt s u n d e r it
n 3 O n e c o n ce pt is s ub o r di n a t e t o
a n o t h e r ( whi ch ma y b e ca ll e d t he S up er or i n a te ) wh e n
.

t he
.

d
d
fo mer is i n cl ud e d wi t hi o makes a pa r t of; t he sph e r e o r
r n, r

d
e x t e n s i o n o f t h e l a t t er 4 T w o o r mor e con ce pt s a r e co o i
. . r

n ate wh e n e a ch e x cl u d e s t h e o t h er f o m it s s ph e r e b ut w h en
,
r ,

b o t h g o i mme di a t e ly t o ma ke up t h e e x t e n si on o f a t hi r d co n
c e pt t o whi ch t h e y a r e c o s ub o r di n a t e
,
5 C on cept s i n t e s e ct . . r

e a ch o t h e r w h e n t h e s ph e e of t h e o n e is pa r t i a lly c on t a i n e d
,
r

i t he s ph er e of t h e ot he r
n .
l

Of E cl usi on h or s e, s ll og i s m, ar e ex a mpl es : th er e is no ab s o
x , y
l ut e l i
e x c us o n .

dt d
E mples of t h e ve
x a
A s ex a mpl es of C oe x t e n s i on ,
the c on cept s
mut ua l r e l a t i on s of

C on ce p t s .
li vin g , bei n g , an or g a n i z e bei n g s , ma y b e

g i ve n F or u s i n g t h e .
,
er m l fe a s a
i pp li ca b l e t o

p l
dd
a n t s a s w el l a s a n i ma l s t h e e is n o t hi n
g li vi n
g w hi h i n ot o
cr s a n r
, g
i e an n o thi n o r a n iz e d w hi ch is n ot li v i n T hi i r o ca l
z , g g g s r e c
p .

r el a t i on w ill b e r e r es e n t e d b y t w o c i r cl e s cov e r i n
p g e a c h o

dd
t h e r or ,

b y t w o li n e s of e q u a l l e n g t h a n in pos i t i v e r e l a t i on
A s e a mpl e s o f S ub o r di n a t i o n a n
x C o o di n a t i o n ma n
h or s e st a n d a s cor r e l a t i v es in s ub o r di n a ti on t o t he c on ce pt a n im
og r
.

, ,
d ,

an d , , ,

a s r e ci pr oca l c o r r e l a t i v e s in co or i n a t i o n w i t h e a ch o t h er
, ,
d al

.
,

Wh a t I w ould call the r e cipr o ca l r e l a t i on of I n t er se cti on t a kes ,

p l a c e b e t we e n co n ce pt s w h e n th e i r s ph e r e s c r oss o r out e a ch o t h e r ,

t h a t is fa ll pa r t ly w i t hi
d
a r t l y wi t h o u t e a ch o t h e r T h u t h
, p n, s e , .
,

co ce pt bla ck a n
n t h e co n ce pt h ea vy mut u a lly i n t e r s e ct e a ch ot h e r
for o f t h e se s o me b l a ck t hi g s a r e h e a v y some n ot a n s ome h e a v y
n , ,
d ,

thi n g s a r e b l a ck s o me n ot
S b d
,

d
d
.

O f t h ese r el a t i on s t h ose of S ub or di n a ti on a n
d C o r i a t io a r e of pr in cipa l i mpor t a n ce a s on , d
d
u ori ti na on an
n n
,

d
C oor i ti na f p i on o r n

c ip l imp t
a
th e m r e pos es t he w h ol e
or a n ce .
s y s t e m o f cl a s s ica

t i on ; a n t o t h e m a l on e it is th er e fo r e n e ce s , ,

s a r y t o a ccor d a mor e pa r t i cul ar con s id e r a ti o n .

U n d er t h e S ub or di a t i o n o f n o t i o n s t h e r e a r e v ar i o us t e r ms t o
n
,

e x pr e s s t he differ e n t mo d e s of t hi s r e l a t i o n
th d m df
d
T m er p i
s ex f th e se it is n e ce ss a r y t h a t y ou sh ould n o w l e a r n
r ess ve O

d
e iff er e n t o es o
an h ei e a ft e r b e a r i n mi n d for t h e y fon an n

d
,
th l ti
e re a f S b on o u op
e s s e n ti a l a r t o f t h e l a n ua g e o f L og i c a n w ill
i ti
na on ,
p g ,

c ome fr e u e n t ly in t h e s e ue l t o b e e m l oy e d
q q p , ,

in c on sid er i n g t he a n a ly si s of Rea son i n g s .

1 C f . K r ug , L ogi k, 41 E D
. .
 L EC T . XI .
L 0G I C . 1 35

l XXX I I I . O f n ot on s i whi ch st a n d t o e a ch o th er in th e
l i
r e at on s o f S ub or di n a ti on t h e o n e is t he ,

d
P ar X X XI I I S up e
S up er i or (
. .

m, H i g her Oi n ott o, con cep tu s , s up e

d d
an I n fe r i o r , .

Br oa er an N a r r ow
r i or ) , the ot h er t he L ower or I n
f er i or

d d
er n o t i on s .

( n oti o, con cep tu s , in f er i or

) . T he su
p e r i or

n ot on i is likew i s e ca ll e d t he Wi er o B r oa er ( la ti or r the
i n fe i o r r is li ke w i se ca ll e d t h e N a r r ower ( a n g u s ti or ) .
1

T he m e a n i n g i is s uf ci e n t ly ma n ife s t
of h e set A ex r e s s on s
p .

is ca ll e d t h e hig her or s up er i or i n a smuch

n o ti o n ,
E pl i t ix ca on
a s it is v i e w e d a s s t a n di n v e r a n o t h e r in t he
.

o
g

d
r e l a ti on o f s ub o r di n a t i o n a s i n cl udi it w i t hi it s d o ma i n o r
g , n n

sph e r e ; a n a co r r e l a t i v e n o t i o n is ca ll e d t h e lower o r i n er i or a s
f ,

d d
t h u s s t a di g un d e r a s upe r i o r A g a i n t h e hi g h e r n o t i o is ca ll e d
n n .
, n

t he w i er o br oa er a s co n t a i n i n g un d e r it a g r e a t e r n umb er of
r ,

t hi n g s ; t h e l o w e r is ca ll e d t he n a r r ower a s c on t a i n i n g un d er it ,

a s ma ll e r n umb e r .

1T XX X I V . T he hig h er or wid e r co n ce
pt is a so l ca ll ed ,
in
c o t r a st t o t he l ow e r or n a r r o w er , a

d Un i
n
XXXI V
d ( m
P U i
ver s a l G en er a l N mi hov,
ar
o ti on
' n

or i c . Ka
v er s a l a n P ar t i cul a r
n ott o, con cep tu s , u n i ver s a li s , n er a li s t he
)
0

n o t i on s , g e

l ow er or n ar r ower c o n ce
pt ,
-
in co n tr a s t to
'
t he hig h er or w id er , a P ar ti cu la r N oti on , mini m ,a epcx ov
.
, n oti o,
2
con cep tu s p ar ti cu la r i s .

T h e mea n i n g of h ese
like wi se r e qui r es n o ill ustr a
t e x pr e s s on s , i ,

ti o
A n o t i on is ca ll e d u n iver s a l i a s much a s
n. ,
n
E pli t i
x ca on
it is co n s id e e d a s b i n di g up a mul t i t u d e o f
.

r n

t
d d
o r i n fe i o r co n ce t s i t o t h e u i t y o f a w h o l e f r u i ver s u s
p a r s
p r
; o n n n

d
d d
mea n s i n u n um ver s us o r a u n u m ver s u s t h a t is ma n y tu r n e , ,

i n to on e o ma n y r eg a r e a s on e a n
,
r u i ver s a l is e mpl o y e d t o ,
n

d e n ot e t he a t t r i b ut i o n o f t hi s r el a t i on t o obj e ct s A n ot i o n is ca ll e d .

p a r t i cu la r i a s m uch a s it is c on s id e r e d a s on e of t he
,
n
p a r t s of a

hig h e r co n cept o r w h ol e .

ii XX X V A supe r i or c on c ept , i n a s much a s it

. c on stit ut es a
c o mmo n a t t r i b ut e o r ch a r a ct e r for a n umb e r of i n fe r i or co n
'
ce pt s , is ca ll e d a G en er a lN o t ion ( vo
m aa KG S OAO U , n o ti o con ce
p tu s
'
g n er a
e li s ) , or , in a s n i gl e w or d , a G en u s (y evo s,
g us
en
) . A

K r ug d
d
1 Cf.
L og ik, 42 E D
, l a ti, Ru imen ta L og ica , p [ L og ica , t om

d
. . .

2 [ S ee A mmo n i
us , I n D e I n ter p r et , f 72 b , . i , P I 0 iv
. .
8 , 4 t h e it
.. . . V en ice, 1 772 Cf .

K r ug
.
,
( Br a n i s , S chol i a i n A r is t ot , p
'

F a cci o L og ik, 42 E D ]
. .

, . .
1 86 L O G I C .
L E C T XL

dl
.

n o t on , i i n a smuch as it is co n s id er e d a s a t on ce a o r

in g a co m
mon attr i b ut i o n for a i co mp eme t
ce r t a n n
XXX
d
d
P V G
ar

Sp
.

i
e ci e s .
n fe i or c o n ce t s o r
. en u s

p of r i n di vid ua l obj e ct s ,

d
an

a a s i t s e l f a n i fe i o r n n r c o n ce t co t a i n e d
p ,
n

u n d e r a hi g h er is c a ll e d a S p eci a l N o ti on ( winn , i u n oti o er e c v

, ,

o r in a s i l e w or d a S p eci es
con cep tu s sp eci a li s
) , g (
, 6 8 sp e,
n , 09 ,

T h e a b st r a ct i o n whi ch c a r i e s u e ci e s i n t o e n e a is
ci e
) s . s
p p g r r ,

c a ll e d in t h a t r e spe ct
,
G en er i ca ti on o mo r e l o osely G en er , ,
r, ,

a liz a ti on T he d e t er mi n a t i o w hi ch di v id e s a g e n us i n t o it s
d
. n

s p eci e s is ca ll e d in th a t r espe ct S p ecica ti on

S pe ci e s a e b o t h c a ll e d G la s s es
r an
, G en er a a n
t he a r r a n g eme n t of t hi n g s
,

d .

u n d e r t h e m is th er e for e C la ss ifica ti on
1
.
, ,

I t is ma n i fe s t th a t
di st i cti on i t o G en er a a n S pe c es i s a
t he
me r e ly r e l at i v e i s t i n cti on ; a s t h e sa me n ot i on
n

d n d i

d is in o n e r e spect a g e n us in a n o t h e r r espect a
E pl i ti
x Th
ca on e
, , , ,

dS p m ly n ot i on th at i s ex ce t i t b e i t self t he Wi d est or
i im t i f G e n us
S pe ci e s F o r e x cept a n ot i on h a s n o hi g h er
et on O
.
,

an eci es er e 0

re l ati e v p , ,

d
.

most u n i ve s a l n o t i o n it ma y a l wa y s b e r e g a r d e d r ,

a s s ub o r di n a t e d t o a n o t h e r ; a n in s o far a s it is a ct ua lly t h us r e ,

a r d e d it is a s pe ci e s A g a i n e v e r y n o t i on e x ce t t h a t w hi ch h a s
p
g ,
.
,

u n d e r it o ly i n di vid u a l s is in s o fa r a s it is t h u s v i e w e d a g e n us
n , , , .

F o r e x a mpl e t h e n o t i on tr i a n g le if v i e w e d in r e l a t i o n t o t h e n o t i o n
, ,

o f r ectili ea l g ur e n is a spe ci e s a s is li ke wi s e r ecti li n ea l g u r e

, ,

i t self a s v i e we d in r el a ti on t o g ur e s i mply A g a i n t he con cept

, .
,

r ig ht a n g le
- d
tr i a n g le is a g e n us wh e n v i e w e d in r e fe r e n ce t o t h e con ce pt s
tr i a n g le a cu te a n g le
,

tr i a n g le e t c
t r i a n g l e is h o w e v er on ly a spe ci es a n n ot po ssi bly a g e n us if
, A r igh t a n g l e d - dd , .
-
,

, , , ,

u n d e r it b e n e ce ss a r ily i n cl ud e d i n di v id u a ls a l on e But in po i t of .
,
n

fa ct it is i mpo ssib l e t o r e a ch in t h e or y a y l o w es t s pe ci e s ; fo r we
,
n

d
c a n a l w a y s c o n ce i v e so me di ffe r e n ce b y whi ch a n y co n ce pt ma y b e

di vid e d a i n i tum T hi s h o w e v e r a s it is o n ly a spe cul a t i ve

n .
, ,

c ur i osi t y li ke t he i n n i t esi ma l di vi sib ility of ma tt er ma y b e t h r own

,

d ,

d
d
o ut of v i e w in r e l a t i o n t o r a ct i c e ; a n t h e r e fo r e t h e e n i t i o n b
p y , , ,

P o r phyr y a n l og i ci a n s in g en er a l of t he l owe st spe ci es ( of w hi ch ,

I a m i mme di a t e ly t o spe a k) is pr a ct i ca lly cor r e ct e v e n th o ug h it , ,

d
c a n n o t b e v i n di ca t e d a a i n s t th e o r etic a l obj e cti on s O n t he o t h e r
g .

d
h a n d we s o on a n e a sily r e a ch t h e hi g h est g en us w hi ch is g i v en in
, ,

2 6 en s a li qu i
7 > 1x, bei g thin g s omethi n g etc whi ch a r e o n ly v a r i
,
n , , ,
.
,

o us e x pr e ss i on s of t h e s a me a b so l ut e un i v er sa lity O ut of th e se .

1 K r ug , L og ik, 43 E
. D .
L EC T . XI . . L O G I C . 1 37

con di t i o s t h er e a r i s e cer t a i n d en omi a t i on s of con cept s whi ch it

n n , ,

is li ke w i s e n e ce ss a y t h a t y o u b e ma d e a w a r e o f
,

r r
,

I n e g a d t o t he t e r ms G en er ica ti o n a
r

S p ecica ti o t h e s e a e n d .

n ,
r

d t i on a n D et er mi n a t i o con sid e r e d in a pa t i en d
li mi t e d ex pr e s si on s fo r t he pr o ce s s e s of A b s t r a c

d
G i t i
e n er ca on an '

n, r
S p i t i wh t

d
ec ca on , a
D e t e r mi a t i o
.

la r r e l a t i on A b s t r a ct i on a n . n n,

ou w ill e co ll e ct w e h a v e a l r e a y s poke n o f in g e n e r a l ; i t w ill 1

r
y , ,

t h e e fo r e b e o n ly n e ce s sa y t o s a y a v e y fe w w o r d s in r e fe r e n ce t o
r ,
r r

d
t h e m a s t h e s e v e r a l o pe r a t i o n s b y whi ch o u t o f spe ci es w e e v o l v e
,

d
o ut o f g e e r a w e e v o l v e s pe ci e s

d
e er a a n
n A nr s t in eg a d n r r
g ,
.
,

t o A b s t a ct i o n a G e n e i ca t io n I n ever y r n r .

G i t i
e n er ca on .
co m l e x n o t i o w e ca n li mi t o ur a t t e n t i o t o it s
p n, n

c on st i t u e n t ch a a ct e r s t o t he e cl u s i o o f s o me o n e
r , We t h us x n , .

t hi k a w a y f o m t hi s o e
n w e a b s t a ct f o m it
r N o w t h e co ce pt
n ,
- r r .
,
n

whi ch r ema i s t h a t is t he f asci cul us o f t h o ug h t min u s t h e o e ch a r

n , ,
n

a ct e r w hi ch w e h a v e t h r o w n o u t is in r e l a t i o t o t he o i g i a l t he
, ,
n r n ,

e t i r e co n ce t t h e n e x t hi g h e r t h e
p r o x i ma t e ly s u e r i o r n o t i o n
p
-
n
p , , .

d
But a co n ce pt a a n e x t hi h e r co n c e t a r e t o e a ch o t h e a s s e cie s
'
r
g p n
p
e us T h e r o ce ss o f A b s t r a ct i o n t h e e fo e b w hi ch o ut o f
an
g n
p .
y ,
r r ,

a o i ma t e ly l o w e r w e e v o l v e a o x i ma t e ly hi h e r c on ce t
g p i s r
p r x
p , ,

w h e w e spe a k w i t h l og i ca l p e ci s i o
n c a ll e d t h e pr o ce s s of G en er i r n,

f ica ti on .

T a ke , fo r ex a mpl e,
hi s con cept is p ox i
the con ce
p t ma n . T r

d
ma t ely co mpo s e d o f t h e t w o co ce pt s o r co n s t i t u e t ch a a ct e s n n r r ,

a n i ma l a r a t i on a l bei n gn I f w e t hi k e i t h e r o f t h es e ch a a ct e s . n r r

a w a y f om t he oth er r w e s h a ll h a ve in t h a t o t h e r a p o i ma t e ly
,
r x

hig he r co cept t o whi ch t he con ce pt ma n st a d s in t he e l a t i o o f

n , n r n

d
a s pe ci e s t o it s g e n u s I f w e a b s t a ct f o m a n i ma l t h en ma w ill
. r r ,
n

s t a d a s a s pe ci s in s ub o di a t i o n t o t h e g e u s r a ti on a l bei g a n
n e r n n n ,

t he con ce pt a n i ma l w ill t h e n a ffo r d on ly a di ffe r e n ce t o di s t i g ui s h n

ma n a s a co or di n a t e spe i e s f o m i mma ter i a l in tellig en ces I f o n c r .

,

t he o t h e r h a n d w e a b s t a ct f o m r a t ion a l bei n g th e n ma n w il l
,
r r ,

d
s t a n d a s a s pe ci e s in s ub o r di a t i o n t o t h e g e n u s a n i ma l h a v i f n n
g or ,

a c o or i a t e s e ci e s i r r a ti on a l a n i ma l S uch is t h e r o ce ss of
p n
p .

G e n e i c a t io r N o w fo r t h e c o n v e s e pr o ce ss of S pe ci ca t i o
n . r n .

E ve r y s e r i e s of con cept s whi ch h a s b e en ob t a i n e d b y a b s t a ct i o n r

ma y b e r epr o d uce d in a n i v er t e d or d e r w h e n n , ,

d
d
S p i ti

d
ec ca on .
d es ce n di n g fr om t he hi g h e st n ot i on w e s t e p b y , ,

s t ep a o n t h e s e v e r a l ch a r a ct e s fr o m w hi ch w e h a
, a b s t a ct e d in r r

o ur a sce t T hi s pr o ce s s a s y ou r e me mb e r is ca ll e d D eter mi a
n .
, , n

ti on a v er y a r o r i a t e e x r e ss i o n i n a s mu ch a s b ch h c
pp p p y e a c a a , r

1 S ee a b ov e , p 87 et . s eq . ED .

18
1 38 L O G I C .
L E C T XI

d
d d
. .

t er o r a tt r ib ut e li mi t o r d e t er mi n e mo r e a
w hi ch w e a on , we , n

mor e t h e a b s t r a ct v ag ue n e s s o r e t e n s i o n of t h e n ot i o n ; u t il a t
,
x n ,

l a st if e v e r y a t t ib ut e b e a n n e x e d t h e s u m of a t t r ib ut e s co n t a i e d
,
r , n

in t h e o t io n b e co mes c o n v e t i b l e w i t h t h e s um o f a tt i b ut es o f r r

n

d
w hi ch s o me co c e t e i n di v id u a l o r r e a li t y is t he co mpl e men t N o w
n r .
,

d
w h e w e e t e mi e a y n o t i on b y a ddi n g on a s ub or di n a t e con ce pt
n r n n
,

we i vid e it ; f r t h e e x t e n si on o f t he hig h er co n cept s is p e ci s ely

o r

e q u a l t o t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e a dd e d c o n ce pt p lu s it s n e a t i o

if t o t h e co ce pt a n i ma l w e an
g
d
d T h
o n t h e n e x t l o w e r co n c e t r a ti on a l
p
u n . s,

w e di v id e it s e x t e s i o n i n t o t w o h a l v e s n t h e o n e e q ua l t o r a ti o a l , n

a n i ma l t h e o t h e r e q u a l t o it s n e g a t i o n t h a t is t o i r r a ti on a l a i
d
n
, ,

ma l T h us a n a dd e d c on ce pt a n it s n e g a t i o n a l wa y s co t i t ut e t he
. ns

i mme di a t ely l o we n ot i o n i t o w hi ch a hig h er n o t i o n is di vid e d

r ,
n .

But a s a n o t i o n s t a n d s t o t he n ot i o n s pr o i ma t e ly s ub o di a t e t o it x r n ,

in t h e i mme di a t e r e l a t i o n o f a g e us t o it s s pe ci e s t h e p o ce s s o f n ,
r

D e t e mi n a t i o
r b y w hi ch a c o n ce pt is t h u s di v id e d is in l o g i ca l
n, , ,

l a n g ua g e a pp opr i a t e ly d en o mi n a t e d S p ecica ti on
,
r .

dd
S o m uch i n g e n e r a l fo r t h e S ub o r di n a t i o n o f n o t i o n s co sid e r e d ,
n

a s G e er a a nn S pe ci e s T h e e a e h o w e v e r v a r i o us g a d a t i o n s o f
. r r , ,
r

t hi s r e l a t i o n a n ce r t a i n t e r ms b
, y
it is r e q ui s i t e t h a t y o u s h o u ld l e a n a n
whi c h t h e s e a e d e

l a y up in me mo y
n o t e d whi ch

T he r d r

r
,

mo st i mpo r t a n t of t h e s e a r e compr eh e n d e d in t he foll o wi n g pa r a

ra h
g p

ii XXX V I . A G e n us is of t wo d e
g r ees , a hig h e st an d a

P ar . XXX VId . G r a a
l o we r . I n it s hi hg es t d egr ee , it is ca ll de

d d
d mmu m
mui m r ov, g en u s

n er a li s s i
S p e ci e s i an th eir es
su or e
o1 y ev
g
g t

m um) , a n i s d e n e d , t h a t t
0 0

h b ei n g a

e n u s ca n n o t b e come a s pe ci es n it s l o w e r

d d
d

g I e r ee , it is
g .

d d
'
c a ll e d a S uba lter n o r I n ter me i a te (y evo s Orr M nho v, g en u s s u b

a lter n u m o r me i u m) , a n is d e n e d ,
t h a t whi c h b e i n g a

e n u s ca n a l s o b e co me a spe ci e s

dhi h
e ci e s a l s o is o f t w o

d

g A S p .

d eg r e e s ,
a l o w e st an
ga er .
g I n it s l o we s t e r e e, it is

d d
c a ll e d a Z owes t M o s t S p eci a l S p eci es ( 6 809 e ZBLc i r a r o v, sp eci es
-
or

i n ma , u lti ma , or sp eci a li s s i ma ,
)
1
a n is e n e d ,

t h a t w hi ch

d
b ei n g a s
pe c i
e s ca n n o t hi h d
b e co me a e n u s.

I n it s g er e
g r ee ,
g
m
d ddd h hi h i
it is ca ll e d a S u ba lter n or I n ter me i a te S p eci es bw nhon

sp eci es s u ba lter n a me ia ) , a n is e n e

t at w c be n
g a

d
,

s pe c e s i ma y a sol h l
b e co me a g e n us . T us a S ub a t e r n G e n us

an a S ub a l t e r n S pe ci e s a r e co n v e r t ib l e .

1 V i dm e Ti pler , p 2 53 , [ L ogi cee S y s t ema , L . ii 0. l q 15

. . . E D .
]
 L E CT XI t L OG IC 1 89

d
.
. ,

T he

E x plica t i o n
di sti n cti on s
.
an

t he
d i ii
l
ef n

ce eb r a t e
t on s

of
d d
in t hi s pa r a g r a ph
I n tr o u cti on of P
A r i st o t
1

l dh y h . or
ar e

phy
t a ke n fr o m
y r

b een gen
t o t he
C a teg or i es e, a n t e ave

e r a lly d opt e d b y l og i ci a n s I t is e vid en t t h a t t he

a .
, o n ly a b so l ut e

G e n us
l
a n t h e

I
L o w
m
e s t
di
d
di st i n ct i o n h e e e st a b lish e d is t h a t b e t w e en t he H ig h es t o r S upr e me
S p e c i es
r

; fo r t h e

a ll a n
o t h e r

e a ch
c l a s se s

ei t h er
t o w it t h e
,

d ,

S b t
u a e r n o r t er e a t e a e n
g e n e r a or r , ,

s pe ci e s a cco r di n g a s w e r eg a r d t h e m in a n a s ce n di n g o r a d es ce n d
,

in g o r d e r t h e s a me co ce pt b e i n g a g e n u s if co n sid e r e d a s a
d
n ,
,

w h o l e c o n t a i n i g u d r it i fe r i o co cept s a s pa r t s an a spe ci e s
n n e n r n , ,

if con s id e r e d a s i t s e lf t h e pa t o f a hi g h e r co n ce pt o r w h o l e T he
d d
r .

dist i ct i on of co cept s i t o G e us a n S pe ci e s i t o S upr eme a n

n n

I n t e me di a t e G e n us i n t o L o we st a n I t e r me di a t e S pe ci e s i s a ll
r ,
n n

d n
,
n

th a t L og ic t akes i n t o a ccoun t ; b e ca u s e t h e se a r e a ll t h e di s t i ct i o n s
o f d e r e e t h a t a r e g i ve n n e ce s s a ily in t h e fo r m of t h o ug h t a
g
l d e ter mi n a t e ma t t er
as r

.
,
n

n d
I t is h ow

C t g i f A i
,
r o er h er e t o sa
p p y a w o r d in r e a r d t o t h e C a t

e o r ie s or P r e ica in e n t s o f A r i s t o t l e
g
g
T h es e a r e d .

t en cl a s s e s i n t o w hi c h E x i s t en ce is di v id e d ,
a e or es o r s

t tl
o e .

vi 1 S ub s t a n ce ; 2 Q ua n ti t y ; 3 Q ua li t y ; 4
z .
, , , , ,

Rel a t i on ; 5 A cti on ; 6 P a ssi o ; 7 Wh e r e ; 8 Wh e n ; 9 P o s t u e ;

an d 1 0 H a b it
t o a co n t a i n e d )
B
( y
, t hi
,

s l a s t is me a t t h e
.

T h e y a r e co mpr eh e n d e d in t h e t wo foll o w i g
.
,

e l a t i on o f a con t a i n i n
g
n ,

n r
, ,
r

'
V C I SQ S

A r b or , s ex s er vo s , fer vor e , r efr ig er a t u s tos ,

Rur i cr a s s ta b o, n ec t un ica t us er o 2 .

In g re ar d t o t he me a n i n g t er m b o of t h e w or d ca teg or y ,
it is a r

r o w e d fr o m t h e in w hi ch it lit c o ur t s o f l a w ,

O i i l mr g i g na
e r a ll y s i g n i e s a n a ccu sa t i on
ea n n
I n a phil os ophi ca l .

m f
fift iz zzz y a ppli ca t i o n it h as t w o mea n i n s or r a t h e it is

d
O

f
l
e
g , ,
r

use d i a
g en er a l a n in a r e s t r i ct e d s e n s e n In .

it s g e n er a l s e n s e it me a s i cl o s e r co n fo r mi t y t o it s o r i g i n a l a p
p li c a t io s i mp ly a p
n, r e i ca ti on

s e n se it h a s b ee n d e e ct e d t o
o r a tt
e n ot e
,

r i bu t ion

e di a t i
in it s r e sd d
t r
n

i c t e

n s o r a t t r i b ut i o n s
,

d
n

, p c o r

o f a v e y l o ft y e n e r a li t y in o t h e
r w o d s ce r t a i n cl a s ses o f a v e y r r
g , , r

w id e e t e n s i on I ma y h e r e n o t i ce th a t in mo d er phil o s ophy it
x .
, ,
n ,

d
h a s b e e n v er y a b i t r a r ily in fa ct v e r y a b us i v e ly p e r v e t e d f o m
r , ,
r r

b ot h it s p i ma r y a n it s s e co n d a r y si g i ca t i o n a mo g t h e a ci e t s
r n n n n .

A i s t ot l e r s t e mpl oy e d t he t e r m (fo r t h e s uppo s i t i o n t h a t h e b o

r r

d
d
1 C 1L , 23 , 28 , 29 . F a ccio l a t i L og ica , [ t i. . Ru ime n t a L og ie r t ,
2 M u r me ll i i I sa o e c. i Vi M icr ze lius I 0 iii p 3 2 E D
g g , . e . . .
] . .

P r ee a ica men t a
'
[ L ea n P hil . v. E D .
] p . 1085 .
140

L 0G I c a r XI

d
. . .

r owe
g d i hism e an t hi g f
ca e t
o m t h e P yth a o r e a n A r chy
g o r es, n a n ,
r

t a s is n o w e p o e l d d t he t r e a t i se u n d e r t h e n a me o f t hi s ph il o s
x

op erh i
be n g p ov r e d t o b e a c o m p a a t i v e ly r e ce n t f o r
g y )
e r I r
l
,

s a y A i s t o t l e r s t e mpl o y e d t h e t e r m t o d e n o t e a ce r t a i n cl a s s i ca

t io
,
r

a p os ter i or i of t h e mo d e s o f obj e c ti v e o r r e a l e x i s t e n ce ;
n, ,
an

d
2
d
t h e w o r d w a s a ft e r w a d s e mpl o y e d a n
b y P l ot i n us a
emp l o y men t B K a t a a i n a
a
pp li e d i n t h e s a me ma n n er

o t h e o f t h e o ld e r
p hil os o ph er s
r

,
3
n dd r .

n fo mi t y t o h is ex
l
f a? m
i
n

e ei
' Y g n co n ,
n ,
r
0
a m le m a n y o t h e r r ece n t h i l os o h e s
. 0

p b y p p t h e , r ,

d
w or d ha s b e e n us ur pe d t o d e n ot e t h e a p r i or i cog n i t i on s or fun
a me t a l fo r ms of t h o u h t
n
g N o r did K a t s t o
p h
e x l a i n t o y o u t h e g e n e a l o y of a n o t h e
e e ; a n I m a
y . n r d
,

d d e pr essi o n s of whi ch I s e e ma n y of his G e ma n

p g o f h i s r

d l th i d
T r a n scen en an
x , r
T r a n s cen en t a , e r
s mpl e s are By t h e S ch o o l me n i

dby K t
or ig i l mpl y m t
na e o en
,

an use wh a t e v e a s mor e g en e a l t h a n t he t en ca t e
an r, r

d
,

o ie s c o uld n o t b e c o t a i n e d

d
n d er t h em wa s

g u r ,
n ,

s a id t o i se b e y o n d t h e m t o tr a n s cen t h e m ; a n a cco di g ly
d d
r r n
, ,

or tr a n s cen d
s u ch t e ms a s bei n g o e w h ole g o o

di d
r et c we r e ca ll e d tr a s ce e t
en ta l
(
,

tr a n s cen
n

d ti d d
,

l h
K
l i
en ti a
,

or
,
.

tr a n s cen
,

en ta li a
) .
5
n

an
n

t,
n

as

h e ha tw st e t he t e r m ca teg or y , w st e a so t ese cor r e a t v e

ex
p r e ss o n s

t he t w o t e r ms tr a n s cen
i fr o m t h e i r
dd d li
i i l
or i did
en
g l y
t
na

an
me a n
tr a n s cen
n
g .

en ta
H e

l
n o t e ven

a s co r r e a t v e .
e mp
T he
o

1 S ee D is cuss ion s , p 1 40 E D . . . S an d e r s on , p . 20, [ M ur mel lius g ives as h is

dd
2 S ee e s pe cia l ly M eta p h , i v 7 . . . I n t he t r e a ow n t h e v e r s e s

t ise
d t o t hem , t h e C
s p ec i a l l y a t eg o r ie s
e v o te
C o mp lex um, C o n s ig n i ca n s , F i ct um, P ol y
g r a mma t ica l th a n i n
d
a r e vie w e r a t h er in s e mu m,
a a

met a ph y s ica l a s pe ct .
E D .
V ox l o g ions , D eus , E x ce e n s, P r i va ti o , P ar s

d d d
3 E nn V I 1 i c i E D
q u e,
. . .
, ,
. . . .

4 I fr l t i/c V p 78 (e Ros en k r a n z ) , P r o

dd
r
. . .
,
. .
H aec , s t u iose , ca te g o r n s n on a ccipi un t ur

d
.

d
leg o men a , 39 . ED~ '
A n S an e r s on ( L ogi ca , L 1. c. a fter

d
.

5 [ S e e F a cciol a t i, Ra , p 3 9 ; a n I n s t
dd
p
mn e mo n ic th em
. . .
,
c it in g the of t he C a te g or ies

d
[ L og ica , t i , Ru i men ta L og ica , P I
d
. 0.

d
s i st a r u m
d
m
. . .
,
s e l ve I a l iq u a cl a ss iu

d
a s, n
iv 7 A liu e st ca t eg o r icu m, q u o s ig n i ca t
,

d
q u icq u i u spia m r e r um est col l oca t ur ; mo o
. .
,

d
q ua m a m r e m
d
cer t a i n ca t e g or ia co mpr eh en

d
sit un u m q ui , r ea le , comp le t a m, limi ta twqu e a c
m:
d d
a liu v a g um n ul l a c a te g o r ia con
sa , q uo

mn es
d
mo i
d
n i tee , n a tur ae E x ul a n t e r g o h is s e ib us I a
.

t in e t ur , se pe r o v a g a t ur , cu us j t en t ion es S ecun a , P r i va t io n es , F icta , q u ia

et
s un t ess e n t ia bo n i t a s , or o, e t si mil ia mul ta
E q uivoca , e t C om
, .

n on sun t r ea lia
; C on cr et a ,

d
L og ica t ii I n s t itu ti on es L og icee , P I , 0 i i

d
. . . . .
, , .

p lex a , q uia n on sun t u n a ; P a r s , q uia n on est

dd d d
S un t q uae a m v oca b u l a , q uae va g a et t r a n

d
c o mpl et u m q u i ; D eus , q ui a n on est n itae ;

d
s cen en t ia
i cu n t u r ; q u o g e n us q u o l ib e t e x
T r a n scen en s , q ui a n on e st l imit a tae n a t ur es .

d
s upe r en t i n omn i ca te or i a H uj usmo i sun t
g .

H in c v e r s icu li

d
en s , a l iq ui
,
r es , un u m, v er u m, bon um .

C f .

mp le x um,
d
C on s ign i ca n s , P r i va t i o , F i c

d
Rei
l V or k s , p C o
s 68 7 n ot e E D ]

d
. .

t um,
E x cl u e fr o m t h e A r i s t ot e l i c C a te g o r i es ,
P a r s, D e us , E q u ivocum,
Z T r a n scen en s ,
a ll ex cep t t h e fol l ow in g
.
:
E
d
n s r a t i on is :

d
E x p a r te v o e is V ox u n a e t s i mplex , re S un t ex c lus a e ce m cl a ssib us is t a n ov e m
.

b us c on cin n a l oca n is .

ED ] .

E r ei E

d
p a r te

d
x n t ia p er se se n i t a , r e a li a ,
t ot a .
[ T h a t th e C a teg or ies of A r ist otle a r e n ot a p
p lica b l e t o G o , see ( P s e u ) A ugustin , D

o e

S ee o th e r s in M ur mel lius , I sa g
og e
,
c . i ; . C og n it ion e V er a V ita , 0 ii i ] . .
 L E C T XI L O G IC 141

d
. .
. .

l a t t e he a ppli e d a s a sy n on y m fo a p r i or i t o e n ot e t h ose el e me n t s
r

o f t h o ug h t w hi c h w e r e n a t i v e a n n e ce s s a y t o t h e mi d i t s e l f a n d
r ,

r n , d
w hi ch t h o ug h n o t ma i fe s t e d o ut o f e pe i e n c e w e e s t ill n o t co n
,
n x r ,
r

t in g en tly d e r i v e d fr o m it b y a n a p os ter i or i p r o ces s o f g e n e r a liz a

t i on T he t e r m tr a s cen en t o
. t h e co n t r a y he a ppli e d t o a lln d ,
n r ,

d
r e t e d e d kn o w l e d g e t h a t t r a n ce n d e d e x e r i e n ce

d
n p a w a s n ot s n
p ,

i o r i g i n a l pr i n ci pl e o f t h e mi n d

d
v e n in a n T r a n s ce en ta l h e t h us n
g .

a fa v or a b l e tr a n scen en t in a co n d e mn a to r y a c ce pt a

t o r e t u n fr o m t hi s i g r es s i o n r
,

d
d .

C t g i a e f A i
s of A i s t o t l e

o r es o
o n o t pr ope r ly co n s t i t ut e a l o g i c a l

b u t a me t a phy s i ca l t r e a t i s e ; a n
o v e l o ok e d
r s
th ey a e a o
d
in t h e A r i s t o t e li c
r

,
d r ,
,

c or in g ly n ot ,
r
t t l M t ph y i l

d
o e e a s ca
b o o ks o n t h e F i s t P hil o s ophy w hi ch h a v e o h
.

r ,

a me of Ill etap hy s i cs ( 2 y 6 T h e i i n se t i o n 7 1 ar 7 . r r

s o f t he s ur v i v i n g t r e a t i s e s o f A i st o t l e on a l og i ca l r

2
a n er r or .

dh y
But , l o oki t he hig h e st g en er a i n to w hi c h
s i mpl e b e i n g is di vid e ,
t e a r e, I t hi n k, ob n o x o u s i t o va r i o us oh

h o w t h a t in o t h er Wi t h i
ifi d
e ct io n s
j p . o ut a us n
g t o s

r e s e ct s t h e y a e i mpe r fe ct it s ma n i fe s t t h a t
c t g a e o r fs cr C ze
i r
p
mm tm f ,

if g
d
? c s ca n O '
t h e s upr e me g e nus o r ca t eg or y B ei n g is n ot
ei n .

i mme di a t e ly di v id e d i n t o t h e se t en cl a sses a n ,

th a t th e y n e i t h er con st i t ut e coo di n a t e n o r di st i ct spe ci e s F or r

"

n .

s e) a n ,
n

d
d d d
B ei g ( 6 (i en s ) is pr i ma r ily di v id e d i n t o B ei n g by i ts elf ( e s p er
7 v,

B ei ng by a cci en t ( en s p er a cc i en s)
.

B ei n g by i ts elf c o e
s t o t h e s t C a te o r y of A r i st o t l e e ui v a l e n t t o s ub s t a n ce ;
d .
n

rr

s po n
g qr ,

B ei g by a cci en t compr e h e n d s t h e o t h e r n i n e b ut is I t hi n k mor e

d
n , , ,

e r ly di v id e d i h f o ll o w i n m B ei n b i i
p p or
t e
g a n n er n
g y a cc e t s n

v i e we d e i t h e r a s a b so l ut e o r a s r e l a t i v e A s a b s ol ut e it o ws e i t h e r .
,

fr om t h e ma t t er or fr o m t he for m of t hi n g s I f fr o m t h e ma t t er ,
.
,

it is Q u a n ti ty A r i st o t l e s se con d ca t eg or y ; if f om t he for m it is
,

r ,

i
d
Q s t o t l e s t hi r d ca t e o r y r el a t i ve d

u a li ty A r , g A s it c or r e s
p o s t o .
,
n

A i s t o t l e s fo u t h ca t e g o r y R ela t ion ; a n t o Re l a t i o n a ll t he o t h e r

r r ,

si ma y b e r e d uce d
x F o t h e c a t eg o y W her e is t h e r e l a t i o o f a
. r r n

t hi n g t o o t h e t hi n g s i s pa ce ; t h e ca t e g o y W
a t hi n

si l
g t o

l
o

i
t h e r t hi n s i
g
l i
t i m e
r

A ct i o n a n
h en is t h e r e l a t i on o f
P a s s i
n

on co n s t i t u
n t e a .
r

d
d
g ne e a t o
r t h e r e a t o n o f t he a g en t a n
n, t h e p a t i e n t P os t u e . r
.

is t he r e l a t i on o f t he pa r t s of t he b o dy t o e a ch o t h er ; n a lly H a bit ,

E D
1 K r it ik d . r . V .
, p . 2 40, e d
it . Rosen k r a n z .

co
3 With this cl a ssica t ion
mpa r e A q u i n as , I n A r is t M eta p h , L
of th e C a t e g o r ies ,

.
v . . . .

2 T h a t t he C a teg o r ie s o f A r is t ot l e a r e n ot l ect . 9 .
S ua r ez , D isp ut a t ion es M eta p hy s icee .

l o g ica l b ut met a p h y s ica l , se e C C a r l e to n ; . D isp 39 , .

[T h oma s C ompt o n C a r l e t on , P hilos op hia , U n i .

ver sa
, D isp M . et . ( 1 vi. . 1 E
. D .
]
142 L O G I C L EC T XI

d d
. .

is t h e l ti on of a thi n g c on t a in i n g a n a thi n g c on t a i n e
re a T he .

li t t l e I h a v e n o w s a id in r eg a d t o t he ca t eg o r i e s of A i st o t l e is r r

them as I
,

d
mor e pe r h a ps t h a n I w a s s t i ct ly w a r r a t e d t o s a y co s id e r i g
o a s w h o lly e x t r a l og i ca l a n
, ,
,

I h a v e me r ely r e fe r e d t o
r

,
d n ,
n

r
n

t h e m a s e hi b i t i g a n e x a mpl e o f t he a ppli ca t i on of t h e d o ct r i n e
x n

1
o f cl a s s i ca t io n .

I ma y , li ke wi s e ,
n o t ce , i b y t h e w a y , t h a t in t h e phy s i ca l s ci e n ce s of
a r r a n e me n t , t h e b e s t i n s t a n ces o f whi ch a r e s e en
g
N a mes for t h e d
diffe r e t d e pa r t me n t s o f N a t u a l H i s t o r y
i er
'
in t h e n r ,

dd
en t eps i t h i
St
it is fo u d n e ces s a y in o r d e r t o ma k t h e r e l a t i v e
n e s e r es
n r ,
r
f l i th ph 3 i '
e s
O

l
c a sse s

f p l a ce o f e a ch s t e p i n t h e a s ce n i n
n
an d e s ce n d cr
o

d d
ca s ci e n ces o ar

s e r i e s o f cl a s s e s t a r t i c ul a r
.

r an g m t e en in
g .
b e st o w o n r t a
p ,
o

f
d e si g n a t i o n T h us k in g om cla s s or er tr i be
ami ly g en u s s u bg en u s sp eci es s u bsp eci es va i ety a n
, ,
t h e li ke a r e ,
.

, ,
d r
,

,
, ,

,
,

t e r ms t h a t s e r v e co n v e i en t ly t o ma r k o ut t h e v a r i o us d e g r e e s of n

e n e r a liz a t i o n in it s a ppli ca t i o n t o t h e na
g ,

Wi t h s uch s p
d
'

tu e r .

L o g i c h a s h o w e v e r n o c o n ce n ,
I e t o t h e l as t
,
r .

r e l a t i v e d e o mi n a t i o n o f c o n ce pt s un d e
n t he h ea d of S ub o r di n a t i on r

in E x t e n s i on I t is e x pr ess e d in t h e fo ll ow i n g pa r a g r a ph
.

l XX X V I I . A g e n us as i i
con t a n n g un d er it spe ci e s or , a

i
s pe c es a s co n t a i n i n
g u n d e r it i di v id u a l s n ,
is
XXX
d ca ll e d
P V II L og i
L U n i ver s a l,
ar
i a l, S ub ect, j
. .

a o
g c or or

d Wh
ca l a n M et a p hy i ca l

d
s

Wh ol e s an P ar ts . or S u b ecti ve, o r
j P o ten ti a l ole ; whil e

dd s pe c es a s i co n ta i n e d un d er a
g e n us , a n ia
ivi ua ls a s con tain e d un d er a s pe ci e s ,
ar e ca ll e d L og i ca l, o r

U ni ver sa l, or S ub ect, or
j S ub ecti ve, o r
j P oten t i a l P a r ts . E con

d
1 T h e r e is n ot h i n
g in r eg a r d t o which
dd
a

d
1 71 6 . C h a uv in , L ex icon P hilos op hicum, v C a t e
mp ts
.

g r ea t e r p i n i o n h a s p r e v a i le ,
i v e r s it y of O g a r ema .
[ F or v a r ious a tt e at r e uctio n

d
e v e n a mo n g L og ic ia n s , t ha n t h e n u mb e r o f an c l a ssi ca ti on o f t h e ca t eg or ies , see P l ot i

d d
C a t e g o r ie s F o r s o me a ll o w on ly t w o S ub
d
n us , E n n ea VI . L . ii . 0 8 et s eq . (T en n e
. .
, ,

dd dd d
ma n n ,
d
s t a n ce an M o e ; o t he r s t h r e e S ub st a n ce , G es ch. er P hil , vi .
, p 1 75
. et s eq ) D a.

d d
men i a n
M o e, an Re la t io n ; O t he rs fo ur M i n , vi t he A r , in Br a n i s, S ch ol ia a

dd d d
Ra mus , A n ima
S p a c e , M a tt e r , a n M ot i o n ; o t h er s s ev e n A r is t ot p 49 .
,
. . A r is t ot [ L . . .

d d d
w hich a r e c o mp r eh en e in t h e fol l o win g i v , p 80 et s eq , e
. . 155 0, E ] J o P ic us M i
. . .

ist ich r a n u l a n us , C on cl us ion es , O p er a , p 90, e . .

M P osi tur a , F ig Ba si l , 1 572 ; L a u r en tius V a l l a , [ D i a lect ica D is

en s , M en s ur a
, O uies , M ot us ,
o ymi)

d
d d
ur a p uta ti on es , cc. i ii. .
-E D E ug en i os ,
.
] A '

p 1 25 et O ca te g o r i c t a b l es o f

d
C M t er i es , e r un t ex o r ia r e b us .
s eq . n v a r i ous
r a s sa que
.
a e
a ut h or s , s ee B en z i n g e r , I n s t L og ii 5 606 , p

d
. . .

S econ l i n e b et ter

S un t cu m M a t er i a , cun cta r u m ex o r ia re

m
d
ru .

A r is t o t le s

L og i c, 0 . ii Re i
s A ccou n t
Wo
d p 685
r ks , S F a c ciol a t i , L og ica ,
o f, . et seq . ee

t . i . Ru imen ta
P ur ch ot, I n s t it P hilos .
L og ica ,

, t i .
P I , 0 iii p 32
.
. . .

L og ica , p 82 ,
.

.
.

e d .

.
L E C T . XI . L O G I C 143

ver s o, i n di vid ua l a s con t a i n i n g in it speci e s or a spe ci e s a s

an ,

co t a i n in g in it g e n e r a is c a ll e d a Jll eta p hy s i ca l or F or ma l o r

A ctu a l W
n

h ole whil e speci e s a s co n t a i n e d in a n i n di v id ua l a

,

,
n d
e n e a a s co t a i n e d in S pe ci e s a e ca ll e d Jlfeta p hy s i ca l o r F or
r n r
g , ,

ma l o r A ctu a l P a r ts
,
T hi s n ome n cl a t ur e h o w e v e in s o fa r a s
.
l
,
r,

me t a phy si ca l is O ppos e d t o l og i ca l is i n e pt ; for w e s h a ll se e

t h a t b o t h t h os e wh ol e s a n p a t s a e e u a lly l o i ca l
q g an t h
l og i ci a n s h a v e b e en a t fa ul t in c o sid er i n g o n e of t h em in th e i r
a t d r

n
,

r , d
,

d oct i e of r e a s on i g, t o t he ex cl usi on o f t h e ot h er
r n n .

A w h o l e is t h a t whi ch co t a i n s pa t s ; a pa r t is th a t w hi ch is n r

E p li t i x
co n t a i n e d in a wh o l e
ca
w h ol e a n p
on .
But a s t he r e l a t i on of a
a r t s is a r e l a t i o n d e e n d e t o n t h e
p d .

dd
t of v i e w f om whi ch t he mi d con t e mpl a t es t he obj e ct s o f it s
r n

l e d g e a n a s t h e r e a r e di ffe r e n t poi n t s of v i e w in w hi ch t h es e
,

d
ma y b e con s id e r e it fo ll o ws t h a t t h er e ma y a l so b e di ffe e t wh o l es
,
r n

an
p ar ts P hil oso h
d
e s h a v e a cc o r di n g ly ma d e v a i o us e n u me a

d
r r
p .
, , r

t i o n s o f wh ol es an wi t h o ut pe pl e x i n g y ou w i t h a n y mi ut e is
,
r n

ca ss i o o f t h e i r v a r i o u s di v i s i o s it ma y b e pr op e r
n in o r d e r t o n , ,

v e sa n t
r (a ,
n d
ma ke y o u b e t t e r a w a e of t h e t w o wh ol e s wi t h whi ch L og i c is co n
t h a t th e r e a e t w o l o g i ca l wh o l e s a
r

co n s e u e n t ly
q r

d ,
d n ,

t wo g a n d fo r ms o f r e a s o n i n g a
r n ot on e a l on e a s a l l l o i ci a s
g ,
n , n

d
h a v e hi t h e t o t a ug h t I sh a ll h e e a fte r e d e a vor r ,
r n
G ene i w
t o co n v i n ce y o u) t o t hi s e n
f
?
V e
.
O
I s a y it ma y b e , , ,
th e p bl
v a r i ou s ossi e
e di en t t o e e a l V i e w of t he
Wh l o es .
e
p g ve
y ou a
g x i n r

v a i o us w h o l e s i n t o w hi ch t h e h uma n mi n d ma
r
y
h e obj e ct s o f t s s e cul a t i o
g ro up u
p t
i p n .

Wh ol es ma y r st b e div id e d i n t o t wo g e n e r a i n to a Wh o l e
d

,

a Wh o l e b
t
Wh l p o e id
ol e d en t ( totum p er a cci en s) A Wh ol e p er s e is
b y i t s e lf ( totu m p er s e) a n
p er s e, an
d y a c ci

d ,

d
er a cc en s .

t h a t w hi ch t h e p a t s o f t h e i r p o pe n a t ur e r r r

d
n e cessa r ily co n s t i t ut e ; t h us b o dy a n s o u l c o n s t i t ut e t he ma A n .

Wh ol e p er a cci en s i s t h a t w hi ch t he pa r ts ma ke up con t i n g e t ly ;
a s wh e n ma n is c o s id e r e d a s ma d e up o f t h e p o or a n n t h e r i ch d n

A T h o l e p er s e ma y a g a i n b e s ub di v id e d i n t o v e ki d s i t o a , ,
n ,
n

Wh l p o edi id d matical a n a C oll e cti ve A L og i ca l st yl e d

L og i ca l a M e t a phy s i ca l a P hy s i ca l a M a t h e
er s e v e
,

,
d ,

.
,

d
in to, L gi l ; o ca
a l so a U i v e s a l a S ubj ec t o r S ubj e ct i v e a P o n r ,
M t ph y i l ,

t e n t ia l Wh o l e ; a n
e a s ca .

A M e t a phy s i ca l s t yl e d , ,

a l s o a F o r ma l o r a n A ct ua l Wh o l e th ese I h a v e d e n e d in t h e pa a , r

d
S e e T impl er , L og ica , [ p 232 et s eq ] F a c
d d
1 . . i ca Res ti t ut a , P . I II .
, 0 . ii ,.
5 2, e . G e n e vas ,

d
si ol a t i, [ L og ica , t i , Ru imen t a L og ica , P II ,
. . . . 1 6 68 E . D .
] Bu r g er s y k , [ I n s t it ut ion es L og
c vi
. .
, p 5 1.
,
52 ED . .
] D er o on , p.44 7 [ L og i coe, p 5 1 . .
1 44 L O G I C L E C T XI

d
. . .

g ra
ph . I t is ma n ifes t
th a t t h e l og i ca l a n m e t a hy s i ca l w h ol e s a r e
p
t h e c o n v e r se o f e a ch o t h e r
d
F o a s t h e l ogi ca l w h o l e is t he g e n us
. r
,

t h e l o g i ca l pa t s t h e spe ci es a n r i di vid ua l ; in t he me t a phy si ca l n

,

e con t a a n i n di v id ua l is t h e w h o l e of w hi ch t h e s pe ci es a s p e ci e s t h e
r , ,

wh ol e of w hi ch t h e g e e r a a r e t he pa t s A met a phy si ca l w h ol e isn ,

r .

t h u s ma n i fe s t ly t h e w h o l e d e t e mi n e d b y t h e c o mp e h e s i o n o f a r r n

d
c on cept a s a l og i ca l w h ol e is t h a t w h ol e d et e mi n e d b y it s e t en
,
r x

si o n ; a n if it c a n b e s h o w n t h a t t h e wh o l e o f c o m p r e h e n s i on

a ffo r d s t h e c on di t i o n s of a pr o ce s s o f r e a s o n i n g e q u a lly v a lid

e q u a ll y u s e ful e q u a l l y e a s y a n,
t o s a y t h e l ea st of it e q ua lly n a t u
,
d , ,
,

r al ,
a s th a t a ffo r d e d b y t h e wh o l e o f t h e e x t e n s i o n it mu st be ,

a ll o w e d t h a t it is e q ua lly w e ll e n t i t l e d t o t he n a me o f a l og i ca l .

wh o l e a s t he wh ol e w hi ch h a s hit h e r t o e cl us i v e ly o b t a i n e d t h a t
,
x

d e n o mi n a t i o n

d
A P hy s i ca l o a s it is like .
,
r,

wi s e ca ll e a n E ssen t i a l Wh ol e is th a t whi ch
d
P hy i l

d
s ca .

, ,

c on si st s of ma tt er a n of fo m i o t h er w o d s o f s ub st a n ce a n of r ,
n r ,

a c c id e n t a s it s e s s e t i a l p a r t s A M ath e n
M th m ti l
.
,
a e a ca .

ma t ica l ca ll e d li ke wi s e a Q ua n t i t a t i v e a n I n
, ,

t eg r a l mor e pr ope r ly a n I t eg r a t e Wh o l e (totu m i n teg r a tu m) is

,
n , ,

th a t whi ch is co mpo s e d of i t eg a l o r mor e pr oper ly of i t eg a n t n r , , ,

n r

d
a t s ( p a r tes i n teg r a n tes ) I n t hi s w h o l e e v e y a r t li e s o ut o f e v e r y r
p r
p .

o t h er
p ar t wh ,

d
e r e a s in a phy s i c a l w h o l e t h e ma tt er a n
,
fo m t he

d , r ,

d
s ub s t a n c e a n a c cid e t e r ea t e a n m o di fy ea ch o t h e r T h u i
p n ,
rn s n .
,

t h e i n t eg a t e wh o l e o f a h uma n b o dy t h e h e a d b o dy a li mb s it s

r , , ,
n ,

i n t eg a t pa r t s a r e n o t con t a i n e d in b ut ea ch li es
r n , ,
C ll ti o ec ve .
o ut o f; e a ch o t h e A C o ll e ct i v e st yl e d a l s o a r .
,

Wh ol e of A gg r eg a t i on is t h a t w hi ch ha s it s ma t e r i a l pa r t s s e pa r a t e
a n

il
d a ccid e t a lly t h o w n t o e t h e

e of wh e at et c
n
g
1
r
,

as an a m y a h ea
p o f s t o n e r,
s a r , ,

p ,
,
.

B ut t o pr ocee d n o w t o a n e x pl a n a t i on of t h e t e r ms in t h e pa r a

d
r a p h l a s t di ct a t e d O f t h e se n on e se e m t o e q ui r e a y e o s i t i on n
g .
,p r x ,

s a v e t he w o d s sub j ecrti v e a n p o te ti a l a s s y n o y ms a
pp li e d t o n ,
n

L o g i ca l o r U n i v e s a l w h o l e o r p a t s r r .

T h e fo r m er o f t h e s e t h e t e r m s u bj ect ive o r mor e pr o pe r ly

, ,

li d e sp e ci e s a s a t s s ub a c

f d t o o r lyi
j cet a s a
pp e t o t h , p j r

p pli d
Th t m e ef s su b e an
u d e a g e us t o t h e i n di v id u r, n
g ,
n n ,

d is a cl e a r a n a r o r ia t e e r essi on But d
su bj i
ect v e a s a t e o
a s p a r t s s u bj a ce t t o o r ly n g un d e r a s p e c i
L g i l w h ol e
n , ,
o ca an

p t
ar s pp p p x .
,

d
,

a
pp li ed t o g e n us or S p e ci e s c o s id e r e d ,
n

w h o l e s t h e t e m s u bj ect is ma n i fe st ly i mpr ope

,
r an t he t e r m 3 r,

ec ti v e h a r dly d e fe n s i b l e I n li ke ma n e r t h e t e r m u n iver sa l n
j .
, ,

S e e a b ove , ED
1 p 1 43 ,
. n ote . .
LECT . XI .
L O G I C 145

a ppli e d ci c id d l ic l wh l
to g e n us or spe
e s o n s e r e a s og a o
,
e s is co r r e ct ; ,

b tu a s a pp li e d t o i n di v id u a l s c o n s id e r e d a s l o
g i c a l p a t s
,
it i s u se d r ,

i i m i d i h i
d d
i O pp t t i t o er e a n
g T h e e s r e o w e v e r t o o b t
n a n
n o s o n o s p p
r .
, ,

i h
e p t e t s co m m o b o t h t o t h e
n p a r t s a n t o t h e w h o l e a t h u s t o ,
n

i n di ca t e a t o ce t he r e l a t i on in g en er a l h a s ca use d l og i ci a s t o v io
d
n n
,

l a t e t he pr op i et i e s b ot h of l a n g ua g e an of t h ough t But a s t he
r .

t e r ms h a v e b e e n l o n g e st a b li s h e d 1 t hi n k it s ufci e n t t o put y ou o n ,

y o ur g ua r d b y t hi s ob se va t i o n r .

I n r e g a r d t o t he t e m p o ten ti a l I sh a ll b e for e sa yi g a n y t hi n g
r , ,
. n ,

L
Th
or d M
ei
b don dq
n

o
r ea d t o

p y
o
h
uo
y ou a

s i cs of t he l e a
p a ssa e fr o m t h e A
g
e d L o d M o bo
ti en t M

o
t

1
a

11 rn r n
n

d
d .
1

t he r s t pl a ce r t i s i mpo s s bl e b y t h e n a t u e of i r
ted , ,

d
.

t hi n g s t h a t t h e g e n us s h o uld co n t a i n t h e s pe ci es
,

a s a pa r t o f it a n t h e s pe ci e s S h o uld li kew i s e co n t a i t he g e n us i
,
n ,
n

t he s a me r espe ct B ut in di ffe r e t r e s pe ct s it is po ss i b l e t h a t e a h
o f t h e m ma y c o n t a i n t h e o t h e r a n
.
,

b e co n t a i e d b y it We mus t,
n

d ,

n .

c

d ,

t he r e fo e t y t o di s t i n g ui s h t he di ffe r e t ma
d e r s o f con t a i n i g a n
r r n n n n ,
,

b e i n g co t a i e d n A n n t h er e is a di s t i n ct i o
.

wh ol e of a n ci en t phil os ophy s ol vi n g ma y ifii cult ie s th a t a r e

t h a t r un s t h r o ug h t h e

d
,
n

n d
o t h e r w i s e u n s u n o u n t a bl e anrr whi ch I h ope will li ke wi se so l ve , , ,

d d
thi s difcult y T he di st i ct i on I me a n is t h e di s t i n ct i n b e t wi t
. n o x

d
wh a t e i st s Su u o r pot e t i a lly o n ly a n t h a t w hi ch e x i st s py fg
x i/ et, n ,

e ve e
,

o r a ct u a lly I n t he r s t s en s e e v e r y t hi n g e i st s in it s ca us e s ; a n
.
,
x ,

in t h e o t h e r s e n s e n o t hi n g e i st s b ut w h a t is a ct ua lly p o d uce d
,
x r .

N o w in thi s s t se n s e t he w h ol e spe ci e s e x i st s i t h e g e n u s ; fo r
,
r , _ n

t he g e u s v i r t ua lly co t a i n s t h e w h o l e s pe ci e s n o t o ly w h a t a t u
n n ,
n c

a lly e i s t s o f it b ut w h a t ma y e x i s t o f it in a n y fut u e t i me
x , In r .

t h e s a me ma n e r , t h e l o we st s pe ci e s b e l o w w hi ch t h e e is o t hi g
d
n ,
r n n

b ut i di vid ua l s con t a i s v i t u a lly a ll t h o s e i n di v id ua l s p e s e n t a n

n ,
n r ,
r

fut ur e T h us t h e spe ci es ma n compr e h e d s a ll t he i n di v id ua l s n o w

.
,
n

e x i st i g or t h a t sh a ll h er e a ft e r e x i st ; w hi ch t h e r e for e a r e s a id t
n , , ,
o

b e pa r t s of t h e s pe ci es ma n
a lly co n t a i e d in t h e spe ci e s ; a n
n
O n t h e o t h er h a n d t h e g e n us is a ct u.

t h e s pe ci e s li ke wi se in e a ch of d ,
,

d d
t h e i di v id u a l s un d er it
n

t a in e in t h e spe ci e s m
T h us t h e g e n u s a n i ma l is a ct ua lly c o n
.

a n w i t h o ut w hi ch it co uld n o t b e co ce i v d ,
,

n e

t o e x i st
t ai e n d dd An . for t h e s a me r e a s o n t he spe ci e s ma n is a ct ua lly co n
in e a h i n i vid ua l
o w e t o a n a u t h or
c
,

I t is a pi e ce o f j ust i ce w hi ch I t hi n k I
.
,

h a r ly kn own a t a ll in t h e w e s t e r n pa t s of
, r

E u o pe t o a ckn o wl e d g e t h a t I g ot t he hi n t of t he s o l ut i o o f t hi s
r , n

di f cult y fr o m him T he a ut h o I mea n is a li vi n g G r e e k a ut h o

. r r,

E ug e n i us D i a con us a t pr es e n t P r ofe sso r a s I a m i n fo r me d in t he

, , ,
146 L oG I c . L E C T . XL

P i h s U n i ve r si ty a t
a tr a r c

C i
o n st a n t n o
p l e , who ha s w r itt e n an

e x ce ll en t s y s t e m of l og i c i n ver y g oo d A t t ic G r e ek .

T hi s o r r a t h e r a S i mil a
, p r
g p 7 3
a ss a o f t h e foe at
ur t h v o l u me . of

t he A n ti en t I ll etap hy s i cs , a ffo r d s M r S t e w a r t . an
S tew a r t
s s t r ictu r es
it y of ma ki n g d r y un fa v or a b l e

d
o
ppo r t un s un s t r ic

dd
on t his p ass a g e co n

s i er e
t ur e s on t he t ec h n i ca l l a n g uag e of L og i c, in

d d
.

g hi ch h e a s se r t
re s t h e a d ar
e pt s a r e n otto w , ,

d d
t o t hi s a y u n a n i mo u s ly a g r e e d ; a dd s th a t

, an it is a n e t r a o r ,

x

d dd
in a r y ci r c ums t a ce th a t a di s co v e r y on w hi ch in L or d M on b o
n , ,

o s o pi n i o th e wh ole tr u th of the s y llog i s m ep en s sh o uld b e of

n,
,

s o v e r y r e ce t a d a t e N o w t hi s is a n ot h er e x a mpl e w hi ch ma y;
1
n .

t i on s a n g d
s e r v e t o p ut y o u o n y o ur
g ua r d a a i n st a n
g
a r ume n t s e v e n o f l ea r n e d me n
y c o

Y
n d e n ce in t h

o u m a y b e s u p
a ss er

i se d .
e

r r

d
t o h e a r t h a t s o fa r is E ug e n i us fr o m b e i n g t h e a ut h o r o f t hi s oh

d
d
se va t i on
r an of t he t e r m o ten ti a l a s a li e d t o a l o g i ca l wh o l e
, p pp ,

t h a t b o t h a r e t o b e fo un wi t h fe w e x cepti o n s in a ll t he ol e sy s
d
r
, ,

d
t e ms o f L og i c T o q u o t e o n ly o n e b ut o n e o f t h e b e st a n
. b est ,

kn o w t h a t o f Bii g e s y ck i l i e s a y s S pe a ki n g of t h e l o i ca l
'
g

n ,
r i , ,

w h ol e :
co t i e t s e
n n
p o t d
E t q ui a uri iv er s a le s ubj e ct a s s pe ci e s e t i n di vid ua n on a ctu
e t i a ; fa ct um e s t ut h o c t o t um di ct um s it t o tu m p o
n ,

d
ten ti a le c u m c e t e ae s pe ci e s t o t ius ica n t ur totu m a ciu a le qu i a pa r t es
d
,
r ,

s u a s a ct u co n t i n e n t A i s t ot l e n o t i ce s t hi s i ffe r e n ce o f t h e t w o
2
. r

wh l es o .
3

d
H a v i n g t h us t er mi n a t e d t h e con s id e r a t i o n o f con cept s a s r e cipr o
ca lly el a t e d i
r t h e pe pe n di cul a r li e of S ub or di n a t i o n a
n ;
r in t h e n ,
n

ua n t it y of E t e n si o n i s o fa r a s t h e y a r e v i e w e d a s c o t a i n i n g
x n n
q ,

cl a s se s

d
I mus t b efo e r o ce e di t c o n s id e r t h e m u d e r t hi s
, p g o ,
r n n

u a n t i t y in t h e h o r iz o t a l li e o f C o O r in a t io st a t e t o y o u t w o
n n n
q ,

t e ms b y w hi ch ch a r a ct e r s o r co n ce pt s a r e d e n omi n a t e d i n so fa r a s
r ,

t h e y a e v i e w e d a s di ffer e n c es b y whi ch a co n ce pt is di v id e d i n t o
r

t w o s ub or di a t e pa r t s n .

1T XX X V I I I T he . h a r a ct er or compl e men t of ch a r a ct er s b y
c , ,

d
whi ch a l o wer g en us o r S pe ci e s is di sti n

d
g uish e b o t h fr om t h e
g e n us t o w hi c h it is

dd
,

ivi ual b i s ub or di n a t e an f o m t h e ot h e r g e n e r a o r r

dd

e r e n ce . ,

s e ci es w i t h w hi ch it is co o r i a t e d is
p n ,

d dd dd
'
ca ll e d the G en er i c or t he S p eci c D i er en ce O
( bp
ta c o .
y er/ mi ,
'

f S t a cfmpii i em}, i if )
i

er en ti a i ca , er en ti a sp ec
an e
i g en er an ca .

T he h su m of c a r a ct e r s, a
g i
a n, by whi h i lc a s n u a r or
g i n di vid ua l
1 E lemen ts , v o l

d . ii , . 0 . i ii .
, 1; Wo ks r , vol .
3 Vi d e T impl er , L og ica , [ L II . c. i D . e T ot o

d
i ii p 199 an p 200, n ot e
. . et P a r te .
ED ] .

2 L ib I . .
, c. x iv , p 43, e
. . . 1 6 80 E . n .
 LEC T . XI .
L O crc .
1 47

d
t hi ng di s cr i mi n a t e d fr o m t h e speci e s un d er which it st a n d s
is
an r

d
ddd
f om ot h e r i n di v id ua l thi n g s a l on g wi t h whi ch it st a n d s ,

d
ivi u a l o r S i n g u la r or N umer i ca l D ier en ce
'
is ca ll e d t h e I n

( f i er en ti a i n ivi u a li s v el s i n g u la r i s v e l n u mer i ca ) 1
.

T wo t hi n gs are th us sa id
ic ally differ en t i n a smuch a s
t o b e g e n er ,

th ey lie a pa r t in t wo differ en t g en er a ; spe ci

E pli t i x ca on
c a lly di ffer en t i n a s mu ch a s th e y lie a ar t in t w o
.

, p

d
differ en t spe ci e s ; i n di vid ua lly or n umer i ca lly differ en t i n a smu ch a s
t h e y o n o t co n s t i t u t e o n e a t h e s a me r e a li t y d
T h us a n i ma l a n
n .

d d ,

s ton e ma
y

d
b e s a id t o b e
g e n e r i ca lly di ffer e n t ; h or s e a n

s e ci ca lly di ffe r e n t ; I I ig h
p y e r an E
o

c
n

lip
t
s
o

e
b
t
e

o d
d
G i
en e r c a nS p i ec c
b e n ume r i ca lly o r i n di v id ua lly di ffe r e n t I t is .
D i er e n ce .

e v id e n t h o w e v e r th a t a s a ll g e n e r a a n
,

d , sp e ci e s ,

e x ce pt t he hi h es t of t h e o n e a n e l o w e s t of t he o t h e r ma b
d d
g t h y e

d
s tyl e d i n di ffe r e n t ly e i t h er g e n e r a o r spe ci e s g en er i c if er en ce a n ,

sp eci c
if e r e

d
n ce a e in

,
g e n e r a l on ly v a r i o u s e x pr e ss i o n s o f t h e s a me
r

thi n g ; a n a c cor di n gly t he t er ms heter og en eous a n h omog en eou s ,

whi ch a pply pr oper ly o n ly t o t h e c or r el a t i on of g en er a a r e u sua lly

d ,

a
pp li e d e
q u a lly t o t h e c o r r e l a ti o n o f s e ci e s
p .

I d
I n di v id ua l e x i s t e n ces ca n on ly b e per fectly di scr i mi n at e d i n P er

i id
c e pt ion e x t e r n a l or i n t er n a l a n ,
t h e i r n ume i ca l ,
d r

d
l Si
n v ua
di
or
ffer en c es a r e en dl es s ; for o f a ll possi b l e co n t r a
n

g l D iff

d
u ar er e n ce .
ict or y a ttr i b ut es t h e o n e or t h e o t h e r must o n ,

t h e pr i n ci pl e s of C on t r a dicti on a n E x cl u d e d M iddl e b e co n s id e r e d ,

d
a s b e l on i n t h i di v id ua l thi n O n t h e ot h er h a n d s e ci e s
p
g g o ea c g n .
,

an e n e r a ma b e r fe ctly di scr i mi n a t e d b y o n e o r fe w ch a r a c
g y e
p
t er s F or e x a mpl e ma n is di st i n g ui sh e d fr o m e v er y g e n us or
.
, ,

S pe ci e s of a n i ma l b y t h e o n e ch a r a ct e r o f r a ti on a li ty ; tr i a n g le fr om ,

e v e r y o t h e r cl a s s o f ma t h e ma t ic a l ur es b y t he s i n l e ch a r a ct e r of
g g ,

tr i la ter a li ty I t is th e r e for e fa r e a s i e r a d e qu a t e ly t o d es cr i b e a
.
, ,

e n us o r s e ci e s t h a n a n i n di vid u a l e x i s t en ce in t he l a t t e r c a s e
g p a s ,

w e mus t s e l e ct o ut o f t h e i n n i t e mul t i t ud e o f ch a r a ct e r s whi ch a n

,

i n di vid ua l co mpr i ses a fe w of t he most pr o mi en t o r t h o s e b v

, n ,

d
whi ch t h e t hi n g ma y mo s t e a sily b e r e cog n iz e d But a s t h o s .
2
e

d
w hi ch w e t h us s e l ect a r e on ly a fe w a n a r e o n ly s e l e ct e d w i t h ,

d
r e fe r en ce t o o ur fa c ulty o f a r e h e n s i on a n u i t y f m m
pp o r c a
p a c o e

or y t h e y a l wa y s con s t i t ut e o n l y a etty ft t t h e mo st
, p a n o e n n o ,

e ssent i a l a r t of t he n ume r ic a l di ffe r e n c es b w hi h t h i di id lity

p y c e n v u a

of t h e obj e ct is d e t e r mi n e d .

H a vi n g n o w t e r mi n a t e d t he c on sid er a ti on o f t he S ub or di n a t i on of

l K r ug , L og ik, 45 E D. . 2 K r ug , L og ik, 45 , p 1 345

. . E D .
148 L 0G I C L E C T . XI .

c o n ce p s u n t d er
t en si on it is on ly n e c e s sa r y t o ob ser v e t hat th e i r
E x ,

C o or di a t i o n u n d e r t h a t q u a n t i t y a ffo d s n o t hi n g whi ch r e qui e s

n r r

e x pl a n a t i o n e x ce pt wh a t is co n t a i n e d in t h e foll o wi n g p a a g a ph
,
r r

{ I X XX I X
ti o n s in s o fa r a s th e y a r e
. c o n s id e N
r e d t he
o ,

d
c o or di n a t e s e ci e s o f t h e s a me e u s ma
p g y n
XXX X o
d
P I C
b e c a ll e d C on sp eci es
ar o r .

in s o fa r a s C on
. .

an
in a t i on of C on c e p ts .

s p e ci e s a r e co s id e r e d t o b e di ffer en t b ut n

n o t con t a di ct o r y t h e y a e pr o pe r ly ca ll e d D i s cr ete o r D i s
d dly
r r
, .

l Voti on s (
dl ) v el
n oti on es i s cr etee i sj u n ctce ) T he t e r n
j u n ct .
r
D i sp a r a te ( f n ot io n es
r e u en t
q a
ppli e d t o t hi s isp a r a toe is
o ppo s i t i o n o f o t i on s b u t e ss r o e ly ; fo r t hi s o u h t t o b e
p p n
g ,
r

r e s e r v e d t o d e n ot e t h e c o r e s p o n di n opp o s i t i o n o f o t i o n s in
g r n

t h e q ua n t i t y of C o mpr e h e n s i on .

I con c u l de the co n s id e r a ti on o f c o n ce pt s , a s d ep en e n t on E x t e n d
d dime n t e e a l l aws b hi h h
'

s io n , by a st a t e of t he t wo g n r
y w c b o,t S u b
or di n a t i o n an C o or na ti o n of n o t i on s u n d er thi s
, q u a n ti t y a re ,

r e ul a t e d
g .

l XL . T he w h o l e l i ca t i o n of t hi n g s b y G en e a a n
c as s

S peci e s is g o v e n e d b y t wo l a w s T he o n e
r .
r d
d
P XL T he tw o
o f t h e s e t he l a w o f H o mog e ei ty
ar

(p
. .

r i ci n n

d
l l a m b y w h i ch
d
en e r a ,
g
i m H omog en ei ta ti s
) T h h w if
d d
S ub or in a t i on a n C c
p u is a t o , ,
m E

t
ma y b e
r a n er x
fer e n t s o e v er an
y t wo c o n ce t s ,
p
d
t en s ion , ar e r e g ul a t

h ey b ot h ill d s ub o r di d un d e r
d m
e , m
viz .
, of H o og e t st st a n n ate
H
me hi g h er con ce pt ; in o t h er w o r d s t hi n g s
an et e g e

so ,

t h e mo st di ssi mil a r mus t , in ce r t a i n r es

p e ct s,

be s i mil a r . T he o th er , t he la w of H eter og en ei ty (p r i n cip i u m

h a t e ver y co n cept con t a i s ot h e r con
d d
H ter og en ei ta
'
ti s ) , is, T n

c e pt s u n d e r it ; a n t h er e for e w h en i v id e d p o i ma t e ly we , ,
r x ,

d e sce d a l wa y s t o o t h e r co cept s b ut n e v er t o i n di vid ua l s ; in

n n ,

o t h e r w o r d s t hi n s t h e mo s t h o mo e e o us s i mil a r mu s t n
g g , ,

in c er t a i n r e spe ct s b e h e t e r og e n eou s di ssi mil a r , .

d
O f t h e se t w o l a ws
i n cipl e w hi ch e n ab l es
, t he fo r mer , as t h e pr ,

an in fa ct co mpe l s u s t o r i s e f o m s pe ci e s t o ,
r

d d
E pl i
n us is t h a t whi ch d e t e r mi n es t h e
x a or
f r o ces s o f
'
e
g p ,

d d
G en e r l t ca l on an

S pe c i c ati on G .
e e i ca t l o n ; a t h e l a t t e r a s t h e
p 1 c 1
plne r n ,
r n

whi ch e n ab l es a n i fa ct co mpel s u s t o ,
n ,
n

a l w a y s s e ci e s u n d e r a e n us is th a t w hi ch r e ul a t e s t h e f
p g g pr oce s s o ,

S pe ci ca t i on T he s e co n d o f t h e s e l a w s it is e v id e n t is o n ly t r ue
.
, ,

id e ally on ly t r ue in t h e or y T he i n it e di vi si b ili t y of con cepts

, . n
,
LEC XI L 0G 10 149

d
T . .
.

li ke i n n it e di v i sib ility of spa ce a n t i me e x i s t s o n ly in s pe cu l a

t he
ti o n A n t h a t it is t h e or e t i ca lly v a lid will b e
. d ,

d
H t mg
m a n ife s t if w e t a ke t w o s i mil a r c o n ce pt s t h a t
I f O e e e

f t ru e on l y m t h o
, ,

221
e'
wit h a sma l l iffe r e n ce : l e t u s
7
3
is, t wo c o n ce pt s

d d
h en cl e a r ly r e pr e s e n t t o o ur s e l ve s t hi s di ffe r e n ce
t ,

an w e s h a ll n t h a t h o w s ma ll so e v e r it ma y b e w e ca n a l w a y s ,

a d
co n ce i v e it s t ill l e ss wi t h o ut b e i n g n o t hi n g t h a t is w e c a n di v id e it
,

i n n i tum ; b ut a s e a ch o f t h ese in n it es imally di v e r g i n g di ffe r

, ,

w e ca n n e v e r e n d
e n ce s a ffo r d s a l wa y s t h e c on di t i on o f n e w s pe ci es it is e v id e n t t h a t

th a t is r ea ch t he i n di vid ua l e x cept p er sa ltum

, , ,
,

1
.

of P u r e R ea s on an
2
,
d
T h e r e is a n o th er l a w w hi ch K a n t pr omul g a t es in t he C i ti qu e
whi ch ma y b e ca ll e d t he la w of L og i ca l
,

A fn i t y o r t h e l a w o f L og i ca l C o n t i n ui t y
r

'
, It .

L w f L gi l A f
a o o ca
is thi s T h a t n o t w o co or di n a t e s pe ci e s t o u ch
,

s o cl os ely o n e a ch o t h er b ut t h a t w e ca n co n ,

d
d
ceiv e oth e r or o th e r s i n t e r me di a t e T h us ma n a n or a g ou ta n
g . n -
,

elep ha n t a n r h i n ocer os a r e pr ox i ma t e s pe ci e s b ut s till h o w g r e a t

is t h e di ffe r en ce b e t w e e n t h e m a n
,

h o w ma n y sp e ci e s ca n w e n ot ,
d ,

i mag i n e t o our se l v es a s po ssib ly i n t erj a c e n t ?

T hi s la w I h a v e h o w e v e r t h r ow n o ut o f a cc o un t a s n ot u n i ver
, , ,

s a lly t r ue F o r it b r ea ks d o w n wh e n w e apply
d Whi h it t o ma th emati ca l cl assica ti on s T h us all a n
.

G r oun s 0 c
.

d
thi l w m t b
s a us e re
l e s a r e e i t h er a cut e o r r i ht o r b t u F
j t g g o se o r .

d
ec e

d
.

b e t w e en th e s e th r e e c o or di n a t e S pe ci e s o r g en e r a
n o o th e r s ca n i ly th h m l y
p oss b b e i j
n t e i ect e o u g w e a
y a w a s s u b i ,

v id e e a ch o f t h e s e in v a r i o us ma n n e r s i n t o a mu l t i t u d e o f l o w e r
, ,

spe ci e s T hi s l a w is a l s o n o t t r ue w h en t h e co or di n a t e spe ci es a r e
.

di st i n g ui sh e d b y co n t r a di ct or y a tt r i b ut es T h e r e ca n in t h ese b e .

n o i n t e rj a ce n t s pe ci es o n t h e pr i n ci pl e o f E x cl u d e d M iddl e
, F or .

e x a mpl e in t he C uv i er i a n cl a s si ca ti on t he g e n us a n ima l is
di vid e d in t o t he t w o spe ci es of ver tebr a ta a n i n ver tebr a ta t h a t is
a n i ma l s w i t h a b a ckb on e wi t h a s i n a l ma r r o w ; a n i m l
d d , ,

p a n a s

o ut a b a ckb on e w ith ou t a spi n a l ma r r o w I s it poss i b l e t o .

'
ci v e t h e
p os si b ility o f a n
y i n t e r me di a t e c l a ss ? 3

1 C f . K r ug , L og ik, 5 45 p 1 35 , a n . d pp 1 36 ,
. 3 Bachma n n , [ L og ik, 6 1 , pp 1 02 , 1 03 .

d
.

13 7 . E D . ED .
] [ C omp ar e F r ies , L og ik, 5 2 1 ED ] . .

2 P . 51 0, e . Rosen kr an z , Cf
. K r ug , L og ik,
1 38 ED
p. . .
 L E CT U RE XI I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N II .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I . E N N O E M A T IC .

III . RE C I P RO C A L RE L A T I O N S OF C ON CEP T S .

B .
Q U A N T I T Y O F C O M P RE H E N S I O N .

H A V I N G n ow c on cl ud e d t h e con sid er a t i o n of t he Re ci pr oc a l Re
l a t i o n of C on cept s a s d e t er mi n e d b y th e q ua n t it y
d
Re pmca l Rel a tion
of E x t e n s i on I pr o ce e d t o t r e a t of t h a t r e l a
,
o f n ot i o n s in C o mpr e
t i on a s r eg ul a t e d b y t h e c o un t e r q ua n t i t y 0f
h e msj o n .

C ompr e h e n si on O n t h i s t a ke t he foll o wi n g
.

p ar a
g ra
ph :

XL I . Wh en t wo or mor e
c on c ept s a r e compa r e d t og e t h er

d
a ccor di n t o t h e i r C m r e h e n si o n t h y
g o
p e ,

dd
m
d e i t h er co i n cid e o r t h e y o n o t ; t h a t is t h e y
P a X I I ' e

j ,

d d
ca l an D i ff e r e n t n o

e i t h er o or o n ot c o m r i s e t he s a me ch a r
t i on s p

d d d
,

a ct e r s N o t i o n s a r e t h us di v id e i n t o I en
.

t i ca l a n D if er en t ( con cep tu s i en ti ci et i ver s i ) T he I d en .

d
t i ca l a r e e i t h er a b sol ut e ly o r r e l a t i v ely t he s a me O f n oti o s
"

. n

d d
A bs olu tely I en ti ca l t h e r e a r e a ct ua lly n o n e ; n o t i o n s R ela ti vely

d
I en ti ca l a e ca ll e li ke w i se S imi la r o r C og n a te ( n oti on es
r , ,

d d
if a t t i b ut e s b y
s i mi les mm
a

, n es co g )
n a tce ; a n , t h e c o o n r ,

w hi ch t h e y a r e a lli e b e pr o x i ma t e a n ,
n ece s sa r y t h ey a r e ,

c a ll e d Recip r oca tin g or C on ver ti ble ( n oti on es r ecip r occe con ,

ver ti bi les ) .
1

In pl a nex
a t i on o f thi s pa r a
g p
r a h it is o n ly n e c e ss a r y ,
to sa y a

w or d in r eg a r d t o n oti on s a b sol ut e ly I d en t i ca l T h at . s uc h ar e

l [ E sser , L ogi k,
L E C T .
.
XII . .
L OG IC 1 51

i mposs ib l e ,
it b e i n g a ssume d th a t s uch e x i s t
is man ifes t .

F or , ,

a s a b sol ut e ly id e t i ca l t h e y n e ce ss a r ily h a v e n o n ,

mpi ca
differ en ce s b y whi ch t h e y ca n b e di st i g ui sh e d :
on '
n
ml
A P I t ly I
l
e c en a
i
SO l
b ut wh a t a r e i n di s ce r n i b l e ca n b e kn o w n e i t h er na
t
n o i on s imp bl osa e.

a s t w o c on c e pt s n or a s t wo id e n t i ca l co n ce pt s ; ,

b eca us e w e a r e ea: hyp othes i un ab l e t o di scr i mi n a t e t h e o n e fr o m

, ,

t he ot h er T h e y a r e t h e r e for e t o u s a s o n e
.
,

dd
N o t i o s a b so l ut e ly , . n

id en t i ca l ca n o n ly b e a mitt e if; a bst r a ct i n g our v i e w a l t og e t h e r

fr o m t h e co n cept s w e d en o mi n a t e t h o se n ot i o n s i en ti ca l w hi ch
,

d
L

d d ,

h a v e r efe e n ce t o on e a n t h e s a me obj e ct a n whi ch a e co ce i v e d

e i t h e r b y di ffe r e n t mi n d s
r

o r b y t h e s a me mi d b ut a t iffer e n t ,
,

n ,
r

d
d
n

t i me s T h e i r di ffe e n ce is t h e r e fo r e o n e n o t i t r i s i c a n
. . r

d
n ec s , ,
n n e

d
s a r y b ut o n ly e x t r i n s i c a n co t i en t T a ken i t hi A b so
, g s se s e n n . n n ,

la tely I e ti ca l n ot i o n s w ill b e o ly a l ess cor r ect e x pr ess i o n for

n n

R ecip r oca tin g or C on ver t ible n ot i on s

1
.

if XL I I
id e r e d und e r th ei r C o mpr e h en si on co n cept s
. C on s , ,

a a i n in r e l a t i o n t o e a c h o t h e a e s a id t o
g r r
PX ar . L II O ppo
b e e i t h e r C on g r uen t o r A g r eei g i a s much
.
,

n
,

n
s i t i on of C on c e p ts. ,

a s t h e y ma y b e co n n e ct e d in t h o ug h t ; o r

d
C on ictive i n a s much a s t h e y ca n n o t ,
T he co n i t io n co s t i . c n

t ut es t h e O pp os i ti on o f n o t i o n s ( a i S T hi s
d d
-
opp os i ti o)

T vn x e o a i, .

d d
i s t w o fo ld I mme i a te or C on tr a i ctor y Opp os i ti on ca ll e d ,

d d d
'
like w i s e R ep ug n a n ce ( o p b E S i a m o pp os i T vr t c a n x g V T LK e O
'
'
a L, o vn g,

d d
ti o i mme i a ta s i ve con tr a i ct or i a r ep ug n a ti a ) ; a n
i a te
op p os i ti o
or C on tr a r y

me i a ta
Il e
O pp os i ti on
v el con tr a r
(
ia )
T o eva vn
,

T he
'
wg

fo r mer
i
n

o vn x e o
'
-

me r g e s w h e n
,

i S a t , Event/ 7 1 67 779 ,
. e

on e li h dic on ce
pt abo s es
( tolli t) , ly o r r e ct b y s i mpl e n e g a t i o n ,
w
d
h
hi
h
d
i ly
o es
li h (
at

i l t
a n ot

s n ot
e r e st a b

r ect
s e s p on i t

or b
y s m
)
p
t
e
h
n
e

e
l
g
att e

a t i o
w h e n o n e co n ce t
p
n b ut t h r o u h t he
g
r,

i
a f r hi lma t o n of s o met n
g e se .
2

I d e n t ity is n ot t o be con o un f
d e d w i t h A g r e e me n t o r C o n g r u
e ce o r D i v e r s i t y w i t h C o n ict io n
n ,
n A ll id e . n

d ti ca l co cept s a r e i n d e e d co g r u e n t ; b ut a ll
E x pl ica t ion n n
, ,
? A g r ee
d d d
I e n t ?
c o n g r ue n t n o t i o n s a e n o t i d e n t i ca l T h us lea r n
an
r
me n t ,
.

D w er s x y

d
t an
bea u ty ma g n a n i mi ty
0

C on ict ion .
i n g an vi r tu e, an r i ches ,

g t n o t i o s i n a s m
an u c h as s ta tu r e, a r e c o n r ue n n , ,

in t hi ki g a t hi n
n t h y n e a sily b e co mb i n e d in t he oti o we
g e ca n , n n

for m of it a l t h oug h in t h ems el ve s v e r y diffe r e t fr om e a ch o t he r

, n .

K r ug
dm
1 [ E s ser , L ik, 36 , p Cf L ogi k, 2
og . .
, Cf D . r ob isch , L og ik, p 1 7 , . 25 seq .
6 37, an A n . i ED
. .
1 52 L O G I C . L E C T . XI I .

I n like ma n n er , a ll diver se or differ en t n ot i on s ti o

con ict iv e n o n s ar e -
,

fo r u n l e ss di ffe r e t t h e y co uld n ot b e mut u a lly con ict iv e ; b u t on

n ,

t h e o t h e r h a n d a ll di ffe r e t co cept s a r e n ot co n ict iv e ; b u t t h os e

,
n n

o n ly w h o s e di ffe e n ce is s o g ea t t h a t e a ch i n v o l v e s t he n e g a ti o n o f

d
t h e o t h e r ; a s fo r e x a mpl e vi r tu e a ,
r

vi ce bea u ty a n ,
r

e or mi t
f y n d ,
d
d ,

T h u s t h e s e n ot i o n s a e b y pr e emi n en ce
d

wea lth a n p over ty . r , Ka r

f xiy s a id t o b e opp os e a l t h o u h it is t r u e t h a t in thi n k i n g w e

e o v,
g , , ,

ca n O
pp o se o r
p l a c e in a n t i t h e s i s n o t o n ly di ffer e n t b ut e v e n id e n
, , ,

t i ca l co n c e pt s
d

.
,

T o spe a k n o w o f t h e di st i n cti on o f C o n t r a di ct o r y a n C o n t r a r y

t d d of t h ese t he fo r mer C on tr a di ct i on is
O ppos i t i o o r o f C on t r a di ct i on a n C o n t r a r i e t y ; n, d
d
C on r a i t y c or an

C t y O pp iti

d
on r a r os on .

e x e m li e i h e O ppos it e s ellow n ot el
'

p n t y y , ,
.

d H e r e e a ch n ot i o n is di r e ct ly imme i
low wa lki g n ot w a lki n g
,
n , .
, ,

a t e ly a n a b s o l ut e ly r e u n a n t t o t h e o t h er t h e y a e r e ci p o c a l r r
, p g , ,

d d
n e a t i ve s hi i i h o e ly c
d
T t i t r e fo e a ll e d t h a t of
g s o.
pp os o n s e p p ,
r ,
r r

C on tr a i cti on or o f R ep u g n a ce a n t h e o ppos i n g n ot i o s t h em n n

d
s e l v es a e con tr a i ct or y o r r ep ug n a n t n o ti o n s in a s i g l e w o r d con
r ,
n ,

tr a i ct or i es T he l a t t e r o r C o n t r a r y O pposi t i o n is e x e mpli e d in
t h e o ppos i t es y ellow blu e r e
.

,
et c ,
,

wa lki n g s ta n i n g ly i g e t c
,
d ,
.
, ,
d ,

,
n ,
.

I n t h e ca se o f C o n t r a di ct o r y O ppo s i t i on th er e a r e o n ly t wo
d

,

co n ict iv e a t t i b u t e s co ce i v a b l e ; a n r o f t h e s e o n e or o t h e r mus t
n

b e p e di ca t e d o f t h e obj e ct t h o ug h t
r I n t h e ca s e of C o n t a r y O ppo . r

d
sit io n o n t h e o t h e r h a n d m o e t h a n t w o co ict iv e ch a r a ct er s a r e ,
r n
,

os sibl e a it i s n o t t h e r e fo r e n e ces s a r y t h a t if o n e o f t h e s e b e
p ,
n , , ,

n ot e di ca t e d o f a n o bj e ct a n y o e o t h e r mu st

d d T h u s th o ug h I

dd
r n
p , .
,

ca n n o t a t o ce s it a n st a d a
n co n se u e n t ly s i tti n g a n
q n ,
s ta n i n g
n

a r e a t t i b ut e s e a ch s e v e r a lly i n co mp a t i b l e w i t h t h e o t h e r ; y e t I ma y
r

e x i s t n e i t h e r s i t t i n g n o s t a n di g I ma y lie ; b u t I mu st e i t h e r s it
r n ,

or n o t s it I mu s t e i t h e r s t a n d o r n o t s t a n d e t c
,

a r e t h e o pp o s i t i o n s o f C o n t r a di ct i o n a n
S u ch in g e n er a l
C on t r a r i et y d , .

.
,

,

I t is n o w n e ces s a r y t o s a y a w o r d in r eg a r d t o t h e i r l o g i ca l s ig

o f C t d
L g i l ig i
o ca

on r ai t y
s

c or
n i ca n c e
n

an
I mme di a t e o r C o t r a di ct o y O ppo

d a ti ve n ot i on s B t he fo mer somethi n g is
s i t i o u c o s t i t u t e s i n L og i c a fr ma t i v e a n
ca n ce
.

n ne
g , ,
n r

d
r
C t
on r a r y O pp it i os on . y .

os it e d a f r me d r ma tu r b
p or
(p o n i tu r a
) y ,

t h e l a tt e so me thi nr,
g i s s ub l a t e d o r d e n i e d
(t olli tu r n eg a tu r ) T hi s ,
.
,

h o w e v e is o n ly d on e po t e n t i a lly in s o fa r a s con cept s a e v i e w e d

d
r ,
r
,

a a r t fr o m j u d me n t s for a ct u a l a ffi ma t i o n a n a ct u a l n e a t i on
p g , g r

d
s uppo s e a a ct o f j ud me n t ; b ut a t t he s a me t i me in s o fa r a s t wo
n
g , ,

c o n c e t s a ffo d t h e e l e me n ts r if b r o u ht i n t o r e l a ti o n e ce s si
p a n
g , ,
n ,

t a t e t he fo r ma t i o o f a n a f ma t i v e o r n e a t i v e

ma y b e co n sid e r e d a s in t h e mse l ves n eg a ti ve a n a ir ma t ive

n
g p p o os i t i o n t h ey
r

d
r

.
,
L E C T . XI I .
LoG I c . 1 58

F ur t h e r ,
it is e vid en t th a t a n oti on ca n on ly b e l ogi ca lly d en i e d
b y a co n tr a di ct i o n F o r wh en we a b str a ct fr om t h e ma t t er of a
.

n oti on a s L og ic d o es it is i mp o s s ib l e t o kn o w th a t o n e c o n c e p t
, ,

e x cl ud e s a n o t h er un l e s s t h e on e b e s upp os e d t h e n eg a t i on o f t h e
,

ot h e r L og i ca lly co n s id e r e d a ll po siti v e o r a f r ma t i v e n ot i o n s a r e
.
,

co n g ue n t t h a t is t h e y ca n as fa r a s th ei r for m is co n ce r n e d b e a ll
r , , , ,

con ce i v e d o r th o ug h t t og e t h e r ; b ut wh e th e r in r e a li t y t h e y ca n

i t h a t ca n n o t b e d ecid e d b y l og i ca l r ul e s I f th e r efo r e
d
c e
o xs t .
, ,

we w o uld w i t h l og i ca l pr eci s i o n a n
,
c er t a i n ty O ppose t hi n g s w e
mus t o ppo s e t h e m n ot a s co n t r a r i es (A B C ) b ut a s con t r a ict o ,
,

d ,

r i es ( A n ot A B n ot B C n ot C
) H e n c e it a l so fo ll ow s .
,

t h a t t h e r e is n o n eg a ti o n co n ce i v a b l e wi t h o ut t h e con co mi t a n t con
cept io n o f a n a f r ma t i on fo r w e ca n o t d e n y a t hi g t o e x i s t wi t h n n ,

o ut h a v i n g a n ot i on o f t he e x i s t e n ce whi ch is d e n i e d
1
.

T h e r e a r e a l s o c er t a i n o t h e r r e l a t i o n s s ub s i s t i n g b et w e en n o ti o n s ,

c ompa r e d t og e t h er in r efe r en c e t o th e i r C ompr eh en s i on .

1l XL I I I . N o ti on s , a s co d
mpai e with e a ch oth er i n r e spe ct

s ic
P ar . X
n o t i on s .
L III . I n t r in
of

g uish e
t
d
h ei r
i t
C o mpr e h e n s i on , a r e fur t h er di s t i n
n o I ntr in s i c an d E x tr in s i c . T he

d ma d e
for me r ar e i b ut e s
up of th o se a t tr

whi ch
of t he
a r e e ss en t a

n ot o n : i
i l an ,

t h e se a t t i
,

r
co n s e u e n t ly n e ces s a r y t o t h e obj ect
q

d
,

b ut es s e v e r a lly co n s id e r e d a r e ca ll e
, ,
d
d
ter n a l D en omi n a ti on s
d
E ss en ti a ls , or I n
( o bo wb n, es s en ti a li a , e

nomin a ti on es i n ter n ee, i n tr in s i cce) , c j ly an , on un ct , t he E ss en ce

( o vo i a
,

es sen t ia ) . T he l at t er , on y thei con t r a r ,
co n s s t of t h ose
i but es whi ch b el on g t o t he o b ect o f t he n ot o o n ly i n a j
d i
a tt r n

a cci
g
d
c o n t i n e t ma n n er o r b

dd
s t yl e d A cci en ts or
y p

en ti a ,
no s s b t ; a n c a r e t h
E x tr i n s i c D en omi n a ti on s ( p n o
en o
,
e
,

mi n a ti on es
r e fo r e i ili y whi h

ewter n ae o r ewtr i n s i cce) .

2
ov t
,

e k
,

r a,

S o mu ch for t he mut u al l ti on s of n ot i on s in r e fer e n ce t o th e ir

re a

d di
C ompr e h e n s i on , wh en c on s id er e d n ot in t he r el a t i on s o f I n vol uti on
an C

d
o or n a t on .i
i ven y ou t h e i sti n cti on s of n o
H av n
g
ti on s a s foun d e d on th ei r mor e g e n er a l r el a t i on s
i h
t us g d
d
I l ti
n vo u C on an o
,
c on c ep t s
d C mp h d
m t
un d e r t h e q u a n t i t y o f C o mpr e h e n s i o n
or a o
I n ow ,
un er o re en
i o ce e d t o co s e r bl] e m u n Cl e r bl] i s u a n f1 t y
. .

wh o ll y
n 1
p q
gl t d
i
s on ,_ tb

d
es e

d
i n th e r o x i ma t e r e l a t i o n s ; t h a t i s i n t h e r e l a
.

ne ec e by l gi i o pc a n s. i r ,

ti on of I n v ol ut i on a n t he r el at i n of C o r i o o

n a ti o n T h e se r el a t i on s h a v e b e e n I ma y s a y a lt og et h er n eg l e ct e d
.
, ,

1 K l'll g , L ogik, 1 1 8 12 0 _ E 39 E D
p . . D 0 2
n , L og ik , .
1 54 L oG I c L E C T XI I

d cl
. . .

by l og i ci a n s ; an ,
in thi s th e y h av e n e cessa r ily
on se qu e n ce of ,

o v e r ooke d o n e of t h e t wo g r ea t di v i s i o s o f a ll n

r ea s on i n g ; fo r a ll o ur r ea so n i n g is e i t h e r fr o m

d
H en ce r eas on n i g i n

k d
co mp h re i en s o n o ver
t h e w h ol e t o t h e p a t s a n f r o m the ar t s t o the r
loo e by l g i i o c a n s. p

d
.

who l e in t he q ua n t i t y of e x t en si o or fr om t he
,
n,

d
wh o l e t o t he pa r t s a n fr o m t he pa t s t o t he wh ol e in t he q ua n t i t y r ,

o f co mp r e h e n s i o n

un d e
n
I n e a ch q ua n t i t y t h er e is a d e d uct i v e a n
.

e a c h q ua t i t y th e r e is a n i n d u ct i v e i n fe r e n ce ; a n if t he r e a so n i g
e i t h e r o f t h ese t wo q u a n t i t i e s w e r e t o b e o mitt e d it o u h t
r
,
in
d ,

g , ,

e h a ps t o h a v e b e e n t h e on e whi ch t h e l og i ci a n s h a v e e cl us i v e ly
p r ,
x

c ul t i v a t e d

d
F o r t h e q u a n tity o f e x t e n s i on is a cr ea t i on of th e mi n d
.

i t sel f; a n on ly cr e a t e d t h r o ug h a s ab st r a ct e d f o m t h e qua n t it y of
, r ,

co mpr e h e n s i on ; wh e e a s t h e q ua n t i t y o f co m r e h e n s i on is a t o n ce
r
p
g i
s e c on d a r y a d
v e n in t h e v er y n a t ur e o f t hi n s
g T he fo me r

fa ct i t i o us t he l a tt e r pr i ma r y a n n a t ur a l
n ,
q u a n t i t y i s t h
. us r

d .

T h a t l og i ci a n s sh ould h a v e n eg l e ct e d t h e pr oce ss o f r e a son i n g

whi ch is co mpe t e n t b et w e e n the pa r t s a w h ol e n d
t mpl t d
B t P b b I Y mm
o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f co mpr e h e n s i o n is t h e mor e
u rO a
,

d
e by A i t
a e r s o
r ema r ka b l e a s a ft e r A r i st o t l e t h e y h a v e i n g en
, , ,

d
e.

e r a l a ti cu l a t e ly i st i n g ui sh e d t h e t w o q ua n t i t i es
r

fr o m ea ch o th e r a n a fter A r i st ot l e ma n y of t h e m h a v e e x pli ci t ly
, , ,

d
e n o un ce d t h e s pe ci a l la w o n w hi ch t h e l o g i c of c o mpr e h e s i on pr o n

cee s T hi s p i n ci pl e es t a bli s h e d b ut n o t a ppli e d is e x pr e s s e d in

. r , ,

t h e a x i om T h e ch a r a ct e r o f t h e c h a r a ct er is t h e ch a a ct e r p f t h e r

thi n g ; or T he pr e di ca t e of t he p e di ca t e is t he pr e di ca t e of t h e
,
r

d d
s ubj e ct

d d
N r aa i ca tu m p ce i ca ti es t
( ota n otte es t n ota r ei ip s i us P r

p r ce i ca t u m s u bj ec ti ) T hi s a x i o m is e n o un ce d b y A r i s t o t l e ;
. a
1
n

it s a ppli ca t i o I h a v e litt l e d o ub t w as fully u n d e r s t o o d b y him I n

n, ,
.

f ct I t hi n k it e v e n poss i b l e t o s h ow in d e t a il t h a t his w h o l e a n a ly
a ,

s is o f t h e s yll og i s m h a s r e fe r e n ce t o b o t h q u a n t i t i e s a n t h a t the ,
d
r e a t a b s t r us e n e s s of his P r i or A n a ly ti cs t h e t r ea t i s e in w hi ch h e
g ,

d eve l ops t he g e n er a l for ms of r e a son i g a r i s es fr o m t hi s t h a t he n , ,

h a s e n d e a v o r e d t o r i s e t o fo r mq s uf ci e n t ly g e n e r a l t o e x p e s s a t r

o n ce w h a t w a s co mmo n t o b o t h ki d s a n a t t e mpt so fa b e y on d
n r

d
t h e i t e lli g e n ce of s ub s e q ue n t l og i ci a n s t h a t t h e y h a v e w h o lly mis
n ,

d
un d e r st o o d a n e r v e r t e d his d o ct i e T h e y u n d e s t a n d t hi s

d
oc r
p r n .

t i n e o ly a s a ppli e d t o t h e r ea so n i n g in e x t e n s i v e q u a t i t y ; a n
r ,
n in n

b le a n d
r e l a t i o n t o thi s ki n d o f r e a s o n i
g t h
e a s y w h a t in A i s t o t l e is a b st a ct a
e y h a v e ce t a i n ly ma d e p a l pa

r
n ,

di fcul t But t h en
t h e y did n o t o b se v e t h a t A i s t o t l e s d o ct i n e a ppli e s t o t w o spe ci e s
r r

r n d r

r ,

o f which th e y o n ly con s id er on e I t w a s ce r t a i n ly pr o pe r t o b r i n g
.

1 C a t eg . 0 iii .
E D .
, .
LEC T XII L oG I c 1 55

d
. . .

d ow n the Ai t t lic l og ic fr om it s hig h ab str a cti on a n t o d eliver

r s o e ,

it s r ul es in pr ox i ma t e a ppli ca t i on t o e a ch of t h e t wo se ve r a l spe ci es
of r e a s o i n g

t h e S t a g i i t e h a g i ven t he ske t ch
r
.

d
T hi s w o uld h a v e b e e n t o ll up t h e pi ct ur e of whi ch
n

But b y v i e wi n g t he a n a ly t i c a s .

p l i e d
e x cl u s i v e ly r e l a t i v e t o t h e r e a so n i n g in e x t e n si o n th o ug h t h e y s im

t h e o n e h a lf of syll o i s t i c
g
- t h e y a l t o et h er
g a b o li s h e d t h e ,
,

h T hi m i k thi i l ti f h i i
d
ot s t a e a t a c o ce on t e s c e c e s
e r . s s
p r n
p o n

c ommo n t o a ll l og i ci a n s a n ci e t a n mod er n ; for in s o fa r a s I a m

,
n

an d
a w a r e n o o e h a s ob s e r ve d th a t of t h e
,
n

e t e s i on e a ch a ffo r d s a r ea so n i n
x n ,
q
g p p
uan t i t i es o f compr e h e n s i on
,

r o er t o i t s e lf ; a n n o on e

h a s n o t i ce d th a t t h e d o ct r i n e of A r i s t o t l e h a s r e fer e n ce i n di ffe r e n t ly
d
d
t o b ot h ; a l t h o ug h s ome I k ow h a v i n g per ce i v e d in g e e r a l t h a t
,

w e o r e a s on u n d e r t he q ua n t i t y o f c o mp e h en s i o n h a v e o n t h a t
foun d e d a n obj e ct i on t o a ll r e a s o i g un d e r t he qua t i t y of e x t e n
n ,

n n
r ,

n
n

s i o n th a t is t o t h e wh o l e s ci e n ce of L o g i c a s a t pr es e n t co n s t i t ut e d
, , .

d
I h a v e in s o me d e g r e e a t pr e s e n t s poke n o f ma tt e s w hi ch p o per ly
,

n t h e i r d e v e l opme n t in t h e se q ue l ; a n
,

I h a v e ma d e t hi s a n t i ci d r r

a t io n in or d er th a t y o u sh o uld a tt e n d pa r t i c ul a r ly t o t h e r e l a ti on
p ,

an d
of co ce pt s u n d er t h e q u a n t i t y o f co mpr e h e n s i o n
n ,
a s co n t a i n i n

con t a i n e d i n a smu ch a s thi s a ffo r d s t h e fo un d a t i o n of o n e a n

,

th a t n ot t he l e a st i mpor t a n t of t he t w o g r e a t b r a n ch es i n t o which
g ,

, d
, ,

a ll r e a s o i n g is di v id e d
n .

W h
1T XL I V

X
. th a t of t he t w o qu a n titi es of n o
e a ve s e e n

ti on s e a ch a ffor d s a l og i ca l Wh o l e a n
d d
d d of th ese ha s t h r ou h o ve r i n cl usi o b e en
mm L IV
P a r t s ; a n th a t b y O ppos i t e e r r o r s t h e o n e
1

, ,
l uti on an C oor in a

g ,
n,

c a ll e d t h e log i ca l w hil s t t h e o t h e r h a s ,

t h r oug h ov e r e x cl u s i o n b e e n ca ll e d t h e metap hy s i ca l T h us
'

, .
,

in r e spect o f th e i r C o mpr e h e n s i on n o l e ss th a n o f th e i E x t e n , r

d d
s i o n n o t i o n s s t a n d t o e a c h o t h e r in a r e l a t i o n o f C o n t a i n i n
, g

d
an C on tain ed ; an t hi s r e l a t i o whi ch in t h e o n e q ua n ti t y n,
,

x t e n si on i yl d th S u bor i n a ti on ma y in t he ot h er
( e ) s s t e a t o f ,

( co m r e h en s i o n
) f
d
or di s t i n ct i o n s s a ke b e s tyl e d t h a t o f I n v o

p , ,

lu ti on C o or in a ti on is a t er m whi ch ma y b e a ppli e d in e ith e r

. .

u a n t ity
1
q .

I t he q ua n t i t y of co mpr e h e n s i on o n e n ot i on is i n v o l v e d in
n
,

a n o t h e r wh en it fo ms a a r t o f t h e s um t o t a l o f ch a r a ct e r s
, p r
,

an d
whi ch t og et h er co n st it ut e t h e compr e h e si on of t h a t ot h er ;
t w o n o t i on s a r e in thi s qu a n t i t y co or di n a t e d w h e n whil s t

n

, ,

n e i t h er co m e h e n d s t h e o th er b o th a r e i mme di a t ely c om r e
p r
p ,

h en d e d in t he s a me l ow er c on c ept .

'
1 (C f D . r ob isch , L og ik, 22 , 23 . F ischer , L og ik, 5
1 56
L O G I C . L EOL XII .

F r om wh a t for mer ly st a t e d y ou a r e a w ar e th a t t he
has b een ,

u a n t ity o f c o mpr e h e n s i on b e l on i n
g g t o a n o
q ,

d
E pli t i x ca on .
t i on is t h e co mpl e me n t of ch a r a ct er s whi ch it
,

c on t a i n s in it a n t h a t thi s q u a n t it y is a t it s ma x i mum in a n i di -
n

v id ua l T h us t h e n o t i on o f t h e i n di v id ua l S o cr a tes co n t a i n s in it
.
, ,

b e s id es a mul t i t ud e o f o t h e s t h e ch a r a ct er s of S on of S Op hr on i s
d
r ,

cu s , A then i a n , C r eek, E u r op ea n , man , an i ma l, or g a n iz e bei n g , etc.

But
a n d t h es e n ot o ni
h e se ch a a ct e s a r e n ot a ll e qua pr o ma t e
s, t
i mme di a t e ; some a re on ly g ive n in a n t hr oii gh ot er s T us
t h e ch a r a ct e r A then i a n is a ppli ca b l e t o S ocr a e s o n
r

in a n t o ug
r ,

d
t ly
lly
h
i

dh ly h
h .
x

an d
th a t of S on of S Op hr on i s cu s t h e ch a r a ct er of G r eek on in

d t h r o ug h t h a t of A th en i a n t h e ch a r a ct er o f E u r op ea n o n ly
in a n t h r o ug h th a t of G r eek a n s o fo r th ; in oth er w or d s S o c
,

,
-

d
,

, ,

r a t e s is a n A t h e n i a n o n ly a s t h e s o n o f S O hr o n iscus o n ly a G eek r
p ,

a s a n A t h e n i a n o n ly a E u o e a n a s a G r e ek o n ly a ma n a s a E ur o
p ,
r ,

p ea n o n ly a n a n i ma l a s a ma

ma l .
, o n ly a n or a n iz e d b e i n
g
T h o se ch a r a ct er s t h er e fo r e th a t a e g i v e n in a n
,
n
g a s a n an i
,

th r o ug h
o t h e r s s t a n d t o th e s e o t h e r s in t h e r e l a t i on of p a r t s t o wh o l e s ; a n
,
r d d
,

it is o ly o n t h e pr i n ci pl e P a r t o f t h e p a t is a pa r t o f t h e w h o l e
n r ,

d
th a t t h e r e mot er pa t s a r e t he pa t s o f t h e pr i ma y wh ol e T h u s
r r r .
,

s on of S op hr on i s cu s a n d
if w e kn o w t h a t t he i n i v id ua l S ocr a tes co mpr e h e n d s t h e ch a r a ct er
th a t t he ch a r a ct er s on of S op hr on is cu s
,

c ompr e h e n d s t h e ch a r a ct e r A then i a n we a r e th e n w a r r a n t e d in
s a yi g t h a t S ocr a tes c o mpr e h e n d s A then i a n
n in o th er w o d s t ha t ,
r ,

S ocr a tes is a n A then i a n T h e e x a mpl e h e r e t a ke n is t o o s i mpl e t o

.

s h o w in w h a t ma n n e r o ur n o t i o n s a r e o i g i n a lly e v o l v e d o ut o f t h e

mo e co mpl ex i t o t he mo r e s i mpl e a n t h a t t h e pr og e s s of s ci e n ce
r n , dr

is n o t hi n g mo r e t h a n a pr o g r e s s i ve u n fo ldi n g i n t o di s t i ct c o s ci o us n n

n e s s o f t he v a r i o u s e l e me n t s co mpr e h e n d e d in t h e ch a r a ct e s o r i g i r ,

n a lly k n o w n t o u s in t h e i r v a g u e o r c o n fus e d t o t a li t y .

I t is a fa mo u s q u e st i on a mo g phil os oph e s -Wh e t h e r n o ur r ,

k o w l e d g e co mme n ce s w i t h t h e g e e r a l o r wi t h
g d t h e i di v id u a l

n n

t m my
c on
f
v re ar

w h e th e r c hild
n r e n r st e m l o y
p
,

mg t h P m m C g m
.

e ri u o

co mmon o r r s t e mpl o y pr o pe r n a me s I n t hi s
tu m .
, , .

con t o v e r s y t h e r e a s on e s h a v e s e v e r a ll y pr o v e d
r ,
r

t h e o ppo s i t e O pi n i o n t o b e u n t e n a b l e ; b ut t h e q u e s t i o n is a t on ce

l d b h w i h hi d i i i h i h t
d
s o v e s o t a t a t t t u e t a u
y g o
p n n o n s e r v
r o r ,
z .
,

kn o w l e d g e co mme n ce s wi t h t h e co n fuse d a n co mpl e x w hi ch a s , ,

r eg a d e d i o n e o i n t of v i e w o
p i th r ma a ily b m i t k
r n n a n o e y e s e sr a e n ,

e i t h e r fo r t h e i n di v id ua l o r fo r t h e e n er a l T h e di s cu ss i o o f t hi s n
g , .

r ob l e m b e l o n g s h o w e v e r t o P s y ch o l o y n ot t o L o i c I l
p , g , g t i s s u f ,
.

ci en t t o s a y in g en er a l th a t a ll obj e cts a e pr esen t e d t o us in

,
r

1 S ee L ect ur es E D
on M etap hy si cs , l . x x x vi . , p 493
. seq . .
L EC T . XIL L O GIC 1 57

c ompl e x i t y ; th a t we a r e a t r s t mor e str uck with t he po i n t s of

d
r e s e mb l a ce t h a n wi t h t he p o i n t s o f c o n t r a st ; th a t t h e e a r li e s t n o
n

d
spo n d
ti on s a n con s e que n t ly t he e a r li e st t e r ms a r e t h ose t h a t cor r e
, ,

t o t hi s s y n t h es i s whil e t h e n o t i on s a n
,

t h e t er ms a r i s i n g
,
,

fr o m a n a n a ly s i s of t hi s s y n th esi s i n t o it s pa r t s a r e o f a s ub s e q ue n t ,

for ma t i on But th oug h it b e for e ig n t o t h e pr ovi n ce of L og i c t o

.

d ev el op t he hi st or y of t hi s pr o ce d ur e ; y et a s t hi s pr o ce d ur e is ,

n a t u a l t o t h e h uma n mi d L o i c mu s t co n t a i n t he fo m b y w hi ch r
r
g n ,

p l e an d
it is r eg ul a t e d I t must n ot on ly e n a b l e u s t o r e a son fr om t h e sim
g e n e r a l t o t h e co m l e x a
p
.

i n di v id u a l ; it mu s t li ke wi s e d
d n , ,

d
e n ab l e u s t o r e v e s e t h e p oce ss a n t o r ea s o n fr o m t h e compl e x
d d
r r ,

an i n di vid ua l t o t he si mpl e a n t he g e e r a l A n t hi s it d o e s b y
d
n .

th a t r el a t i on of n ot i on s a s co t a i n i n g a n con t a i n ed g i ven in t he n ,

u a n t i t y of compr e h e n s i on T h e n a t u r e of thi s r e a s o n i
q .
g ca n n

i n d ee d on ly b e sh ow n wh en w e c o me t o tr e a t ,

I C mp h i o f s yll o i s m ; a t pr e s e n t I o n ly r e u est t h a t
n o re
g
en s o n ,
q ,

d
fh i mg will a r in mi n d t h e r e l a t i o n s o f I n v o lu
2 t i on a n C oor di n a t i on in whi ch n ot i on s st a n d
b
e n vo n 0 ?
y o u e
th c

simpl e. t o e a ch o th er in t h e w h o l e o r q ua n t i t y o f co m
r e h e n si on I n t hi s u a n t ity t h e i n v o l v i n no
p q g
.

ti on or wh ol e is t h e mo r e compl ex n o t i on ; t he i n v o l v e d n o t i on or
p
d
a t is t h e mor e s i m l e
r
p T h
d d
u s p ig eon a s c ompr e h e n di n g bi r
. d ,

dd ,
- d
d
bir a s co mpr e h en di g f ea ther e f ea ther e a s compr e h e n di n g wa r m
n

bloo e wa r m bloo e a s compr e h e n di n g hea r t wi th f ou r ca vi ti es

,

hea r t wi th f our ca vi ti es a s co mpr e h e n di n g br ea thi n g wi th lun g s a r e

s ev e r a lly t o e a ch o t h er a s n ot i o n s i n v o l v i n g a n i n v ol v ed A g a i n d .
,

n o ti o n s in t h e wh o l e of co mpr e h e n s i o n a e co r di n a t e d w h e n t h e y
, ,
r o

d s t a n d t og e t h e r a s c on s t i t uti n g p a t s o f t h e n o r

d d
C i ti i C m
oo r na
ti
on
o n in w hi ch t h e y a r e b oth i mme di a t e ly com
n o

d
p h i

d
re en s on .

r eh e n d e d T h us t h e ch a r a c t e r s ovip a r ou s a n
p .

wa r m bloo e ,
hea r t wi th
f br ea thin
g yb
our ca vi ti es , a n
lu n
g s , a s

a ll

no ti
i
d
di t ly
mme
on
ti i
hi
bir t
a

lly
,
e

d
id d
h i
co n r b u t n

a r e , in t
g t o m a ke u

s r e s pe c , s e v e r a
p t h e c

co n s
o m pr

er e
e e n s on of t h e

a s it s co O r i
'

d
t
na e
p
di d
h h t
ar t s. l ti
T l i
es e c a r a c er s a r e n o t re a ve an co r r e a t v e n ot

c t i i
d h i i l which
con t a n e F or w e a r o us a n ma
on a n n an a v e ov
g .
p s

ar e w n ot l d d l d d i l whi h
ar m-b oo e ,
an w a r m-b oo e an ma s c ar e n ot

d
ov i p a r o us i li
. hA ga w l d dn, it is t r ue , I b e e v e, t at a ll ar m-b oo e an i

ma
an dl h
th t
s h t with f ave

i l ih
a
iti
hh a ll a n
i l
ea r

th l
s

d
ma
ti l
s w t
o ur ca v

su c
es

ear ts
( t w o a ur c e s a n

b r ea e by
t wo
un g s a n
v en r c es

n ot
)
by
,

d d
gill s. th hi
But h i h
en , th t
in t s ca s e , we a ve n o r
g t t o s up
po s e a t he

d h d thi d
t h h h d h mpr e
r s of t e se c a r a ct e r s co en s t he s e co n ,
an t at the sec

on co mpr e h lden lly il d

s the r . F or w e s ou be e
q u a en t t e to
a ss er t that
, a ll a n i ma l s b r ea thi n g b y l un g s posse s s e d h ea r t s of four
1 58 L O G I C LE CT XII

d
. . .

ca v iti es an th a t a ll a n i ma l s wit h such h e ar t s ar e w a r m b l o o d ed

,
- .

an d
T h e y a r e t h us t h o ug ht a s mut ua lly t h e c on diti o n s of e a ch o t h e r
whil st w e ma y n ot k ow t h e ir r e ci pr o c a l d epen d en ce t h e y a r e
n

h o w ev er co c e i v e d b y u s a s on a n e q ua l fo oti n g of coor din a ti o n

n
, ,

.
, ,

d
( T hi s a t l ea s t is t r u e o f t h e t w o a t t r i b ut e s hea r t wi th f ou r ca vi ti es

an br ea thin g by lu n g s ; for t he se mus t b e v i e w e d a s co or di n a t e ;

,

t h e a t t i b ut e of wa r m bloo e
r an

c ompr e h e n di n g it ) O n t hi s I g i ve y ou t he fo ll owi n g pa r ag r aph

.
d
dd
b ut t a ke n t og e t h e r th e y ma y b e v i e w e d a s j oi n t ly n e ce ssi t a t i n g
,

th er efor e ma y b e v i ew e d a s
-
, , ,

l XL V ti on s c oor di n at e d in t h e wh ol e of compr eh en
. N o

si on a r e in r es e ct of t h e di scr i mi a t i n
d p g
, ,
n

ch a r a ct er s di ffer e n t with out a n i m il ar ity

X
f m
P 3 L V r f
f

y s , .

d
n a t i on of n o t i on s

T h e y a r e th us p r o ta n to ab s ol ut ely d i ffe r
\

C mo pr e h e n s i on , ,

d
,

en t ; a n a cc or di n ly in r o r i e ty a r e ca ll e d
g p p , ,

D i sp a r a te N oti on s (n oti on es i sp a r a to ) O n t h e o t h er h a n d e .
,

n ot i on s c o or di n a t e d in t h e a n t ity or wh ol e of e x t e n si on a r e
'

q u , ,

in r efer e n ce t o t he obj e ct s b y th e m di s c r i mi n a t e d di ffer e n t (or ,

di v er se) ; b ut a s w e h a v e s een th ey h a v e a lw a y s a common

, ,

d
a t t r i b ut e o r a t t r i b ut e s in w hi ch th e y a r e a li ke T h us t h e y a r e .

o n ly r e l a ti v e ly di ffe r en t ( or di v e s e ; a n

d
) in l o i ca l l a n u a e
g
a r e pr ope r ly c a ll e d D i u n ct or D i scr ete N oti on s n oti on es
sj
is cr etae) l
(
g g
i s
r ,

,
d ,

j un ette, .

1 [D r ob isch , L ogik, 23 , 24 . C f F ischer , L ogik, 5 49 et

. seq .
]
 LECT URE XI I I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N II .
- O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

II A P O P H A N T IC
.
, OR T HE D O C T RI N E O F JU D G M E N T S .

JU D G M E N T S T H E I R N A T U RE . AN D D IV I SIO N S .

H t er mi n a t e d t he D oct r i n e of C on cept s w e n ow pr o c ee d
A V IN G

t o t he D oct r i n e of J ud g me t s C o n cept s a n J ud g me t s a s I
n . d ,

n ,

f J d
o i g i a lly s t a t e d a r e n ot t o b e v i e w e d a s t h e
r n ,
D t i
r e s ul t s o f di ffe r e n t O e r a t i on s fo r e v e r y co n ce t
oc r n e g o u

m t p p , ,

d
en s .

a s t he r o d uct o f s o me r ece di n a ct of C o m
p p g
a r i s on is in fa ct a j ud me n t e d a n r a t i e d in a s i n B u t i
p , g g xn .

d d
c on se ue c e of thi s a c u i r e d m n e n ce c on c e t s a ffo r d t h e r ea t
q n
q p er a p g ,

me a n s fo r a ll s ub se q u e n t c o mpa i son s a n j ud g men t s a n a s t hi s r ,

n e w fo ms t h e i rr i n ci a l l t i i t b eh ov e d fo r co n v e n i e n ce
p p r e a o n r , , ,

th r o wi n g o ut of v i ew t h e i r o r i gi n a l g en e a l og y t o c o n sid e r N ot i on s
a s t h e r s t pr o d uct of t h e U n d e r s t a n di n
g an a s t h e c on diti on s o r d ,
,

e l e me n t s of t h e s eco n d A con c e pt ma y b e v i e w e d a s a n i mpli cit

.

o r un d e v e l o pe d j ud g me n t ; a j ud g me n t a s a n e x pli ci t o r d e v e l ope d

c on c ept But we must n o w d es cen d t o a r ti cula t e st a t e me n t s

. .

1T XL V I
J ud g e . T o is t o re cog n iz e t he
r e l a t i o n Of c on r ue n ce o r o f c on ict io n in
X d whi ch t wo con c e ts t wo i n div id ua l t hi n s
g ,

d
P ar . L V I . Ju g
m en w t, - hat. p g , ,

or a c on cep t a n a n i n di v id u a l co m a r e d
p
v
,

t og et h er s t a n d t o e a ch ot h er T hi s r ecog n i t i on co sid er e d a s
n

d
r
,

a n i t e n a l co n s ci o usn ess is ca ll e d a J u g men t M

( y w p m
,
.

d ,
n

os o r oc a i

K 6 j u i ci um)
9,

a P r op os i t i on or P r e i ca ti on
g g
wp f S d
co n s id e r e d a s e pr e s s e d in l a n u a e it is ca ll e d

W
x

r a o tg
,

t d '
C T
'
L a
,

l T h e ver b Icpfvew , t o j d d
j d
u g e, a n still mo r e 2 [A r ist otle u ses t h e te r m u p d
r a rn s me r ely

d t i ve , KpfO l S , men t , for t h e pr emis e of a sy l l og ism , e speci a ll y t h e

d
t he
'
s ub st a n a r e r a r ely

d
u g

use b y the G r e ek s
( n e ver b y A r ist otl e ) j
ma o r ( he h a s n o o t h e r w or for p r emise ) ;
as tech n i ca l t er ms of L o g ic or P sy ch ol og y . wh er eas 7r 64>a w s h e empl oy s a lwa y s for a n
160 L OGIC L E C T XH I

d
. .

'

p ro
p os i ti o, p ce
r i ca ti o, p r on un ci a tum, en un ci a ti o, e a tu m pr o ,

f a tu m, a wi o ma ) .
1

A s a j ud g me t l ti on it n e cessa r ily i mpli es a pl ur a l

n s uppos e s a r e a ,

it y of t h o ug h t s b ut c o n v e r s e ly a pl u a li t y o f
.
, r

mp l d J d
F P li t iX W Wh t h h d e s n o t n e ce s s a r ily i mply a j ud me n t
a
f
a o
f ie
t o
in
u g t s
u
o
g .

is i g
T h e t h o ug h t s w h o s e s ucce s smn i s d e t e mi n e d
m ent r

d
.

b y t h e me r e l a ws o f A s so ci a t i o n a e t h o ug h , r ,

ma n i fes t e d in pl ur a li t y in r e l a t i o n a n c on s e q u e n t ly in con n e ct i on
,

d , , ,

d ,

n ot h o w e v e

d
so elat e d a n r,s o con n e ct e d a s t o co n st i t ut e a j u
r
, g
me n t T h e t h o ug h t s w a ter i r on a n r u s ti n g ma y fo ll ow e a ch
.
, , ,

o t h e r in t h e me n t a l t r a i n ; t h e y ma

s i mul t a n e o us a ct o f c o sci o usn es s a n

y e v e
g
d
n b e v i e w e d t o e t h e r in a

d
t hi s w i t h o ut o ur co n s id e i n g
n ,
r

t h e m in a
or d a ct o f C om a r i s o n a n
pn w i t h o u

i sj oi i n g t h em in a n a ct o f j ud g me n t But w h e t wo o r mo r e
n
t t h e r e fo e c o j oi i n g ,

.
,

n
r ,
n n

d
t h o ug h t s a e g i v e n in c on s ci o u s es s t h e r e is in g e n e r a l a n e n d e a v or
r n ,

t di h m d l l i
d
on o u a t r i t t e a t o n o f c on
p o s c o v e r r n e a n o e v e o
p a r ,

g r u e n ce o o f co n ic t io n r
; t h a t is w e e d e a v o r t o n o u t w h eth er
,
n

t h es e t h o ug h t s will o r w ill n ot co i cid e ma y o r ma y n o t b e n

d d
bl e d ed i t o o n e
n I f t h e y coi cid e w e j ud g e w e e n o un c e t h e i r
n . n , , ,

co n u e ce rr c o m a t i b ili t y ; if t h e y n o t c o i n cid e w e j u e we
g o
p n o g , ,

d d
e n o un ce t h e i r c o n ict io n o r i n co m a t i b ili t y T h u s if w e co mpa r e
, p .
,

an co d
t he t h o ug h t s wa ter i r on a n
e ct t h e m i t o a s i
nn

in th a t ca se w e fo m a J u g me t
g l
r u s ti g n ,

d
t h e m co n g u e n t

e t h o ug h t t h us w a ter r u s ts i r on

r
n n
,

n .
2
n

,
,
r

,
,

d
But if t wo n o ti o n s b e j ud g e d co n g ue n t in o t h er w o r d s b e c o r , ,
n

d
a s o e t hi s t h e i r u n i t y ca n o ly b e ea l

d d i e in co sci ousn ess i n a smuch a s o e of t h es e

ce iv e n ,
n r

c it i on on un er
n
z n ,

id
wh i h ti
c no on s a r e con
n o t i on s i s V e w e d a s a n a t t i b ut e o r d e t e r m a i r in
s aer e g t co n r u en .

ti on of t he o t h e r F o r on t he o e h a n d it is .
,
n ,

dd
i mpo ssi b l e for us t o t hi n k a s o n e t wo a t t r ib ut es t h a t is t w o t hi g s , ,
n

v i e w e d a s d e t e r mi n i n et n eith e d e t e r mi i n g o r q ua li fyi n g n
g an y ,
r

d
t h e o t h e r ; n or o n t h e o t h e r h a , t w o s ubj e ct s t h a t is t w o t hi g s n , , ,
n

d
th o ug h t a s d e t e r mi n e d a n y e t n e it h e r of th e m d e t er mi e d o r qu a l n
,

d
ie b y t h e o t h e r F o r e a mpl e w e ca n ot t hi n k t h e t w o a t t i
. x ,
n r

b ut e s electr i ca l a ola r a s a s i l e no t i o u l es s w e con v e t t h e n r

p g n n n,

d
o n e o f t h e s e a t t i b ut e s i t o a s ubj e ct t o b e d e t e r mi e d o r u a li e d b y
r n
q n

t h e ot h e r : b ut if w e o if w e s a y wha t i s electr i ca l i s p ola r w e , , ,

a t o n ce r e d uce t h e d ua li t y t o un i t y we j u d g e th a t p ola r is o n e o f ,

e n un cia t ion dd
c on s i er e n ot a s mer ely sy l l o I p 868
. . . O rg a n on P a cii , pp . 240 ci s eq . ,

g ist ic S ee A mmon i us , I n D e I n t erp r et , f 4 a

.

G r p 4 L a t F a cciol a t i , Ru imen t a L og ica , P

. . . . d
. . .

.
4 16 ,
1 By S t oics an d Ra mists .

ii . 0 . i p 59
. . . Wa it z ,
C ommen t a r i us in O r g a n on , 2 C f . K r ug , L ogi k, 61 . A n m . i p 1 49 , 1 50
. . .
 L E C T . XI II . L oG I c . 1 61

the it u e n t ch ar a ct er s of t h e n oti on electr i ca l or th a t wh a t is

co n st ,

electr i ca l is co n t a i n e d u n d e r t h e cl a ss of t hi n g s ma r ke d o ut b y t h e

co mmo n ch a r a ct e r of p ola r i ty

d
I n li ke ma n n e w e ca n ot t hi n k . r, n

t he t w o s ubj e ct s i r on a n mi n er a l a s a s i n g l e n ot i on un l e s s w e c o n ,

v e r t t h e o e o f t h e s ubj e ct s i n t o a n a t t r i b ut e b y w hi ch t h e o t h r is

d
n e

d et er mi e d or q ua li e d ; b ut if w e o if w e sa y ir on i s a mi n
n , ,

er a l w e a a i n r e d u ce t he d u a li t y t o un i t y ; w e j ud g e t h a t on e o f t h e
, g
a t t i b ut e s o f t h e s ubj e c t i r on is t h a t it is a m i n er a l o r t h a t i on is
r , ,
r

co n t a i n e d u n d e r t h e cl a ss of thi n g s ma r ke d o ut b y t h e c o mmon

ch a a ct er of mi er a l
d
r n .

F o m w h a t h a s n o w b ee n s a id it is e v id e n t t h a t a j u g me n t

A j d
r

gm t u m t
mu s t c o t a i a
en
e
p r e ss t h e e n o t i o n s w hi ch
us
n n n
,

d x r , ,

t i th
c on a n ti
h o w e v er a s mut ua lly r e l a t i v e co n st i t ut e a n i n di
r ee n o on s .
, ,

v i s i b l e a ct o f t h oug h t I t mus t co n t a i n T he .
,

n o t i o n o f s o me t hi n g t o b e d e t e r mi e d ;

t hi g b y w hi ch a n o t h e r is d e t e mi n e d ; a n
n
T he n ot i o n o f s o me
A n o t i o n o f t he r
n

d ,

r e l a t i o n of d e t e r mi n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o T hi s will pr epa e y o u . r

t o un d e s t a n d t h e fo ll o w i n g pa r a g r a ph
r .

i XL V I I . T hat
hi ch in t he a ct of J ud g i n g w e thi k a s w , ,
n

t he d e t e r mi n e d o r q u a li e d n o t i on is t e ch ,

a ll e d
d d ectum t h a t wh i ch we t h i n k a s t he d et e r
n ica ll

X P ar
y
L V H
c t h e S
S ub
u b
j ec t ( b u s u b r o x et evov
,

d
j e ct , P r e i ca t e , an

C o p ul a g )

d d
.

mi n i n g o r q ua li fyi n g n o t i on t h e P r e ica te ,

d
( nKa r
y p n p r te ica tu m) ;
o o a t
evov, h r e l a t i o n o f d e t e mi a n e r n

t i o n r e c og iz e d a s s ub s i s t i n g b e t w e e t h e s ubj e ct a
,
n t he p e d n n r

ica t e is ca ll e d t h e C op ula
,

d
By A i s t o t l e t h e p e di ca t e i cl ud e s . r ,
r n

t h e c pul a ; an
f o m a hi t b y him t h e l a t t er ha s b y s ub s e
d
1
o ,
r n , ,

d m
d
u e t G e ek l o i c i a s b e e n s t l e d t h e A
q n
g r
y pp r e i ca te
( p
w
n , oo x a

y p iO app
Oi ar ce i ca tu m
l
ei/
) o v, T h e S u bj e ct a n P r edi ca t e o f a .
2

p pr o o s i t i on a r e

E x tr emes ( p
a f t e r A r i st ot l e

p 3
t o g
d
e t h e

a
r ca ll e d it s T er ms o
,

te mi n i ) ; a s a pr opo si t i o n is b y
him s o me t i me s ca ll e d a I ter va l ( S m m ) b e i n g a s it w e r e
n

n
ar a,

n
r
,

t d tt a
4
r

, , ,

a li e s t e t ch e d o u t b e t w e en t h e e t r e me s o r t e ms
n r We ma y x r .
,

t h e e for e a r t i cul a t e ly d e e a j ud g me n t o r
r ,
n

t he p o d u ct of t h a t a ct in whi ch w e pr on o
r

d d
dd
d
1m m
d d
1 S ee D e , c. 3, wh er e th e phua , or to t he p r e ica te
en ote of a p r op osition , see

d
ve r b , i n cl u t he i ca te a n cop ul a
A mmon i us , 0 11 D e I n t ern P 1 1 0, b e A l
es pr e
~ .
,

d
S e e b el o w , p 1 62 E D
d
u n ite .
E D .
V e n et .
, 1 54 6 .
[ F or . . .

is t in ct i o n see Bl emmi a s
-
2 S D I n terp r eta t ion s , c 1 0, 4 0 1 04 , t he o r ig in of t his

d
ee c . ,

d
s o
r b go r u
7
p{7 0y
v Ka T ny p o T al, an ( a fte r A r ist ot l e ), L og ica , p .

dd d
wh ich ma y
d 1 1, 4 E
ex pr essi o n to be t r a ce th e s ch o 3 A n a l P r i or . . . . D .
,

d
l as t ic ist in ctio n b e tw een s ecun i an t er z ii a
4 A na l . P r ion I 1 5, 1 6 , 25 E D
' ,
. . .

la cmtls F o r t he t er m '
n a n yopovy euoy

r r
.
po
162 L O G I C L E C T XI II
d
.
. .

n ot o n s i
h oug ht a s subj e c t a n a s pr edi ca t e t he on e d o e s o r
t ,

d o e s n o t con st i t ut e a pa r t of t he o t h e r e i t h er in t he qua n tity ,

of E x t e n s i o n o r in t h e q ua n t i t y of C o m r e h e n s i o n
,p .

T h us in t he pr opo si t i o n , i r on i s ma g n eti c, w e h a v e i r on fo r t he

I l l us tr a t ion
S ubj e ct , ma g n eti c for t he P r e di ca t e, a n
s ub s t a n ti v e v e r b i s for t h e C o ul a
.

I
t he
n r e ar d t o
d
p g .

thi s l a s t it is n ecess a r y t o sa y a fe w w or d s
, I t is n ot a l w a y s t he .

d
ca s e t h a t in p o po s i t i o n s t h e co pul a is e x pr ess e d b y t h e s ub s t a n t i v e

dd
r
,

v e r b i s or es t a n t h a t t h e c opul a a n
, p r e di ca t e s t a n d a s di s ti n ct

w or d s I n a dj e cti v e v e r b s t h e c opul a a n pr e dic a t e c o l e sce a s in

. a ,

t h e pr o po s i t i o n th e s u n s hin es s ol lu cet whi ch is e q ui v a l e t t o the

, , ,
n

s u n i s s hi n i n g s ol es t lu cen s I n e x i s t e n t i a l pr op o s i t i o s t h a t is
, . n , ,

t h o se i whi c h me r e e x i st en ce is pr e di ca t e d t he s a me h o ld s g o o d
n ,
.

d
F o r wh en I s a y I a m E g o s um t h e a m or s u m h a s h e r e a fa r
hi g h er a n mor e emph a t i c i mpo t t h a n t h a t of t he mer e copul a or
li n k of co n e ct i o n F or it ex pr e ss e s I a m ex i s tin g E g o s u m ex i s t
n .
,

r
,

, ,

en s I t mig h t s ee m th a t in n eg a t i v e pr o po s i t i on s wh e t h e co pul a
.
, ,
n

is a ffe ct e d b y t h e n e g a t i v e pa ti cl e it is co n v er t e d i n t o a n o n r ,

copu l a

d
But if w e t a ke t h e w o r d cop ula in a wid er me a n i n g fo r
.
,

t h a t t h r o ug h whi ch t h e s ubj ect a n p r e di c a t e a r e co n n e ct e d in a

mut ua l r e l a t i on it w ill a pply n ot o ly t o a f ma t i v e b ut t o n eg a t i v e

n o t o ly t o c a t e o r i ca l b ut t o hy o t h e t i c a l a n
n
g p
,

di sj un ct i v e o os i
p p
n r

d ,
r
,

ti on s
d
I ma y n o ti ce t h a t p opo s i t i o s wi t h t h e s ubj e ct p e di ca t e
1
. r n ,
r ,

C o pu l a a ll t h r e e a r t i cul a t e ly e x pr e ss e d h a v e

d
d
an , ,

T hi d A d
d
P p it i
ro f th
os on s o e
b ee n ca ll e d b y t h e sch o o l me n t h o s e of t h e th i r
r j t a cen

d
.

a j a cen t (p r o os i t i on es
p t er t i i a i a cen ti s , or ter tii

a j ecti ) i n a s mu c h
,
as th e y ma n i fe s t ly co n t a n i t h r e e pa r t s . T hi s is
a b a r b a r ou s ex
p r es s o n i fo r wh a t t he G r ee ks, a ft e r A i
r s t o t e, l ca ll e d

ddi
' '
r
pm cio u s
-
ex r
p t r ov
( g -
on
) Ka r
ny p

o ov
u evov. F o r t he sa me r e a so n ,
p ro
p

dd id will
w it h t h e
os it io n s

copu a l an
p re ca t e in on e , w er e ca ll e d t h o se
2
of t he s econ a j a cen t .

Wh
d l ive
d

at ha s n ow b een sa .
en ab e
y ou t o p e r ce h o w fa r
t j d i id e a ho w f ar m
d
j d h y di
con cep s an u en t s co n c n
g ,

c o n c ep t s
ffe O n t h e o n e h a n d t h e y co i cid e i t he
u '
g an
t e r. ,
n n

i idd
m t

d
en s, h wf th y o ar e

co n c d ime r
e an
f oll o wm
g r es ect s : I
p .
t h e st
pl a ce t h e co n c e pt n r ,

an t h e j ud g me n t a e b ot h p o d u ct s ; t h e o n e t he r r

p r o d uct o f a r e mot e t h e o t h er t h e
p r o d u ct o f a i m
,
m e di a t e a ct o f n ,

c o mp a i s o n I n t h e se co n d pl a ce in b o t h a n obj ect is d e t e mi n e d
r .
, ,
r

b y a ch a r a ct er o r a tt i b ut e F i n a lly in t h e t hi r d pl a ce in b o th
r .
, , ,

1 K r ug , L og ik, 52 ; A m , ii , pp 1 53 -4
n . . . . S ch ul z e , L og ik, p 74 ; C . r ak a n th or pe , L og ica ,
ED [ C omp a re Ba ch ma n n , L og i k, p 1 27 ;
. .
pp .

2 S ee a b o ve, p 1 61 ,
. n ot e 2 . ED .
L E C T . XI I I . L O G I C . 1 63

thi n g s r e l a t i ve ly di ffer en t in e x i s t e n ce a r e r e d uc e d t o a r e l a t i ve
id e t i t y in t he un i t y o f t h o ug ht O n t he ot h er h a n d t h e y diffe r in
n .
,

t h e fo ll o wi g r e spect s : I n t h e r s t pl a ce t h e d e t e r mi a t i o n o f a n
n ,
n

obj ect b y a n a t t r i b ut e is fa r mor e e x pr ess in t he j ud g me n t

t h a n in t h e co ce pt ; fo r in t h e o n e it is d e v e l ope d in t he o t h e r
n , ,

o n ly i mpli e d I n t h e s eco n d pl a ce in t h e co n ce pt t h e u i t y o f
.
,
n

t h o ug h t is fo un d e d o n ly o n a s i mil a r i t y o f q ua li t y ; in t h e j ud g me n t ,

d
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d it is fo un d e d on a s i mil a r i t y o f r e l a t i o n F or i . n
,

t h e n o t i on a n o bj ect a n
on e ,
, it s ch a r a ct e r s ca n o n ly b e co n ce i v e d a s
i n a s much a s t h e y a e co g ue n t a n ot con ict iv e fo t h us r n r n d ,
r

o n ly c a n t h e y b e u i t e d i n t o o n e t o t a l co n ce t
pn

dB u t i
men t a s a subj e ct a n p e di ca t e a e n o t n e ce ss a r ily t h oug h t un d e r a
,
n t he j u g

r r
.
,
(

s i mil a i t y o f q u a li t y t h e j ud g me n t ca n co mpr e h e n d n o t o n ly con

d
r ,

r ue n t b ut li ke w i s e con ict iv e a n e n co t r a di ct o r y n o t i o s ; fo r
g , e v , n ,
n

t w o co n ce pt s whi c h a e co mpa e d t og e t h e r ca n b e r e co g n iz e d a s r r

s t a n di n g in t h e r e l a ti on

S uch is t he s a men e s s a n
ud g me n t

e i t h e r o f c on
g u en ce o r

s uch is t h e di v e r s ity
o f p g
d
r e u n a n ce

o f co n ce pt a n
,
r

,
d
.

j .

We h a v e th us seen t h a t a j udg men t or pr opos i t i on con sis ts o f

n o t i o n o f a pr e di c a t e a

a s d e t e r mi n e d a n d d
th r ee pa r t s or co r e l a t i v e n o t i o n s t h e n oti on o f a s ubj e ct t h e
r

t h e n o t i o o f t h e mut ua l r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e
d e t e mi i g
,
n

r n n
,

n
,

d
J ud g men t s ma y I t hi k b e pr i ma r ily di v id e d in t w o wa y s
, n ,
t he ,

Jd
di vi s i o n s b e i n g d e t er mi n e d b y t he g e e a l e n r

d i id ed
d
gm t
u h w
e n d e n ci e s i n wh i ch t h e i r c o m o n e t a t s st a d
e n s, o

v .
p p p n r n

t o e a ch o t h e r a n t h e c l a sses a ffo r d e d b y ,

d
t h e s e di v i i o n s wh e n a g a i n co n s id e e d w i t h o u t di st i ct i o in t h e
d
s , r n n,
,

iffe e n t poi n t s o f v i e w g i v e n b y Q ua t i t y Q ua li t y a n Re l a t i o
r n , ,
n,

will ex h a ust a ll t he poss ib l e for ms in whi ch j ud g men t s a r e ma i fe st e d n .

d
1T E V III . T h e r st g r e a t di s t i n ct i on of J ud g me n t s is t a ke n

d
fr o m t h e r e l a t i o n of S ubj e ct a n P r e di ca t e ,
X ci pr o ca lly w h o l e a n pa r t I f t he S ub
d _ d e ct or d et e mi n e d n o t on b e V i e w e d a s t h
P ar L V II I F ir st
as r e .

iv i s i on of Ju g
men
r i
j e

d
m
ts m C o p r eh e
G iv e an Eco n t a i n i n g w h o l e w e h a v e a n I t
x t en s i v e~ si ve o r ,
n en

d
C o mp e h e n s i v e pr opo si t i on ; if t h e P e di ca t e
r r

or e t e r mi n i g n o t i o n b e v i e w e d a s t h e con t a i n i n g w h o l e w e
'

n ,

h a v e a n E x t en s i ve pr opos i t i on .

t he
T hi s di st i n ct i on of pr oposit i o n s is foun d e d on t h e di st i n ct i on o f
ti i
t wo q ua n t es of co n c ep t s th e i r C o mpr e h e n s i on a n t h ei r ,
d
1 E sser , L og ik, i 56 , p 1 1 1 . .
1 64 L o G I c. L E C T Xin

d
. .

E x t e n s i on

E pl i t i th i
l ti on of subj e ct a n pr e di ca t e is con t a in e d
. T he
w i t hi n t h a t of w h o l e a
v i e w e i t h e r t he e t e r mi i
p
re a

a r t fo r w e c a n a l w a y s

o r t h e d et e mi e d d d n ,

x ca on ,
s
g n n r n

n ot i o a s t h e w h o l e w hi ch c o n t a i n s t he ot h er
sgg
f

l z
n .

d m C m
d
re l
T h e w h ol e h o w e v e r w h ich t h e s ubj e ct co st i n
an E x ten s o , ,

t tes a t h e wh ol e w hi ch t h e p e di ca t e con s t i
d
ce p t s. u ,
n r

a s s u bj e ct a
t ut e s a e i ffe e n t

d
b e i n g s ev e a lly d e t e mi e d
b y t h e o ppo s i t e q ua t i t i e s o f co mp e h e s i on a n of e t e n s i onn

e di ca t e n e ce s sa ily s t a n d t o e a ch o t h er i
,
r

t h
a
r

r
,

n d r

x
r n

n d
p n r e re r n

d
l a t i o n of t h e se i v e s e qua t i t i es it is ma n ife st ly a ma t t e r of i
n r n ,
n

di ff r e ce in so far a s t he me a i g is con ce n e wh et h er we v i e w
e n , n n r ,

d
t h e s ubj e ct a s t h e w h o l e o f co mpr e h e n s i o whi ch co t a i s t he pr e n, n n

ica t e o r t h e p e di ca t e a s t h e w h ol e o f e t e si o
,
r w hi ch co t a i n s x n n, n

t h e s ubj e ct I p o i n t o f fa ct in s i g l e pr o po s i t i o n s it is r a e ly a p
. n ,
n r

a e t w hi ch o f t h e t w o wh o l e s is me a t ; fo r t h e c o ul a i s es t
p r n
p n , ,

d
etc e u a lly d e n ot e s t h e o e fo m o f t h e r e l a t i o n a s t h e o t h e r
.
q , n r .

T h u s in t h e p o pos i t i o ma n i s tw o legg e t h e co pul a h e r e is

d
r n -
, ,

d
c o v e r t i b l e w i t h comp eh e
n s o r con ta i s i n i t fo r t h e p o po s i t i o
n n ,
r r n

m e a s ma n co n ta in s i n i t tw o leg g e ; t h a t is t he s ubj e ct ma n a s a n
n , , ,

d d
.

i t e ns i ve w h ol e o co mpl e x ot i o co mpr e h en d s a s a pa t t h e
n r n n ,
r

e di c a t e tw o le g e ai r o o s i t i o n ma n i s a bip e

dd
p r
g A g i n t he-
p p . n, t h e ,

copul a co r e sp on d s t o co ta i e

d
mou t t o ma n i s co ta i n e u er bip e
n
r u er for t hi s p o pos i t i o is t a t a
n

t h a t is t h e pr e di ca t e
n

bip e a s a n e t e n s i v e wh o l e o r cl a s s co n t a i n s un d e r it a s a pa t t h e
x
dd d
n

n
n ,

,
-
r

,
n

r
n

, ,

s ubj ect ma n But in po i n t o f f act n e i t h e o f t h e t w o pr o posi t i o s

.
, ,
r n

u n a mb i g u o u s ly s h o w s wh e t h e r it is t o b e v i e w e d a s o f a n i n t e n s i v e

o r o f a n e t e s i v e pur o r t n or in a s i n l e o os i t i o n is t hi s o f a y n
p x n
g p p r

mo me n t A ll t h a t can b e s a id is t h a t t h e o e for m of e pr essi on

.
,
n x

is b e tt e a cco mmo d a t e d t o e pr e s s t h e o n e ki n d of p op os i t i o
r x t he r n ,

o t h e r b e t t e r a cco mmo d a t e d t o e x pr e s s t h e o t h e r I t is o n ly w h e . n

r o o si t i o s a r e c o n n e ct e d i t o s yll o i s m t h a t it b e co m e s e v id e n t
p p n
g n ,

d
w h e t h e t h e s ubj e ct or t h e p e di ca t e b e t h e wh o l e in o r u d e r
r r n

w hi ch t h e ot h e r is con t a i n e d ; a n it is o ly a s t h us co s t i t ut i g n n n

t w o di ffe e t t w o c o t a st e d for ms o f r e a s o i n g fo ms t h e mos t

r n ,
n r ,
n ,
r

d
g e n e a l a s u d e r e a c h o f t h e s e e v e y o t h er is i cl u d e d
r , n

i st i n ct i o b e co mes n e ce ss a r y in r eg a r d t o con ce pt s a n p o po si
n
t h a t t he r n ,

d
d r

tio s n T he di s t i n ct i o
. of
p o pos i t i o n s i t o E t e si ve a n
n I n t en
r n x n

d
s i v e it i e e dl e ss t o s a r e fo e li ke w i s e t h e mo s t g e n e a l ;
,
s
y is n t h e , ,
r ,
r

a c co di ly i t is ro ly i s u b
n o di n a t i o n t o t hi s di s t i n ct i on t h a t
a n g , n n r

d
,

t he o t h e r di s t i ct i o n s o f w hi ch w e a e a b o ut t o t r e a t a e v a lid
n ,
r ,
r .

I n o w pr o ce e d t o t h e s e co n d di vi s i o o f J ud g me n t s an co m n ,

me n ce w i t h t he fo ll owi n g pa r a g r a ph
 L o G 16
v i

L E C T . XI II .
.

l X L I X T he se co n d di vi s i o n of J ud gmen t s is fo u d e d

n on

t h e di ffe r e n t m
.

d dd
o d e in w hi ch t he r e l a t i on
X X d of

d d
L I S
mi n a t i o n ma y
P ar e con
s ub s i s t b e t w e e n t he s ub
. .

et e i
i i io of Ju g_

d
v s n

of a T hi s
dd
m ts. C a t eg or i ca l e ct an re i ca t e
p ro
p osi t i o n
en
j p .

d
al, th e
an C on i t i on
m l
r e a t i on is ei t h er S i mp le O i C on i ti on a l

ddd
l a t t e r w h i ch i s y

ivi e in t o H ypo
(p p ro os i ti o mp lex , p r op os i ti o con i ti on
si

d t he fo r me i a lt e i n a t i v e, t h e pi op
t h et i ca l , D i sj u n ct i v e,
a li s
) O n
D n e mma t i c
.

an .

ll e d C a teg or i ca l ; o t h e l a t t er o s 1 t i o n i s ca
l
n ,

i n a smuch a s t he c on dit i on li e s e i t h e r in t he s ubj e ct o in t he

d
r

e di c a t e o r in b o t h t h e s ubj e ct a n p e di ca t e t h e r e a e t h r e e r r
p r , ,

s e c i es o f p o po s i t i o n I n t h e r s t ca s e t h e p o po s i t i o n is
r r
p .
,

H yp otheti ca l i t h e s eco n d D i sj u n cti ve in t h e t hi d D ilem

ma ti c or H yp otz i eti co
,
n

- d i sj un ctive
,

.
2
,
r

I s h a ll con s id er th ese d er ; a n
in th e i r or d ,
r st , C a t e g o r i ca l
of

d
o si t i o n s B ut h e r e it is r o e r , b e fo r e
p p o r .
p p p ro

Jd
c e e i g t o e x po un d w h a t
d e s i g a t e d b y t he
E plica t io n i l ca t e
f
is
'

n n

g l
o r i ca gm t u en s .
t e m ca teg or i ca l t o co mme n ce Wi t h a n e p l a a
T h t mww m ,
r ,
x n
e er g ca

t i o n of t h e t e r m i t s e l f T hi s w or d a s fa r a s n o w .
,

kn o w n w a s r s t e mpl o y e d b y A r i s t o t l e in a l o g i ca l s ig i ca t i o n
, I n .

h a v e a l r e a dy e pl a i n e d t he me a i g of t he t e m ca teg or y ; b ut y oux n n r
3

d
'
a e n ot t o s u
r
pp o s e t h a t c a te g or i ca l h a s a
y r e fer e n ce t o t he t e n n

s u mma
g ener a o f t he S t a i i t e
g B y A r i s t o t l e t he t e r m
my p s r . Ka o ix

is f e qu e t ly e mpl oy e d mo e e s pe ci a lly in t he b o oks o f t he P r i or

d
r n ,
r
'

A n a ly ti cs a in t h e s e b ooks a l o n e it o ccu s if I a m co r r ect in

,
n r ,

my e s t i ma t e e ig h t y se v e n t i me s N o w y o u will ,
-
.

d
I ig i t i
o b s e v e t h a t in n o s i l i n s t a n c e is t hi s w o d
ts s n ca on as
e
b y A i t tl
g r ,
n r

d
u se r s o e
li ed b i l e e x c e pt in o e u a mb i u o us
.

a
pp y A t o t g r s , n n

s i g n i ca t i o n t h a t is t he s i g i ca t io n o f ai r ma ti ve it is t h u s
d
, an ,
n

d
b y him use d a s a t e m co v e t i b l e w i t h m q O an as or
pp o se d n r an x s,

t o t h e t w o s y n o n y ms o f n e g a t i o n he i n di ffe e n t ly e mpl oy s
d
-
gh r
, in a a

u bs a pn C S u c h i s t h e me a n i r
g o f t he
c n O T e
'
T LK S.
4
n

d se ve t h a t i t ob t a n e d a t ot a lly d i ffer en t me a n
If m f
i g i
w o d i A r i s t o t e li c u a g e N o w y o u w ill o h
s ea n n n ?
r n s .
. ,

f h
ti n
'
vi r i g s o is iS C i
r i
pl _ es ,

d
in g in t he w i t i g s o f his di s ci pl es T hi s n e w r n .

dd
me a n i g it prob a b ly ob t a i e d f m T h e oph a st us t h e i mme i a t e
n n ro r ,

di s ci pl e o f A i s t o t l e fo b y h im a n E u e mus w e k o w t h a t it w a s
d
r r n
,

s o e m l oy e d ; i t hi n e w me a n i n i t w l i ly li d
p a n n s
g a s e x c u s v e a
pp e

is d
[ C a teg o r ica l h a
by G
dd b etter b e
i , L og ica , p 287, e
ca ll e d d A bs olute , 2

loc
C f
cit .
. K r ug L og ik,
, 57 .
E D .
[M oce n icua
as on e a sse n . . . S c h ul z e , L og l k, 4 5 , 52 , 6 0
O x on ; or P erf ect , as b y M oce n icu s , w h o h a s 3 S ee a b o ve , p 1.3 9 - E i)
. .

a ls o A bs ol ut e S e e C on t emp la t ion es P en p a tel icce ,

. 4 C ompa r e D iscuss ion s , p 1 52 E D . .

ii . 0 . 2 , p 39 . et s eq .
]
1 66 L oG i c LECT XII I
di t l
. . .

by a ll t he G r e ek it or s of the P er i pa t eti c phil osophy

an L at n ex
p os ,

i n fa ct b y a ll s ub s e que n
,
og i c i a n s wi t h o ut e x ce pt i o I n t hi s n .

d
s e co n d s i g i c a t i o n t h e t e m ca teg or i ca l a s a ppli e d t o a p o pos i
n ,
r , r

t ion e o t e s a j u d g me n t in w h i ch t h e p e di ca t e is s i mply a f r me d
,
n

d r

o r d e n i e d of t h e s ubj e ct a n in co t r a di st i n ct i on t o t h os e p opos i
t i on s w hi ch h a v e b e e n ca ll e d hyp otheti ca l a n i sj u n ctive
ch a g e o f s i g i ca t i o n t h e e is n o t hi n
,

I n t hi s
v er y r e
n

d
d .
r

d
n n r
g
T hi iff
s f
ma r ka b l e But it is a s i n gul a r ci r cumst a n ce
e r en ce o

d
.

d
s ig i t i
n t h i th
ca on n o

er t o ob s er ve
th a t t h o u h t h e A i s t o t e li c e m l oy me n t o f t h e
. g p
,
r

w o r d b e in e v e r y i n st a n ce a l t og e t h er cl e ar a n un
a mb i u o u s n o o n e e i t h e r in a n ci e n t o r in mo d e r n t i me s s h o uld e v e r
g , , ,

me a i g s ; a n n t hat i d
h a v e ma d e t he obs er va t i on t h a t t he w or d w a s use d in t w o di ffe r en t

d
t he o n e me a n i n g it w a s u se d e x cl us i v e ly b y
n
'

n
,

d
d
A r i st o t l e a n in t h e o t h e r e x cl us i v e ly b y a ll o t h e r l og i ci a n s I n
, .
,

i n d e e d t h a t t he G e ek co mmen t a to r s o n t he O r g a n on o in r efer
, r ,

e n ce t o pa t i cul a r
pa s s a es so me t i mes s t a t e t h a t
g r
m y p q i
,
s th e re ,
Ka o i

use d b y A i s t o t l e in t he si n i ca t i o n o f a r m a ti ve b u t in s o fa r
r
g ,

a s I h a ve b e e n a b l e t o a s ce r t a i n n o o n e h a s ma d e t he e n e r a l ob
g ,

s e r v a t i o n t h a t t he w or d w a s n e v e r a li ed b A r i s t o t l e in t he se n s e
, pp y
in w hi ch a l o n e it w a s u d e s t o o d b y a ll o t h er l og i ca l w i t er s n r So r .

much fo r t he me a n i n g o f t he t e m ca teg or i ca l ; a s n o w e mpl oy e d

for s imp le o a bs ol ute a
s e n s e di ffe e t fr o m it s o i i n a l a n
as o
pp
r ose d t o con i ti on a l it is us e d in a

A
,
n

r i s t o t e li c me a n i n
d d d r

r
g n
gr .

I n r eg a r d t o t h e n a t u r e o f a C a t eg or i ca l J ud g me t i t sel f; it is n

n ece s s a r y t o s a a l mo s t n o t hi n g F a s thi s
y or .
,

i lJ d
N t f C t g
a ur e o
j ud me n t is t h a t in whi ch t h e t w o t e ms s t a n d
a
g
a e or
r
ca gm t u en .

t o e a ch o t h er s i mply in th a t r e l a t i o n w hi ch
e v e y j ud men t i mpli e s t o t h e e x cl us i o n o f a ll e x t r i n s i c co n di t i on s
r
g , ,

d
it is e v id e n t t h a t w h a t we h a v e a l r e a dy s a id o f t he e s s e n t i a l n a t ur e
,

o f j u g me n t in g e n e r a l a ffo r d s a ll t h a t ca n b e s a id o f ca t e g or i c a l

j ud g me t s in pa r t i cul a r A ca t eg o i ca l p opo s i t i o is e x p ess e d in

,

r r n r
n .

t h e fo ll o w i n g fo mul ae A i s B o A i s n ot B I p o ce e d t h e r e fo r e
r -
,
r, . r , ,

t o t h e g e n u s o f pr opo s i t i o n s a s O ppo s e d t o c a t e g o i ca l vi t he r ,
- z .
,

C o di t i on a l C o n di t i o n e d
n T hi s g e n us a s st a t e d in t h e pa a
, .
,
r

r a h co m r i se s t wo s e ci e s a ccor di g a s t h e
d
n
g p p p , ,

J d c o di t i o n li e s mor e p o i ma t e ly in t h e s ubj e ct
II C it i l on on a
n r x ,
u gm t Th
en s. e se
o r in t h e pr e di ca t e t o w hi ch is t o b e a dd e d
co mp i t h r se
p i r ee S e c es . , ,

e i t h e r a s a t hi r d s ec i es o r a s a co mpo un d o f
p
t h ese t w o t h o se pr opo si t i o n s in w hi ch t h er e is a t w ofo ld co n di t i o n
, ,

t h e o n e b e l o n g i g t o t h e s ubj ect t h e o t h e r t o t h e p e di ca t e
n T he ,
r .

s t o f t h e s e a s st a t e d fo ms t h e cl a s s H ypo th e t i ca l t h e s e con d
r , ,
r ,

t h a t o f D i sj un ct i v e t h e t hi d t h a t o f D il e mma t i c p opos i t i o s
,
r I ,
r n .

ma y n o tic e by t he wa y th a t th er e is a g oo d d ea l of v a r i a t i on in
, ,
 L E C T XI I I L O G I C 1 67

d
.

d
. .

the t er ms C on
d
t he l a n g uag e of l og i ci an s g in re ar d to i ti on a l an

H yp o theti ca l Y w h t
di
. ou a r e a ar e t a con i ti on a li s ,

d
L a t i n , is mmon ly a pp
d hi
li d t l i
V a r ia t ion s in r eg a r
n co e as a r a n s a t on of

d
t o t he a pph ca t on f
{ mo e m}; in G r e ek ; an b y Bo et us, wh o w a s
d mm
t h e t e r ms C o n it ion a l
an H yp o t a mon g t he L a t n s who e a b or a t e t he
ca l , t h e r s i l d
l og ic a l d o ct r i n e of hy pot h eti ca l s t he t wo t er ms ,

a r e us e d con v e r t ib ly wi t h e a ch o t h e r By ma n y of t h e S ch o o l me n 1
.
,

t he g e n us a n d
h o w e v er t he t e r m hyp otheti ca l (hyp otheti cus ) w a s use d t o d e n ot e
,

d
t he t e r m con i t ion a l t o d e n o t e t he speci e s a n
,
fr o m , , d
c o m e d s of l o i c a n
p g n a mo n
g ,

Wh a t ely T hi s l a t t er usag e is wr on g I f e ith er t er m is t o b e use d

d
t h e m t hi s n o me n cl a t ur e h a s pas se d i n t o ma n y of t h e mor e mo d e r n
o t h e r s i n t o th os e of A ld r i ch a
, , d n

d .

d
in s ub or di n a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r con iti on a l a s t h e mor e e x t en s i ve , ,

co r in l
g y bd
t er m o ug h t t o b e a ppli e d t o d e s i g n a t e t h e g e n u s ; a n

e
,

e n e m l oy e d b y t h e b es t l og i ci a n s
p B
s o it h a s a o

ut t o
p a ss f o m . r

w o r d s t o t hi n g s .

I s a id th a t H ypot h e t i ca l pr opo s i t i on s a r e th ose i whi ch t h e con n

d
di t i on q ua lifyi n g t h e r e l a t i on b e t we e n t h e s ub
I H y p t h ti l o e ca
j cet a n p e di ca t e li e s pr ox i ma t ely in t he s ubj e ct
. .

r .

d
I n t he pr o pos iti on B i s A t h e s ubj e ct B is un co n di t i o n a lly t h o ug ht f

, ,

t o ex i st a n it t h us con s t i t ut e s a ca t eg o r i ca l pr oposi t i on
n
,

w e t hi k t h e s ubj e ct B e x i s ti n g o n ly co di t i o n a lly a n
co n di t i o n a l e x i s t e n ce e n u n ci a t e t h e j ud me n t w
But if
u n d e r thi s

e sh a ll h a v e t h e
n , d .

g ,

hypoth et ic a l pr oposit i on I f B i s A i s o r in a con cr e t e e x a m

"

, , ,

l R i w th i w t w th i t r i ca l r o osi t i on
p e a n
y ea er s e ea er s a ca e
g o
p p , ,

r a i n s i t w i ll be wet is a hy o t h e t i c a l hy h i l
If i t , p I n a , p o t e t c a
p po . r

o s it ion t h e o bj e ct s th o u ht s t a n d in s uch a mut ua l r e l a t i o n th at

g ,

t h e o n e ca n o n ly b e t h o ug h t in s o fa r a s t h e o t h er is t h o ug h t ; in
o t h e r w o r d s if w e thi n k t h e o n e

o th er .
,
w e must n e ce ssa il y t hi n k t h e
T h e y t h us s t a n d in t h e r e l a t i o n of Re a s on a n C o s e q ue n t
,

d
r

n .

F o r a r e a s o n is th a t w hi ch b e i n g a f r me d n e ce s sa ily e n t a il s t h e , ,
r

a f ma t i o n of s o me t hi n g e l se ; a co n se q u e n t is t h a t whi ch is o n ly
r

b e t w e e n r e a s o n a n co n se q ue n t is n e c e ssa r y d
a ffi r me d i n a s muc h a s s o me thi n g pr e v i o us is a fr me d T he r e l a t i o n
F o r a r e a s o n fo ll o w e d
b y n o t hi n g w o uld n o t b e t he r e a so n of a n y t hi n g a n a c on s e qu e t
.
.

d n
, ,

w hi ch did n o t pr o ce e d fr om a r e a so n w o uld n o t b e t he c o n s e q ue n t ,

o f a y t hi n

a r e a so n a n
gn A n hy p o t h
d
e ti ca l pr o pos i t i o n must t h e r efo r e c o n t a i n
.

it s c on s e que t a n it th us pr e s en t s t he a ppe a r a n ce o f
n ,
d , ,

t w o me mb e r s or cl a uses

t h e r e a s on
T he s t cl a use th a t whi ch co n t a i n s
is ca ll e d t h e A n tece en t a l so t h e R ea s on t h e C o i
.

d r

, ,
n d
1 C o mpa r e D is cuss ions , p 1 50 . . F or Boethius, see his t r ea tise D e S y llogi s mo H yp othetico, L .

i .
-E D .
 168 L O G I c L EC T XI II
d d
. . .

ti on , or th e H yp othes i s
t yp
h o the s i s , con i ti o, r a ti o, a n tece en s
,

i . e .
,
membr u m s i v e p r op os i ti o) ; t he s e co n d , w hi ch con t a i n s t h e con
se q ue n

t he T hes i s
t n e ces s

( co q
it a t e d
b y t hi s g r o un d , is ca ll e d th e C on seq u en t, a l s o
n s e u en s , thes i s , r a t ion a tum, con i ti on a tu m
) T he d .

g u e
l i
r e a t on

n ti a
) an i s e x pr e s s e d b
, yd
b e t w een t h e t wo
t h e p a r t i cl e s
if
th en s o ther ef or e e t c on t h e ot h e r whi ch a r e th e r efo r e ca ll e d t h e
.
on t h
l
ll ed t he C on s equ en ce ( con s e
c a us e s

e on e h a n d a n
is ca

,
d
, , , , , , ,

C o s ecu ti ve p a r ti cles (p a r ti cu lce con s ecu ti ve)

n T h e se a r e fr e qu en t ly 1
.
,

h ow e v e n ot for ma lly e x p esse d

r, r .

T hi s c on se que n ce ( if i s then i s ) is t he copul a in hy pot h e t ic a l

A h y p th t i l j d
r o os i t i o s ; f t h r ou h it t h e co n ce t s a r e
p p or
g n
p
o g e ca u
b r o u ht t o e t h e r s o a s t o make u i i u
m t t mp it
en no co g
os ge . p n c o s c o s , ,
n

n e s s b ut a s i n l e a ct o f th ou h t ; c o s e u e n t ly
g ,g q n ,

in it li es th a t s y n th e si s th a t co n n e c t i n whi ch c on st i t ut e s t h e hyp o
,
o ,

a p e a r d o ub l e a n
p m a
y b e c u t ,
i d
th e t i ca l j ud g men t A l t h oug h th e efor e a hypot h e t i ca l j ud g men t
.

n t o t wo di ffe n t j ud men t s
g
,

d
it
r

i s
,

re ,

n e v e r t h e l es s n ot a c o m o s i t e j u

a s i m l e a ct of t h o u h t in whi ch i
p g
p

t h e co n se q ue t a e th o ug h t a t o n ce a n
g m
f
en t

a
F
th
o

e
r it is r e a liz e d t h r o u h

n t he a n t e c e d en t a n
,

a s i s e a r ab l e T h e ro
g
d
.

d
n ,
d
n ,
r
p p p n .

o sit io n B s th en A i a n t a mo un t t o t h e o o s i t i on A

if i
, i s s t , p p
r , i s ,

th oug h B B ut t hi s is a s s i mpl e a n a ct a s if w e ca t eg o i ca lly

d
r . r

j ud g e d B i s A t h a t is B i s u n er A O f th ese t wo n e i t h er t he
0
, , .
,

on e I f the s u n s hi n es n or t h e o t h e r then i t i s ehi y

, if t h o ught

dd
a a r t f om t h e ot h e w ill co n s t i t ut e a j ud me n t b ut o n ly t h e t wo in
p r r,
g ,

c o j un ct i o n But if w e t hi n k T he su n s hin es a n i t i s a y
n .
, ,

e a ch b
y i t s

d
e l f; th e n t h e wh o l e c o n n e ct i o n b e tw e en t h e t w o t h o u h t s

is ab oli sh e d a n w e h a v e n ot hi g mor e t h a n t w o i s o l a t e d ca t eg o r i
ca l j ud g me t s
,

T h e r e l a t i v e s if a n then in w hi ch t h e l og i ca l s y n
n
n
g

dd
.
,

t h e si s li es co n s t i t u t e t h us a n a ct o e a n i n di vi s i bl e
,
n .

F o r t h e s a me r e a s o n a H ypo t h e t i ca l j ud g me n t c a n n o t b e con

,

ver te d i n t o a C a t eg o r i ca l F o r t he t h oug h t .
,
mb l mt
d
N w
A is thr oug h B is wh o lly di ffer en t fr o m t h e
o on v e e o
,
C t g i l

d dd d
a a e or ca .

th o ugh t A i s i n B T he j ud g men t I f G o , .

d d the j u g
i s r ig hteou s then w i ll the w i cke ,
be p u n i s he an ,

d
me n t A r ig hteou s C o p u n i s hes the w i cke a r e v er y di ffer e t ,
n ,

d
a l t h o u h t h e ma tt e r o f th o u ht is t h e s a me I t h f o me r j u
g g n e g . r

d
me t the p un i s hmen t of the w icke is vi e w e d a s a c o n se q ue n t of
n ,

d
w h e e a s t h e l a t t er con s id er s it is a n a t
the r ig hteou s n es s of G o r

tr ib ut e of a r ig h teous G o But a s t h e con se q ue n t is r eg a r d e d a s.

s o me t hi n g d e pe n d e t f o m t h e a tt r i b ut e o n t h e co n t r a r y a s some
n r , , ,

thin g i n h er i n g in it is fr om t w o wh olly di ffer en t poi n t s of vi e w

,

1 K r ug , L og ik, 5 57 , A n m 2 , p 1 69 E D
. . . .
 L E C T . X I II . L o Gi 0 1 69

tha t t he t wo j udg men t s a r e for med T he hy poth et i ca l j ud g me t . n ,

th er efo e A i s thr oug h B is e ss e t i a lly di ffe r e t fr om t h e ca t eg o i

d
r , n n r
,

ca l j ud g me n t A i s i n B ; a n ,t h e t w o j u d g me n t s a r e r eg ul a t e d b y
di ffer e n t fu d a me n t a l l a ws F or t h e C a t eg o r i ca l j ud g men t a s e x
d
n .

d
r es s i v e o f t h e r e l a t i o n of s ubj e ct a n t t i b t i d t m i d by
p a r u e s e er n e ,

t h e l a ws o f I d e n ti t y a n

p e s s i ve of t h e r e l a t i o n o f Re a s on a n
r

t h e pr i n ci pl e of t h a t n a me S o much for H y pot h e t i ca l s

d
C o n t r a di ct i o ; t h e H y po t h et i ca l a s e x
C o n s e que n t is r e g ul a t e d b y
.
1
n

.
,

d
D i sj u ct i v e j ud g me t s a r e t h o s e in w hi ch t h e co n di t i o n q ua lify

n n

in g t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t he s ubj e ct a n pr e di
2 D i j ti
. s un c ve .
ca t e li e s r o x i ma t e ly in t h e di t i t h
p p, e c a e a s e r ,
n

r o o s i t i o n D i s ei ther B o r C A I t hi l f j d m t
p p , o r n s c a s s o u
g e n , s a .

c e t a i pl ur a li t y of a t t r i b ut es is pr e di ca t e d of t h e s ubj e ct b ut in
r n
,

d
s uch a ma n n e r t h a t t hi s pl ur a li t y is n o t p r e di ca t e d c on j u ct ly b ut it
is o n ly j u g e d t h a t u n d e r co n di t i o s s o me o e a
o f t hi s b un dl e o f a t t r i b u t e s a
,

e r t a i s t o t h e s ubj e ct
o n ly s ome o n e

W h en I s a
n n ,
n d n ,

pp y n

th a t M u ur e ei ther B la ck or W
.

hi te or T a w y in t hi s pr opos i , ,
n ,

ti on n on e of t h e se th r e e p e di ca t e s is u con di t i o a lly a fr me d b ut
d
,
r n n

it is o ly a s sume d th a t on e or o t h er ma y b e afr me d a n t h a t a n y
n , ,

on e b ei s o a f me d t h e o t h e r s mu s t eo i s o b e d e n i e d
n r T h e a t t ri
g p , , , .

d
b ut es t h us di sj un ct i v e ly pr e di ca b l e of t h e s ubj e ct con st i t ut e t og e t h er ,

a ce r t a i n s h e r e or wh o l e o f e x t e n s i o n ; a n a t h a t t r i b ut e s mut u
p s e

a n d
a lly e cl ud e e a ch o t h e r th e y ma
x

co n s e q u e t n
y b
.
e r e a r d e d a s r e ci
g , p
A di sj un ct i v e pr o po s i t i on h a s t wo fo ms a cco di n g
o ca lly r e a s on

r
r

,
r

a s it is r e ul a t e d b a co n t a di ct y r b a c t a y i t i o
g y o y o n o ppr os n or ,
r r ,
.

B, -T hi s min er a l i s ei ther a meta l or n ot, a r e

B
'
A is e ither or n ot

ei ther lea d
e x a mpl e s o f t h e for mer ; A i s ei th er B, or C , or D ,

,
or ti n , or
T hi s min er a l i s
z l a t t e r T he o ppo
i n c, a r e ex a mpl es of t he .

s i t e a t t r b ut e s or ch a r a ct e s in a di sj u cti v e

dd d
i r o o s i t i o n a r e c a ll e d
p p r n

t h e D i sj u n ct Z lI ember s ( membr a . i sj u n cta ) ; a n t h ei r el at i on t o r

e a ch o t h er i s c a ll e d t h e D i s hi h li h
j u n cti on
( sji u n c t i o ) w c in E n
g s ,

is e x pr e s se d b y t h e r e l a t i v e pa r t i cl e s ei ther or ( a u t vel) in co n s e , , ,

q
(p
u

a r ti cu lce i sj u n cti v ee
) d
e n c e of whi ch t h e s e w o d s co n s t i t ut e t h e D i

I n
j
s u n c t i
r v e

r o os i t i o s o f t hi s cl a s s t h e co ul a
p p .
p a r ti

p
c le s

n
'

d
is fo me d b y ei th er i s
r or i s fo r h e r e b y t h e co n ce t s a r e b r o u h t
, p , g
t og e t h e r s o a s t o con s t i t ut e a s i n g l e o bj e ct of c o n sci o usn e ss a n ,

d
t h u s a s y t h e si s o r u n i on of n ot i o n s is e ffe ct e d

n .

N o w a l t h o ug h i n co n se q u e ce o f t h e multi pli city o f it s r e i n

,
p
ca t e s a di sj un cti v e r o os i t i on ma b es o l v e d i n t o a l ur a li t y of
, p p y e r
p

d
d
K r ug
d
L og ik, 57 , p 1 68 , A n m 2
'
1 -E D r ul e , P r op osit io C on iti on a li s n i hil
,
. . .
p on i t in esse.

[ H y p o th e tica l s t ak e a ccoun t n ot o f t h e c or C hr istia n Weiss , L ehr buch er L og ik, p 109, e . .

r ect n ess o f t he t w o cl a uses , b ut o n l y o f t h ei r

con n ecti on ( con s equen t ia ) . H en ce th e l og ica l

22 .
 1 70 L O G I C . L E C T . XII I .

j ud g men t s still it ,
isc o mpl e x or composit e
n ot on th a t a c co un t a

j ud g me n t F or it

A D i j ti j d
is r ea liz e d b y o n e s i mpl e e n er g y of t h o ug h t in

whi ch t he t wo r e l a t i v e s t h e ei ther a n t h e or
a r e th ou h t t og e t h e r a s i n se a r a bl e a n
dd ,

s un c
g ve
g u
p a s , ,

m en t { wt i
d t S pI) er e I n co se quen 08 of 1311 1s a (l lSJll n C t i ve
b i n di n g up t h e oppos i n g pr e di ca t e s i n t o a s i n g l e
,
lity n r ea

co mp t o si e , an no .

d
n
t ib l i t
c on v e r cw e n
: o a
,
r o o s i t i on ca n n o t b e con v e r t e d i n t o a c a t e or
e g i l
o r ca ,
p p g
i ca l F or in a ca t eg or i ca l j u g me n t a s in gl e
.

r e di c a t e is S i m ly a fr me d or d e i e d o f a s ubj ect ; w h e e a s in a n r
p p
di sj un ct i ve j udg men t t h er e is n ei t h e r a f r ma ti on n or n eg a t i on b ut ,

t h e oppo s i t i on o f c e t a i n a ttr i b ut es in r e l a t i on t o a ce r t a i n s ubj e c t

d
r

c on st i t ut e s t he t h o ugh t H owb e i t th er e for e t h a t a di sj u ct i v e a n

.
, ,
n

a ca t e o r i ca l j ud me n t ma h a v e a ce r t a i n r e s e mb l a n ce in r es ect
g g y p

a lly di ffe r e t fr o m t he ca t eg or i ca l
n
d
o f th e i r o bj e ct ma t t er ; s t ill in e a ch t he fo r m o f t h o u ht is wh olly

di ffer e n t a n t he di sj un cti v e j ud g men t is c on se que tly on e e ss en t i

,
g

.
1
,
n ,

D il e mma t i c j ud g me n t s a r e th ose in whi ch a c o n di t i on is fo un d

3 D il mm ti
.
b o t h in t h e s ubj e ct a n in t h e pr e di ca t e a n a s
e a c
th us a comb i n a ti on of a n hy poth et i ca l for m a n
.
d ,
d
d
,

of a di sj un cti ve for m th e y ma
y
d
a l so a r
pp p o r i a t e ly b e d e n o mi n a t e d
,

d If X i s A
d
H yp oth t co
e i -
isj un cti ve .
,
it is ei ther B or C If an

a cti on be p r ohi bi te i t i s p r ohi bi te e ither by n a tu r a l or by p os i ti ve

,

la w If a cog n i ti on be a co n i ti on o
g f f a ct,
i t i s g i ven ei t h er

thr ou g h an a ct o f ex ter n a l
p er cep ti on or thr oug h an a ct o f s el f
con s ci ou s n es s .

di sj un ct pr e di ca t es
s t r ic t ly c a ll e d
p
d
d d
i t i h
on s it is n o t n e ces s a r y th a t t h e
In s uc

s h ou l
b e li mit e d t o t w o ; a n b e sid e s w h a t a r e
ilemma ti c j u g men ts we ma y h a v e o t h e r s t h a t w o uld
ro
po s ,

d
,

r o e ly ob t a i n t h e n a mes o f tr ilemma ti c tetr a lemma ti c l l m

p p r
p yo e , ,

l og is ms
,

d
ma ti c e t c But in r efer en ce t o pr opo si t i on s a s in r e fe r e n ce t o sy l
.

ilemma is a w or d u s e d n ot me r e ly t o d e n o t e t he ca ses
,

wh er e th e r e a r e o n ly t wo di sj un ct memb er s b ut is like wi s e e x t en d e d
,

, , ,

, g
d
e v e r a l w a y sa n a mb i ui t y ; a n d
t o a n y pl ur a li t y o f o pposi n g pr e di ca t e s

p p
T h er e r e ma i n s h e r e h o w
e r h a s o n t h a t a cco un t t h e t e r m

hyp othet ico i y un ctive mig h t with pr o pr i e t y b e s ub s t i t ut e d fo r ilem

-
'
.

, ,
,

d
A D il mm t i i d
m t i d
e g
ma ti c A pr oposi t i o n of thi s cl a s s t h o ug h b e a r
a c u
.

in g b o t h a n hy po t h e ti c a l a n a di sj un ct i v e fo r m
d can n ot h ow ever b e an alyz e d i n to a n hy pothe ti
d ,

dib l t pl cal a a d un ct i v e ud men t I t con sti t utes d

en i i ib l
n v s e an
, ,
no t re uc e o a u

ra l i ty f t g i l
o ca e sj
or ca j g n i .

d
pro p i
ost i a
on s . s i n di v i s i b l e a u n i t y o f t h o ug ht a s e i t h e r o f
th ese ; a n ca n a s li t tl e a s th ese b e r e d uc e d
with out di st i n cti o n t o a pl ur a lit y of c a t eg o r i ca l pr o posi t i o n s
E v er y for m of J ud g men t s whi ch w e h a ve hith e r t o con sid er e
.

d ,

1 K r ug , L og ik, pp . C ompa r e K an t , L ogik, 29 E. D .

L EC T XII I L 0G 10 1 71

d
. .

di for m of S yll og i s m ; a n

d it s a s c on sti t uti n
h a s its c or r e s
p n
g on i g
t h e f un d a t i o n s o f
o i ffer en t ki n d s of r e a s on i n g t h a t t h e con sid e a , r

t i on o f t h es e di ffe r e n t ki n d s o f pr opo s iti o n s is of p i n ci pa l i mpor r

t a n c e T h ese v a r i o us ki n d s of pr oposi t i on s ma y
J d id h o w e v e r b e co n s id e r e d in t h e di ffe r en t
.
,

di f t v i ew of Q uan ti ty Q ua li t y a n Rel ati on A n

gm t o i n t s of

d d
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p ,
er e n r e er e n ce

Q ua n t it y
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, ,
.

r s t of Q ua n ti t y ; in r e fe r e n ce t o whi ch I gi v e
y o u t h e fo ll o w i n
g p a ra ra h
g p .

l L . T he Q uan ti t y ofJ ud g men t s ha s r efer en c e t o th e wh ol e

o f E x t e si o b y t h e n umb er of t h e o bj e ct s
n n,
m
d co n ce r n i n hi ch w e j ud e hi s I
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g g n .

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p po os i t i o n s, t os e in w c t he s ub ect is
t a ke n in it s w h o l e e x t en s o n i b y p a r ti cu la r p r op os i ti on s , t h os e
in w hi ch t h e
s oni dd
b y i n iv i
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u a l p r op os i ti on s ,j t is
in a pa r t , i n d e n i t e ly, of it s e x t e n
t
d
h o se in w hi ch t he s ub ec

a t a m n mu m o f e x t e n s i o n ; b y i n e
i i n i te
p pr o os i ti on s t h o s e ,

i n w hi ch t he subj e ct is n o t a r t i cul a t e ly or o v e it ly d ecl a r e d t o

b e e i t h er u n i v e r s a l pa r t i cul a r o r i n di v id ua l , , .

e d o ct r i n e I pr e fe r

d hi
T s d o ct r i n e a e a r s t o me
(T h ) pp .

u n t en ab l e a n I di v id e P r o posi t i o n s a ccor di n g t o t h e i r Q ua n
,

t i t y in t h e foll o w i n g ma n n e r I n t hi s r espe ct t h e i r di ffe r e n ce s

a r i se ei t h er
( )
A a s i n Ju
g m e ,
d
n t s f o m t h e n e ce s s a r y co n di t i o n ,
r

o f t he I n t e r n a l T h o u h t ; B P r o os i t i o s m r e ly
g or
( ) a s i n
p e ,
n ,

fr o m t he a ccid e n t a l ci r cu mst a n ce s of it s E t er n al E x pr e ssi on x .

U n d e r t he for mer h e a d ( A ) J ud gmen t s a r e e i t h er ( a ) of ,

D e t er mi a t e o r D e n it e Q ua n t i t y a cco r di n
n a s t h ei s ph e r e is r
g ,

d
ci r cums c i b e d o Q n t ity I n d e t e r mi n a t e o r I n d e n i t e
( )
b ro f u a ,
r ,

a cc o r di n
g a s t h e i r s ph e r e is u n ci cums c r i b e d A g a in Ju g r .
,

me n t s of a D et e r mi n a t e Q ua n t i t y ( a ) a r e e i t h er ( 1 ) of a Wh ol e

1 D e I n t ern , o . 7 . A n a l P r ion .
, i 1 ED
. . .
1 72 -L O G IC . .
L E C T . XI I I .

U n di v id e d , whi ch th ey con stit ut e a U n iver s a l or

.

in ca s e G en

t
er a l P r op os i ti on

h ey co n st i t ut e a I i vi
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;
n
or

ddQ
n
( )
2 o f a U n i t I n di v i s i b l e i

u a l or
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S i n g u la r P r op os i ti on A
ua n t i t y co n s t i t u t e s a P a r
,
n

.
ca s e ,

n r n ate
( )
b
t i cu la r P r op os i ti on .

Un d er l a t t e h e a d ( B) P r oposi t i o s h a v e e i t h er a s pr op
t he r ,
n ,

o sit io s t h e i r q ua n t i t y d e t e r mi a t e o r i d e t e r mi a t e ma ke d
n , ,
n n n ,
r

o ut b a v e b a l s i g n o r t h e y h a v e n o t ; s u ch Q u a n t i t y b e i n g
r
y ,

i n vo l ve d in e v e r y a ct u a l t h o ug h t T h e y ma y b e ca ll e d in t he

d
.

o n e ca se ( a ) P r ecl s ig n a te i t h e o t h e r ( b ) P r ei n cles ig n a te n .

d
A g a i n t h e o mi o n d oct r i e r e mo un t i g a l s o t o A i st o t l e
,
n n ,
n r ,
1

t a k e s i n t o v i e w o n ly t h e S ubj e ct a r e ul a t e s t h e
g q u a n t i t y of ,
n

t he pr o positi o n e x cl us i ve ly b y t h e q u a t i t y o f t h a t t e m T he
d
n

d
r .

P r e di ca t e i n d ee d A r i s t o t l e a n t h e l o
, g i
,
ci a n s o n o t a ll o w t o b e

a ffe ct e d b
y q u

l a r in a n A f r ma ti v e a n U n i v e sa l in a N e g a t i v e P opos i t i o n
,
d
a n ti t y ; a t l e a s t t h e y h o ld it t o b e a l w a y s P a rt icu

r r .

sis ; a n d
T hi s d o ct r i n e I h o ld t o b e t he r e sul t o f a n i n compl e t e a n a ly
I h o pe t o s h o w y o u t h a t t h e co n fusi o n a n mul t i pli ci t y
o f w hi ch o ur r ese n t L o i c is t h e co m l e me t is ma i n ly t h e
d
p g p n ,

n
q
d
c o s e u e n ce o f a a tt e mpt a t s y t h e s i s b e for e t he u l t i ma t e e l e
n

men t s h a b e e n fa i ly r e a ch e d b y a s e a r chi g a n a ly si s a
n eg l e ct in thi s i n s t a n ce o f t he fun a me n t a l
r of a

o st ul a t e o f t h e
n

d
,

n ,
n d
, p ,

s ci e n c e .

Whole U d
dd
1 .

d
of a n ivi e

9. U n iv er sa l or m
G en er a l J u g en ts .

of D eter min a t e or

D e n ite Q ua n tity

d
.

d
2

dd d
of a U n it I n ivis ible
( M en ta l ) Ju gmen ts
S in g ul ar Ju g men t s

dm
I n i vi ua l or
b
.

d d
of In eter in a te or

In e n ite Q u a n tity for min g P a r ti cul a r Ju g men ts .

B t h eir Q ua n tity E x pr esse dd a

P re es ig n a te .

d d
( V er b a l ) P r oposition s b
i 2
t h eir Q uan tity N ot E x pr esse P r ein e g
s n a t e .

1 D

d
e I n t er p c .
7 .
E D .

d d j d d
p r e ica t e . Bu t of t h e se some a r e b u t ver b a l

d d d
d
2 V i e Th et A m . a pu A m . In D e Int .
, v a r ie t ies o f t h e

sa me u g men t , a n ot h e r s

d d
8 v 0 , if .
1 13 .
[In t he r st of t h e se a r e e x cl u e on ma t er ia l g r o un s , s o t h a t his
p a ss a g es , A mmo n ia s , p r o ce e in g o n a mer e ly
d d
iv i s i o n n a l l y c o i n c i es w it h A r is t ot le s In

a r it h met ica l ca lc u la t i o n , e n ume r a t e s s ix t e en t he sec on p a s s a g e T h e o ph r a s t us is c it e in

v a r ie t ies o f t he

d o f a v e r y ob s cu r e s t a t e me n t c on
P r o p o s it ion , any o n e of fou r i l l us t r a t i o n
q ua n t it ies in t h e sub ect , j ( a ll n ot a ll , n on e ce r n i n g t he O p p osi t i o n of in es ig n a te p r op o
n ot n on e or s o me ) , b ein g ca p a b l e o f c o mb i s i ti on s . ED .
]
n a t io n Wi th a n y o n e of four q u an t iti es in th e
L E C T XI II : L 0G 1 0 . 1 73

d
.

U n i ve r s a l J u g men t s ar e th o se i n W hich the wh ol e n umb er of

o bj e ct s wi t hi n a sph e e o r cl a ss a e j ud g e d of r r ,

d
pl ica t ion U i
E x . n
as A ll men ar e mor ta l, or E ver y ma n i s m or ta l,
ver s a l J u g me n ts
d en i g t h e w h ol e col
.

the a ll in t h e o n e ca s e n

l ect iv ely t h e ever y in t he o t h e r d e n i g it di s c r e t i v e ly

,
I n s uch n .

j u d g m e n t s the n o t i o o f a d e t e mi a t e wh ol e e ss o r t o t a li t y in t he
n r n n ,

fo r m o f o m i t ud e o a ll n es s is i n v o l v e d
n r ,
.

I n di v id ua l J ud g men t s a e th o s e in w hi ch in li ke ma n n er t h e r , ,

l d
w h ol e o f a ce t i sph e e is j ud g e d o f b ut in r a n r ,

idizl i
i g
izgz tz
u
w hi ch s h e e t h e e is fo u d o n ly a s i n g l e obj e ct
p r r n ,

d
V en
ll i i l

wh t a o r c o e c t n o f s
g e o bj ect s a s C a t li n e i s o n ,
i

d
.

a mbi ti ou s , T he twelve ap os tles w er e i n sp i r e .

In s uc h ju i g m d e t er mi n a t e wh ol e n ess o r t o t a li t y
en t s t he n o t o n of

in t h e f m of o n en e s s i n di vi s i b l e u i t y is i n v o l ve d
1
or ,
n ,
.

P a r t i cul a J ud g men t s a r e t h o s e in whi ch a mo g t h e o bj e ct s

r ,
n

J d
wi t hi n a c er t a i n sph e e o r cl a ss w e j ud g e co n r ,
P ti lar cu a r
g u
c e r n i n g so me i d e i t e n u mb e r l e s s t h a n t h e n n
m t wh t
en s , a .

wh ol e as S ome men a r e vir tu ou s ,

M a ny
boy s a r e cou r a g eou s M os t w omen a r e comp a ss i on a te T he i n d e f
i h i t e pl u a li t y wi t hi n t he t ot a li t y b e i g h e r e e n o t e d b y t h e w o d s
r
, ,
n d .

s ome ma n y mos t T h e r e a e cer t a i n w or d s

W d
, , . r

d
wh i h
or s whi ch s e v e t o ma r k o ut t h e qu a n t i t y in t he ca s e
c s er ve r

l I d d S i t i o s T he w or d s wh i ch es n a t e un i ver d
f m k
a o f U i v e r s a l I n di v id u a l P a r t i cul a r pr o po
t ou
3
af
an n , ,

ad
in U n i ve r s a ,
n i v1

P a rtic u l a r
n i
ua l ,
n g .

s a l it ll, the wh ole bo th, ea ch, n on e,

P r op ositi on s .
y ar e a o f; ever ,
y
no on e, n ei ther , a lwa y s , ever y wher e, e t c. T he
w or d s whi ch ma r k o ut p a r t i cul a r i t y a r e s ome, n o t a ll, on e tw o, thr ee, ,

d T h e r e a r e a l so t e r ms whi ch , t h o ug h
e t c , s ometi mes , s omewher e, e t c
. .

t h ey r o x i ma t e t o it , a s ma n ,

d
o n o t r e a ch t o a n u n i v e r s a l wh ol e , a
pp y

d
mos t a lmos t a ll, the g r ea tes t p a r t, e t c , f ew ver y f ew, ha r ly a n y ,
, .
,

e t c , w hi ch in t h e co mmo n e m l o y me n t of l a n ua e , a n i n r e fe r
.
, p g g
e n ce t o me r e ly r o b a b l e ma t t e r , ma b e i e w e d a l m t t a n ta
p y v s a o s

moun t t o ma r ks of un i ver s a li t y .

By l ogi ci a n s in g en er a l it is st a t e d , th a t , in
l og i ca l r el a ti on a ,

a n I n di v id ua l is co n v e r t i b l e
with a U n i ve r s a l n

d I d md d
D i ti ti s f U i nc onr o os iti o n ; a s in b o th so me t hi n
o n i r e di ca t e d
p p g s p
Em P t l J d
l l
o f a w h o l e s ubj e ct a n e i t h er a d mi t s of a n
e s an n ua
y n
-

,
ro a r i cu a r u
g
x ce t i o n B P l J d m t l k
m en t s e
p ut a a r t i c u a r u g e n . i e ,

d
.

wi s e pr e di ca t e s somet hi n g o f a wh o l e subj e ct
, ,

d
an a d mi t s o f n o e x ce ti on ; fo r it e mb r a ce s a ll t h a t is v i e w e d a s
p
t he s ubj ect a n e x cl ud e s a ll t h a t is v i e w e d a s n o t b e l on i n t o it
, g g .

dd d dd d
I

dm m ( p r op r i um) s ign
d
tum, a n

d
m T he for me r of e a ch , a n
d
1 In ivi in i th e
uu p a r t icula r e r agu .

v i uu va g a m S o p a r ti cula r e
. s ig n a t mn , an l a t t er o f e a ch , cor r esp on in g M emor a n . a .
1 74 L ocI c .
L E C T XI I I
d
.
.

T he
dd
wh ol e disti n cti on c on si sts in thi s th a t in U n i v er s a l a n in

d
I n ivi u a l J ud g me t s t he n umb e r o f t h e o bj e ct s j ud g e d of is
n ,
, ,

d
t h o ug h t b y u s a s e n i t e ; w h e ea s in P a r t i cul a r J ud g me t s t h e r , n

v id ua l J u d me n t s
g o d
n umb e r o f s u ch obj e ct s is t h o ug h t b y us a s i n d e n i t e

o t cor r e s po n d t o U n i v e r s a l J u
g mne
T hat I n i
n t s m e e ly d
.

'

,
r

in v i t ue o f t he o n e ess of t h e i r s ubj e ct is s h o wn b y t hi s t h a t if
r n , , ,

t h e i n di v id ua l b e r e n d e r e d i n d e n i t e t h e j ud g me n t a t o n ce a s s umes ,

t h e ch a a ct e r o f pa t i c u l a r i t y
G er ma n i n ven te
r

d
F o r e x a mpl e t he pr o po s i t i o n s A
r

the a r t o
f p r i
.

nting , A n E
,

ng
,

lishma n g en er a liz e
,

d
d
the la w f o g r a vi ta i e w d
ti on ,
e a s p a r ti c u l a r
p p
r oareo s i t i o n t o be v
s .

d
But if w e sub s t i t ut e for t he i n d e n i t e ex pr ess i o n s a G e ma n a n
, r

a n E n li s h ma n t h e d e n i t e e i s F a us t a n l Vewton t he
g p,r ess o n x
,

j ud g me n t o b t a i n s t he fo m of a n un i ve s a l r r .

Wi t h r eg ar d t o qua n t it y it is t o b e ob ser v ed say t he l ogici a n s th at , , ,

d
C a t e g o r i ca l J ud g me n t s a r e t h o se a l o n e whi ch
C t g i l J d
a e or ca
g a d mi t o f a ll t he fo r ms
u H ypot h e t i ca l a n D is .

d
m
?
l
t
n en s
f t l ff
a
j un cti ve pr oposi t i on s a r e a l w a ys un i v e sa l F or
e co

r .

in g go o mt i ci a n s , a i
i n hy o t h e t i ca l s b t h t f
fo r ms p e o s1 i on o a ea so
o f l l th
a f e o y p r n , ,

q t ity
ua n .

an d
th er e is po si t e d e ve r y con se q uen t of t h a t r ea son ;
in di sj un ct i v es t h e s ph e r e o r e x t e n si o n of t h e
subj e ct is s o d e n e d t h a t t he di sj un ct a t t ib u t e s a r e pr e di ca t e d o f r
,

t h e w h o l e sph e e

p pr o o s i t i o n s so me t hi n
I t ma y i n d e e d s o me t i me s se e m a s if in s uch
g w e
r .

r e s a id o f s o me an co n s e u e n t l
q y
,

dt h a t
,

, , ,

t he j ud g me n t is pa r t i cul a r o r i n d e n i t e

a d
t h e t i ca l
i sj un cti ve
I f s o m
, e m en a r e lea r n e t h e
F or e x a mpl e a s a n hy po
n other s a r e u n lea r n e

T h os e men who a r e lea r n e a r e ei ther p hi los op her s

dd a s ,
.
,

d ,

or n ot But it is ea s ily s e e n t h a t t h e se j ud g me n t s a r e e sse n t i a lly of

.

a e n e r a l ch a r a c t e r I n t he r s t j u d g me n t t h e r e a l co n s e q ue t is

dd
n
g .
, ,

dd
then a ll other s a r e u n lea r n e ; a in t h e s e co n d t h e t r ue s ubj e ct is n , ,

a ll lea r n e men fo r t hi s is i n v ol ve d in th e e x pr e ss i on
,
T h os e

di
men wh o are lea r n e , etc .
1

S u ch is t he oct r n e o f t b ut h o ld
t he L i i T hi s I

og c a n s . ca n n o

T hi d
t o b e e r r o n e o u s ; for w e c a n e a sily co s t u c t n r
t i s o c r n e e r r on e
r o os i t i o s wh e t h er hy p o t h e t i c a l o r di sj u e n
ous . p p n ,

t i v e whi ch c a n n o t b e co n s t r ue d e i t h e r a s u i
,
n

v er sa l o r s i n ul a r
g F
d o

s ome D o o i s then s ome a n i ma l i s

e x a m l e wh e n w e s a

,
p
;
.

o r i sj u
h
y yp r o t h e t ica l ly

n ct i v e ly S ome men
I f ,

,
d ,

,
,

d
i h
d
a r e ei ther r og u es or h r o os i t i o n is in
f o o ls in e t e r c a s e t e p p e ,

n i t e or a r t i cu l a r a n n o i n e u i t y ca n s h o w a l a u si b l e r e a s on w h
p g , p y n

it sh o uld b e v i e w e d a s d e n i t e as
g e n er a l o r i di v id u a l ,
n .

K r ug
d
1 , L
og ik, 5 57 , A n m 4 p 1 71 S ch ul z e , L og ik , 5 60 C o n t r a E s
,
. . et s eq . i .
5 122 . .

d
'
E D .
[ C f H o b a uer , A nf a n g sg r il n ke er L og ik, se r , L og ik, 92 , p 17 7 [ S ee b el ow, I) 23 7 . . .

d
243 S ig w a r t , L og ik , 164 1 83 5 n ote 1 -E D
. et seq , e . . .
] . .

K iesewetter ,
G r un r is s ein er a llg e mein en L og ik ,
 F T HE

E RS I

LEC T U RE XI V

S T .
O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N T H E P RO D U C T S or T H O U G H T .

II A P O P H A N T IC
. .

JU D G M E N T S T H E I R .
Q U AL IT Y O PP O SIT IO N
, ,
AND C O N V E RS I O N .

T H E r s t pa r t l a s t L ect ur e w as o ccupi e d wi t h t h e d oct r i n e

of o u r

R p it l t i
eca

r
u a on .
an d
o f J ud g me n t s co n s id e r e d a s di v id e d i n t o S i m l e

i n t o C on di t i o n a l ; S impl e b e i n g e x cl usi vely

C a t eg o i ca l C on diti on a l e i t h e r H ypot h e t i ca l D i sj u ct i v e Or H y po
, p

n
, , , ,

We t h en pr oce e d e d t o t e a t of t he Q ua n t it y
t h e t ico di sj un ct i ve
d
- . r

o f pr o po s i t i o n s a n in t hi s r e spe ct I s t a t e d t h a t th e y a e e i t h er
, , , r

d
D e i t e o r I n d e n i t e t he D e i t e c o mpr i s i n g t h e t wo sub o r di n a t e
n n

cl a ss e s o f G e n e r a l o r U n i v er s a l a n of S i g u l ar or I n di v id ua l
,
n

d dd
o os i t i on s w hil e t h e I n d e n i t e a r e r r e s o d en t t o P a t i cu l a r
p p
r , c o p n r

p r o os it i o s a l on e
p n I n r e a r d t o t h e t e ms
g .

d e n i te a n

w a r n e d y ou tha t I o n ot a pply t h e m in t he s en s e g i ve n b y l og i ca l
w r it er s Wi t h t h e m I d e n i t e p op osit i o s d e n ot e t h os e in whi ch
. n
i n
e n i

r
te I r

n
,

t h e q ua n t i t y is n o t e pli c i t ly d ecl a r e d b y on e o f t he d e si g n a t o y
x r

t e r ms a ll ever y
, , s ome ma n

o ug h t t o b e ca ll e d p e i n es ig n a te

t h a t is n ot ma r ke ou t by a p r e
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etc

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,

r oe i n es i n a tce
r -
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o
r m b e tt e r a d a t e d t o i n di
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w
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)
.

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r
,

oo t r oi
,

, x a t e
p ,

c a t e t hi s e x t e r n a l a ccid e n t of t h e i r e n u n ci a ti on ; for in

d d
th e se p e i n d e si g n a t e pr oposi t i on s a r e e i t h e r en it e or i n d e i t e
r
p o i n t o f fa ct

d ,

n
,

an

d q ui t e a s e i t e o r i n d e i t e in me a n i n
n
g
h a b e e n e x pr e s sly ma rke d o ut b y t h e pr e d e s i g n a t or y t e r ms
a s if t h e inr
q u a n t i t y ,

dd i isi on f l l Shil on of J u men t s t he gl lS l O I l r e d

T s b ei n
g p e mi se d I n o w n t o t he n e x t

d
o o r

Jd
,
s ec o n v o .

{
d
u g m ten s , h n a g g p o c e

c or i g t th i Q
n o l e r in g o n th a t gr o un d whi ch b y L og i ci a n s h a s b e en
ua

d
i ty '
c a ll e d t he Q ua li ty of J ud g me n t s I n i t s elf t he .

t e r m qu a li ty is h er e a v e r y v a ue a n b it y i on fo r w e
g a r r a r e x
pr e ss
F %
-
c
u 9
o
,
 6 L O G I C . LEC T . XI V .

mig ht , with i v e t h e n a me of q ua li ty t o s e v e r a l
e q ua l i ty
p p g ro r e ,

o t h e r o f t he di s t i g u i s hi n g pr i ci pl e s of pr op os i t i o n s
n F o r e x a mp l e n .

d
t h e t u t h o r fa l s e h oo d o f pr o p o s i t i o n s h a s b ee n a l s o ca ll e d t h e i r
r

u a l it ; a s ome l g i ci a n s h a v e e v e n g i v e
n t h e n a m e of q u a li ty
o n
q y

d
t o t h e g o u d o f t h e di s t i ct i o o f j u d g me n t s i n t o ca t eg o i ca l hy po
r n n n r ,

th et i cal a di sj u ct i v e Wh a t h o we v e r ha s b e e u i v e s a lly if
,
n n .
, ,
n n r ,

a ci e n t a n
n d
n o t a l w a y s e x cl us i v e ly s t yl e d t h e q u a li ty o f pr o po s i t i o n s b o t h in

mo d er n t i me s is t h at a cco r di g t o whi ch t h e y a r e is
t r ib ut e d i n t o A f mat i ve a n N eg a ti v e r
,

d .
n
,

d
1T L I I n r e spe ct of th ei r
.

d g m en t s ,
t w o cl a s s e s
Q ua li t y J ud g men t s
di v id e d i n t o
,

F o r e i t h e r t h e S ubj e ct a n
.
ar e

d
d
P ar L I Ju
P e d i ca t e m a y b e r ecog n z e d a s r e c pr o ca lly
. .

in r e s p e ct of th ei r r i i

d c on t a i n i n g a n

d
Q u a l i ty s ar e A f r m co n t a i n e d in t h e oppos i t e ,
t iv e an N e g a t iv e.

q ua n t i t i e s of E x t e n si o n an C o mpr eh en
i
s on ; or t h ey ma y b e r e co
g iz e d a s n ot s t a n di n
n
g i t hi
ds r el a n

sio

d t he s ubj e ct a n
I n t h e fo r mer ca s e, r e di ca t e a e a fr me d
n .
p r

d
of e a c

(m o
-
ul o t ;
h ot h er
Ka r a
,

gb
an

an m
j
the
01

p pr o os i t i o n is ca ll e d a n

Ka r m
ny p ,
o
j
A
u d
r ma tive

i ci u m
a r ma ti vu m or

d di i d d
p ) os i ti vu m ; in t h e l at ter ca s e , t h ey ar ed i d h en e of e a c ot h er ,

an t h e pr opos t on is ca ll e d a ZVeg a ti ve ( n
p r a o ts wo c/i a n x
or

or e pnm j ,
u i ci u m n eg a ti vu m ) .

I n t hi s pa r a g r a ph , I
d
h a v e en oun ce d mor e g en er a lly t h a n is d on e b y
l og i ci a n s t h e r el a t i on of p e di ca t i on in it s a f ma t i v e a n n eg a t i v e r ,
r

p h a se s F o r t h e i r d e n i t i o n s o n ly a pply e i t h e r t o t h e s ubj e ct o r t o
.

t h e pr e di c a t e t a ke n a s a w h ol e ; wh e e a s s i n ce ,
r ,

d
E pl i t i m
x ca G o
w e ma y i n di ffe e t ly v i e w e i t h er t h e s ubj e ct a s
en

r n

t i on f p d
er a l it y f th o i e
t h e wh ol e i n r e l a t i o t o t h e p e d ca t e o r t he
e n
n r i ,
o i ti ire ca on n

r e di c a t e a s t he wh o l e in r e l a t i o n t o t h e s ubj e ct
th p
e ar a
g p h ra p , ,

a ccor di n g a s w e c o n s id e r t h e r o o si t i o n t o e x
p p
p r ess a n i n t en s i v e o r t o ex
p e s s a n e t e n s i v e j ud me t
g
it is r x n ,

i u r d e n i t i on w h t
d
h r of r e di ca t i on in
g l f
ro e
p p r
o n e e
p ,
e n e r a o o ,
r

af ma t i o a
r n e a t i on i
g n
pna t i cu l a r t o co uch it in s u ch t e ms t h a t
n r ,
r

it ma y i diff e t ly co mpr e h e n d b ot h th es e cl a ss e s b o t h t h es e
n er n

d
p h a ses o f
p p o, o s i t i on s r .

d
A s e x a mpl es of A f ma t i v e a n N e g a t i v e pr opo si t i o s t h e fo ll o w
r n ,

A f r ma t ive

a t ive P r o p os it ion s .
an d N eg
i s mer caf u l
r ma t iv e j d
u
d
in g ma y s uf ce A i s B A i s n o t B
G o i s n o t vi n icti ve . I n
h men t, t er e is a co
d mpl e t e
an

i n cl usi on
Go
Af

g
of th e j t withi n t h e pr e di ca t e a s a n e x t e n si ve wh ol e ; or of
s ub e c

t h e pr e di c a t e w i t hi n t h e s ubj e ct a s a n i n t e n s i v e wh ol e I n N eg a .

ti ve j udg men t s on t he c on t r a r y th er e is a t ot a l ex cl usi on of t h e

, ,
L E C T . XI V . L O G I C . 1 77

j t fr om t he S ph er e of t he pr edic a t e ( ex t en si vely) or of t he
s ub e c ,

r e di ca t e fr o m t h e compr e h e n s i o n o f t h e s ubj e ct ( i n t e n s i v e ly ) I n
p .

a f r ma t i v e p o o si t i o n s t h er e is a l so di s t i n ct ly e n o un ce d t h r o ug h
p r

wh a t pr e di ca t e t he n ot i on of t h e s ubj e ct is t o be t h oug h t t h a t is , ,

wh a t pr edi ca t e must b e a n n e x e d t o t he n ot i on of t he subj ct ; in e

n e a t i v e pr o positi o n s i li ke ma n n e r it is di s t i n ct ly e n o u n c e d
g n , ,

t h r o ug h w h a t pr e di ca t e t h e n ot i on o f t h e s ubj ect is n o t t o b e

t h o ug h t t h a t is w h a t pr e di ca t e mus t b e s h ut o ut fr om t h e n ot i o n of
, ,

t h e s ubj e ct I n n eg a t i v e j ud g me n t s t h e r efor e t he n eg a t i on ess en

.
, ,

t ia lly b e l o g s t o t h e C opul a ; fo r o th e r w i s e a ll pr opo s i t i o n s w i t h o ut

n

di st i n ct i on w ould b e a f ma t i v e T hi s h o wev e r h a s b ee n a poi n t

r

d
of c o n t r o v e r s y a mon g mo e r n l o g i ci a n s ; for ma n y ma i n t a i n t h a t t he

n e a t i o n b e l o n g s t o t he e di ca t e o n t h e fo ll o w
.
, ,

d in g gr oun d s I f the n eg at i on per t a i n ed t o t he

g p r ,

T h t N g ti
a e a on oe s -

t b e l on g t
h ld
cop ul a th e r e co uld b e n o s y n t h e s i s o f t h e t w o
M o

l by m l g ,

d
u a, e so e o i

i
c an s ,
t e r m s t h e w h o l e a ct o f
j u d g
,
m e n t w o uld b e

s u b v er t e whil e a t t he s a me t i me a n o n con ,
-

n e ct in g c o pul a a n on copul a t i v e is a co n t r a di ct i on in t e r ms
,
- But , .

a n e g a t i v e pr e dic a t e t h a t is a p r e di ca t e b y whi ch s o me t hi n g is
, ,

d d
t ake n a w a y o r e x cl u d e d fr o m t he s ubj e ct i n v ol v es n o t hi g con ,
n

t r a ict o r y ; a n th er efor e a j ud g men t wit h s uch a pr e di ca t e is

, ,

c ompet e t n
1
.

T he oppo sit e d o ct r i n e is h o w e v er un d o ub t e dly t h e mo r e cor r e ct

, , .

d
F or if w e pl a ce t h e n eg a t i on in t h e p e d ica t e r ,
it m
d
Th
n e g a t i v e j ud g me n t s a s a l e a dy s a id a r e n o t
e O OS e c

m t
f
a in
pP
by h A
ai n e t e u
if ,
r ,

th e
f e en t in f or m fr o m a fr ma t i v e
r b ei n
g m e e ly ,
r

a f r ma t i o n s t h a t t h e obj e ct is c o n t a i n e d wi t hi n

t he s ph er e of a n eg a t i v e pr e di ca t e o r t h a t a n eg a t i v e pr e di ca t e ,

fo ms o e of t he a t t r i b ut e s o f t he s ubj e ct T hi s h o w e v e t he
r n

a d v o ca t es o f t h e O pi n i o n in q u e s t i o o n o t v e n t ur e t o a s s e r t T he n d .
,

.
r,

O bj e ct i o n fr o m t h e a ppa r e n t c on t r a di ct i o n o f a n on co n e ct i n g co p - n

ul a is v a lid o n ly if t h e lit e r a l t h e g r a mma t i ca l me a n i n g o f t h e , ,

t e m cOp u la b e coe x t e n si v e w i t h t h a t w hi ch it is a ppli e d l og i ca lly t o

r

e x pr e s s But thi s is n o t t he ca s e
. I f li t er a lly t ake n it i n di ca t e s .
,

o n ly on e s id e o f it s l o i ca l me a n in
g g W h a t t h e .

d
T r ue i mp t f t h
I gi l
o ca lco u a .
w or
or d cop u la v e r y i n a d e ua t e ly d e n o t es in t he
O e
q ,
p
for m of t he r e l a t i on b et w een t he subj e ct a n
r e di ca t e of a j ud me n t N w in n e a ti v e j ud me n t s thi s for m
p g o
g g .
, .

1 K r ug ,

t he
L og ik,
me d 55 , A n m 3 ED
. .
[C
s i e Bui er , L og ique, i ,
. o m
75
d
dK dd
Ba r ili, G r un
o on , L og ica , p 642
'
L og ik, 12
n ss D er
er er st en .

pa r e on sa .
C f p 5 1 5 et s eq
. . C on . . .

et s eq . Bol z a n o, W
iessen scha slehr e , L og ik, v ol . tr a , g , 22 , A n m 3
a n t L o ik Ba ch ma n n , . .

ii 1 36 S chulz e, L og ik, 50, p 74

. . . L og ik, 84 , p 127 E sser , L og ik,
. . 59 , p .

23
1 78 L oG I c .
LECT . XI V .

d i lly co n s st s i t aki n g a par t out of a wh o l e

in t h e of
e ss en t a a ct ,

an is as n ece s s a r y a n a ct o f th o ug ht a s t h e pu t t i n g it in T he .

i
n ot o n of t h e o n e con t r a di ct or y in fa ct i n v o l ve s t he n ot i on of t he
ot he r
1
.

h t e v er y n eg a ti v e
o ok it s or g i in in thi s
'

T he con t r o v e r s y t , t a
j d b e e x pr ess e d in a n a f r ma t i v e
u g me n t ca n

g d
f o r m wh e n t h e n e a t i o n is t a ke n f o m t h e c o

d
O ig i
r f th t
n o e con r o

v er s i g th
re ar n
g e
p
, r
y

pl a ce of g ti ne
ul a a n
a p l
on
a c e d in t h e
. p r e di ca t e T h u s A i s n o t .
,

B ma y b e ch a n g e d i n t o A i s n ot B T he co n ,
- .

t r a st is b ett er e x pr ess e d in L a t i n A n on es t B A es t n on B I n ,
- .

o f A i s n ot B
d
fa ct w e a r e c o mpe ll e d in E n g li s h t o b o r r o w t h e L a t i n n on t o ma ke
,

t h e i ffe r e n ce un a mb i g u o u sly a ppar e n t sa yi n g A i s n on B i n st e a d

But t hi s pr ov e s n ot hi n g ; for b y thi s t r a n spo si t i on
- .
, ,
-
,

of t h e n e a t i o n f o m t h e c o ul a t o t h e di t w r e a l so e a
g p p r e c ar e e a ,
n

b l e d t o e x pr e ss e v e r y a f r ma ti ve pr o pos i t i o n th r o ug h a d o ub l e n eg a
t io n T h us A i s B in t h e a f r ma ti v e fo r m is e q ui v a l e n t ly e n o un c e d
.
, ,
'

b y A i s n o t n on B A n on es t n on B in t he n e g a t i v e
- - -
, .

d
T hi s po ss i b ili t y o f e n un ci a t i n g n e g a t i v e pr o po s i t i o n s in a n a fr ma
ti v e a n a f ma t i ve pr opo si t i on s in a n eg a t ive ,
r

h wd t d
t m
N g ti e a
fo r m h a s b e e n t h e o c ca si on of much per v e r s e
ve er s,
,

d
o ig esby A na e r

i t tl
s o
r e n e me n t a mo n
g l o i ci a n s
g A r i s t ot l e d en om .
2

d
e.

in a t e t h e n eg a t i v e t e r ms s u c h a s n on B n on , ,

h omo n on a lbus e t c i sp m ip m li t e r a lly i n e

, , n i t e .n o u n s Bo e
( i/ a c to , , ,

t hius h ow e ve r u n h a ppily t r a n s l a t e d A r i s t o t l e s G r e e k t e r m ip
,
3
,

o to

9 b y t he L a t i n

d d
i nn i tu s r ese r vi g t h e t e m
7 0 , n r
By B th i oe us
r en d er o li d
.
-

in e n i tu s t o a s a e t o
p s pp ot t to i o

p pr o os i t i o n s b ut o f w hi ch t h e n o t i on is mo e a
,

d d pp p r o r i a t e ly e x r

r e s se d a s w e h a v e s e e n b e w or d i

d d ( )
t h es ig n a te i n es ig n a tu s n
p , y , ,

o r b e t t e r p r ei n es ig n a te (p r ce i n es ig n a tu s )

d d
T he S ch o ol me n fol .
,

l o wi n g Bo e thi us t h us ca ll e d t he j
d

'
ua r a o to r a
p ,
ov .

By t h S h l m e c oo en .
o f A r i s t o t l e n omi n a i n i ta an t h e n on t h e y n

s tyl e d t he p a r ti cu la i n O ut o f s uch e l e me n t s t h e y a l s o
n i ta n s .

c on st r uct e d P r op os i ti on es I n n i tce t h a t is j ud g men t s in whi ch ,

o
P 'P i i
f th
O

h lme
I i
O S on
e i t h e r t he s u bj ect o r t h e pr e dic a t e w a s a n eg a

t i v e n o t i on a s n on h omo es t vi r i is a n
sc oo
n

en
n

t h ese t h e y
h omo
i s t i n u sh e d dd ,
- d
d
d ,

wh t e s t n on vi r i i s an g -
,
i

d
a

d
.

f o m t he s i mpl e n eg a t i v e h omo n o
r n e s t vi r ,

i is H e r e i n Bo e t hi us a n
. t h e s ch o ol men h a ve b e e n fo ll o we d b y
K a n t t h r o ug h t h e Wola n l og ici a n s ; for he e x pl a i n s I n n it e J u g
,
4
d
1 Ba ch ma n n , L og ik, p 1 2 7 E . . D . 4 L og ik, 22 . C mpar e
o Wolf ,
P hilos . Ra
D e I t erpr et a t ion e, c. 2 . E D . t ion . , 209 E D
. .

3 In D e I n terp r eta t ion s , L . ii . 1 . O p er a , p .

L E C T XI V L O G IC 9

d
.
. .

men t s th ose w hi ch o n ot si mply i n dic a t e th a t a subj ect is n ot

as ,

c on t a i n e d un d er t he sph e r e of a pr e di ca t e b ut t h a t it li es o ut o f it s ,

sph er e s o me wh e r e in t h e i n n i t e S ph e r e
,
H e h a s th us co n s id e r e d
th e m a s comb i i n g a n a ct of n eg a t i on a n a n n
.

d
l w d
d
O thi p i t f l
a ct o f a f r ma t i on i n as mu ch thi i
n s o n o
a s on e n s
o by K
e t an
g ,

in th e m th r o ug h t he n eg a ti o n o f a n
.

a i r me

o th e r I n c on s e que n c e o f thi s v i e w he g a ve t h e m a ft e r s o me
. , ,

Wola n s t he n a me of L imita tive whi ch he con st i t ut e d a s a t hi r d

, ,

for m of j ud g me n t s u d e r q ua li t y a ll pr opo si t i o n s b e i n g t h us n ,

e i t h er A f r ma t i ve N e g a t i v e o r L i mi t a t i v e ,
T h e wh o l e q u es t i on ,
.

d
t ou hi n g t he v a lidi t y o f t h e di st i ct i on is of n o pr a ct i ca l couse
c n

u e n ce ; a n c o n s i s t s me r e ly in w h e t h er a g r e a t e r o r l e ss l a ti t u d e is
q
t o b e g i v e n t o ce r t a i n t e r ms
a t t e n t i on by e n t e r i n g o n a n y
I sh a ll n o t th e efo e o ccupy y o ur
i scus s i on o f w h a t ma y b e u r g e d in
.

d ,
r r ,

K t th f ld d r e fut at i on o r d efe n ce But if wh a t I h a v e al

d
.

r e a dy s t a t e d o f t h e n a t ur e o f n e a t i on a n

i r ee - o
an s
g it s

d d p iti
i i
v s on f P o ro os on s

f
c on n e ct i o n w i t h t h e co ul a b e c or r ect th e r e is
p , ,

d
un oun e

d
.

n o g r o u n d for r e g a r di n g li mi t a t i v e r o osi t i on s
p p
a s a cl a s s di st i n ct in fo r m a co o di n a t e w i t h A f r ma ti v e a n , N egn r

a t i v e j u d g me n t s

d
l
.

d
I f w e co n s id er t h e q u a n t i t y a n u a lity o f j ud me n t s a s c o m
q g
b in e t h e r e e me r g e s fr o m t hi s j u n ct ur e fo ur s e pa r a t e for m
, s of
p p
ro

o sit io n s fo r t h e y a r e e i t h er
,
U n i v e r s a l A f ma ti v e or U n i ve r s a l r ,

N eg a ti v e P a r t i cul a r A f ma t i v e o r P a r t i cul a r N eg a t i v e

i
,
,

for ms in or d er t o fa cili t a t e th e s t a t e me n t a n a n a ly s i s o f t he sy llo

s m h a v e b ee n d e s i g n a t e d b y l e t t e r s a n
T h e se
r

a s it is n e c es s a r y t h a t
,

d
d
.

g , ,

o u s h o uld b e fa mili a r wi t h th e s e s y mb ol s I s h a ll s t a t e t h e m in t he
y ,

foll owi n g pa r a g r a ph .

1T L I I . In f
r e e r en ce th ei r Q ua n ti t y a n Q ua li t y t og et h er
to
P r o pos i t i o n s a e e si g n a t e d b y t he v o w e l s r d d ,

P ar L II D i v i s i on
A E I O T h e U n i ver s a l A r ma t i ve
. .

ar e

d
.
of P r o p o s i t i on s ac , , ,

d enot e d by
A
; t h e U n iver s a l N e a tive b y g
d
cor in g to t h eir

m m
d
Q ua h ty
E ; t he P a r ti cu la r A r ma ti ve b y I ; t h e
u an

t a k en t og e t h e r .
1

P a r ti cu la r l Veg a tive b y 0, T o ai t he
me mor y, th e se di sti n cti on s h av e b ee n c ompr eh e n d e d in t h e
foll o wi n g li n es
d
d
A s s er it A , n eg a t E, se un iver sa liter a mb ae ,

A sser it I, n og a t O, se p a r t icul a r it er a mb o 2 .

C mpa re K rug
d 55 A n m 2 P et r us H isp a n u s, S a mmulce, T r act i pa r
1 2
, L og ik,
o . . .
. .

E D .
[ A g a in st t h e isti n cti on , see B a ch ma n n , t ic 4 , f 9
. C f P et r us T a r t a r e tu s ; E x p ositi o
. . .

L og ik, i 84 , p . 128 . S ch u lz e , L ogi k, 5 50 . in S ummulas , T r act i f 9 b E D . . . . .

D r obisch, t
1 80 L ocI c L E C T XI v

dh
. . .

I ma y h e r e li k e w i s e S h o w y o u
, ,
o n e, a n p e r a
p s t h e b est , mo d e,
in w hi ch t h e s e di ffe e t fo m c r n r s an be ex
p r e ss e d by di a g r a ms .

T he i n v en ti on of thi s mod e of s en sua lizi n g b y ci r cl es t he ab str a e

ti on s of L og i c is g en er a lly g i v en t o E ul er wh o
, ,

d d
mpl oy men t

d
T he r st e
e mpl o y s i t i n hi s L etter s t o a G er ma n P r i n ces s
of C i r c ul a r i a g r a ms

f f P h M P h l h l

d
in I O g ic i mpr oper l y on e er en t y s i cs a n a i ostter s
op y o .

d But , t o s a y n ot hi n g o f o th e r me t h o d s, t hi s b y
d
a scr ib e t o E ul er T O
:
be f mn m C h m t a n
ci r cl es is o f a mu ch e a r li e r or i g i n
f
We s
F or I n .

d d
i e.

it in t h e N u cleus L og i cce VVez s z a n ce, wh ch i a

p
p ear e in 1 7 1 2 ; b ut thi s w a s a posth umo us pub li ca t i on , a n th e
au th h i ti
or , C r s an W
e i s e , w h o w a s Rect or of Z it t a u, ,
di d e in 1 7 08 .

d
ti ce a l so t h a t L a mb er t s me t h o d o f
I ma y
m th d

no , ,

d
L mb t
a cco mpli shi n g t h e s a me e n b y pa r a ll e l li n es

a er s e o

d
,

d
to b f
e i A t
o un n s e

i us .
o f di ff er e n t l en t h s is t o b e fo un d in t h e L o i c
g g ,

a b ov e a cen t ur y a n d
of A ls t e ius pu b li sh e d in 1 6 1 4 c on s e que n t ly
a h a lf pr i or t o L a mb e r t s N eu es O r g a n on Of
,

,

.
2

d
L a mb e t s o r i g i n a li t y th e r e ca n h ow e v er I thi n k b e n o d oub t ; for

r
, , ,

h e w a s e x ce e di n g ly cur i o us a b out a n n o t o v e r l e a r n e d in t h e his , ,

t or y of t h e se s ub s idi a w hil e in his phil o so phi ca l c or r e spo n d en ce

,

ma n y o t h e r i n v e n t i o n s o f t h e ki n d of fa r i n fe r i or i n t er est a r e
r e c o r d e d b ut t h e r e is n o a ll usi on wh a t e v e r t o th a t o f A l s t e ius
,

Be for e l e a vi n g t hi s pa r t of t he s ubj e ct I ma y t a ke n oti ce of a n oth er

,

d ,

1 P a r t ie i i
2 A
.
, L et t r e x x x v

imper fect d d.
,

ia g r a m
e . C our n ot

of
.

t his kin
E
d
n . L og iew S y s t ema H a r mon icum of A lste ius
m d
ia gr a ms ( N eu es O r
d
ver y , p 395 L
. a b e r t.

s

with t h e li n es o f e q ua l l e n g th , in i ll ust r a tio n g a n on , v ol i p 111 et seq ) a r e much mor e

. . . .

of t h e r st sy l l og istic gur e, is g iven in t he comp l ete E D . .

 L E O T XI V L O GI C 1 81

d
. . .

d
di v i si o n i i d l i i i
t o of m P b a ll o c a n s vi n t o P ur e a n z
p os n s a e
yro
g ,
.
,

M o a l P ur e pr opos i t i o n s a r e t h o se in w hi ch t h e p e di ca t e is ca t e
. r

o r ica lly a fr me d o d e i e d o f t h e s ubj e ct S i mply w i t h o ut a y q u a li n

g r n , ,

ca t i o n ; M o d a l t h o se in w hi ch t h e pr e di c a t e is c a t e g or i ca lly a f r me d
,

or d e i e d o f t h e s ubj e ct u n d e r s o me mo d e o r n ,

d d d
f Pm
ua li fyi n g d e t e r mi a t i o n F o r e x a mpl e A
O
l

ex
q n ,

d
.

d
p t
osi i o n s t P in o ur e
D A l
M o d al
a n er co q n u e r e a r i u s i s a
p u e ex a er ,
r ,
n
an .

c on q u er e D a r i u s h on o r a bly is a mo d a l pr o p o ,

s it io n N o thi n g ca n b e mor e fut il e th a n t hi s di st i n ct i o n

.
1
T he .

T hi d
mo d e in s uch pr o po si t i on s is n ot hi n g mo r e t h a n
i t i ti
s sf t il nc on u e.
a pa t o f t h e p e di ca t e T he p e di ca t e ma y b e
r r . r

a n o t i on o f a n c o m p l e i t y it ma
y c n s i s t of a n n umb e r o f a t t r i

d
o x
y y ,

b ut es of a n y n u mb e r e v e n o f w o r d s a
,
t h e me r e ci r cu ms t a n ce ,
n

t h a t o n e o f t h ese a t t r i b ut es S h o uld s t a n d pr o mi n e n t ly o ut b y i t s e lf ,

d
'

c a n e s t a b lis h n o di ffe r e n c e in w hi c h t o o i g i n a t e a di s t i n ct i o n o f t h e r

k i d h
O ft e e m l
d dd d h r o osi t i o A l
d
e u c e t e u re
n . x a
p s a p p p ex a n er ,
n,

con q uer e

d
D a r i us me an s b e i g r e s o l v e d A lex a n er wa s the con
, ,
n ,

d a r i u s A lex a n er b e i e s ubj e ct w a s t h e c o ul a
q u e r or o
f D g t h , p n , ,

an

mo d a l
th e con qu er or of D a r i u s t h e pr e di ca t e
d dd
A lex a n er co n q u er e D a r i u s h on or a bly a n
,
N o w if we t a ke t h e
r e s o l v e it in
.

, d ,

of D a r i u s ; a n

e di ca t e is a li t l e mo r e co m l e x b e i n
,

d
like ma n n e r we s h a ll h a ve A lex a n er wa s the h on or a ble con quer or
h er e t he wh ol e di ffe r e n ce is t h a t in t he s e co d t he
"

, n

p r
p g t h e h o n o r a b le co n
q u er or of ,

D a r i us i n st e a d of the con q uer or of D a r i us

d
, .

But l og i ci a n s aft er A r i s t ot l e h a v e pr i n ci pa lly con s id e r e d a s

, ,
2

mo d a l pr o po si t i on s th o s e t h a t a r e mo di e d b y
P L ZSfz bnlll t h e fo ur a t t r ib ut i o n s of N ece s si t y I mpo s s i b ili t y
d
I o

M d
, ,
ns o

C t i P i b ili t y B t i r e ar d to

o id t h e s e t he ca s e is pr eci s e ly t he s a me ; t he mo d e
o n n
g e n c e a n o ss u n
i
c an s l o a s as g , .
,

d
,

i l i g th
n vo v n e c ns
,
.

f
t
a it O
is me e ly a pa r t of t h e pr e di ca t e a n
f in e"
r if s o , ,
f o a
p p t ro osi i on ar e
n ot h i n c a n b e mo r e u n w a r r a n t e d t h a n o n t h i s
t m l gi l ca g

d
ex o .

a ccid e n t a l o n t hi s e x t r a l og i ca l c i r cums t a n ce t o ,
-
,

e st a b li s h a r ea t i v i s i o n o f l o i ca l r o os i t i o s T hi r r o r is s e e n
g g p p s e n .

in a ll it s a g r an cy wh e n a ppli e d t o pr a ct i ce T h e di s cr i mi n a t i o n o f
d d .

d
r o o s i t i o n s i n t o P ur e a n M d l t h di i m i t i f M d l
p p o a a n e s c r n a o n o o a ,

d
r o os i t i o n s i n t o N e c es s a r y I m os s ib l e C o n t i n e n t P oss i b l e
p p p g , a n , , ,

t he r eco g n i t i o n o f t h e s e a s l og i ca l i st i n ct i o n s r e n d e r e d it i mpe r a ,

t i v e o n t h e l og i cia n as l og i ci a n t o kn o w wh a t ma t t e r w a s n e ces
s ar y i mposs ibl e c on ti n g en t a n possib l e; F or r ul e s w e r e l a id
, ,
,

,
,

d
mo d ddd
d
1 T h ese a ls ar e n ot a ck n owl e ge by b y t h e S ch oo l me n . C o mpa r e A mmon ius , In
A r ist o t l e , who a ll ow s o n ly t h e fou r me n t ion e D e I n t erp p 148 b
. e 1 54 6 E D

dd
.
, . .

dm mpa r e A n a l
b elow . T he y a p pe a r ,
h o w e ve r , i n h is G r ee k 2
DeI n t ern , c. 12 C o P r ion i.
. .
,
co mmen t a t or s , an fr o t h em w e r e a op te 2 ED
. .
1 82 L 0 GI C L E C T . XI V .

d ow n g din
t o t h e v a r i ou s l o g i c a l ope r a ti on s t o whi ch
re ar r o os i
p p
t io s nw e r e s ubj e ct e d a cco r di g a s th e s e w e e d e t e r mi e d b y a
,

ma t t e o f o e of t h e se mo d es o r o f a n o t h e a n t hi s t oo wh e n t h e
r n

mo d a l ch a r a ct e r i t s el f w a s n ot ma r ke d out b y a n y pe culi a i t y or
n

r,
r

d , ,
n

for m o f e pr e s s i o n T h u s t o t a ke o n e o f ma n y p a s s a g e s t o t h e
x .
,

s a me e ffe ct in Wh a t e ly
Wh t ly q t d
S pe a ki n g of t h e u a li t y
q
a e uo e
o f pr o pos i t i on s h e s a y s
.

Wh e n t he s ubj ect of , ,

r o os i t i o n is a C o mmon t e r m t h e u i ver s a l s i g n s a ll n o

d
a - n
p p , , ,

a r e us e d t o i n di ca t e t h a t it is di s t r i b ut e d ( a n t h e pr opos i t i o n co n
s e q u e n t ly is u n i v e r s a l ) t h e p a r ti cu la r s ig n s s o me t h e con ,

t ar y

q
r S h o uld t h er e b e n o s ig n a t a ll t o t h e co mmo n t er m t he
.

u a n t i t y o f t h e p o pos i t i o n ( w hi c h is ca ll e d a n I n e
r
n i te
p pr o o si d ,

t i o n ) is a s ce r t a i e d b y t he ma tter ; i e t h e n a t u e of t he co n e c
n . .
,
r n

t i o n b e t we e n t h e e x t r e me s : whi c h is e i t h e r N e cess a y I mposs i b l e

d
r , ,

o r C on t i n e n t

d dd n n ecess a y a n i i l n I n d e n i t e
g I . m p o ss b e m a t t e r a r ,

is u n er s to o a s a u n i ver s a l; e g b i r d s h a v e wi n g s ; i e a ll : b i d s . .
, . .
,
r

a e n ot
r
q u a d r u e s ; i e n on e
p in c o n t i n e n t ma t t e r

t h e t e r ms pa r t ly ( i e s ome t i me s) a g r e e a n .
g
.
p
. .
,

a t ly n o t
)
( i e

an I
w h e

e
re

,
d r ,
. .
,

n d
n i t e is u n d e s t o o d a s a

s o me foo d ; b i r d s s i
g
p
;
a ti cul a r ; e g

i e
r

s ome
fo o d is n e ce s s a r y t o li fe ; i e
r

o ; b i r d s a r e n o t c a r n i v o r o us ;
n . .
, d . .
, . .
,

me
d
1
i . e .
,
so a r e n o t , o r a ll a r e n o t .

N hi s pr o cee d s upo n a r a di ca l mi st ake of t he n a t ur e a n

o w a ll t

C it i i d
d o ma i n of L og i c L og i c is a pur e ly fo r ma l .

r c z e
s ci e n ce ; it kn o w s n o t hi n g o f it e s t a b li s h e s n o t h
.

in g upo n t he ci r c u ms t a ce s o f t h e ma t t e r t o whi ch it s fo r m ma y
,
n ,

ch a n ce t o b e a li ed T o b e a bl e t o s a t h t
pp y a a .

O th n pp it i e su os on
th in
g 1 8 o f n e ces s a r y i m o s s b l e o r c o n t i n e n t
p g i

f th m d
th t L gi t k
a o _ c a e s co
, ,

d
g
i
n z a n ce o l ma t t e r it is r e q ui s i t e t o g e n er a liz e it s n a t ur e
e o a .
,

it v f bj t o t hi o
fr o m a n ex t en si ve ob ser va t i on ; a t o ma ke it
ec s , s n
ha e i n cu mb en t on t he l og i ci a n t o kn o w t he mod a li t y
v no

o f a ll t h e o bj e ct s t o w hich h is s ci e n ce ma y b e

a
pp li e d is a t o n c e t
, o d e cl a r e th a t L o
g i c h a s n o e x i s t e n ce ; fo r t hi s

c o n di t i o n o f it s e x i s t e n ce is in e v e r y o i n t o f v i e w i m oss i b l e I t
p p .

d
is i mpossi b l e I n a s much a s L o g i c w o uld th us pr e s uppos e a

d
k o wl e d g e o f t h e w h ol e cy cl e of h uma n s ci e n ce ; a n it is impos si
n

b le Be ca us e it is n o t n o w a n n e v e r w ill b e d e t e r mi e d w h a t , ,
n

t hi g s a r e o f n e ces sa y o co n t i n e n t o f o ss i b l e o r i mpo s s i b l e e x i s t
n
g p r r ,

e n ce S pea ki g o f t hi n g s i mpos si b l e in n a t ur e S ir T h o ma s Br o wn
. n ,

d e cl a r e d t h a t it is i mposs ib l e t h a t a q ua d r upe d co uld la y a n egg or

t h a t a q u a d r upe d co uld p o s s e s s t h e b e a k o f a b i r d ; a n in t he a g e d ,
,

o f S ir T h oma s Br ow n t h es e pr opo si t i on s w o uld h a v e sh ow n a s

,

1 E lemen ts f
o L og ik, b ook 1 1 . ch a p . ii . 2 , pp 63 , 64
. .
L E C T . XI V L OGIC 1 83

oo d t i t l e t o ab e r e g a r d e d a s o f i m p o s s i b l e m a tt e r a s s om e o f t h e
g
Wh at ely T he di scov er y of N e w H ol
e x a mpl e s a dd uce d b y D r

d
. .

l a n d a of t h e O r n i t h o hy n ch us h ow e v e r t ur n e d t he i mpossi b l e
,
n r , ,

i n t o t h e a ct ua l ; fo r in t h a t a n i ma l t h er e is fo un d a qu a d r upe d
w hi ch a t o n ce l a y s a n eg g a n p
,

r e s e n t s t he b ill o f a d uck O n t he d ,

p
i
r n ci l e t h e n t h a t L og i c is e x cl us i v e ly co n v e r sa n t a b o ut t he fo r ms
p , ,

d
o f t h o ug h t I h a v e r ej ect e d t h e di st i n ct i on o f pr o po siti o n s a n

d
s l
y
Wh a t e v e r ca n n ot b e
d
,

lo g is ms i n t o pur e a n mo d a l a s e x t r a l o g i ca l ,
- .

st a t e d by A B C is n o t o f l og i ca l i mpor t ; a n
d
, , ,
A B C kn o w , , ,

n o t hi n g o f t h e n e ces s a r y i mposs i b l e a n con t i n g e n t

1
.
, ,

I t ma y b e pr ope r h o w e v e r t o e pl a i n t o y o u t h e me a n i n g of t h r e e
,

t e r ms whi ch a r e u se d in r el a t i on t o P u r e a
M o d a l pr oposi t i on s A pr o po s i t i on is ca ll e
,
x

n d
d
d
E pl x ti f th
an a on o r ee .

dM d
t m
er i
s us e f
A s s er tor y wh en it e n oun ces wh a t is kn o w n a s
r e er e n
,

d
to P ur e l an o a
a ct u a l ; P r o blema ti c w h e n i t e n o un ce s w h a t i s ,
P rop iti os on s

kn o wn a s pos s i b l e ; A p o ei cti c o D emon s tr a r

ti ve w h e n it e n oun ce s w h a t is kn o w n a s n e cessa y
2
r .
,

T he l a s t po i n t of v i e w in w hi ch j ud g me n t s a r e co n s id er e d is t h e i r ,

Re l a t i on t o e a ch o t h e r I n r e s pe ct o f t h e se r e l a
T hi d
.

Jd
t i o n s p o po s i t i o n s h a v e o b t a i e d o m L o g i ci a n s
D i i i
r f v s on o '
,
r n

dd
u gm t R l ti
en s e a on
a r t i cul a r n a me s whi ch h o w e v e r c a n n o t b e u h
t h th p , , ,

d
o eac o er

d
.

er st o o w i t h o ut a t t he s a me t i me r e g a r di n g t h e

o u s b o t h in n a me a n
d d
ma tt e r w hi ch t h e j ud g me n t s co n t a i n A S t he i s t i n ct i o n s o f J u g
me t s a n o f C o n cept s a r e in t hi s r espe ct i a g e a t me a s u e a n a l o
n

n a t ur e it will n o t b e n e ces s a y t o di ct a t e
,
.

,
n r

r
r

g , ,

t h em .

d
Wh en t he ma tt er a n for m of t w o j ud g men t s ar e con sid er e d as
J d gm t
u I ti en s d
t h e s a me t h e y a r e ca ll e d I e ti ca l C o ver ti ble
E u a l o r E u i va len t
en
, d n ,
n

d ,

ch] .
r o os i ti on es i e ti cc
q q e (p p n ,

a r es , con ver t i biles , az u ip ollen tes ;

p q ) on t he op
po

D iffer en t ,

d
S i t e a l t e r n a t i v e, th e y a r e c a ll e d D

i ver s ce) . If con s id er e d in ce r t a i n

if (
er en t
p r

r e s e ct s t he
p
.

d
Rel a t ive l y I d entica l sa me , in ot he rs di ffe e n t th e y a r e
r , ca ll e d R ela

d
.

ti vely I en t i ca l, S i mila r , or G og n a te (p r . r ela

t i ve

be e ih t
i en

er
t i cae,

in t h e
si mi les , a n es
s ub e d ,
cog n a tes

j ct a n compr e h e n si on or in t he p e i ca t e a n
) .

,
T hi s r ese

r d d
mb l a n ce ma y

d
e x t e s i on n I f t h e y h a v e a s i mil a r s ubj e ct t h e i r
.
,

d
D isp a r a te
r e di c a t e s a r e D i s a r a te if i m i
( p )
.

p p i s a r a t a a s ,

D is un ct j .
l a r p e di ca t e th e i r subj e ct s a r e D i sj un ct ( i s
r ,

j u n cta ) .

1 S ee D is cussi on s , p 145 et . s eq . ED .
[ C om ~
L og ik, 19 p . . 72 , an d 23 , p . 79 ; S chulz e ,
pa r e Ba ch ma n n , L og ilc, 73 , p 1 1 5 ; Rich t er ,
. L og i lc, 52 , p .

2 K a n t , L og ik, 30 E . D .
1 84 LoG I c . L E C T . XI V .

Wh j udg men t s differ mer ely in th ei r qua n tity of e x t en

en

s i on an
t wo
t h e o n e is t h er e fo r e a pa t i cul a r t he ,
d , ,
r ,

d d d
S b lt u t a er n a n
o t h e r a g en e r a l t h e y a r e s a id t o b e s ub o di n a t e d
.

, r ,

an t h e i r r e l a ti on is ca ll e d S u bor i n a ti on ( s ubor i n a ti o) T he .

s ub o r di n a t i g ( or a s it mi g ht p e r h a s b e mor e

d
n
p , ,
S b lt t u a e r n a e.
r o e r ly s t yl e d t h e s up er or n a te j ud me n t is
p p i ) g , ,

c a ll e d t h e S uba lter n a n t ( s u ba lter n a n s ) t he subor di n a t e j ud g men t

is ca ll e d t h e S u ba lter n a te ( s u ba lter n a t um )
Wh e n of t wo or mor e j ud g men t s t he on e a fr ms t he ot h er e
,

d ,
.

,
d
f J d
n i es a n w h e n t h e y a r e t h us r e cipr o ca lly di ffer ,

d
d
O p p i ti
e n t in q u a li t y t h e y a r e s a id t o b e Opp os e
os
g on o u
or -

m t en s .
,

t h ei r

C on i cti ve ( p r opp os i tce an .
,

pm
d
r el a t i o n in thi s r e s e ct is ca ll e d 0 T hi
p , o s i ti on
( pp
o os i ti o) s o,p .

p
p g
o s i t i o n is e i t h e r t h a t o f C on tr a i cti on o r R e

u n a n c e ( co n tr a i c ti o i icm
/
w uim )
) o r t h a t o f d ,
ctr o ts ,

C on tr a r iety ( con t a i eta s

r r ,
e va s .

I f n e i t h er con t r a di cti o n n o r co t r a i e t y e x i s t s t h e j ud g me n t s a r e n r ,

Jd
c a ll e d U on g r u en t ( p r con g r uen tes con s on a n tes .
, ,

d
C g ton g r ue n u
I n r e a r d t o t hi s l a s t s t a t e me n t
m t en s .
con s en ti en tes
) g .
,

y o u w ill in l o i ca l b o o ks in
g g e n e al t h a t n ,
r ,
1

S b t y pp i
t h e e is a o s i t i o n o f w h a t a r e ca ll e d S ub
u c on r a r o os
o
ti on .
pp r n

con tr a r i es ( s u bco n tr a r i a ) me a n i n g b y t h e s e ar
p ,

t icul a r pr o pos i t i on s o f di ffer e n t q ua li t y a s fo r e x a mpl e s ome A a r e

B,
n ot
so me A
lea r n e ; d dh y
a r e n ot

an t e
B;
ar e
or , s o

ca
me men
ll e d S
,

u bcon tr a r i es , a s
are
,

lea r n e d
h y
,

t
so

e
,

me men
st a n d
are

s ub

di d it o t he un l
d y it i o n s
d A ll A B,
or n a te ve r s a co n tr a r ro os are no
p p ,

A is B ; A ll men ma n i s lear n e hi s
'

or , are lea r n e ,
no . But t is a

mi s t a ke , t h er e is no o
pp os i t i on t
b e w e e n S ub c o n
a re a l fo r b o t h ma y a t o n ce b e ma i n t a i n e d , a s
il
O pp O S i
t r a r ie s

so
b ot h a t o n c e must b e t r ue if t h e s ome b e a n e g a

d
ti o n o f a ll h e y ca n o t h o we ve r b ot h b e fa l s e T h e oppos i t i on
. T n , ,
.

in t hi s ca s e is o ly a ppa r e n t ; a it w a s pr ob a b ly o n ly l a id d o wn
n
2
n

d
f om a l o v e
r o f s y mme t y in o r d e r t o ma ke o ut t h e O
pp o si t i o o f a ll r ,
n

t he c or n e r s in t he s ua e o f O
q pp os i t i o n which y o u will n i n r ,

a l most e v e y w o r k o n L o i c r
g .

Wh ately
dd d
1 E lemen t s C on imbr i cen sis N
of L og ik, b y D r .
pa rt
,
L og ic a , T
ova r a ctii i D isp . . l li ,
.

K j
dK
1 1 ch a p .
. ii . 3 , p 68 , 3 e it
. . But see S ch e ib 2 , p 12 4 , e . it 1 71 1
. ects ant . e x p r ess l y r e

d
l e r , O p er a L og ica , P a r s iii . c . Xi .
p . 4 87 , e . S ub con t r a r ie ty , L og ik, 50, A n m C o mpa r e .

d
1 665 U l r ich , [ 1 ns ti t L og
. . . et M et , g 1 83 , p . r ug , L og l k, 64 , A n m 4 Br a n iss , G r u n r iss . .

d
190 E D ] . .
er L og i k, p . 1 05 . Be n z in g e r , I n s t it ut ion es
2 F o r w h ich r ea son A r ist o tl e escr ib e s it as L ogi coz , v ol ii . . 71 3 , p 1 38 C a r a muel , p 33
. . . .

an O pp osit ion i n l a n g ua g e , b ut n ot i n r e a l ity .

[ Ra tion a l is et Rea l is P hilos op hia , a uthor e I oa n n e
[ C ompa r e F on seca ,
d C a r a mu el L
d
A n a l P r i or , ii 1 5
. ED . . . . obko wi tz , 8 . Th L . ova n ien s i D oct or e,

I n s tit . D ia lect , L . iii . c. 6 , p 129 , . e . 1 604 . A bba t e ll elr os en s i, L o va n ii , 1 642 E D .

 L EC T . XI V . L O G I C . 1 85

F in a lly, l ti on s of j ud g men t s a r i se fr om wh a t is c a ll e d
i
v a r o us r e a

th e ir C on ver s i on Wh e n t he s ubj e ct a p e di . . n d r

t o thi s w e
C i f P
ca t e in a ca t e g o i ca l pr o po s i t i on ( fo
o n ve r s o n o ro
r r

d
p it i
os on s .

n o w li mit ou r con s id e r a t i o n ) a r e t a spo s e d t h e r n ,

d
r o o s iti on is sa id t o b e c o n v e r t e d t h i t i i it
p p ; e
p po o s o n
g v e n a n s r

r o d uct a e b o t h ca ll e d t h e h r e l a t i o n i t s e l f of
p r
j u i ci a co ver s a ; t e n

r e ci

d
o ca t i o n in whi ch t he j ud me n t s s t a n d is ca ll e d
r C o n ver s i on
p g ,

d d
s o me t i mes O bver s i on a n T r a n sp os i ti on (r ecip r oca ti o con ver s i o , ,

obver s i o tr a n sp os i t i o p B m

m mpl y d
a A , , er or eo t g
,
er a o ,
i o

d i i i ll d
d d
T t
p g j)
t T h e i h
er sse o e o
g v e n
p p
r o o s t o n r s c a
o e t re .

d d
e n ot e the o r ig in al
C on ver te C i ci um, p r op os i t io,
(j

or on ver s e u
c o n ver te

d
an p r op o
s iti ou . p j
r ce a cen s , con ver s a m, con ver s a
) t h e o t er, n t o h i
whi ch it is co v e t e d t h e C on ver ti g ( j u n r , n .
,

d
p r op con ver ten s )
, T h e r e is h o w e v e r mu ch a mb i g ui t y t o s a y t h e
.
, , ,

l ea s t o f it i t he t e ms co mmo n ly e mpl o y e d b y L og i ci a s t o e s
ig a t e t h e t w o pr o po s i t i o s
n

t h e l o g i c a l e l a b or a t i o n
,
n

t h a t g i ve
T he p r ej a cen t a
a

su b
r

t h a t t he pr o d u ct o f
n t ma
n ,
~
n,

dd n
n

j a ce
y p
. a s s b u t n ,

t h e y h a v e b e e n v e y r a r e ly e mpl o y e d T h e t e m p op os i ti o con
r . r r

v er s a t he co n v e r s e o r c on v e r t e d j ud g me n t sp e ci a lly fo t h e o i g i a l
, ,
r r n

p p
d
r o os i t i o i s w o se t h a n a mb i u o us ; it is a
n,
g ppr li
j u g me t s ; it ma y in fa ct mo r e a ppr op i a t e ly d e n o t e t he o t h e
n
e d g
,
e e a lly t o b o t h

,
r
n r

r,

d
it s pr o d u ct t o w hi ch i d e e d it ha s b ut t h r o ug h a b l u d e b e e n
,
n , n r,

a ct u a lly a li e d b A ld r i ch } a h e is f ll w ed f u b
pp y n o o o co se y ,
r ,

Wh a t ely T he or ig in a l pr opos i t i on o ug h t t o b e ca ll e d t he C on ve t
en d or
.

C on ver t i ble (p
m l oy e d
r . con ver ten d a , con ver

fo r t h e pr o po s i t i on , t h e pr o d uct o f
ti bi li s ) .
2
T he t e r m C
r

on

ver ti n g ( con ver ten s

) e
p
0
con v e r s o n , i ma r ks o ut n o t hi n g o f it s p e culi a r

gz gj z zz ;
p w
its
o o

i

c ha r a ct e r . T he e x pr es s i o n p r exp os i ta , a ppli e d .

r on e ous . by A hi s ld r i ch ,
3
Wi t h o u t a w or d of co mme n t , to t
j udg me t is on ly a n o t h e r i n s t a n ce o f his d a i g

d
i g n or a n ce ; fo r t he ph r a se p r exp os i ta ha n ot hi g t o c omme n d
n ,

. d d n re
r n

it in t hi s r e l a ti o n a
b y l o g i ci a n s a n ma t h e ma t i ci a s d
w a s e mpl o y e d in a w h o lly i ffe r e n t me a i g
,
n

I n t hi s e r r or A ld r i ch is fo ll o w e d n .
4
n n

d d dd
d
1 Ru imen ta L og icee , L i c 1 1 . . . . e ia us , to en ote th e sel ect i on of a n in ivi ua l
2 [ S o N oicl ius , p 263 , [ L og ica Recog ni ta , H
. af i n st a n ce w h o se q ua l ities ma y b e pe r ce i ve by

d d d d
n iae , 1 766 E ] ex p o n er e , ob j icer e
. D . sen se s en s a l ) , in
W
dd
3 C r a ka n th or e S an a l lis
p , e r son , a n [ e or er t o pr o ve a g en e r a l r el a t i o n b e t wee n n o

d d d
no min a te th e o r ig in a l p r op os it i on p r co n . t ion s a pp r e h e n e b y t h e i n t e l l ect T h is .

v er s a

d
d
d
m
,

d d
it s p r o u c t p r
t h o r pe , L og ica , L iii .
. con ver t en s

. c
S ee C r a k a n
1 0, p 1 79 ,
.
.

. e . 16 7 7 .
eth o

c o n v e r s i o n of
is u se by A

pr op osit ion s
r ist ot le

an
i n p r o v in g t h e
t h e r e uct i on

d d
S an er s on ,
L og ica , L . ii 0 7 , p 76 ,
. . . e . 1 74 1 . of sy ll og is ms . S e e A n a l P r ior . 1 2; i 6; i 8 . .

W
., . .

d W d d
t h e exp os itum
a l l is , I n s t it u t io L og icce , L . ii . 0 . 7, p . 1 13 , T h e i n st a n ce sel e ct e is ca l l e .

d d
it 1 729
e . . a ll is a l so u ses p r . con ver t en a as
(T b an h en ce s i n g u l a r p r opos it ion s

d
m for p r co n ver s a
d
a sy n o n y . . E D .
] an s l Og is mS a r e ca l le exp os it or y C o mp a r e

dm
.

W
te r m exp os i t ion ( tx S mpl oy e

dW
4 T he
m ea l s
) is e P a cius on A n a l . Pr .
, i . 2, an S ir . H a il
by A r is t otl e, an by ost sub seq uen t I O gi t on
s n ote , Rei
or ks , 696 - ED
s p . . .

24
1 86 L O G I C . L E C T . XI V .

Wh t ly
d
by a e , wh o, like his ab e l p re d e ce ssor ,
is wh olly un v er s e d in
t he li t e a t u e a l a g u g e o f L g i c
r r n n a o .

T h e l og i ci a n s a ft er A i st o t l e h a v e di st i g ui s h e d t wo o r a s w e ma y r n , ,

t a ke it t h e e o r e v e n fo u r spe ci e s of C o v e ,
r , ,
n r

di ti g i h d
s ion
Sp i f C e c es o on v e r
.

d
i
s on by s n u s e
l T h e s t w hi ch is c a ll e d S i mp le o r P u r e r
I gi i
.
o c an s .
,
'
C on ver s i on ( con ver s i o s i mp lex , 7 o pms m 5
p ; eotv

m
d l i wh
m er mi i s r eci r o ca ti u a t it y
)
1
A i h

v, i er st ot e ,
c u t p . s . e
,
t e
q n s ,
n n

d
an u a li ty o f t h e t w o j ud me n t s a e t h e s a me I t h o ld s in U n i r
q g .

v er s a l N e g a t i v e a P a r t i cul a r A f ma t i v e p o pos i t i o s n r r

d n .

ci e s d
2 T he s e c on d w hi ch is ca l le d C on ver s i o by A cci en t ( op er a o

u a l t e e d t he
.

n
p K , n p

cv a e A i s t
,

u a t i t y is r e d u ce d
o t l
e
) i
I
s wh
et ,

h
e n t h
a re
,

q

u a lidt y
o ld s in U i v e r s a l A f ma
r e ma i n i n
g

e oq, r ,
n

,
.

n
q r , t n . n r

t iv e s T h e s e t w o a e t he s pe ci e s o f t h e co n v e r s i on o f pr opo s i t i o s
. r n

a ckn o w l e d g e d b a ll ; t h e y a e e v o l v e d b A r i s t ot l e n o t a s mi g ht
y y r , ,

d
h a ve b e e n e pe ct e d in his t e a t i se O E ou n ceme t b ut in t h e s e c
x ,
r n n n ,

ch a pt e r o f t h e r s t b o ok o f his P r i or A
2
on a l ti cs n
y .

3 T h e t hi d w hi ch is ca ll e d C o ver s i on by C on tr ap os i ti n ( o
. r ,
n o .

d dd
m s i ti on em b o t h b B hi 3
p er opp os i t i o n e o p er co tr a
p o ,y o e t u.s con n , ,

m A l
d d i h i e a d of

d
4
i i

-
t r a p os i ti o p qs w ,
e
vn o r a n e s w o e n s t i (r r eo a
-
,
x r , ,
n

t h e s ubj e ct a n p e di c at e the
q ua t i t y a
q u a li t y r e ma i i
r
g t h e ,
n n n n

s a me t h e e is pl a c e d t h e co n t a di ct o y o f e a ch

d
,
r T hi s h old s in U i r r . n

v e r s a l A f m a t iv e s a n mos t l og i ci a n s a ll o w it in P a r t i cul a N e g a
r ,
r

t iv e s I t is c omme mo r a t e d b y A r i s t o t l e in t h e e i g h t h ch a pt e r o f t h e
.

s e co d b o o k o f his T op i cs

f ro

I
m
n

s
con tr a

h a ll h e re
di
it is t h e e ca ll e d t he i n ver s e con s ecu ti on
i cti on s
me n t
.

on t o y ou so
r

me mn e mo n i c v er ses in w hi ch t h e
d o ct r i n e p d
o f con v e r s o n i is ex r esse .

d d
M mon ic ve r ses ex
Reg a r di g c on v e r s i o n a s li mi t e d t o t h e
ne
n
p r ess in g con ver s i on .

S i mpl e a n A ccid e t a l a e cl udi g a l t o g et h e r n ,

n x n

C on t r a pos t i i on , we h a v e t h e d o ct r i n e con t a i n e d in t he t w o foll o wi n g

v er se s .

1 T ol s 3pors d ur l o r
'
p
'
ec e
p w, A n a l Pr . i . 2,
dd
d
log is mo C a t eg or i co, L . i .
, p 5 87 . .

d T h us con v er s i o

d d
.
,

d
w h en t er m is t h e is i vi ima r il y i n t o 0. s i mp lex an c. p ;
i . e , . e a ch ex a ct eq uiva l e n t e pr f
of th e ot he r . S ee T r en el e n b u r g , E lemen t o con t r a p os it ion e m . A r is t o t l e oe s n ot us e 0
'
m
L og A r is t , . 1 4 ; I n D e A n ima , p 408 ;
. a it z , . W p ,e et t l o g ici
a s s ub s e q u e n
a n s , fo r c i i n ut a . .

I n A r is t O r g , v ol i p 3 73 -E D H e u s es i t ma in l y f or p a r t icu la r i n O pp o s it i o n

d
. . . . . . .

t o u n iver s a l ( S e e A n a l P r i or , i 2 , T h ey

d
2 [ Bo e t h ius see ms t h e r st wh o
g a ve th e
. . .

Wit h
d d
t h u s w r on g in t h ei r u se of t h e w or

d
s a cci
na me of C on ver s io p er A cci en s . h im i t are

d
i s pr o per l y b ot h A mpli a t ive a n Rest r ictive en ta l a n p a r t ia l ]

d d
.
.

dd
( S o Ri ig e r , D e S en s u V er i et F a ls i, pp 250, 3 I n t r o u ct io S y llog is mos C a t eg or i e s ,
.

a an
303 , 2
d e it 1 722 F is ch er L ogi k , p
d
It
D S y llog is mo C a t eg or i co , L i E
. . .
D

dd
, e . . .

is opp os e as a c o n spe cies t o c g en er a l is ; . an

d
b ot h a r e s pec ies of c . si mp lex , w h ich is p O 4 I n A nal. P r ion , ii 1 0b , e it A i
. . 1 520 .

pose to C on tr a p ositi on . S ee O p er a , D e S yl En .
L EC T . XI V .
L oG is . 1 87

E ,
I, mpliciter ver ten o sign a ma n eb un t ;
si d ,

A st A cu m v er t is s ig n a mi n or a ca pe 1
,
.

O is n ot con v er t ib l e .

A d mi tt i n g C o n t r a posi t i on a s a l egi t i ma t e spe ci es of c on ver

i
s on , t he w h o l e d o ct r i n e is e mb o di e d in t he foll o wi n g v er ses b y
P t
e r us H ispa n us

F E c I (F E s I) si mp liciter , co n ver t itur E v A ( E p A ) per A cci d .

2
A st O (A c 0) p er C on tr ap .
; s ic t con ver sio t ota .

O
s it ion s,
r, to

p
co n

r ej a ce n t a n d
d e n se t h e t h r e e ki n d s of co n v er si on wi t h
s ubj a ce n t in a S i g l e li n e ,
n
a ll t he pr opo

S imp ; A

E c on , T I B I ,
. RM I G E RO S ,
A cc. ; A RM A ,
BO N O , C on t .
3

I t ma y b e pr o pe r n ow to
d
make y o u a cq ua i n t e d wi t h ce r t a i n di s
d
o

t in ct io n s o f j u g me n t s a n r o o s i t i o n s , whi ch ,
p p
D ist in ct ion
h o ug h n o t st r t of a log i ca l ch a r a ct e r it is
of P ro
t ic ly ,
p iti
os t t i t ly
on s no s r c
o f i m o r t a n ce t h a t y o u s h o uld b e a w a r e of
l gi l p .

d
o ca .

C o s id e r e d in a ma t er i a l po i n t o f v i e w a ll

n ,

j ud g me t s a r e in t he r st pl a ce di st i n g ui sh e d i n t o T heor eti ca l a n
n , ,

Th ti l
e ore d P
P r a cti ca l
ca an
T h eor e t i ca l a r e s uch a s d e cl a r e t h a t
a ce t a i n ch a r a ct e r b e l o
r ac

g s or d o e s n ot b e l on g
r
.

n
ti lca .

t o a ce t a i n o bj ect ; P r a cti ca l s u ch a s d e cl a r e r ,

t h a t s ome t hi n g c a n b e or o ug ht t o b e d o n e b r o ug h t t o b e a r
d

.
,

T h e o r e t i ca l a s w e ll a s p a ct i ca l j ud g me n t s a e e i t h e r I n emon
,
r ,
r

I d d w h en th e y o n ot r equi r e a n wh en t h ey a r e
s tr a ble wh en t h e y a r e e v id e t of t h e ms e l v e s

d d
n
,
m
n t bl
e on s r a e an

D m
,
e t bl
on s r a e.
i n ca pab l e of p oo f : or th e y a e D emon s tr a ble r r ,

w h e t h e y a e n o t i mme di a t e ly a ppa e n t a s t ue o r fa l s e b ut r e q ui r e
n r r r ,

d
so me e t e r n a l r e a s o n t o est a b li s h t h e i r t ut h o r fa l s e h o o d

x r .

I d e mo n s t r a b l e pr o po s i t i on s a r e a b so l ut e pr i n cipl e s ( px p r i n


n a t,

cip ia
); t h a t i s fr o m w hi c h in t h e c o n
,
s t r u cti on o f a s y s t e m o f
s ci e ce cog n i t i o n s a l t og e t h e r c e r t a i n n o t o n ly a r e
n ,

d er i ve d D e mo n s t a b l e pr opos i t i o n s on t he o t h er h a n ca n a t
. r
b ut mus t b e

b e s t c o n s t i t ut e o n ly r e l a t i v e pr i n ci pl e s ; t h a t is s uch a s t h e ms e l v e s
,
,

d
, ,

, , ,

r e ui i n a hi h er r i n ci l e fo r t h e i r w a r r a n t ma t ff d t h
q g r
g p p y y e a o r e ,

b a s i s o f s un d r y ot h e r pr opo si t i o n s

.

1 [ G iv en b y C h a uvin , L e a: P hi l .
, v . C on ver s io . T a r t a r etus , E xp osi ti o in S u mmula s P etr i H is
B en z in g e r , I n s t i t ut ion es L og i caa, i i .
pa n i , T r a ct . i .
, f 9 b
. . E D .
]

d
2 S e e P e t r us H is a n u s
p p 9 , [ S ummulae, .
,

T r a ct i , pa r tie 4 , f 9 , e
. . 1505. C f P et r us
. . . . 3
[ H isp a n us, S ummulce , l . c. C ha uvin , l . c. )
1 88 LEC Kl r

L oG 10 . T . .

i n d e mon st r abl e pr opos i t i o n s b e o f a t h e or et i ca l ch a a ct e r

I f t he r ,

A i m
x o d P t s
t h e y a r e ca ll e d A x i o ms ; if o f a pr a ct i ca l ch a r a c
an
te P os tu la tes
os u
T h e fo r me a r e p i n ci pl e s o f
r, . r r
l t
a es.
i mme di a t e cer t a i n ty ; t he l a tt er pr i n cipl es o f ,

i mme di a t e a ppli ca t i on
d

.

D e mo n s t a b l e p opo s i t i o n s if of a t h e o r e t i ca l n a t ur e a r e ca ll e
r r , ,

Th m d
e or e P b
T h eor ems ( theo ema ta ) ; if of a p a ct i ca l P r ob
lems ( p r oblema ta )
s an ro
T he for me r a s p o po s i t i o n s
r

.
,
r

r
,

l m

d
e s.

o f a me di a t e ce r t a i t y r e ui r e r oof ; t h ey
q p n , ,

t h e efo r e co s i s t o f a T hes i s a
r ,
n it s D emon s tr a ti on ; t he l a tt e r a s
o f me di a t e a ppli ca t i o n s uppo se a Q u es ti on ( q uc e s ti o) a n
,
n

it s S olu d
,

t i on

A S s
p ec es i of t he fo ego i n g th er e
r , li ke wi se di st i n g ui s h e d
a r e, ,

C or olla r i es ( con s ecta r i a cor olla r i a

) t h at i
,s , ,
C o r oll a r ie s .
r o o s i t i o n s w hi ch o w wi t h o ut a n e w oo f
p p p
,
r ,

o ut of t h eo re ms o r po s t ul a t es p e v i o us ly d e mo n s t r a t e d
r P o po s i . r

ti on s w h o se v a lidi t y r est s o n ob s e r v a t i on o e r x
E pe r imen t a l P
e r imen t a r e ca ll e d E xp er i en ti a l E x p er i men ta l
x r op o

siti on s .
p ,

p r op os i ti on s em
( p i r ema ta, exp er i en ti ae, exp er i
men ta ) . H yp othes es , t h a t is, pr o po s i t i o n s w hi ch a r e a s s ume d w i t h
r ob a b ili t y , in o r d e r t o e x l a i n or r o v e s o me
p p p
H y poth eses
thi n g el se whi ch ca n n ot o t h e r wi se b e e x pl a i e d
.

o r pr o v e d L emma ta t h a t is pr o po s i t i on s b o r r o w e d fr o m a no t h e r
.
, ,

s ci e n ce in o r d e r t o se r v e a s s ub s idi a r y pr o pos i
,
L mm t e a a.
ti on s in t he s ci e n ce of whi ch w e t e a t F i n a lly r .

d
,

S choli a th a t is pr opos i t i on s whi ch o n ly s er ve a s ill us t r a t i o n s o f

, ,

wh a t is con sid e r e d in chi ef T he cl e a r e st a n .

S h li c o a.
mos t a ppr opr i a t e e x a mpl e s of th e se v a r i o us
ki n d s of pr opos iti on s a r e g i ven in ma t h e ma t i cs
1
.

l E sser , L og ic, 5 79, pp . 147, 148 E D

. .
[ C ompar e K rug , L og ik, 6 7,
 LEC T URE X V .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N I I .
- O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I II T H E
. D O C T RI N E O F RE A S O N IN G S .

RE A S O N I N G I N G E N E RA L S YL L O G I S M S T H E IR D IV I S IO N S A O

C O RD I N G T O I N T E RN A L F O RM .

an d
IN
n ow
my
p r o ce e
l a st
t
L
d t
t er mi n at e d th e D oct r i n e of J ud g men t s
ec ur e ,

o t h a t of Re a s on i n g s
I
.
,

Wh e n the n e ce ss ity of t h e j un ct i on or s epar a t i on of a c er t a i n

d

,

s ubj e ct n o t i on a n a cer t a i n
-
p r e di c a t e t i i s
Th t f i g
n o o n

n o t ma n i fe s t fr o m t h e n a t u r e o f th es e n o t i on s
e ac o r e a s on n

wh t a .

th emse lv e s ; b ut wh e n a t t h e s a me t i me w e a r e , ,

d esi r ous of kn o wi n g wh e th er t h e y mus t b e th oug ht a s i n cl usi v e or

a s e x cl u s i v e o f e a ch o t h e r in t hi s ca se w e n , O u r s e l v e s in a ,
d ,

s t a t e o f d o ub t o r i n d e ci s i o fr o m our i g n o r a n ce of w hi ch of t h e
n,

t w o co n t a di ct or y pr e di ca t es mus t b e a f me d o r d e n i e d o f t h e sub
r r

B ut t hi s d o u b t c a n b e di s si pa t e d t hi s ig o a n c e ca n b e
j e ct .
,
n r

r e mo v e d o l y in o n e w a y o n ly b r o d u ci n n u s a n e ce s s i t y
,
n
y p , g -i
t o co

p g u na t
nne ct w i t h

p
n r e di c a t e s A
,

s i ce

a t l ea s t d o e s n ot i mme di a t e ly
. n d
or di sco n n e c t fr o m t he s ubj ect on e of t h e r e

ex hyp oth esi t hi

n s ,

a r i s e fr o m t h e s i m l e kn o w l
,

n e cess i t y d o e s ,

n ot , p
e d g e o f t h e s ubj ect in i t s e lf o r o f t he pr e di ca t e in i t s e l f, o r o f b o th
,

e t e r n a l s o ur ce
x an ,
d
t og e t h er in t h e mse l ves it foll o ws th a t it mus t b e d e i v e d f o m s ome
,

d e i ve d it ca n on ly b e if d er i v e d f om s ome
r

o t h e r kn o wl e d e w hi ch a ffo d s us a s it s n e cessar y co n s e ue n c e t h e
r
,
r

,
r

g , q, ,

r e mo v a l o f t h e d o ub t o r i g i n a lly h a r b o e d But if t hi s k o wl e d g e r . n

h a s fo r it s n e ce s s a r y co n s e q ue n ce t he r e mo v a l o f t h e o i g i n a l d o ub t r ,

d
thi s kn ow l e d g e mus t st a d t o t he e x i st i n g d o ub t in t he r el a t i on of
n

d
a g e n e a l r ul e ; a
r a s e v e r y r ul e is a j ud men t it w ill co s ti t ut e a
n , g ,
n

g e n er a l
p p o os i t
r

d
i o n

ily
B ut

u
a

i
g e n er a l r ul e d o e s n o t s i m ly a
.

i t s el f r ea ch t o t he r e mov a l o f d o ub t a n i n d e ci si on ; t h e r e is r e
ui r e d a n c r e d ov er a n b thi f
p

th k
o

wl
f
d
d
n

q , n e es s a r r e q a o v e s, u r e r n o
 1 90 L oG I c . c r . XV .

e d g e th a t t he r ul e h a s r ea lly a n a ppli ca ti o or wh a t is th e s a me n , ,

t hi n g th a t t h e d o ub t r e a lly s t a n d s u n d er t h e g e n e r a l p op o s i t i on a s
,
r
,

a c a s e whi ch c a n b e d e cid e d b y it a s b y a g e n e a l r ul e

t h e g e n e a l r ul e h a s b e en di s co v e e d a n
r
But w h e n
wh e n it s a ppli ca t i on t o r ,
d r .

d d
t he d o u b t h a s li ke w i s e b e e n r e cog n iz e d t h e s o l ut i o n o f t he d o ub t
i mme i t e ly f ll o ws a n t h e r e wi t h t h e d e t e r mi a t i on of w hi ch o f
a o ,
,

s ubj e ct ; a
n

d
t he co t r a di ct o y pr e di ca t es mu s t o r mu s t n ot b e a f me d o f t h e

t hi s d e t e mi a t i o
n
r

n e ss o f n e ce s s i t y o r a b sol ut e c e r t a i t y
is a cco mpa n i e d w i t h a co s ci o us
r n

A si mpl e e x a mpl e will

n

n .
l
r

W
I ll t t d
l a ce t he ma t t e r in a cl e a r e r li h t h n t he
p g e .

dd
by
us r a e
n o ti o o f t he s ubj e ct ma n is g i v en a l o wi h
a n ex
n
g t n
a mpl e .

t he co t r a di ct o y p e di ca t e s f ee a g en t a n
n r
n eces r r

sa r a e n t t h e r e a r i se s t h e d o ub t wi t h w hi ch of t h es e c o n t a ic
y g , ,
r

t o y p e di ca t e s t he s ubj e ct is t o b e co n n ect e d ; fo r a s co n tr a di ct o y
r r

t h e y ca n o t b o t h b e a f me d of t h e s ubj e ct a n
n r a s con t r a di ct o y ,
d ,

,
r

r
,

d
t h e o e o r t h e o t h er mus t b e s o a f r me d ; i o t h e r w o d s I d o ub t
n n r ,

wh et h er ma n b e a f ee a g en t or n ot T he n ot i on ma n a n t h e
r e u n an t
p g o t i o n s fn r e e a g e n t a

s e l v e s a ffo r d a s o l ut i o n o f t he d o ub t ; a
n e ces s a r
r

y g a e nt o n ot in

I mus t e n d ea v o r t o is
d d d d
t h e m
.

n
,
,

,
n

c o v e r s o me o t h e r n ot i o n whi ch wil l e n a b l e me t o d e cid N ow e. ,

n e ct e
n

d
t a ki g t he p e di ca t e f r ee a g en t t hi s l ea d s me t o t h e cl o s e ly co n
n o t i o n mor a ll
y
r

r es on s i ble a g en t w hi ch l e t it b e s u
p
th a t I o t h e wi s e kn o w t o b e n e ces sa r ily a f ee ag e n t I t h us o b t a i n
r
,

pp os e d ,

r
,

t h e pr o pos i t i on E ver y mor a lly r esp on s i ble a g en t i s a f r ee a g en t

, .

But t hi s p opos i t i o n d o e s n o t o f i t s elf con t a i n t h e s o l ut i o n of t h e

r

d oub t ; for it ma y st ill b e a ske d D oe s t he n ot i on mor a lly r esp on s i ble ,

a en t co n s t i t u t e a r e di ca t e w hi ch a e r t a i n s t o t h e n o t i o n o f ma n
g p pp ,

t h e s ubj e ct ? T hi s q ues t i o n is s a t i s e d if it is r e cog n iz e d t h a t t h e ,

n o t i o n ma n i n v o l v es in it t h e n o t i o n o f a m or a ll r esp on s i ble a g en t
y .

d
I ca n t h en s a y M a n i s a mo a lly r esp on s i ble a g en t
,
T h e se t w o
r .

p p
t he
ro o si t i o s b e i n

r
n
g t h u s fo r me d a n a
pp li
e mo v a l o f t hi s d o ub t fo ll o w s o f i t se l f; a
e d t o t h e s u b s i s ti n
g d
in pl a ce o f t h e
r e v i o u s i d e ci s i o n w h e t h e r ma n b e a f e e a e n t o r n o t t h e e fo l
o ub t

n d ,
,

p n , g r ,
r

l o ws wi t h t h e co sci ousn e s s of n e ce ssi t y or a bsol ut e cer t a i n t y t he

, n ,

c on e ct e d j ud me n t t h a t M a n i s a ls o a e wh ol e
'
n
g f r ee a g en t T h .

r o ce s s t h e wh o l e se r i e s o f j ud me n t s will t n d th us :
p g s a

E ver y mor a lly r esp on si ble a gen t is a f r ee a gen t ;

M an is a mor a lly r esp on si ble a gen t ;
T her efor e, ma n is a f r ee a gen t .

L et us C on s id er in wh a t re a l ti on t he differ en t c on stit uen t par s of t

1 E sser , L og ik, 82 , p 153 . .
L E C T . XV . L O G IC . 1 91

thi s p c
r o es s s a n t dh er I
ce s s c o n s i s t s of th r e e n o t i on s a n
ea c
'
t h ei
h
t is ev id en t th a t t h e w h ol e pr o
to ot

mut ua l
.

d r

r e l a t i on s T he t h r e e n o t i on s a r e f r ee a g en t
d d d
Th mpl g i
e ex a e ven .
, ,

i a R i g i fh e
ma n T h e i r mut ua l r e l a
r esp on s i ble a g en t a n
s e a s on n n
.
,

dm y b pm
d
wh l o e f E to x en s i on ,
t i o n s a r e a ll t h o s e o f wh ol e a n p ar t a n w h ol e

t d
e R ,
an a .

b y th i l an a r t in t h e q u a n ti t y o f e x t e n s i o n ; fo r t he
s en e r ee c r c es .
p

n ot i o n r esp on s i ble a g en t a n d
n o t i o n f r ee a g en t is s ee n t o c on t a i n un d e r it t he

t h e n o t i o n r esp on s i ble a g en t t o co n t a i n
,

u d e r it t he n o t i o n ma n
n T h us t h e s e t h r e e n o t i on s a e li ke t h r e e
.
,
r

a oth er ; a n
n d
c i cl e s o f t h e e v a i o us e x t e s i o n s s e v e r a lly c on t a i n e d o n e w i t hi n
r r

it is e v id e t t h a t t h e pr o ce s s b y whi ch w e r e cog iz e
t h a t t h e n a r r o w es t n o t i o n ma n is co n t a i n e d un d e r t h e w id e s t
n ,
n ,

, ,

n o t i o n r esp on s i ble a g en t is pr e ci s e ly t h e s a me b w hi c h w e s h o uld

, y ,

r eco n iz e t he i n mos t ci r cl e t o b e c o n t a i n e d in t h e o ut mo st if w e
g ,

w e e o n ly s uppo s e d t o kn o w t h e r e l a ti on o f t h e s e t og e t h e r b y t h e i r
r

r e l a t i o n t o t h e middl e ci cl e L e t A B 0 d e n ot e r .

a n d
t he t h e e ci r cl e s
r N o w ea: hyp othes i w e kn o w
o n ly kn o w t h a t A c o n t a i n s B a n
,
.

t a i s C ; b ut a s it is a s el f ev id e n t p in cipl e t h a t a
n
_

t h a t B co n
,

-
,

r
d , ,

d
ar t of t he a r t is a a r t o f t he w h ol e w e ca n n o t
p p p , ,

t ai e n d
w i t h o ur kn o wl e d g e t h a t B con t a i n s C a n is co n
in A a v o id r ecog n izi n g t h a t C is co n t a i e d in A
, T hi s is
,

n .

r e i se ly t h e c a s e w i t h t h e t h r e e n o t i o n s n t r esp on s i ble
p c
f r ee a
g e ,

d
ma n n ot kn o w in h e r el a t i o n b e t w e e n t he n o t i o s
a g en t t f
'

, g r ee n

d
a g en t a ma n b ut kn o w i g th a t f r ee a g en t co n t a i n e d un d e it
n ,
n r

r esp on s i ble a g en t a t h a t r esp o n s i ble a g en t co t a i e d u n d er it

,
n n n

ma n w e upo n t he p i n ci pl e t h a t t he pa t of a pa r t is a pa r t of t he
, ,
r r

w h ol e a r e co mpe ll e d t o t hi k a s a n e cessa y c on s e q ue n ce t h a t
,
n ,
r ,

n t c on t a i n s u n d e r it ma n I is t h us e v id e t t h a t t he
f r ee a
g e t pro . n ,

c e s s sh o w n in t h e e x a mpl e a dd u c e d is a me r e r e co g n i t i on o f t h e

r e l a t i o n o f t h r e e n o t i o n s in t he q ua t i t y of e x t e n si o n o ur k o w l n ,
n

e d g e o f t he el a t i o o f t w o o f t h e s e n o t i o n s t o e a ch o t h e
r n b e i n g ot r n

g i v e n i mme di a t e ly b ut ob t a i e d th r o ug h o ur kn o wl e d e of t h e i r
, g n

r e l a t i o n t o t h e thi d r .

But l e t u s c o n s id e r t hi s pr o cess a li t t l e cl o se r T h e r el a t i o n s o f .

t h e t h r e e n o t i on s in t h e a b o v e e x a mpl e a e , ,
r

Th e i g f
r ea s o n n t h o s e g i v e n in t h e q ua n t i t y of Br e a d t h o r E x
o

m my b
h ib it d
E t
t en s i o n But e v e y n o t i o n h a s n o t o ly a n
X en s n a e
. r n
ex i C m
e n o pr e
E b ut l1k e W1 s e
o

_ t his x t e n s r ve , an I n t e n sn u an ti t

d
e,
h en sio n ill us q y

d
,

t r a te .
ly a qua n tity in b r e a d t h b ut a q ua n
n ot on ,

t i t y in d e pt h ; a n t h ese t w o q u a n t i t i es s t a n d t o
ea c h o th er , as we h a ve s e e n a l wa y s in a d e t er mi n a t e r a ti o t he
,
1
,

1 S ee a b ove p 1 04. . ED .
,
1 92 L O G I C . L E C T . XV

ra ti o i n v er si on I t w ould th er e for e appear a p r i or i t o b e a

of .
, , , ,

n e ce s s a r y r e s um t i o n t h a t if n o t i o n s b e a r a ce r t a i n r e l a t i o n t o
p p ,

e a ch o t h e r in t he o n e q ua n t i t y t h e y mu s t b e ar a c oun t e r r e l a t i o n t o
,

e a ch o t h e r in t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t y ; co n s e q u e t ly t h a t if w e a r e a b l e n , ,

u n d e r t h e q u a n t i t y o f e x t e n s i o n t o d e d u ce fr o m t h e r e l a t i o n s o f ,

t w o n ot i o n s t o a t hi r d t h e i r r el a t i on t o ea ch o t h er a cor r e s po n d e n t ,

e v o l ut i o n mu st b e co mpet e n t o f t h e s a me n ot i o n s in t h e q u a n t i t y ,

o f c o mpr e h e n s i o n

b e w a a t e d a p os ter i or i a n
rr n b y e x per i me n t a n wh e t h er in t h e
,
d
L e t u s t r y w h e t h e r t hi s t h e o r e t i ca l p es umpt i o n
.

,
d
d
r

e x a mpl e g i v e n t h e pr ocess ca n b e i n v er t e d a n
,
t h e s a me r es ult ,

ob t a i n e d with t h e s a me n e c e s s i t y T h a t ex a mpl e a s in e x t e n s i on .
, ,

wa s
A ll r esp on sible a gen ts a r e fr ee a gents ;
B ut ma n is a r esp onsi ble a gen t ;

T her ef or e, ma n is a f r ee a gen t .

In o th er w or d s t h e n o t i on r esp on s i ble a g en t is c on t a i n e d un d er
,

t h e n o t i o n f r ee a g en t ; b ut t h e n o t i o n ma n is co n t a i n e d u d e r t he n

n ot i on r esp on s i ble a g en t th er efo r e o t h e pr i ci pl e th a t t h e pa t ,

n n r

o f a p a r t is a p a r t o f t h e w h o l e t h e n o t i o n ma n is a l s o c o n t a i e d ,
n

u n d e r t h e n o t i o n f r ee a g en t N o w o n t he g e e a l d o ct i e o f t h e
.
,
n r r n

r e l a t i o n o f t h e t w o q u a n t i t i e s w e mu s t if w e w o uld o b t a i n t h e , ,

s a m e r es ul t in t h e com e h e n s i v e whi ch is h e r e o b t a i e d u d e r t h e
p r n n

d
e x t e n s iv e q u a n t i t y i n v e t t h e w h ol e p oces s t h a t is t he n o t i o s
,
r r , ,
n

whi ch in e t e n si on a r e wh ole s b e co me in co mpr eh en s i on pa r t s a

x ,
n

t h e n o t i o s w hi ch in t h e for me r a e p a r t s b e co me in t h e l a t t e
n r ,
r

w h ol e s .T h u s t h e n o t i on f r ee a g en t whi ch i n t h e e x a mpl e g i v e n , , ,

d
w a s t he g e a t e s t wh o l e b e co me s in t h e co u t er pr o cess t h e s ma ll
r , ,
n
,

e st ar t a n t h e n ot i o m w h i ch w a s t h e s ma ll e s t a t n ow
p , a n n
p ,
r ,

b eco me s t h e g r e a t e s t wh ol e T h e n o t i o n r esp on s i ble a g en t r e ma i s

. n

t he middl e q u a n t i t y o r n o t i on in b o t h b ut it s r e l a t i on t o t h e t w o ,

o t h e r n ot i o n s is r e v e r se d ; w h a t w a s fo me r ly it s ar t b ei n ow r
p g n

it s w h ol e w h a t w a s for me ly it s w h o l e b e i n g n o w it s pa t
, r T he r .

r oc ess will t h e e fo r e b e th us e x li ci t ly e o un ce d
p ,
r
p ,
n

ma n d
d
T he n otion co mp r ehen s i n it the notion r esp o n si ble a gen t ;
B ut the n otion r esp o nsi ble a en t co
g mp r ehen s in it the notion f r ee a gen t ;

d
T her ef or e, on the p r i n cip le tha t the p a r t of a p a r t is a p art f
o the whole, the notion ma n
a lso co mp r ehen s i n i t the notion f r ee a gent .

O r, in co mmon l an g uag e
M an is a r esp ons ible a en t
g ;
B ut a r esp on si ble a en t
g is a f r ee a gen t ;
T her ef or e, ma n is a f r ee a gen t .
L E C T . XV . L 0G 1c . 1 93

T hi s r ever s e d pr o c ess in t h e qua n tity of c ompr e h en si on g i ves it is , , ,

e v id e t t h e s a me r e s ult a s it g a v e in t h e q u a n t i t y o f e x t e n s i on
n , .

F o r o n t h e suppo s i t i on t h a t w e did n ot i mme di a t e ly kn o w t h a t t he

, ,

n ot i on ma n co m r e h e n d e d f r ee a g en t
p
co mpr e h e n d e d r es on s i ble a g en t a n

r eh e d e d
p th
b ut r e cog n iz e d t h a t ma n

a t r esp on s i ble a g en t co m

r ee a en t w e n ece s s a r ily a r e co m e ll e d t o thi n k in t h e

,
d ,

p f n
g p , ,

e v e t o f t hi s r e c o n i t i o n t h a t t h e n o ti on ma n c om r e h e n d s t h e
n
g p ,

n o t i on f r ee a en t
g .

I t is o ly n e ce ssa r y fur t h er t o ob s er v e th a t in t h e on e pr ocess

n , ,

Th
t en ?
s
e d

d
1mdmi 00

an
t h a t t o w it in ex t e n s i o

dmp comp r ehen s in T h us t he pr oposi ti on G o

con ta i n e
co
n ex

r e'
t he 00pul a i s me a s i s
u n er wh e r e a s in t h e o t h e r it me a s
, ,

.
,
n,

,
,

,
n

d
,

d dd
hen si on f t o a coun er
i s mer c l i ew e d a s i y
m i g
ea n n ifu V t h e o n e
q u a n t i t s 1
g ,
n ,

d d d
.

n i e s G o i s con ta i n e u er mer cifu l t h a t is n

, ,

t h e n o ti on G o is c o n t a i n e d u d e r t h e n ot i on mer cifu l; v i e we d a s n

d d
in t h e o t h er me a n s G o comp r ehen s mer cifu l t h a t is t he n ot i on
C o comp r ehen s i n i t t h e n o ti o n mer ciful
, ,

N o w t hi s pr oce ss o f t h oug h t ( of whi ch I h a v e en d e a v o r e d t o

.
, ,

g i ve
y o u a
g e n e r a l n o t i on
) is ca ll e d R ea s on i n g ; b ut it h a s li ke ,

w i se ob t a i n e d a v a r i et y o f ot h e r d e si g n a t i on s
, T h e d e n i t i o n of
.
.

t hi s p oce ss with it s pr i n cipa l d en omi n a ti on s I s h a l l i n cl u d e in t he

r , ,

foll ow i n g par a g r a ph .

1T L E I Re a s on i n g is a n a ct of me di a t e co mpa r i son or

Jud g me n t ; for to r e a son is t o r e co

g n iz e

d
P ar o I m -D
-
th a t t w o n oti on s st a n d t o e a ch o t h er in t he
e n i t iw
of the p r o ce s s of
r e l a t i o n o f a w h ol e a n l ts
p a r t s t h r ou h
g
dm
R w
e a s on in g , ith the ,

i i o n th a t th e s e n o t i o n s s e v e r a lly
d st a n d in t he sa me r el a t i on t o a t hi r d C on
t
p r in ci p a l en o in a
a r eco
g n ,

ddd
m
li g
l p ee an
.
n

d
.

si e r e a s a n a ct Re a s o n i n o r D i sco ur s e
g , ,

O f Re a s on ( b h
i S h y w p b iT m b o 3 3 0 i
eas li ke a t
, o s, a l/ o , T i a l/ 0 6 0 01 , ,

w i se ca ll e d t he a ct o r p oce ss of A r g umen ta ti on ( a r g u men ta

, r

ti on i s ) ,
I lla ti on
dd d of R a ti oci n a ti on
( nf en i) ,
i er of
( ra

C ollecti n g
ti oci n a ti on i s

( collig en d
) , of

i) , of
I n
f er en ce

C on clu i n g d or

(
d b a r b a r ous ly
con clu i) , of S y llog i s i n g hhoy iec
( 6 -

en 7 0 ov ai
,

d
'

s y llog i s a n i) . T h e t e r m R ea s on i n g is,
like wi s e g i v en t o t he ,

r o d uc t o f t h e a ct i i thi
p ; a n a r ea so n n
g n s s en s e
( r a ti oci

n a ti o r a ti oci n i u m , is like wi se ca ll e d a n A r g umen ta ti on

)
, , ,

( g
a r u m en ta ti o) a l s o f e ue n t ly a n A r u men t a r u men tu m
q g ( g )
,
r
, ,

d lly
I f er en ce I lla ti on ( i ll ti o) ; a C ollecti on
an n or a
( collecti o
) ,
a

C on clu s i on
( con clus i o, cr v w a o a
n p n ) ; a n , n a , a S y llog ism
( a v M o w bs
y p ) .
 1 94 L O GIC L E C T XV

d
. .

A fe w w or d s in
E x plica ti on .
ex
pl a n a ti on o f th e se will suf c e ; a n

t h e t hi n g a n
mes
d r st

it s d en i t i on th er e a ft er of ,
, , of

it s
na .

In g re ar d to t h e a ct o f Rea son i n g,
thi n
g c a n b e m or e e r r no
on e ous

t h a n t h e o r di n a y di st i n ct i on of t hi s pr o ce s s a s
d
r
,

d
1 Th A t f R
t h e oper a ti o n of a fa cu l t y i ffe r e n t in ki n d fr om
. e c o eas

d
on n i g
t h o se of J u d g men t a n C on c ept i o n
.

C on cep s

ti on J ud g me n t a n Rea son i n g a r e in r ea li t y on ly v ar i o us a pplic a

, , ,

t i o n s o f t h e s a me s i mpl e fa cu l t y th a t of C o mpa r i son o r J ud g me n t , .

I h a v e e n d e a v or e d t o s h o w th a t co n cept s a r e mer e ly t he r e sult s ,

r e n d er e d r ma n e n t b l a n ua e o f a r e v i o us r oce s s o f c o m a i
p e
y g g p p , p r

so n ; t h a t j ud me n t is n o t hi n
g g b u t c o mpa r i s on o r t h e r e s ul t s o f

c ompa r i s on in it s i mme di a t e o r s i mpl er fo r m ; a n n a lly t h a t r ea s

o n i n g is n ot hi n
,

b ut c o m a r i s o n in it s me di a t e o r mor e co m l ex
d
,

, ,

g p p
lic a t i on I i th r e fo e a l t o e t h e r e r r o n eo us t o ma i n t a i n a s is
1
a
pp t s. e , g r , ,

co mmon ly d o n e t h a t a r eason i n g o r s yll og i s m is ,

A i g i
a me r e d e co mpo un d wh ol e ma d e up o f j ud
r e a son n s on e

or gan ci w h l o e.
g ,

men t s ; a s a j ud g men t is a compoun d w h ol e ,

d
ma d e up of con c e pt s T hi s is a mer e me ch a n i ca l mo d e o f cl ea vi n g
.

t h e me n t a l ph e n ome n a i n t o pa r t s ; a n h old s t he sa me r el a t i on t o a
e n ui n e a a ly s i s o f mi d w hi ch t h e a ct of t h e b ut ch e r d o e s t o t h a t
g n n

d d
o f t h e a n a t o mi s t I t is t r ue i n d e e d t h a t a s yll og i s m ca n b e s e pa
.
, ,

r a t e d i n t o th e e a r t s or r o o s iti o n s ; a n t h a t t h es e r o o s i t i on s
p r
p p p p
h a v e a ce r t a i n me a n i n g wh e n co n sid er e d a pa r t a n out of r el a t i o n
, ,

t o e a ch ot h er
'

n i ca n ce w hi ch th e y h a d
But wh e n t h us co n s id e r e d t h e y l ose t h e w h o l e sig
.
,

w h en u n i t e d in a r e a s o n i n g ; for t h e i r
wh ol e sig n i ca n ce con si st e d in t h ei r r e ci pr oca l r e l a t i on in t he
,

lig ht w hi ch t h e y mut ua lly r e ect e d on e a ch ot h er We ca n cer

d
'

t a in ly h e w d o w n a n a n i ma l b o dy i n t o pa r ts a n c on sid er it s me m ,

d
b e s a par t ; b ut th ese t h o ug h n ot a b s ol ut ely v o id of a ll me a n i n g
r ,
,

p r i n ci a l a
p p e c
n u li
cie n t s of a o n e o r g a n i c a n
d
wh e n v i e we d si n g ly an o ut of r el a t i o n t o th ei r wh ol e h a v e l o st t he
a r

d s i g n i c a n ce w hi c h t h e y p oss e s s e d a s t h e co ef

i n di vi s ib l e wh ol e I t is th e s a me w i t h .
,

an d
a s yll o i s m
g T h e .
p a r t s whi c h in th e i r or a n i c un i o n pos s esse d li fe
g
i mpor t a n ce wh en s epa r a t e d fr om e a ch oth er r ema i n o ly e n un
,
, ,

cia t io n s o f v a ue e n e r a li t i e s o r o f fut il e id e n ti t i e s T h o ug h w h e n
g g ,
.
,

p ar ts a n , t o d
e x pr e ss e d in l a n u a e it b e n e ces s a r y t o a n a lyz e a r e a s o n i n g i n t o

s t a t
g g
e t h e se p a r t s o n e a ft e r
,

a n o t h e r it is n ot t o b e su
p ,

p o s e d th a t in th o u ht o n e n o t i o n o n e
g p p
r o

o r a ft e r a n o th e r ; for in co n s ci ou s n ess t h e th r ee n o ti on s a n
,

r e ci r oc a l r e l a ti on s c on s tit ut e o n ly on e id en tic a l a n
o s iti o n is kn o w n b e for e
,

th e ir
,

si mult a n e ous
,

d d
p
cog n iti on .

1 S ee ab ove, pp 83, 97 E D
. . .
 LEC T . XV . ,
L O G I C . 1 95

T he l og i ci a n s h a v e i n d ee d a ll tr e a t e d t he syll og i sm a s if thi s
-

w e r e n ot t he ca s e T h e y h a v e c on sid e r e d on e .

d
E f l gi i i
r o os i t i on a s n a t ur a lly t he l a st in e x r es s i o n
rr o r o o c a ns n

th i t e r tm t f t h
r ea en
p p o e
p ,

S y ll g i m
o s .
a n t hi s t h e y h a v e a c c or di n g ly c a ll e d t h e con

elu s i on ; whil s t t he o th e r t w o a s n a t ur a lly g o i n g ,

b efo r e t he o t h e r t w o t h e y h a v e styl e d t he p r emi s es fo r mi n g t o

g e t h e r wh a t t h e y ca ll t he a n tece en t

a l s o c on s id e r e d a s t h e o n e t h e
T
r ea t e r
h e

m
t
,

w o
p r e mi s e s th e y h a v e

e o t h e r t he l es s
d .
,

g ( j )
a or t h ,

m x cl us i v e r e fe r e n ce t o t h e on e tity f e x t e n si o
( i n or
) y b e , q u a n o n .

A ll t hi s h o w e v e
,
,
is in my v i e w c o mpl e t e ly e r r o n eou s

d
r, ,

ma y in t he t h e or y o f L og i c a s w e a ct ua lly o in it s pr a ct i ca l a ppli ,
F or w e ,

d .

ca t i on s in if ,
e r e n t ly e n o u ce wh a t is ca ll e d t he con clu s i on r st o r

l as t I n t he l a tt er ca s e t he con cl usi on for ms a t h e si s a t h e pr em

.

ises it s g r ou n d s o r r e a s on s ; a n
,
n

i n st ea d of th e i n fer en t i a l ther e d ,
n d
f o re
( g
e r o ip ) w e w, o
c u ld
eam p l o y t
,
h e e x li c a t i v e
p f o r T h e wh o l e .

t h e o t h er a n a ly t i c ; a n d
di ffer en ce con si st s in t hi s th a t t he c o mmon or d er is sy n th et i c
a s t o e x p es s t he t h o ug h t w e m
,

,
us t a n a lyz e r ,
,

dd
it t h e a n a ly t i c o r d e r of st a t e me n t a ppe a r s ce t a i n ly t he mos t di r e ct r
,

an n a t ur a l O n t h e s ub or di n a t e ma t t er of th e o r d er of t he pr em
.
1

i see I o n ot h er e t ou ch
, .

But t o spe ak of t he pr oce ss in g en e r al z w i t h out t h e po w e r of

r ea s o n i w e s h u ld h a e b li m i t e d i u
g o v een n n o r
U tility f t h p o e
kn o wl e d g e ( if kn o wl e d g e of s uch a li mi t a t i on
r ocess

o f i g
r ea s on n .

w o uld d es er v e t he n a me of kn ow l e d g e a t a ll) ,

I sa y wi t h out r e a son i n g we sh o uld h a v e b ee n li mi t e d t o a kn o w l

e d g e o f w h a t is g i v e n b y i mme di a t e i n t u i t i on ; w e sh o uld h a v e b ee n

u n a b l e t o d a w a n y i n fe r e n c e f o m thi s kn o w l e d g e a
r h a v e b ee nr ,
n d
s h u t o ut f o m t he di scov e r y o f th a t co un t l e s s mu ltit u d e of t ut h s
r r ,

whi ch t h oug h of high of pa r a moun t i mpor t a ce a r e n ot s elf e vi

, ,
n ,
-

d en t T hi s fa cul t y is like w i s e of pe culi a r ut ili t y in o r d e r t o p o

.

,
,

t eet us in o ur cog it a t i on s fr o m er r or a n fa l s eh oo d a n t o r emov e ,

,

d ,

, d r

t h e s e if t h e y h a v e a l r ea dy cr e pt i F or e v er y t he mo s t co mpl e x
d
n .
, ,

w e b o f t h o ug ht ma y b e r e d uce d t o s i mpl e s yll og i sms ; a n wh e n

t hi s is d o n e t h e i r t r uth or fa l se h o o d a t l e a s t in a l og i ca l r e l a t i o
, , n,

a s he s a t o n c e i n t o v i e w .

d
O f t he t er ms b y whi ch thi s pr ocess is d e n o m
R ea s on i n g is a mo dica t i on f om t h e
d
2 T m b y wh i her s in a t e c r
,

mg dm t d
d
fh P w f R m
F r en ch r a i s on n er ( a n thi s a d e r i v a t i on f o m
e r oc es e
r
18 en o in a e
cor r e s o n d s t o r a ti ocm a ti o
.

t he L a t i n r a ti o ) a n p , ,
R i g
ea s on n R ti a o
whi ch h a s i n d e e d b ee n i mme di a t e ly t a n s fer e d
.

r r
i ti
c na on .

i t o our l a n g ua g e u n d er the fo r m r a ti oci n a ti o

n n .

R a ti oci n a ti on d en ot es pr ope r ly t he pr o c e ss b ut i mpr ope r ly a l s o , , ,

1 A r ist otl e s A n a ly t ics a r e sy n th e tic .

 1 96 L O G I C . L E C T . xv .

the pr o u d ct R t i o ci n i u m ma r ks e x cl us i v e ly t h e
of r e a son n i o
g; a
pr

d
D iscour se
d uct T h e o r i g i n a l me a n i n g o f r a ti o w a s com
.

n , fr o m t h e ca l c ul a ti on of n umb e r s,
.

p u t a ti on , a

d
'
it w a s t r a n sfer r e d t o t h e pr o ce s s of me di a t e c o mpa r i s on in g e n e r a l .

d
D i s cou r s e ( i s cur s u s , S u ow ) i n di ca t e s t h e O p er a t i o n of co mpa r i / .

s on ,

n ot es

ma y ,
t he

t he
b
r un n n
g
o f obj e ct s

b e pr ope r
( i
r e fo r e ,
a
i
a ck w a r d s a n

e t
f

o t h e E l
d ly li d
o r w a r d s b e t w e en t h e c h a r a ct e r s o r
'
s cu r r er e i n ter n o ta s , S i a vo eio a i
) : t hi s t e r m

a b o r a t i v e F a c ul t y
d
pp

d
in g
dd
e n e r a l, w hi ch I h a v e j us t c a ll e d t h e D i s cur s i v e T h e t e r ms .

d
d
i s cou r s e an h ow e ver o ft en n a y g en
i s cu r s u s , S uit/ o m, a r e, , ,

e a ll
r
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a r u e s o me thi n
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p p , g
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3
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x
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d
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i n di ca t es t h e ca r yi n g o ut i t o t h e l a st pr opos i r n

ti on wh a t w a s v i r t ua lly co n t a i n e d in t he a n t ece d e n t j u gme t s

T l d
o c on c u
T o con clu e ( con clu er e) a g a i n si g n i e s t he
a ct
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d d
d , ,
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g n

r o os i t i o n t h e t wo n oti o n s whi ch s t o o d a a r t in t h e t w o r s t A
p p p .

con clu s i on ( con clu s i o i s ua lly t a ke i i

C l i on c us on
) s u n t s n,

s tr i ct o r p ope r s i g n i ca t i o n t o me an t h e l a s t
.

r ,

r o o s i t i on o f a r e a s o n i n it i m t i m h w d t
p p g ; s s o e e s o e v e u s e o e x
p es s ,
r, r

t he pr o d uct of t h e wh o l e T ll i m a n s t o fo m s y ll o
p o ce s s o s
y og z e e r . r

g i s m s S y gll o i s m ( M y n )
w b s e
. e m s or i g i a lly a v o s n ,

d
d d
like r a ti o t o h a v e d en ot e d a comp u ta ti on a n ,

a i n g up a n li ke t he g r ea t er pa r t of t he ,

t e ch n i ca l t er ms of L og i c in g en e a l wa s b o r ow e d b y A r i st ot l e f o m r ,
r r

t h e ma t h e ma t i ci a n s T hi s pr i ma y me a i g o f t h ese t w o w o d s
.
4
r n n r

1 P ara d is e L o st
, V 4 86 , r e ason , ai d
d e wi t h t h e in uen ce of d i vin e

Wh e
d n ce th e s ou l g r a ce .

E D .

d C icer o , O r a t or icc P a r tit ion es ,

Re a son r eceiv e s , a n r ea son is h e r b ein g , 3 c . 2 . C f D is.

D isc u r siv e i n tu itiv e ; iscou r s e cussi on s , ED

p 149
or . . .

Is

oft e s t y ou r s . E D .
4 [ S e e P icca r t us , O r g A r i st , p p . . . 467 , 468 .

2 S h a k sp ea r e , H a ml et , a ct 1, sc . 2, A mmon ius , I n Q u in que V oces , f l . . P h il op o

d d n us, I n A n P r ior , f . C a m i n O rg , P a cius ,

d
. . .

-A b eas t, th a t wa n ts iscou r se of r ea son ,

p p 11 8 , 1 22 Ber t ius , L og P cr ip p 1 19 But
Woul
. . . . .

mou r n e
.

W
d
h a ve l on ge r
.

s ee a ltz , O rg a n on I p 38 4 [ S ch ul z e , L ogiJc, . . .

H ooker , E . P .
,
i ii 8 , 1 8
. By iscour se 70, p 1 01 D is cus si ons , p 66 7 , n ote
. .
-E D
] . .
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r XV L O G IC . 7

d
. . ,

d
fa v o h e or y of t h ose phil os oph er s who like H obb e s a n L e i 1
rs th e t ,

d
e fr os t
n ma i n t a i n t h a t a ll t h oug h t is in fa ct a t b ot t o m on ly a ca l
,
2
, ,

c ul a t i o n a r e cko i E hh w b m a
y h o w e v e r b e co n s id e r e a s
g , y n n n . v o g , ,

e x r es si o ly wh a t t h e c o m o s i t i o n o f t h e w or d d e n o t es a col
p g n
p n ,

leetin g t og ether ; fo r M i S co m e s fr o m hhy w whi h s ig n i ov o eo ai ov e ,

c

F i n a lly in L a t i n a s yll og i s m is
d
3
e s t o collect .
, ,
C ll t i o ec o.
c a ll e d collecti o a t o r e a s o n collig e e T hi s ,
n r .

r e fe r s t o t h e a ct o f c o ll e ct i n in t h e c o n cl us i on t h e t w o n oti on s
g , ,

sc a t t e e d i t h e pr e mi s e s
r n .

F o m w h a t h a s a l e a dy b e e n s a id t o uchi g t h e ch a r a ct e o f t h e

r r n r

Th g e 1 d e n er a l con d i t i o s wh ch e ve y syll o sm s u
r e a so n i n
en er a
g p o c e s s it is e a s y t o s e e w h a t a r e t h e
con 1
.
r ,

tion s o f y ll gi m s g o s . g p n i r i

p os e s F o a s t h e e s s e t i a l n a t u e o f r ea s o n i n
g . r, n r

con s i s t s in thi s t h a t s o me d o ub t s h o u ld b e r e mo v e d b t h e a l i
, y pp

g i sm t h r e e an o n ly t h e e r e ui s i t e s n e c e s s a y ;
q
,
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c a t i o n t o it o f s o me d e ci s i v e g e n e r a l r ul e t h e r e a r e t o e v e y s l lo

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y
t r ,
,

r
r

whi ch of t w o co t a di ct or y p e di ca t e s mu st b e a f r me d o f a ce t a i n n r r r

d
s ubj e ct t he r ob l e m o r u e s ti o n ob l e ma uaes i t um ;
p , q (p q ) T h e r ,

a
pp li c a t i on o f a d eci s i v e
g e n e r a l r ul e t o t h e d o ub t ; a T he n ,

g e n e r a l r ul e i t se l f B ut t h es e e

dq u i s i t es wh e n t h e. s yll o
g i s m is con r ,

d
s t u ct e d a n
r e x pr e s s e d ch a n e t h e i r l a ce s s o t h a t t h l u l
g p e
g e e a , r e n r

d
s t a d s st th e a
n
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r ,

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i i
g E a c h o f t h
t h
e se
e n

.
,

n e ce s s a y co s t i t u e n t s o f a s yll o i s m fo ms b
r n i t lf di t i t t h h
g y s e a s c o u
g r n ,

a co r r e l a t i v e
p po o s i t i on v

d
r y syll o i s m t h e r e fo e c on t a i n s t h e e

d
e e r
, g ,
r ,
r

r o os i t i on s a n t h e s e t h r ee i t i i t h i m l m t
p p p pr o o, s o n s n e r co p e e a , n n

c o r e l a t i o n co s t i t u t e t h e s yll o i s m ill h 4
r
g, I tn w b e
p ro e
p o w eve . r, r,

h e e t o di ct a t e a pa r a g r a ph e x p e ss i v e o f t h e d e n o mi a t i o n s t echn i
r ,
r n

ca lly i v e n to t h e a r t s whi ch r o i ma t e ly ma ke u t h yll i s m

g p p p e s o
g ,
x .

l L I V Re a so n i n g S yll og i sm i s mpos e d
d
. A or co of t wo

d
p th a t whi c h d e t e r mi n e s o r p e ce d es
a r t s, a t h a t w hi c h r ,
n

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) t h e d
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C o s eq u en t
(
r

con se uen s
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A n t e ce d e n t compr i s es t h e t w o pr opos i t i o n s t h e o n e o f whi ch
h e
n

r,
.

n
n

1 L

i ca , c
evi a tha n ,

. 1 .
P t I c 5 ; C mp uta t io s ive L og
. .

C f S t e w a r t E lemen t s , P ii 0 ii 5
.
.

,
o

. . . .
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d
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ll V

eV

Wor ks
.

3; v ol i ii 13 132 et s eq . - E D C f Z a b a r e ll a , I n A n a l P 1 1 , O p er a L og

dd
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. . . . . . os t . . ,
,

d
2 D e h Ten t c H u ma n a , 0. v ii i . 4 , 10, pp 1 12 , ica , p 640 E vh h oy t a p bs ,
. .

n on ( w h i m y );
s

d d
1 1 8, e . 1 793 . ED . A y wv, s e q ua s i a vh h o'yi) 7 0 6 A by ov , colle ct i o

d
ib i Bl e mmi r a t io n i s ; r a t i o a u t e m col li i
3 E ug e n i os A y uci) , p 4 05 , m c on
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as 7 15 ( o r
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n h e r uwv a p r o p o s i ti o n ib us ict us e st sy ll og is ~

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.

. .
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r e aa ea at 4 E sse r , L og ik, 5 83 , p 1 56 . .
1 98 L O G I C .
LE C T x v

d
. .

en oun ce s t h e g en er a l l
r u e, a n th th e o er it s a pplic a ti on T h e s e, .

fr o m t h i t lly
e r n a ur a p r e c e di n
g t h e c ous e

3252? q u en t , ar e m i ca
ses
( p r ll e d
op os i t he P re

d
11

w h i ch pr ox i m a t ely ti on es p r ee mi s s te, s u mp ti on es , membr a a n te

r e mi se s, t he
22:
up the yn
ce en ti a , M a ri a m O
)
S o'
f t h e
p .

on e w hi ch e n o un c es t he g en er a l r u e , or l the
re a l ti on of t he g r e a t e st qu a n ti t y t o t h e l esse r ,
is ll e d t he M aj or
ca

P re mi s e, or M a
j or P r o
p os i t i on , or t he P r op o s i ti on s i m ly
p

dm
(p r o os i ti o
p maj or ,
p p p i
r o ma ,
os i ti o
r
p p o o s i ti o,
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r

su

n
p d
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e o u n ce s t h e a li
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a t i o n of t he
u si
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e
or

v

,

,
s u mp ti o, thes i s , exp os i ti o, i n ten ti o, wp a h i/ t s,

M i i c 7 6 n eilov )
n e r a l r u l e o r t h e r e l a t i o n of
T he o er pr e m s e, w c . th i hi h
n
pp c g ,

t h e l es s e r q ua n t i t y t o t h e l e a s t is ca ll e d t h e Jil i n or P r emi s e , ,

t he M n or P r o os i ti on ,
p t he A s su mp ti on , or t h e S u bs u mp ti on

( p p
r o os i ti o mi n or p r op os i ti o ,

d a lter a , a s su mp ti o, s u bs u mp tum,
s u bs u mp ti o, s u mp ti o mi n or , n p i; hoir r wv, M inna 7 6 a w
d
)
' ''
r a a ts ay .

It is ma n i fes t t h at ,
in t h e co un t er q u a li t i e s o f Br e a d t h an

D e pt h
d
the t wo m i
d
s esill h ld w ite r e a t on l i of
re o an opp o s
, p
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pp ca t o n . T he C on s e
q uen t is
t he n a
ti o n
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of t he
g
l i t i
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on w
ro

q
c e o un ce s t h e d e ci s i o
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o

s c a ll e d
hi h n

,
d n ,
r t he

t he
re a

C
l
on

elu s i on

co mp lex i o,
( con clu s i o,

su mma ,
con clu s u

con n ex i o,
m, p r op os i ti o
i lla ti o, i n ten ti o,
con clu sa

an d ,
,

in
collecti o,

G r e ek,

dd
'
ov t n e
/ p aa
p a, r b T b T hi t s
p ar is us u

a l l y d e si g a t e d n b y the j
co n u n c t o n i T her ef or e ( er g o, p a
) ,
an

it s s y n o y ms n . T he co n c us on l i is t h e P r oble m (p r oblema ) ,

~
Q (
u es ti on

st a t e d n ow a s a e ci s i o
g u oe s ti o, i g i
d
n a lly a

T h e pr ob l em is us ua lly o mi t t e d
in t h e e pr e s si o n o f a syll og i sm b ut is o n e of it s esse n t i a l
x
sk e d
gu ce s i tu

n .
2
m) , whi ch wa s or ,

a ts T h e w h o l e n o me n cl a t ur e of t h e syll o i s t i c p a r t s b e it
p r .
g ,

ob s v e d h a s r e fer e n ce t o t h e o n es id e d v i e w s o f t h e l og i ci a n s
er ,

in r eg a r d t o t h e pr o ce ss o f r e a so n i n g .
3

E x plica t ion '

A n t e ce d d en t a n
d
A
T h e S yll og i sm is
n t ece d en t
mpr e en i n g t l] e t w o pr opos 1t i o n s, m
en t
an d
h d
t he
.
di v id e d i n t o t w o pa r t s, t h e
C o n s e q u e n t t h e a n t e ce
. .

C onseq u en t co

d
.

w hi c h t h e middl e n o t i on is co mpa r e d w i t h t h e
t wo n ot o n s i w e w o uld co mpa r e t og e th e r ; a n t he co n s e qu e n t co m

1 [E ug en i os , A O YU C l)
d p a ss im ] .
[t i. .
, D e C en s ur a V er i , L . n p 606 et s eq , e
. . . d.

d
2 [ S ee A l ex A ph r o . is ien sis , I n A n a l. P r i on , 1 555 . E D .
] Ba chma n n , L og ik, p 1 84 Fac . .

mp ir icus
d
i . c. 4 , f 1 7h . . Bo eth i us , I n T op i ca C icer on is , l . ci o l a t i , S ex t us E .
[ F a cciol a ti , Ru i
i .
,
O p er a , p . men ta L og i ca , 0 iii p 83 e 1 750 S ex t us
. . .
, . .

3 [ S ee R A g r icol a , D
. e I n ven ti on s D ia lect ica , E mpir icus, H yp otyp oses , L ii p 86 et a libi . . . .

L . ii . 0 . x iv. pp 401 , 41 7 , 420

. . V ives , O p er a ED ] .
L E C T . XV .
L O G I C . 1 99

p i i g
r s n t h e on e
p r opos iti on whi ch e x plicitly en oun c e s t h e r e l a ti on
,

i mpli ci t ly g i ve n in t he pr i o r of t h ese t w o n ot i on s t o e a ch o t h er .

T he t wo pr opos i t i o n s w hi ch con s t i t ut e t he a n t e ce d e n t a e ca ll e d r
,

a mo n g o t h e r n a me s t he P r emi s es O f t h e se ,
.
,
P mi re ses .
t h e pr opo s i t i on e x pr ess i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o f w h o l e ,

w hi ch o n e of t he o r i g i n a lly g i ven n o ti o n s h o ld s t o t h e a ss ume d or

middl e n ot i on a s it s pa r t is c a ll e d a mon g oth er a ppe ll a t i o n s t he
, , ,

M a
j or P r op os i ti on , t he M a
j or P re mi se or T he
M j
a or .
th er pr opo si t i on "
T he
,

P r op o s i ti on , Ka l

e xnv . o

of t h e a n t e ce d e n t e n o un ci g t he r e l a t i o n o f wh o l e whi ch t h e a s
n ,

s ume d o r middl e n o t i o n h o ld s t o t h e o th e r of t h e g i v e n n o t i o n s a s

it s par t is c a ll e d a mon g o t h e r a ppe ll a t i o n s t h e Jil i n or P r op os i

, ,

t i on , t he M n or P re mi s e, t he A ss u mp ti on , or
M in or
t h e S u bs u mp ti on h ese t e r ms l i
.

. T , as of r e a t o n ,

var y , o f c o ur s e , w it h t he
l i in t he co un t er q ua t i t i e s T he
r e at on n .

o n e pr opos i t i o n whi ch co n s t i t ut e s t h e con se q ue n t is c a ll e d a mo n g

, , ,

oth er a
pp e ll a t i o n s t h e C on clu s i on ,
P e h a s t h e b e s t n a me s for
p . r

t h e se th e e r e l a t i v e pr o po s i t i o n s o f a s yll og i sm
r

d d
S mpt i S b mp
u on ,
w
u su
ou ld b e S u mp ti on S u bs u mp ti on C on clu s i on , , ,

d
ti C l i

d
on , a n on c us on .
a s th o s e whi ch e x r e s s mos t b r i e y a n n atu
p ,

r a lly t h e n a t ur e a n
,

o f a s yll o g i s m
r e ci r o ca l
p e e n d e n ce o f t he t h e e j u d me n t s
p
I n t h e s t pl a c e t he e x pr essi o n s S ump ti on a n
. r
g
,
r

d
S u bs u mp ti on a e a ppr o pr i a t e l og i ca l e x pr e s
df th i si o s i con sequen ce of th eir b ot h sh o wi n g
r

d
G r oun s o e r n n
,

P ti b t m
a

f
o

th th
on a S

r ee
th
Q S
a t L o i c c o n s id e s th e m
na

ro
g
osi
i s
n o t a s a b s o l ut e ly r , ,
or e p p
ti ons f y II g i m
o a s O
b u t o
s
n ly
.
a s hy p o t h e t c a lly t r u e fo r L o g c d o es i i

n o t w a r r a t t h e t r ut h o f t h e pr e mi s e s o f a s y l
n

l og is m ; it o n ly o n t h e s uppos i t i o n th a t th e s e pr e mi s e s a e t ue
,
r r ,

u a a n t e e s t h e l e g i t i ma cy o f t h e i fe r e n ce
r t h e n e ces s i t y o f t h e n -
g ,

c on cl us i o n I t is o t hi s a c co un t t h a t t h e p e mi s e s h a v e b y t h e
. n
,
r ,

G r e ek l o g i ci a n s b e e n v e y pr o pe ly s t yl e d A n ,n r r
L mm

d
e a.
} es o n di n t t h L a t i n s u mp ti on es
p co p g ar ao e rr

an w e r e t h er e a n y n e ce s si t y t o r e s o t t o G r e ek t he M aj o r P r o po r ,

s i t i ou w hi c h I w o u ld ca ll S u mp ti on ( s u mp ti o) mig h t b e w e ll
,

d ,

d en o mi a t e d L emma si mply ; a n t he M i n or P r opo si t i o whi ch I

n n,

d
w ould ca ll t he S u bs ump ti on (s u bs ump ti o) mi ght b e w ell e omi
H y p l mm o e
n at e
a.
t h e H yp olemma d I n t h e s e c o n d pl a ce
th oug h b o t h pr emi s es a e sumpt i o u s o r le m
,

r
n

ma t a y e t t he t er m s u mp ti on a s s pe ci a lly a ppli e d t o t he M aj o r P r e
,
,

mi s e is fully w a r r a n t e d b ot h b y pr e ce d e t a n pr i ci pl e F o i
l ike m a n n er t he maj or pr opos i t i on t he maj or l e mma ha s a l wa y s
,

n d n . r, n

1 S ee A lex a n d
er , I n A n a l P r ion , f 1 4 , b
. . . S cholia , e dd . Br a n is , p 1 50 E D . . .
2 00 L O G I C LEC T XV

d
. .

ob a n et i d fr om the G r e ek a n L a t i n l og i ci a n s the g en er i c t e r m ;
b o th

r a cn s a M IN / m) ; a n
, T
,

d
it ha s b een ca ll e d T he P r op os i ti on T he L emma (p r op os i ti o iq p
a s t hi s is t h e j ud g me n t whi ch i n cl u d e s a n
,

d
,
n

d
a ll o w s b o t h t he o t h e r s it is w e l l e t i t l e

d
a s t he r i n ci a l r o os i
, p p p p n ,

ti on t o t he st yl e a n t i t l e o f the p r op osi ti on the lemma the s u mp

, , ,

ti on b y pr e emi n e n ce

A mp ti ss u
p on
I n t he t hi r d pl a ce t h e t e r m s u bs ump ti on is
.

e fe r a b l e t o t he t e r m a ss u mp ti on a s a
r e n o mi
,

,
d
n a t i on o f t he M i n o r P r emi se ; fo r t he t er m
.

s u bs u mp ti on pr e ci s e ly ma r ks o ut it s r e l a ti on o f s ub o di n a t i o n t o r

t h e maj or pr e mi se w h e e a s t h e t e r m a s s u m ti on d o e s n o t
, p r A s .

s u m ti on w o uld i n d ee d in co t r a s t t o s ubs um ti on h a v e b ee n a n
p p ,
n ,

d
u n e x ce t i o n a b l e w o d b
p y w hi ch t o d e s i n a t e t he maj or pr o pos i t i on
g r

h a it n o t b e e n th a t l og i ci a n s h a v e v er y g e n e r a lly e mpl o y e d it t o
,

d
d esig n a t e t h e mi n o r s o t h a t t o r ev e s e it s a ppli ca t i o n w ould b e pr o
uct iv e o f i n e v i t a b l e co fus i o n
,

But for thi s obj ecti o n I sh o uld

n

c e r t a i n ly h a ve pr efe r r e d t he t er m a s s u mp ti on t o t h a t of s u mp ti on
.
r

for t he a ppell a t i on o f t he maj o r pr opo s i t i on ; n o t t h a t in i t s e l f it is

a
p r e fe r a bl e e x r e ss i o n b ut s i m ly b e ca use a ss u m ti on is a w or d

o f fa mili a r us a e i
g
p
t h e E g li s h
p
l
, p
a n ua e w hi ch s u mp ti on a n
g g n n sub ,
d
s u m ti on ce t a i n ly a e n o t
p r r

T he pr e ce di n g a e e a s o s why t h e r e l a t i ve t e r ms s u mp ti on a n
r r

s u bs u m ti on o u h t t o b e e m l o y e d a s b e i g po s
.

n
d
p g p ,

O bj ti
dmi f th th ei a d opt i on b e comes st ill mor e ma i fest wh en
itiv ely g o o d e x pr e ss i on s ; b ut t h e e x pe di e cy of
t
ec th
on s o e n

d
en o nf on s O e
r n

d
,
P f th

d
ro
p osi t i o n s o e
t h e y a e co m a r e d a n co n t r a s t e d Wi t h co r e
r r
S y ll gi m i
o s i y n or n ar p

d
us e . s po n i g d e o mi a t i o s i o r di a r y u s e
n F or n n n n n .

d d
M 3 05 P TO P O S it i m t h e t e r ms maj or r op os i ti o n a n maj or p r emi s e,
p
d
an P re mise M in or
mi n or p r op os i ti on mi n or r emi se
.

an a r e ex
P r op o s ition P m p ,

d
an .

mise p ose d to v a r o usi j i

o b ect o n s . I n t h e r s t pl a ce,

d
,

d
t h ey a
mpl e x a n e o us e x pr e ss o n s wh e r e a s
r e co t di i ,

s u m ti o n a n s u bs u m ti o n a r e s i m t I t h e co n d l di
p p p e a n r ec n e s .

p l a ce , t h e a bb r e v i a t i on s in c o mmo n us e t h e ma o r
( r o o s t on b e i n
p p g j ii
ca ll e d t h e ma or , t h e mi n o r i i i ll d m
j p p
r o os t o n b e n
g c a e t h e i n o r
) a re

a mb i u o u s, n o t o n ly in c o n s e u e n ce o f t h e i r v a ue n es s in l b ut
g q g g e n e r a ,

d
b ec a us e t h e r e p ar e yl
t wolo
g i ot her
s m t o w hi ch t h e se a r t s of t he s

e s s i o n s ma or a m m lly ly ill
e x
p r
j i
, n or a e
y q u a a
pp n F o a s
y o u w , . r,

dd
s o on b e i for me d t h e t w o n o t i on s whi ch w e co mpa e t o g e t h e r
n ,
r

t h o ug h a t hi d a e ca ll e d t h e mcg
r r
j o r an
,
r t h e mi n or ter ms o f t h e

s yll og i s m ; s o t h a t w h e w e t a l k o f maj o s a n mi n or s in r e fe e n ce
n r r

t o a s yll og i s m it r e ma i n s u c e t a i , w h e t h e r w e e mpl o y t h e s e w o r d s
n r n

t o d e n ot e t h e p o pos i t i o s o t h e t e ms o f a r e a s o i g S t ill mo e
d
r n r r n n . r

obj e ct i o n a b l e a r e t h e co

d
e l a t i v e t e ms P r o os i ti on a n rr A s s u mp
p r ,

ti on a s s y n on y ms for t h e maj or a n
,
mi n or pr emi s es T he t er m .
L EC T XV L O G I C 2 01

d
. .

p r op os i ti on is a w or d in t oo c on s a n t t empl oy men t in it s va
g ue a n

g e n e r a l s e n s e, to b e u n a mb i g uo usly
d us e d in a

d
P r op ositi on A mp
ti on .
.

i
s su
g i ca ti o n s o pr eci s e a n
s n s e ci a l a s t h e on e in
p
ues t i o n ; a n in c o n se ue n ce of t hi s a mb i u
q
q , g
ity it s e mpl oy men t in thi s sig n i c a t i on ha s b e en in fa ct l on g v er y
,

e n e r a lly a b a n d o n e d A i n t he t e r m a s s u m ti on d o e s n o t e x r e ss
g g a .
p , p
t h e di st i n cti v e peculi a r i t y of t he mi n or pr e mi s e t h a t o f b e i n g a ,

s ub o di n a t e r o os iti o n r o os iti on t a ken or a ss ume d u n d er

r
p p a
p p ,

a n o t h e r ; thi s w o r d w o u ld i n d ee d a s I h a v e n o ti ce d h a v e b ee n a

p li e d wi t h fa r
g r ea t e r o r iet y ha
p p
in pl a ce of t he mi n o r pr e mi s e o f a s yll og i s m
r it b e e ,
d
,

n u se d t o d e n ot e t h e maj or
p

.
,

T h e se a r e a mo g t h e r e a s o n s w hi ch h a v e i n cl i n e d me t o empl o y
n
,

Th
d
f s mP i
e us e u
a t l e a st a l o n g w i t h t h e mo r e o r di n a r y d e n o mi n a

ti on s t h e t e r ms s ump ti on a s u bsump ti on N or
O
d n

t im d dt
, .

an S b m u su p t i on san c
1 s 1 t t o b e s uppos e d t h a t t h i s u s a e 1 s d e st i t ut e
by p r e ce en g ,

d
e .

o f pr e ce d e n t for I co uld a dd u ce in it s fa v o r e v e n
,

t h e hi g h a ut h or ity of Bo e t hi u s I n g en er a l a n wi t h o ut r e fe r e n ce t o
1
.

d d
L og i c it a ppe a r s ma r v e ll ou s h ow in E n g li sh phil o s ophy w e co uld s o
, , ,

l o g o wi t h o ut t he n oun s ubs ump ti on a n t he v e r b to su bs ume for

n , ,

d
t h e s e d e n ot e a r e l a t i o n w hich w e h a v e v e r y f e q uen tly o cca s i on t o e x r

p ess a n t x r e s s w hi ch t h er e a r e n o o th er t er ms w i t hi n o u r r e a ch

d
r o e
, p .

We h a v e a l ea dy in E n gli sh a s s ump ti on a n a ss ume p r es ump ti on

an dp r es ume con s u m ti on a n
r

p , co n s u m e a n t h e d
r e is n o i ma i ab l e
g ,
d ,

d
r e a so n wh w e s h o uld n o t like w i s e e n i c h t h e l a n ua e t o s a t hi
y g g y o n
g r ,
n

o f s u mp ti o n b y t h e a n a l o o us e x r e s s i o n s s u bs u m ti on a n s u b u m e
, g p p s .

I n r eg a r d t o t h e pr opos i t i o n con st it u t i n g t he co n s e q ue n t of a
s yll o i s m t h e n a me w hi ch is g e n e r a lly b e s t o w e d
Th C e l i o n c u s on
g ,

is n o t e x pose d t o a n y
.

o n it t h e C on clu s i on , ,

dd
d
s e r i o us obj e ct i on s T h e r e is t h us n o r e a s o n why it sh o u ld b e super
.

se e an , t h e e is in fa ct n o ot h er t e r m e n t i t l e d t o a pr e fe r e n c e
r .

S o mu ch in r efer e n ce t o t h e t e r ms b y whi ch t he pr o x i ma t e pa r t s of
a s yll o i s m a r e d e n ot e d I n ow
pr ocee d t o s t a t e t o
y o u in e e a l
g .
g n r

d
t h e D i v i s i o n o f S yll og i s ms i n t o S pe ci e s d e t e mi e d b y t h e se p a r t s r n
,

an sh a ll t h e n r o ce e d t o co n s id e r t h ese s e v e r a l spe ci e s in d e t a il
p .

B ut I h a v e s t of a ll t o s t a t e t o y ou a di v i s i on of S yll og i s ms w hi ch
r , ,

a s c o m r e h e n di n

g i s m s i
p
n t o E x t e n
g
s i v
o

e
u
g
a
ht
n
t
C
o

o
p
m p
,

r eh en si v e d
r e ce d e a ll o t h er s I t is th a t of S ll o
y
.
.

1T L V . T he F i r st D
i vi s i on of S yll og i sms is t ake n f o m t he r

differ en t ki n d s of q u a n ti t y un d er whi ch t he r e a so n i g pr o ce e d s n .

1
Q u o n ia m en i m omn is sy ll og ismus ex tio .

Boethius , D c S y llog is mo H yp othetica , lib .

p r op os it i o n i b us
d
t ex itu r , pr i ma vel p r op o s it i o , i E D .
.

v el sump t um v oc a t u r ; s e cun a v e r o a s s ump

2 02 L O G I C L E C T . XV .

F or whil e
y syll og i sm i n fer s th a t t he par t of a pa r t is a
e v er

d
a r t o f t h e wh o l e it d o es t hi s e i t h e r in t h e
P ar L V
p F ir s t D 1
,

y
. .

i io t t f E t t he P r e t f
d t he t wo n ot i o s compar e d in the Q uest i on
u a n i o x e n s i o n
v s n m q s y l l og i s , c a e o , 1

d d
in E x ten s iv e an
n
C mo p r e h en s i v e.
an O on cl usmn b e mg t he g e a t e st w h o l e a n r ,

t h e S ubj e ct t h e s ma ll est par t ; o in t he co un t e r q u a t ity of r n

C ompr e h e n s i on
d
- t h e S ubj e ct o f t h e s e t w o n ot i o n s b e i n t h e
, g
r e a t e s t wh o l e a n t h P r e di ca t e t h e s ma ll e s t t
g e , par .

dd
A ft er wh a t I h av e a lr ea dy st a t e d in r eg ar d t o t he n a t ur e o f th e se
O ppo s it e q ua n t i t i e s

o f c o n d u cti n
,
1

a n y r e a s on i n
d
u n d e r t he d o c t r i n e o f C o n ce t s a n

in e i t h er of t h e s e
, p
men t s a n a ft er t he ill ust r a ti on s I h a v e g i v en y o u o f t h e po s si bility
ti i
J u

a t will f
g

g g q u a n t es

e v e r y s yll o g i s m in t h e o n e ua n t it y b e i n n v e r t i b l e i n t o a s y ll o
q g co

g i s m a b so l ut e ly e u i v a l e n t in t h e o t h er
q q u a n t i t y it will b e h e r e
,

n e e dl e ss t o e n l a r e upon t he n a t ur e o f thi s di s t i n ct i o n in
g
T hi s di st i n cti o n compr e h en d s a ll o t h e r s ; a n
g en er a l

it s ill ust r a t i on t h e r e
for e s uppo ses th a t t h e n at ur e of t he v a r i o us sub or di n a t e cl a sses of
d ,
.

s yll og i s ms s h o uld b e pr e v i o usly u n d e r s t o o d I t will th e r e fo r e b e .

, ,

e x pe di e n t n o t a t pr e s e n t t o e n t e r o n a n y di s ti n ct con s id e r a t i o n o f
,

t hi s di v i s i o n o f r e a s o n i n g s b ut t o s h o w w h e n t r e a ti n g of s yll og i sms , ,

u n d e r th e i r v a r i o us s ub a lt er n cl a sse s h o w e a ch 1 s ca pa b l e o f b e i n g

c a st in t he mo uld of e i t h er qua n tity a n n ot a s l og ici a n s suppose

in th a t of e x t en s i v e q u a n tity a l on e .
,
,

d , ,

T h e n ex t di st i n c t i on o f S yll og i s ms is t o b e soug ht for e i t h e r in

d t h e c o n s t i t ue n t e l e me n t s of w hi ch th e y a r e co m

d
M tt a f m f
er an or o
ose d or in t he ma n e r in whi ch t h e s e a e c o r n
sy l l goi m s s. p ,
n

n e ct e T h e for mer of t h es e is t e ch n i ca lly c a ll e d .

t h e ma tter of a syll og i s m t he l a t t er it s f or m Y o u mus t h o we v er , .

, ,

d
o b s e r v e t ha t th e se t er ms a r e h e r e u s e d in a r e s t r i ct e d mea n i n g Bo th .

ma tt e r a n fo r m un d er thi s di sti n ct i on a r e i n cl ud e d in t h e for m of a

s yll og i s m wh e n w e s pea k of for m in co n t r a s t t o t h e e mpi r i ca l ma t
,

t er whi ch it ma y c o n t a i n T hi s t h e r efo r e is a di s t i n ct i o n u n d er .
, ,

an d
th a t for m wi t h whi ch L og i c a s y ou k o w is ex cl us i ve ly con v e r s a n t ;
t h e ma t t e r h er e spo ke n o f s h o uld b e ca ll e fo r di st i n ct i o n s
,
n ,

d ,

s a ke t h e f or ma l or n eces sa r
, y m a tter o f a s yll o i s m
g
th en t he ma t t e r of a syll og i sm me a n s me r e ly t he pr oposi t i o n s a n
,

t er ms of whi ch e v er y syll og i sm is n e ces s a r ily ma d e up ; wh er eas

I n t hi s s e n s e .

3
d ,

1 S ee ab o ve , p 1 00 et s eq . . E D . M a ter ia ( sy l l og ismi ) a li a est pr ox ima , a lia

ddd d mo ta Re mo t a s un t t er min i pr op osition um,

2 S ee a b ov e , p 1 92 et s eq . . ED . re .

3 P r ox ima t e a n re mot e ma t t e r . M a r g in a l
p r ox i ma p r op o s itio n es ipsaa, q uib us
v e r o s un t

d m
J otti n g .
[ S ee H ur ta o e M en oz a , D isp u t . coal e scit sy l l og is us ED ] . .

P hil .
, D isp . L og icce , t. i . . X . 48, p . 465 .
L EC T . Xv .
L O G I c . 2 08

o th er wi se t he for m of a syll og i sm poi n t s o ut t he wa y in whi ch th e se

,

co n s t i t ue n t s a r e co n n e ct e d T hi s b e i n g un d e r st o o d I r e pe a t t h a t
1
. ,

t h e n e x t di st i n ct i o n o f syll og i sms is t o b e soug ht for e i t h er in th e i r

ma t t e r or in t h e i r fo r m .

N o w in r eg a r d t o th ei r ma tt er syll og i sms c a n n o t di ffer for e v e r y , ,

syll o g i s m wi t h o ut e x c e pt i on r e q u i r e s t he s a me , ,

g m md
c on st i t uen t pa r t s ues t i o n t h e s ub s u mpt i on

d
Th i f m
e r th or e
: a
q , ,

ddt t f t he en er a l r ul e i t self wh i ch th r ee c on sti t uen t s

f
f o f it un d er a g e n er a l r ul e a n t he s u mpt i on of
I? h e
, ,
g ran is i n c i on o

s y ll g i m o s s , g ; ,

in t h e a ct u a l e n un ci a t i on o f a s yll og i s m ch a n g e , ,

as I h av e a l r ea dy n o ti c e d t h e i r r e l a t i v e s i t u a t i o n
,
w h a t w a s r s t 2

in t he o r d e r of t h o ug ht b e i n g l a st in t h e o r d er of e x pr ess i o n .

T h e diffe r en c e o f S yll og i sms ca n t h e r e for e o n ly b e soug ht fo r

, ,

in t h e i r diffe r e t fo r ms ; s o t h a t t h e i r di s ti n o n

g i m t w f ld
f m f S y ll
t i o n s a r e o n ly fo r ma l But t h e fo r m of a s y llo
Th e or o o
.

d d
s i t o o l n er n a

E t lx g
er n a
i s m c o n s id e r e d in it s g r e a t e s t g e n e r a li t y is o f a
,

, ,

d
an .

t wofold ki n d viz e i th er a n I n t er n a l a E ssen ,

.
,
n

ti al or a n E x t er n a l a n A ccid en t a l T he for mer of th e s e d epen d s

,
.

o n t h e r e l a t i o n s o f t h e con s t i t u e n t p a r t s o f t h e s yll og i s m t o e a ch

d
o t h e r a s d e t e r mi n e d b y t he n a t u r e o f t h e t hi n ki n g s ubj e c t it self ;

t h e l a t t e r of t h ese d e pe n s o n t he e x t e r n a l e x pr ess i o n of t h e con

dd
s t it u e n t pa r t s o f t h e s yll o g i s m w h e r e b y t he t e r ms a n p p o o s iti on s
,
r

a r e v a r i o us ly d e t e r mi n e d in o i n t of n umb er o s iti o n a n c sec u

p p on , ,

ti on We must t h er efor e in co n for mi t y t o t h e or d e r of n a t ur e st

.
, , ,
r

or e ss e n t i a l
,

d
o f a l l co n s id e r wh a t cl a ss es o f s yll o g i s m a r e g i v e n b y t h e i r i t e n a l

for m ; a n t h e r e a ft e r i n qui r e wh a t a r e t he cl a sses

a ffor d e d b y t h e i r e x t e r n a l o r a ccid e n t a l mo di ca t i on s F i r s t th en .
n r

, ,

in r e g a d t o t h e I n t e r n a l o r E s s e n t i a l F o m o f S yll og i s m
r r .

d
.

A S yll og i sm is o n ly a s yll og i s m w h e n t h e c on cl us i o n foll o w s

om t he pr e mi s e s w i t h a n a b s o l ut e ce r t a i n t y ; a n a s t hi s ce t a i n t y
is d e t e r mi n e d b y a u n i v er s a l a n n e c e s s a r y l a w of th o u h t th er e

must co n se q uen t ly b e a s ma n y ki n d s of S yll og i s m a s t he r e a r e

g d r

, ,

d
v a r i o us ki n d s of pr e mi s e s a ffo r di n g a co n se ue n ce in v i r t u e o f a

iffer e n t la w Bet ween t he pr e mi s es th er e is on ly on e poss i b l e

.
q

o r d e r o f d e e n d e n cy for it is a l w a y s t h e s um ti o n t h e maj or
p , p ,

p r e mi s e w hi ch a s t h e fo un d a t i on of t h e wh o l e s yll o i s m mus t r s t

b e t a ken i n t o a ccoun t
,

An
, g
in d e t er mi n i n g t he di ffer e n ce of sy l
. d ,

l og isms t he s umpt i o n is t h e o n ly pr e mi se w hi ch ca n b e t ak en i n t o
,

a cc o un t a s a ffo r di n g a di ffe r e ce of syll og i s m ; for t he mi n o r n

re
p
mi se is me r ely t he s ub sumpti on of t he l esser qua n ti t y of t h e t w o

1 K r ug , L og ik, 72 , A n m,
. i ED
. .
[ C f F r ies , L og ik, M 4 ]
. 2 E sser , L ogi c, 85, p .

1 59 E D
. .
 2 04 L 0G 1c . LECT . XV .

an d
n o t on s, i c on cer n i n g wh ose re l a t i o n w e i n qu i r e un d er t he q ue st i on
t hi s p e mi s e a l wa y s a ppe a s in o n e a n
r t he s a me fo m in
r d ,

r ,
,

th a t n a me ly of a ca t eg or i ca l p opo sit i on T he sa me is li ke w i se
, ,

t he ca s e in r eg a r d t o t h e c o cl us i o n a n
r

t h e r e fo r e w e ca n n o mor e
n ,
d ,
.

,
, ,

l ook t o wa d s t he co cl us i o n for a d e t e r mi n a t i o n o f t he di v er si t y of
r n

s yll o i s m t h a n t o wa r d s t h e s ub s um t i o n
g p W e h a v e t h u s on ly t o .

i n q ui r e in r eg a r d t o t he v a r i ous po ssib l e ki n d s of maj or pr opo si t i on

d
1
.

N o w a s a ll s umpt i o us a r e j ud g me n t s a n a s w e h a v e a l r e a dy ,

fo un d t h a t t h e mos t g e n er a l di vi s i on of j ud g

d i id d d d d
S y ll g i m t b
me n t s n e x t t o t h e pr i ma y d i s t i n ct i on of i n
o s s o e
,
r

d
v e i g t
a cco r n o

; t hei r t t s w e is i n t o s i m l e a n

d
e n s i v e a n e x e n c o
th e ch t a r a c er 0 p n ,

d
it ion a l t hi s di v i s i on of j ud g me n t s whi ch wh e n
d
su mpti th l w
on s a n e a
, , ,

l d d l i l
d
8 1 n th
ff
e con f e c'
3 5
e v e o
p e a o r s t h e c a s s e s o f c a ,t e
g o c a is r

d
,
ti on b tw e p m ee n re i s es
n c t i v e hy o t h e t i ca l a n hy t h t i co d s un ct
concl u ion
-
u
an s j ' p p,o e j ,
i

iv e pr o po s i t i o n s wil l fur n i s h us wi t h a ll t he ,

s s i b l e di ffe r e n c e s of maj or r e mi ses I i l m i f th t i

p o p t s a s o a n es t a n .

an
y o f th es e a fo r es a id
hypoth e t i ca l a n hy poth et i co isj u ct iv e)
,
p p
r o

d
os i t i on s
( c a t e
g o r ic a l

d di
a d e ci s i o n o f t h e
-
sj u n ct i v e

q un es
,

,
, ,

t i o n wli ich o f t wo r epu g n a n t p e di ca t es b e l o n g s t o a c e t a i n s ub

j e ct
,

, c a n b e ob t a i n e d a cc o r di n
g t o a u n i v e sa l a n n e cess
r

a r y l a w r d r

I d en t i t y a n d
I n a c a t e g o r i ca l s u mpti o n t hi s is co mpe t e n t t h o ug h t he l a w s o f ,

C on t r a di ct i on ; for wh a t b e l o n g s o r d o e s n ot b e l on g
t o t h e s upe r or di n a t e n o ti on b e l o n g s o r d o es n o t b e l on g t o t h e sub
r

o di n a t e I n di sj un ct i v e s umpt i o u s t hi s is co mpe t e n t t h o ug h t he
d
r .
,
r

l a w o f E x cl ud ed M iddl e ; s i n ce o f a ll t h e o ppo s i t e e t e rm i n a t i o n s

d
o n e a l o n e b e l o n s t o t h e obj e ct ; s o t h a t if o n e is a i me
g
mu s t b e conj un ct i v ely d e n i e d ; a n if on e is d e n i e d t he o t h e r s mu s t
, ,
t h
d
e o t h er s r

,
,

b e di sj u ct i v e ly a t l e a s t a f r me d
,
n I n hy pot h e t i ca l s u mpti o u s t hi s
, .

d ,

d
is c o mpe t e n t th r o ug h t h e l a w o f Re a s o n a n C o n se q u e n t ; fo r wh e e r

t h e r e a s o n is t h er e mu s t b e t h e co n s e q u e n t a n
,
wh e r e t h e co us e ,

u e n t is t h e r e mus t b e t h e r e a s o n h r e a r e t h us ob t a i e d t h ee
2
q , T e . n r

o r fo ur e a t cl a s s es of S yll og i s ms wh o s e e s s en t i a l ch a r a ct e i s t i cs r
g r ,

I s h a ll co mpr i s e in t h e foll o w i n g pa r a g r a ph

in g
1T L V I
as
.

t h e co n n e c
S yll o g i sms
ti on
ar e di v id e d i n t o di ffer e n t cl a ss es a cco d
b e t ween t h e pr e mi s e s a n co n cl u s i o n is d ,
r

d
E sser , L ogi k, 5 85 E D
1 . . Ba y n ess E s s a y on the N ew A n a ly ti c of L og ica l

dd
F or ms , t h e
d
2 S e e E sse r , L og i k 5 86 cl a s i e w is
, p 1 61 T h is a ut h or s

, . . l a ter V ex p r esse as

si ca t i o n o f s y ll og is ms c a n n o t b e

d d

r eg a r e as fo ll o ws : A ll M e ia te in fer e n ce is on e t hat

p r ess i n g t h e a ut h o r s n a l v i e w ; a cco r in g
d i n co r r ect ly
dd ca l l e C a t eg or i ca l ; fo r t h e C on

ex

d dd d
t o w hich , a s b e fo r e o b ser ve , t h e p r in cip l e o f j un ct ive a n D i sj un ct iv e for ms f H y p ot het i ca l
O

Rea son an C o n se q u e n t is n ot a mitt e as a r e a s on i n g ar e re ucib le t o i mme ia t e in fer

dd
law of t h oug ht . S ee a b o ve , p 62 ,
. n o te 1 . In e n ces . C ompar e D iscus si ons , p . 65 1 s eq.

a n ot e b y S ir W H a milto
. n , a pp en e to M r. E D .
LEC T XV L O G IC 205

d
. .

d et er mi n e d i
dt f d men t a l l aws
d
b y th e ffer e n un a , of I d e n tity

it; ligh g :
d
dl d
t d ti
an

le ;
C on r a ic on ;
d
O f E x cl ud e d M i
O f Re a s q n a n C o n se q ue n t t h es e

d
g a t;

e t e r mi n a t i on s a ffor d i n g t he th r e e
.

l og i s m s a ccor in g s e v er a
e law r e g ul a t i n
ii n fe r e n ce g
cl a s ses of C a teg or i ca l, of D i sj u n cti ve, an

d
the .

of H yp otheti ca l S y llog i s ms T o . th e se ma y
be a dd e d a four th cl a ss, t he H yp oth eti co- i
y u n cti ve or D ilem
ma tic S y llog i sm, w hi ch is d e ter mi n e d b y t h e t wo l ast l a ws in
c ombin a t i on .

Be for e pr o c ee di n g t o id er a ti on of th ese sev er a l sy ll ogi sms

a co n s

in d e t a il I sh a ll r s t o f a ll gi ve y ou e x a mpl e s
, , ,
Ex a mpl es of th e
o f t h e fo ur s e ci e s t o e th e r in or d e r t h a t y o u
p g ,

d d
four species of sy ll o
ma y h a v e whil e t r e a t i n g o f e a ch a t l e a s t a
g ism .
, ,
'
g en er a l n o ti on o f th ei r i er en ces a n s i mil a r ity .

1 C a teg or ica l . 1 O r A CATE G O RI C A L SY L L O GISM

d
. . .

d
S umption , A ll ma tter i s cr ea te

d d
S ub sumpt ion , B ut the hea venly bo ies a re ma ter ia l
C on cl usion , T her ef or e, the hea ven ly bo ies a r e cr ea te .

2 .
-
O F A D i ss pN or r v n SY L LO G ISM .

T he hop e of immor ta l ity i s ei ther a r a tiona l exp ecta tion or a n illusion ;

B ut the hop e of i mmor ta lity is a r a tiona l exp ecta tion ;
T her efor e, the hop e of immor ta lity is n ot a n illusion .

3 H yp oth etical 3 O F A N H Y P O T H E T I CA L SY L L O G I SM

d
. . . .

S ump tion , moa ch

d d
d
If L ogi c oes n ot p r of es s to be an i n str umen t o f in ven tion , the r r

d
tha t i t iscover s n othin g is f
un oun e

d d
d
B ut L og ic oes n ot p r o ess f to be an ins tr umen t f
o in ven tion
T her ef or e, the r ep r oa ch tha t i t is cover s nothin g is f
un oun e .

4 . H yp oth et ico- is d 4 O
. r T H E D ILE M M A on H Y P O T H E T I C O -D I S J U N C T I V E
j un cti ve . S YL L O

d d d
G ISM .

S umption , If ma n wer e suite to live out o f society , he woul either be a go or a

d
bea st ;

d
S ub sumption , B ut ma n is nei ther a go nor a bea s t ;
C on cl usion , T her ef or e, he is not s ui te to li ve out of society .
 LECT U RE XV I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y .

S E C T I O N II .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

I I I D O C T RIN E
. O F RE A S O N I N G S .

S YL L O G I S M S T H E I R D I V I S I O N S A C C O RD IN G T O I N T E RN A L

F O RM .

A . S IM P L E .
CA T E GO RI C A L .
I . D E D U C T IV E IN E XT E N S I O N .

IN o ur l ast L e ct ur e
t er e d on t h e D i vi s i on of S yll og i sms I
,
I en .

r s t st a t e d t o y o u t h e pr i n ci pl e s o n whi ch t hi s
R pit l ti
eca u a on
div i s i on mus t pr oce e d ; I th e n ex pl a i n e d t he
n a t ur e of t h e r s t
g
dr ea t di s t r i b ut i o n of Rea son i

I n t en s i v e a n th o s e of E x t e n s i v e Q u a n t i t y ; a n
g s i n t o th o s e o f

t h er e a ft er t h a t of d d ,
n

t he s e con d g e a t di st r i b ut i on of r ea so n i n g s i n t o S i mpl e a n
r C on di
t ion a l t he S i mpl e co n t a i n i n g a s i n g l e spe ci e s
,
- th e C a t e or i ca l
g ; ,

H y poth e ti ca l a n d
t h e C on diti on a l co mp i s i n g t h r e e speci es r

H ypot h e t i co di sj un ct i v e
,
t h e D i sj un c t i v e t he
T h e s e fo ur spe ci e s
-

I s h o w e d y o u w er e s e v er a lly d e t er mi n e d b y di ffe r e n t fun d a me n t a l

,

.
1
,

d
L a w s o f T h o ug ht : t he C a te g ggig al r epo s i n g on t h e l a ws of I d e n t i t y

d d

an C on t r a di ct i on t h e D i sj un ct i v e on t he l a w of E x cl ud e d M iddl e ;

d
t h e H ypo th e t i ca l on t h e l aw o f Rea so n a n C on s e que n t ; a t he n

d
H ypo th e ti co -di sj un cti v e o n t he l a w s of E x cl ud e d M i ddl e a n
s on a n C o n se que n t in co mb i n a t i on
I n ow g o o n t o t h e spe ci a l con s id er a ti o n of t he r s t of th es e
.
Rea

I S impl S y l l g i m
.

Th C t g i l
e a e
e

or ca
o

.
cl a sse s of S yll og i s m viz t he S yll og i sm whi ch
s
h a s b e e n d en o mi n a t e d C a teg or i ca l A
.

a r d t o t h e me a n i n hi t
in r e
r y o f t h e t e r m ca t d
.
,

. n d
g g a n s o

eg or i ca l it wil l n ot b e n e ce ssa r y t o s a a n ythi n in a dditi on t o wh a t

, y g

1 C om a re a b ove p 1 67 . E D
p ,
. .
L E C T .
- XV I .
L O G I C .

h a v e a l r e a dy st a t e d in spe akin g of j ud g men t s A s use d o i g i n a lly

d
1
I . r

b y A r i s t o t l e t h e t er m ca teg or i ca l me a n t mer ely a r ma tive a n

, ,

w a s oppo se d t o n eg a ti ve By T h eoph r a s t us it wa s e mpl o y e d in t he .

d
s e n s e a b so l ut e si mpl e di r e ct a n a s oppose d
d d
-
, , ,
Th t m C
e g i l
er a te or ca
in thi s si g n i ca t i o n it ha s
.

t o con i ti on a l ; a n
c on ti n ue d t o b e empl oy e d b y all sub se quen t l ogici a n s wi t h ou t ,

th e ir h a vi n g b e en a w a r e th a t A r i st ot l e n ever empl oy e d it in t he
me a n i n g in whi ch a l on e th e y use d it .

- m
P
1T L V I I A C

ar c I'
i l S yll og i sm is a r ea son i n g wh ose for m
. t
a e o r ca
g
is d e t e r mi e d b y t h e l a w s o f I d en ti t y a n
C o n t r a di ct i on a n wh ose s umpt i on is t h us
T he a t e
n

d d
,
g or i ca l m S y l l og i s
a c a t e g o r ca l pr opo s i t i o n I n a C a t e g or i c a l
, 0

i
W hat .

d d
.

S yll og i s m t h e r e a r e
t
h oldi n g t o e a ch o th e r t he r el a ti on of wh ol e a n pa t a n th es e r
,

d
a r e s o co mb i n e d t og e t h e r th a t th e y co n s t i t u t e th r e e o osi
p p ,
r

t iop s f i n whi c h e a ch pr i n ci pa l n o t i on o ccu s t w ce e se r i .

~

n o t i o n s a r e ca ll e d T er ms ( ter mi n i in g a s t he ,

M aj or t he M le o r t h e Jil i n or T er m d
d
n o t i o n is t h e g r e a t e s t t h e g r ea t er o r t h e l e a st it is c a ll e d t h e
,

T h e M iddl e T e r m is
,
2
,

d
.
, ,

d
c a ll e d t h e A r g u men t ( a r g u men tu m A o g i aj o r
y ) ; t h e M , o , n on g

M i n or T e r ms a r e ca ll e d E x tr emes ( ex tr ema ) I
d
an f t he ,
a .

s yll og i s m p oce e d in t he q u a n t i t y o f E x t e n s i on ( a n
r t hi s fo r m
a l o n e ha s b e e n c o n s id e e d b y l o g i ci a n s) t h e pr e di ca t e o f t he

d
r ,

c o n cl us i o n is t h e g r e a t e s t wh o l e a n con s e u e t ly t h e M aj or
q
T e m ; t h e s ubj e ct of t h e con cl us i o n t h e s ma ll e s t par t a n
r

c on s e q u e t ly t h e M i n o r T e r m
n I f t h e s y ll og i s m pr o cee d in .
, ,

,
n ,

,
d ,

t h e q u a n t i t y o f C o mp e h e n s i on t he s ubj e ct o f t h e con cl us i on
d
r ,

is t h e g e a t est wh o l e a n c o s e q u e n t ly t h e M aj o r T e r m ; t h e

d
r , ,
n ,

e di ca t e of t h e co cl u s i o n t e s ma ll e s t p a r t a n c o se ue n t ly
p r
h n
q , , ,
n ,

t he M i n or T e r m I n e i t h e r q ua n t i t y t h e pr o po si t i on in w hi ch
.
,

t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e maj o r t e m t o t he middl e is e x p e s s e d is t h e
S u mp ti on o r M aj or P r emi s e a n t h e pr opo s i t i o n in whi ch is
r

,
d r ,

e x p es s e d t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e middl e t e r m t o t h e mi n o r is t h e
r ,

S u bs u mp ti on or M i n or P r emi s e T h e g e n er a l fo r ms of a C a t e .

o ica l S yll o i s m un d e r t h e t wo q ua n titi e s a r e con s e ue n tly

g r
g q , , ,

t h e fo ll o w i n g

1 S ee a b ov e , p 1 65 . et s eq . ED

d .

j
L . vi. 0 x u . .
p 343 . . H ur t a dd d o e M en oz a , p .

d
2 [O n p r in cipl e of na me of M a or an M i [ D isp ut P hil osop hicce ,
. ti ; D isp L og icee ,
. . .

n or t er ms , see A l ex . A p h r o is ien s is , I n A n . ( 1. x . 50 et s eq . T ol o sse , 1 6 17 S ee a ls o D is~

.

P r ion ,
I . . i . c c. iv . v . P hi l op on u s , I n A n . cussion s , p 666 . et s eq. E D .
]
P r ion ,
L . i . f 23 b
. . F on s eca , I n s t it . D i a lect ,
2 08 L O G I C . L E CT . XV I .

E XT E N S I V E S YL L O G I S M . IN T E N SIV E S YL L O G I S M .

B is A C is B

C is B B is A

C is A C is A
A ll ma n is mort a l C a ins is a ma n ;
B ut C a in s is a ma n B ut a ll ma n is mor ta l ;

mor ta l T her ef or e, C a ius is mor ta l

4

T her efor e, C a t us
0

is . .

In th ese ex a w a r e fr om wh a t ha s pr ev i ously b een

mpl es, y ou ar e a ,

sa id t h a t t h e copu l a in t h e t wo diffe r e n t qu a n
1 -

dd
E pli ti
x ca on .

t i t i es is pr eci se ly of a co un t e r mea n i n g ; in t he

u a n ti t y o f e x t en smn S i g n ifyi n con ta i n e u i n t he ua n t it y

q g n er ,; q
o f c o m r e h e n s i on si n i fyi n c ta i i i t T h u t ki t h e s ev
p g g on n s, n s a n
g .
,

e r a l fo mul ae t h e E x t e n s iv e S yll o i s m will wh en e x licitly e n o un ce d

r , g p , ,

b e a s fo ll o w s

d
d dd
E x a

t en si ve
mpl e
C
of th e E x
a teg or ica l
T he M i
B ut the M inor ter m C is
le ter m B is

T her ef or e, the M inor ter m C is

con ta in e

con ta ine dd dd
dd
un er the

un er the
M j
a or

M i
ter mA ;

le ter m B ;

S y l log ism .
a lso conta ine un er the M j
a or

ter m A .

O r, to t ake t he c on cr e t e ex a mpl e

d
d dd m mort a l ;
dd dd
T he M i le ter m a ll men is con ta in e un er the M a orj ter

men ;
dd
B ut the M inor ter m C a ius is con ta in e un er the M i le ter m a ll

T her ef or e, the M in or ter m C a ius is a l so con ta ine un er the M a orj ter mmor ta l .

O n t he con r a r t y t h e I n t en si ve S yll og ism wh en ,

O f the I n ten sive
l i ca t e d foll ow s :
.

ex i s as
p ,

d
d
d
d
T he M aj or ter m C con ta in s i n i t the M i le ter m B ;

in it the M in or ter m A ;

B ut the M i le ter m B con ta in s

T her efor e, the M j

a or ter m C a ls o con ta ins in i t the M in or ter m A .

O r, in t he c on cr e t e ex a mpl e

d
d le ter m ma n ;
d
d
T he M a orj ter m C a ius conta ins in it the M i
B ut the M i le ter m ma n con ta ins i n i t the M inor ter m mor ta l
T her ef or e, the M j
a or ter m C a i us a lso con ta ins in i t the M in or ter m mor ta l .

an
T
d h us y ou see d er of t he t wo pr emi ses
th a t by
b y r ev e s i g t h e me a n i n g of t h e co pul a w e ca n a lw a y s ch a n g e
r

a c a t e o r i ca l s yll o i s m of t he o n e
n
r e v er s n i g t h e or

,
,

g g q u a n tity i n t o a ca t e or i ca l sy llo
g
g i sm o f t h e o t h e r .
2

d 1 93 E D
1 S ee a b ove , p . . .

2 N ot i n I n ucti ve S y ll og isms . Jott in g .

[ S ee b el ow, p 228 . . E D .
]
L E C T . XV I . L O G I c . 2 09

d
I n t hi s par a g r a ph is c a t eg or i ca l
e n oun ce d t h e g e n er a l t
n a ur e o f a

s yll og i s m

d
a s co m e t e n t in b o t h t h e u a t i t i e s o f e x t e n si o
p , q a n n n

c o mp e h e s i o r o r w i t h mo r e
n
p pro i
n, e t y o f co m r e h e s i n a
, p ex r ,
n o n

t e s i o ; fo r co mp e h e n s i o
d as i t o e x t e n s i o n in t h e o d e r o f
r
n n
p o n, r r r

d
n a t ur e a n kn o wl e d g e o ug h t t o s t a d s t But a s a ll l o g i ci a s n r . n ,

w i t h t h e d o ub t ful e x ce pt i o n o f A i st o t l e h a v e li mi t e d t h e i r co s i r ,
n

cr a t i o n t o t h a t r oces s o f r e a s o i n i v e n in t h e ua n t i t y o f e t e n x
p g g q n

s i o n t o t h e e x cl us i o of t h at i v e n in t he a n t i t y o f co m r e h e s i on

it w ill b e p ope r in o r d e r t o a v o id m
q u p n
, g n ,

r i sa ppr e h e n s i o t o pl a ce s o m
,
n, e

o f t he di s t i ct i o n s e x r es se d in t hi a r a r a h in a s t ill mo r e
p n s
p g p
e pli ci t c o t a s t
x n r .

I n t h e r e a s on i g s u n d er b ot h q u a n t i t i e s t h e w o r d s e pr e ss i v e of
t he r el a t io s a
n

o f t h e t hi
g s r el at e d a e i e n t i n n d ,

n
x

r d
d a e t he sa me i n a t u e a n in n umb e I e a ch d
Th e i g i cal
r ea s o n n T he t hi n g s c o mp a r e d in b o t h q ua t i t i e s
n . n

d
c mw h m i
o e e o an
r n r r. n

dd
E
,

th ta In x t e n s i on ex

p li my
t h e r e ar e th e n o t o n s t h e e t e r ms a t h
t d
e e re i r n r
c mp co ar e an , ,

o os i t i o s c o mb i e d in t h e s a me c o m l e x i t y ;

d
t
con r a s e .
p p r
p n ,
n

a
g r e a t e st a
g
a

r ea ter a n

r e l a t i o n s a e fo u n d in b o t h
, a

l ea s t T h e s ,
n

a me r e l a t i v e s a d
in e a ch q u a n ti t y t h e s a me s ub o di a t i o n o f ,

t h e s a me .
,
r

n d n

d
r ua t i ti es B ut t h o u h t h e r e l a t i o s a n n
q g n .

t h e r e l a t i v e s b e t h e s a me t h e r e l a t i v e s h a v e ch a g e d r e l a t i o n s
d
,
F or n .

d
whil e t h e el a t i on b e t w e en wh ol e a n pa t is t he o e u i fo m el a
r r n n r r

ti on in b o t h q ua n t i t i e s a n whil e t hi s r e l a t i o is t h i ce e a liz e d in ,
n r r

d
e a ch b e t w ee n t h e s a me t e ms ; e t t h e t e m w hi h in t h e o e r ua r n n
y q ,
c

t i t y w a s t h e l e a s t is in t he o t h e r t h e g e a t e st a ,
t h e t e m w hi ch in r ,
n r

b o t h is i t e me di a t e is in t he o n e q u a n t i t y c o t a i n e d b y t he t e m
n r ,
n r

whi ch in t h e o t h e r it c on t a i e d n .

N o w y o u a r e t o ob s e r v e t h a t l og i ci a s l ooki n g o n ly t o t h e r e a s o n
,
n ,

N
d
w
ar r o

i i
d
1
an
in g co mpe t e t un d er t h e q ua n t i t y o f e t e s i o
an er r on e d
t h e e fo e l o oki n g o n ly t o t h e p oss i b ili t y o f
,
r r
n

,
x n n,

a s i n l e r e l a t i o n b e t we e o t i o n s o r t e ms
o e t on s 0'
f
n
g t h e n n r

M id d dM i
d
,

f th M j
,

gI C I an s o e a or ,
of a s yll o g sm h a v e I co se u e n ce o f t h s o e i
l e, an n or q , ,
n n i n

t m s id e d co n s id e r a t i on o f t h e s ubj e ct i ni
er s.
g v en e ,

t i o n s of t h es e r e l a t i v e s w hi ch a r e t ue o n ly ,
r

d
w h e n li mit e d t o t he ki n d o f r e a s o i g w hi ch t h e y e cl us i v e l y co n n x n

an d
t e mpl a t e T hi s is s e en in t h e i r d e n i t i on s of t he M aj o M iddl e
M i o r T e r ms n
.

.
r, ,

I n r eg a d t o t he r s t th e y a ll s i mply d e n e t h e M aj or t e r m t o b e
r
,

t h e pr e di ca t e of t he co cl us i o n T hi s is t u e o f n r
1 M j
.

. a or
t h e r e a s o i g u n d e r e t e n s i o n b u t of t h a t e x
.

n n x ,

aj or t e r m t h a t is t h e t e m w hi ch co t i s
cl usiv e l
y F or t h e M
.
, , r n a n

b ot h t h e o t h e s in t h e r e a so i g o f co mpr e h e n s i o is t h e s ubj e ct
r n n n ,

o f t he c o n cl u s i on A g a i n t h e M i n or t e r m t h e y a ll s i mply d e ne t o
.
,

27
 210 L O GI C L E C T XV I

d
. .

b e t he s ub e c j t
c on cl usi on ; a t hi s is like wi s e t u e on ly of
of t he n r

t he r e a s o i n g u d e r e x t e n si o : f r i t h e e a s o n n n o , n r n
2 M i n or

i g u d e co mp e h en s i o n t h e M i n o t e m is t h e
. .

n n r r ,
r r

d d
r e di ca t e of t he co n cl us i o F i n a lly, t h e y a ll s i mply d e n e t h e
p n.

d
M iddl e t e r m a s t h a t whi ch is co n t a i n e d u n d e r t h e pr e i ca t e a n ,

3 M id d c o n t a in s m n e r it t h e s ubj e ct o f t h e c cl u s i o n on .

l e.
But t hi s d e i t i o li ke t h ose o f t h e t w o o t h er
.

n n ,

t e r ms mus t b e r e v e r s e d a s a ppli e d t o t h e r e a s on i g u d e r co mpr eh e n

, n n

si o I h a v e b ee t h u s t e di o us ly e x pli ci t in o d e r t h a t y o u s h o uld
n . n r
,

d d
b e fully a w a e o f t he co t r a s t o f t h e d o ct i n e I p opose t o w h a t y u
r n r r ,
o

w ill in l o g i ca l b o o ks ; a
n t h a t y ou ma y b e pr e pa r e d fo r t h e n

d
fur t h er d e v el o pmen t o f thi s d o ct r i n e fo r it s a ppli ca t i o in d e t a il ,
n .

I n r eg a d t o t h e n o me n cl a t ur e o f t h e M aj o r M i n o a n M iddl e
r
,
r,

t e ms it is n o t n e ce s s a y t o s a y mu ch r ,
T he r .

mm M
d M d d d
N m
e ss i on ter m t er mi n u s s st em
f ( 3 m
p )
0 u
9nc O a
w

ex a
.

M
p r , ,
r
J O I

l
i n or a n i e

te rm s
,

.
,

p l oy e d b
y A r i s t ot l e a n l i ke t h e
g r ea t er
p a t , ,
r

o f his l o i c a l v oca b ul a r y w a s a s I h a v e o b s e r v e d
g , , ,

b o r o w e d f o m t he l a g ua g e o f M a t h e ma t i cs
r r Y o u a r e a wa r e t h a t
n .
1

d
t h e w o d ter m is a ppli e d t o t h e ul t i m a t e c o n st i t ue n t s b o t h o f pr o po
r

s it io s a o f s yll o i s ms

d T h e t e r ms o f a
p pr o o sit i o n a e t he
n n r
g .

s ub j e ct a n e di ca t e T h e t e ms o f a s yll o g i s m a e t h e t h e e r r
p r . r

n o t i o s whi ch in t h e i

d
n t h e e fo ld co mb i a t i o f m t h e t h r e e pr op o

s it io s o f a s yll o g i m
r

T h e maj o r a n
r

mi n or
n

s .
n or

n d
t e ms A r i s t o tl e b y a n o t h e r ma t h e ma t i ca l me t a
d
A i t tl r s O i ti e s

e n on
r ,

d d
o f th t m e f y ll
er s o a s o

g i m s .
p h or c a ll s t h e ex tr emes ( p ) t h e ,
m aj or a a k a ,
n

mi n or ex tr emes ; a n h is d e n i t i o o f t h e s e a n n

o f t h e middl e t e m is u n li ke t h o se o f t h e s ub s e q ue t l o g i ci a s s o
r ,
n n ,

e e r a l t h a t it w ill a pply w i t h p e r fe c t pr o p i e t y t o a s yll o g i s m in r

g n ,

e ith e r ua n t it y I c a ll h h
d
e middl e t e r m t h a t w hi ch is

d

q e sa s
y t .
, ,

b o t h i t s e lf in a n o t h e r a a n o t h er i it ; a w hi ch b y it s po s i t i o n
n n n , ,

d
li e s in t h e middl e t h e e t e mes I ca ll b ot h t h a t whi ch is in a ot h er
d
x r n

t h a t i w hi ch a n ot h e is A in a n o t h e r pl a ce h e s a y s I d e e 2

an n r . n ,
n

t h e maj o r e x t eme t h a t in w hi ch t h e middl e is ; t h e mi o e t e me

r n r x r

t h a t w hi ch is s ub o r di n a t e d t o t h e middl e
3
.

H i d
I ma y n o t i ce t h a t t h e pa r t o f his d e n i t i on of

M d d md
i ti f th
t h e middl e t e r m w h e r e h e d e s c i b e s it a s that
s e n on o e
r

db y p iti t
,
l t m
m
i e er as r

whi h m ddl d
,

b it s o h e s t h e e o es n o t n, In i

ppli b l t th m d a pply t o t h e mo d e in w hi ch s ub s e q u e n t l o g i ci a n s
s o
le os c on y , p no , ,

a ca e o e o e

b q en t

d
Wh i h F o r l e t A b e t h e maj o
e n o un c e t h e s yll o g i s m
i n c su se u
. r ,
l o i i th
c a n s e n oun ce e

yi g i m
B t h e m ddl e a C t h e mi o r t e r m of a n E x i , n n
s o s

t e n s i v e S yll og i s m t hi s w ill b e e x pr e s s e d th us : ,

d d
S ee S ch e ib l er , [ O p er a L og ica , P a r s iii
1 . . c . 2, 2 A n a l. P r i on ,
L . i .
, c. 4, 4 .

39 8 b 9 4 ED 3 I bi 8
p .
, a n a o ve , p
1 6 , n o te ] . . . .
,
.
 L E C T . XV I . LO GIC 11

dd
dd
B is A , i . e . B is con ta in e un er A .

dd
C is B, i . e. C is con ta in e un er B .

C is A , i . e. C is a lso con ta in e un er A .

In thi s syll og i sm
e mi s e s an t h
t he
e r e fo r e A
middl e
t er m B s t a n d s r s t a n l a st in t h e
r i st o t l e s d e i t i od d
p r , , ,
n n

d
B t q it ppl i b l
o f t h e middl e t e r m n ot o n ly a s middl e b y n a
u u e a ca e
,
to th e i g i r ea s o n n n

C mp h
o i re
t u re
e n s on
co n t a i i n
g t h e m i n or , a n co n t ain ed b n
y

d
.

t h e maj o r b u t a s middl e b y p osi t i o n s t a n di n g , ,

a ft e r t he maj o r a n b e fo r e t h e mi n o b e c o me s i ept I t will a ppl y r, n .

,

h o w ev e r co mpl e t ely t o t he r e a son i g in compr e h en si on ; for t he

, n

e x t e s i v e s yll og i s m i v e n ab ov e b e i o n v e r t e d i n t o a n i n t en s i ve
n
g g c n

b y r e v er si n g t he t wo pr e mi se s it w ill s t a n d a s fo ll o w s : ,

C is B, i . e. C con ta ins in i t B .

B is A , i . e . B con ta ins in it A .

C is A , i . e. C a lso con ta in s in it A .

It d o es
foll o w h ow ev er fr o m t hi s th a t A r i st otl e e i t h e r
n ot , , ,

It d t h w
c o n t e mpl a t e d e x cl us i v e ly t he r ea s o n i n in c om
oes n o o e ve r ,
g
r e h e sw n o r th a t h e con t e m l a t e d
,

f ll w t h t A r i s tot l e th e ea

t mpl t d
r s o n
o o ,
a p p
n ,

l I n s I n b ot h u a n t i t i e s : for I t I S v e y e a s y t o
c on e a e
g ex c u
q r

ma y t h m i g e
s t a t e a r e a so n i n
a s on n
in e x t e n sio n s o t h a t t h e maj o r
g ,

d
i
n C mp h o i re e n s on
t e r m s h a ll st a n d r st t he mi ddl e t e r m s e c on d
.

an t h e mi n o r l a st We ca n st a t e it th us.

d
d
A is B, i . e. A con ta ins un er it B .

d
B is C , i . e . B con ta in s un er it C .

A is C ,
i . e . A con ta in s un er it C .
,

T hi s g ll
is g as oo d
o i s m in e x t en s i on a s t h e r st th oug h it is
a sy ,

We ma y a l so c on ver t it
n ot s t a t e d in t he mo d e u s u a l t o l og i ci a n s

i n t o a co mpr eh e n si ve syll og i s m b y r e ve s i n g it s pr e mi s es a n t he
me a n i g o f t he copu l a t h o ug h h er e a l so t he mod e of e x pr essi on will
n
,
r
.

d
,

b e un u s ua l :

S umption , d
d
B is C ,
i . e. B is con ta in e in C .

d
S ub sump t ion , . A is B, i . e. A is con ta i ne in B .

C o n clusion , A is C , i . e. A is conta ine in C .

F r om thi s y o u w ill s ee, th a t it is n ot to t he mer e t

ex er n a l
ar r an g e me n t of h e i r r e l a t i on t ha t
t he t e r ms, b ut t o t he n a t ur e o f t ,

w e must l o o k in d et e r mi n i n g t he ch a r a ct e r of t he syll og i s m .

Be for e l ea v i n g t h e co n s id e r a t i o n o f t he t e r ms of a s yll og i s m I ,

ma y n ot i ce th a t t he most con v en i en t mo d e of st a t i n g a syll og ism in

21 2 L 0G I c L E C T XV I

d
. . .

a n abs r a c t t for m ,
is b y t he l e t t e r s S , P , a n
ig n ifyi n g t h eM, S s

M t os

f t t mg a y l
i t anc on ven en d
s ubj e ct , a s P t h e pr e di ca t e ,
o f t h e c o n cl us i on

M t h e middl e t e r m o f t h e syll og i s m T hi s , .
,

d
m l
f ou w ill b e p l e a s e d t o r e coll e ct sh a l l
o e o S a s '

y as w e
l g m
,
o is b t Int an a s r ac
it n ec e ss a y t o e m l o y t h t t r
f m or .
n
p is n o a o n i n i

s h o wi n g t h e di ffe r en ce s o f s yll o i sms fr o m t h e

g
diffe e t a r r a n g emen t of t h ei r t e r ms
r n .

I h a v e for mer ly s t a t e d t h a t ca t eg o r ic a l s yll og i sms a r e r eg ul a t e d

d
b y t he fun d a me t a l l a w s of I d e n t i t y a n C on n d
dmd dmt r ma t ive the law of C on t r a di ct i on N eg at i ve
C t g i l S y ll
a e o r ca t r a ict io n ; t h e l a w o f I d e n ti t y r eg ul a t i n g A f
o

g m
d C a t e or i cals A s h o w e ver t he l a ws of I d en
s f e "
, , ,
l l

d
sp e ci a c a ss es a cc o r

, g t th
D p pli ti
o e a g ca on s
.
, ,

ti t y a C o n t r a di ct i o n a e ca pa b l e o f ce r t a i n
W d t d
o f th l w e f N w a s o e n r

im
dth l ti f o f a d i v si on of C a t e o i cal S yll o i s ms i n to a
s e ci a l a p li ca t i o n s t h es e w ill a ffo r d t h e ou d
c
an on r a on
p p g ,
r n

d
un er e re a on o
i g r
wh l t g 0

d d
o e an p ar .

co r r e s o d i n umb e r o f cl a s s es I t h a s b een
p g n n .

a l r e a dy s t a t e

d
th a t a ll e a s o n i n g is u n d e t h e r e l a t i o o f w h ol e a n
d
,
r r n

d
co n s e q u e n t l y
a t t h e l a w s o f I d e n t i ty a n C o n t a di ct i on
p ran , , ,
r

will t h e i r a ppli ca t i o n t o ca t eg or i ca l syll og i s ms o n ly un d er t hi s

n

r el a t i o n .

B ut t h e e l a t i o n o f w h o l e a n pa r t ma y b e r eg a r d e d in t w o po i n t s
r d
o f V i e w ; fo r w e ma y e i t h e r l o ok f o m t h e w h ol e r

t o t h e pa r t s o r l o o k fr o m t h e pa r t s t o t h e w h ol e
d
Th l ti e f re a on o , .

g d di w c ples of I d e n ti t y a n C o t a d i cti on I n such a d

1 1
7 1 0 9 P t m yan
T hi s b e i n g t h e ca se ma y w e n o t a pply t h e pr i n
ar a
,

d w a t h a t we e t h er r ea son f om t he wh ol e t o
b e re ar e n t o
i n r

th u ff d
p mto f s w o V ie , an

s a tw lor s y o c as s. i r

d
es o f R i g t h e pa r t s or fr o m t h e pa r t s t o wa d s t h e wh ol e
e a s on n s
,
r

L e t u s co sid e r : l o oki n g a t t he w h ol e a t he
n n

p a r t s t o e t h e r on t h e

w h ol e a
g
a ll it s
p
p
d r i n ci
ar ts a r e on e
n
p l e o f I d e

t
n

h
t ity w e a r e a s s ur e d t h a t t h e

a t w h a t e v e r is t u e of t h e ,
-
,

o n e is t r u e o f t h e o t h e r t h a t t h e y a r e o n ly di ffe e n t e x ess i o n s
, p r r

d
for t h e di ffe r e n t a spect s in w hi ch w e ma y con t empl a t e w h a t in i t s elf
is a b s o l ut e ly i en ti ca l O n t h e p i n ci pl e t h e r e fo r e t h a t t he w h o l e
. r , ,

is o n ly t h e s um o f t he pa r t s I a m e n t i t l e d on t h e o e h a d l o oki n g , ,
n n ,

fr om t h e w h ol e t o it s pa r t s t o s a y w i t h a b s ol ut e cer t a i n t y Wh a t ,

d ,

d
b e l o g s t o a w h o l e b e l o n g s t o it s p a r t ; a n wh a t d o es o t b e l on g
n n

t o a w h ol e d o e s n ot b el o n g t o it s pa r t : a n o n t h e o t h er l ooki n g ,

fr om t he pa r t s t o t h e i w h ol e t o s a y Wh a t ma ke s up a ll t h e pa r t s
co n s ti t ut es t h e w h o l e ; a n
r

d
w h a t d o e s n ot ma ke up a ll t h e p a r t s
, ,

d o es o t co st i t ut e t h e w h ol e N o w t h e s e t w o a ppli ca ti on s of t h e
p i
n

ci pl e s o f I d e n t i t y a n
r n
n

C d
d
o t r a di ct i o n a s w e l ook fr o m o n e t e r m
.

n
,

o f t he

d
l a t i o of w h ol e a n pa r t o f o m t h e ot h e d e t e r mi e t w o
re n r r r, n
,

differ en t ki n s of r e a s on i g F or if w e r ea son d o w n w a d s fr om n . r ,
L E C T . XV I .
L O G I C . 21 3

a co n t a n n g

r ea so n in
g w hi
i i
c
h ol e t o a co n t a i n e d pa r t w e sh all h a v e o n e s or t of
h i s
w
c a ll e d t h e D e u ct ive; w h e r e a s if w e r e a so n up d ,

w a r d s fr o m t he co s t i t ue n t pa t s t o a co n st i t ut e d w h o l e w e s h a ll
'
,

h av e a o t he r s o t o f r e a s o i n g w hi ch is ca ll e d 5
n r
n

t h e I n uct i ve T hi s n ,
r

d ,

I s h a ll b r i ey e x pr es s in t he fo ll o wi n g pa r ag r a ph .

1T L V I I I g ic al S yll o i s ms a r e D e u cti ve
g .
-C a e

t h e pr i n ci pl es o f I d e n t ity a n
t
C o n t a ic
on
or d
d d
if ,

r
,

d t i on w e r e a son d o wn w a r d s fr o m a con
P ar . L V I II . C a t eg or

d d
i ca l m S y l l og i s s i , ,

dd d
mu in
t a in in
D
w h o l e t o a co n t a i n e d p a t
e ve
t h ey cr r

d
0
an I n u ct i v e .

ar e I u cti ve i f; o n t h e s e pr i n c pl e s w e n ,
i ,

r e a s o n up w a r d s fr om t h e con s t i t uen t pa r t s t o a con st it ut e

,

wh ol e .

T hi s
D d
is ps uf c e n i t g
of t he di ffe r e n ce o f D e d ucti v e a n
atl c o n ce t i o n
r e s en
p
I n d u ct i v e
t to a ffo r d y o u a e n er a

d
d
I ti C t
T h e di ffe e n ce o f th e s e t w o ki d s
e uc ve a e
C a t e g o r ica ls
.

r n
g i l S y ll g i m
.

or ca o s s

o f r e a s o n i g w ill b e p r o pe r ly e x pl a i n e wh e n
.

n , ,

a ft e r h a v i n e x o u n d e d t he n a t ur e o f t h e for me r w e pr o cee d t o
g p ,

c o n s id e r t h e n a t u r e o f t h e l a t t e r We sh a ll n ow t h e e fo e con .
,
r r ,

s id e r t h e ch a a ct e r o f t h e d e d uct i v e pr o ce ss

d
t he r oce s s w hi c h
r
p ,

h a s b e e ce t a i ly a n mos t s u cce ssfully a a lyz e d b y l og i c i a n s ; fo

n r n n r,

d
t h o ug h t h e i r t r e a t me n t o f d e d uct i v e r e a s o n i n g h a s b e e n o n e s id e d -

an i mpe f e ct it is n o t posi t i v e ly e r r o n e o us ; wh e r e a s t h ei a a ly
si s o f t h e i n d u ct i v e
r

p
,

r o ce ss is a t o n ce me a r e a n
g i n co r e ct

r s t o f t h e pr ox i ma t e ca n o n s b y whi ch D e d uct i v e C a t eg or ica ls

A n d ,

r
r

.
n

d,

a r e r e ul a t e d
g .

1T L I X

d
d uct i ve C a t ego r icals t he un i ver s a l l a w s of
. In D e

d
I d e n t i t y a n C o n t r a di c t i o n t a ke t w o mo did
P - X
ar L I e fo ms a cc o r di n g a s t h e s e s yll og i sms
-D e u ctiv e
r ,
C a t e g or i ca l s , t h eir
can on s. p r oc e e d i n t h e
q u a n t t y o f C om
p e h e n s m n o r i r

in th a t o f E x t e n s i o T he peculi a r ca o n n. n

b y whi ch I n t e s i v e S yll og i sms o f t hi s cl a ss a r e r eg ul a t e d is

n , ,

Wh a t b el on g s t o t he pr edi ca t e b e l on g s a l s o t o t he s ubj e ct ;
wh a t is r e pug n a n t t o t he pr e di ca te is r e pug n a n t a l so t o t he
s ubj e ct T he pe c uli a r ca n o n b y w hi ch E x t e n s i v e S yll og i s ms
.

d
o f t hi s cl a s s a e r e g ul a t e d is - Wh a t b e l o n s t o t he
r en u s
g g ,

d
b e l o g s t o t h e spe ci es a n
n i n di vid ua l ; wh a t is r e pug a n t t o n

t h e g e n us is r e pug a n t t o t h e spe ci e s a n i n di vid ua l O r

n .
,

mor e b i e y Wh a t per t a i n s t o t he hi g h er cl a s s pe rt a i n s a l s o
r ,

t o t he l o w e r .
214 L 0G I c L E C T XV I

d
. . .

Bo t h th e s e l a ws a r e en oun ce d b y A r i s t o tl e a n b oth f om him l

, ,
r ,

h a ve
d
a ss e d i n t o t he w i t i s o f s ub se u e n t l o i ci a n s T h f m
p g q g r e onr e r .
,

d
a s u s u a lly e x pr e ss e d is P r ce i ca tu m p ee r
, ,
E x pl ica ti on
i ca ti es t eti a m p r az oli ca tu m s u l ect i,
gj

or , N ol a

n oi ce es t eti a m n o ta
dr ei l ip s i i t s . T he a t t er is co r r e s
p on den t to w hat
is ll e d t he D icta e O mn i et ole N u llo, t he
dD i ctu m ole O mn i ,

ca

w h e n l e a s t a mb ig uo us ly
d d b ei n g,
dd d
Q ui cq u i mn i ol e

ex r es se
p ,
o

d
v a let, va let eti a m ale gu i bu s e m et s i n g ula s
,

an t he D i cti t m e
N u llo b ei n g, Q uic ui
q ole n u llo va let, n ec cle g u i bu s a m n ec cle

i d
s i n g a li s va let. But l i i h
as og c a n s a ve a l t og e t h l
erd o v e r o oke t he
r e a so n n g i in C o mpr e h e n s i o n ,
th e y h a v e con s equen n ot
p e r ce v e ,
tly ,

t h e pr o pe r a ppli ca t i on o f t h e fo r me r ca n o ; w c t er e fo e r e n hi h h ,
r ,

ma i e d in t h e i r sy s t e ms e i t h er a me e h or s cl oeu vr e o r e l s e w a s
n r

,

o n ly fo c e d i n t o a n u n n a t ur a l c o n n e cti o n with t h e i n ci l e o f t h e
r
p p r

s yll o g i s m o f e t e n s i o n x .

Be for e s t a ti n g t o y o u h ow t he p e ce di n g ca n o n s a e a g a i n in r r ,

t h e i r p o x i ma t e a ppli ca t i on t o c a t e g o i ca l s y ll o
r r

i s ms fo r con v e n i e n ce s a ke s t ill mo r e e x licit l

d

C ti
o n n ec f h on o t e
g ,p y ,

p Wm ' t m
e n o un ce d in ce r t a i n s pe ci a l r ul es it w ill b e
ro s Ons a er s
f ,

d
o f th C t g
e a el S yl o r i ca
r o er t o sh ow h m h d f m a ki n t h
l g i m i ll u s trat e d b y t t
o s p p y o u e e o o
g e r

ib l y mb l co n n e ct i on o f t h e r o osi t i o s a t e ms o f a n r
se n s e s o s.
p p n

ca t e o i ca l s yll o i s m b s e n s i b l e s y mb o l s O f
g g y r .

t h es e t h er e a r e v a i o u s ki n d s b ut a s I fo r me r ly n o t i ce d t h e b e s t
r , , ,

u p on t h e w h o l e b eca use t h e s i m l e s t is th a t b y ci cl es cco r d

d
2
p ,
A ,
r .

i n g t o t hi s me t h o d syll og i sms w i t h a fr ma ti v e a n ,
n e a ti v e con
g
e l us i on s w o uld b e th us r e r e se n t e d
3
p .

A F FI RM A T I V E .

d d
1 C a teg .
, c . 3 . A n al . P r i on , i 1
. .
-E D . n a te species, in co mpr eh en si on a ll t h e imme
2 [A n j
o b e ct ion t o the mo e o f sy l l og istic ia t e a t tr ib ut e s ] [ F or th e a ut h o r s
n al

d d d
n o t a t ion by ci r cl es is , t h a t w e c a n n ot , b y t h is sch e me o f n ot a t io n , s ee T a b ul a r S che me at

dd
mo e . s h ow t h a t th e c o n t a in e ex h a u st s t he en of v ol u me . E D .
]
K r ug
d
c o n t a in in g ; fo r w e ca n n ot ivi e the a r ea of 3 S e e a b ove , p 1 80
. . Cf . L og ik, 5 79 ,
b et w ee n a n y n umb e r
d
o f c on t a i n e 245 E
a ci r cle p . . D .

ci r cles , r epr esen t in g in ex t e n si o n a l l c oor i

L E C T . XV I .
L 0GI C 21 5

Y o u a r e n ow p re
pa re d for t h e t t
s a e men t an d ill i ust r a t on of t he

P r ox

C t g i l
a e
ima t e Rules
or caS y ll
va r i o us
yll og i s ms a r e r eg ul a t e d A n s t in r e g a r d
of

o
s
p r ox i ma t e r u es l by
. d
whi h c

,
a ll c a t e o r ca l

r
g
,
i

t o t h es e r ul e s in r e l a t i o n t o t he r e as o n i g of n
gi ms 1 E t
s. i. x e n s ve .

E x t e n si o n .

A ld i ch s a y s D r Wh a t e ly
d h a s g i v en t w e l v e r u l e s w hi ch I
r , .
,
,

n mi g ht b e mor e co n v e i e n t ly r e d u ce d t o s ix N o s yll o g i s m ca n n .

b e fa ul t y w hi h v i ol a t e s n on e o f t h es e r ul e s
d
T hi s r e d uct i o n o f
1
c .

t he syll o g i s t i c ul e s t o s ix is n o t o r i g i a l t o D r Wh a t e ly ; b ut h a
r n .

s ix whi ch h e a n g dd
he l o oke d a li t t l e cl ose r i n t o t h e ma t t e r h e mi g h t h a v e se e n t h a t t h e
o t h er l o i ci a n s e n u me a t e ma
y w i t h o u t a n
y s a c
,

r , ,

r ic e o f p e ci s i o n an wi t h ev e n a n i n c e a s e of pe r spi cui t y b e
r

d
'

,
r ,

r e d u ce d t o t h r e e I sh a l l s t a t e th ese in a pa r a g r a ph a n th e n ill us
.
,

t r a t e th e m in d et a il .

R ul e s of
T h e T h r ee
the E x t en
g
l L X A n E x t e n s i v e C a t eg o r ic a l S y llo
i s m,
if r e
g ul a r ly
.

an fully e x r e s s e d , is
p d
d
t eg w ma l
fizf g
8 51

g l o v er n e d b y the t h r ee f ll i o ow n r u es

d
s

I I t mus t h a v e t h r e e a n o n ly t h r ee .
, ,

T er ms co n stit uti n g t h r e e a
,
o n ly t h r ee P r o os i t i o s
p ,
n , n .

I I O f t he pr e mi s es t h e S umpt i on mus t in q ua t i t y b e
.

D e n i t e ( i e u n i v e r s a l or s i g ul a r ) a n
. . t h e S ub s umpt i on in
,

n ,
d n

ua li t y A f r ma t i v e
q .

d
I I I T he C o n cl us i on mus t co r e s po n d in Q ua n t i t y w ith t h e
. r

S ub s umpt i on a n i Q ua li t y w i t h t he S u mpt i on
,
n
2
.

dd
d
1 E lemen t s L og ik, B i i 0 i 2 , p 85 , 8th b a uer , A L og ilc, 5 3 1 7 , p 1 64 .
o f . . . ii . .
f a n g sgr tt n
n e er .

e it . E D .

d Ba c h ma n n , L og ik, 122 , p 1 8 7 E s se r , L og i k,
. .

K
d [ C f A lex a n
d 88 , 8 9
2 r ug , L og ik, 80 .
-E D . . er S ch ul z e, L og t /c, 79 . F r ies , L og ik,

d
A ph r o P r ion , L I , f 1 7 , A l
is ie n s is , I n A n . . . . . 55 , p . 22 4 ] .

D er o on , L og i ca Res t it u t a , p 63 9 et s eq H off . .
21 6 L oe I c . L E C T . XVI .

h ese th r e e simpl e l a ws c omp i s e a ll th e r ul e s whi ch l og i ci a n s

T r

d
la y d o w n w i t h s o c o fus i n g a min ut e n e s s T he n
l
.

d
I ll t ti Fi t
r s t is : A ca t eg or i ca l s yll og i s m if r eg ul a r a n
us r a on . rs
,

d
R l
u e
e r fe ct mu s t h a v e t h r e e a n o n ly t h r e e
.

p ro
p p , , ,

osit ion s mad e up of t h r ee a o n ly th r e e t e r ms T h e n e ce ssi t y

,
n , .
,

o f t hi s r ul e is ma n ifest f o m t h e v e r y n ot i on of a c a t e g o i ca l s ll o r r
y

d
i sm I n a c a t e o r i ca l s yll o g i s m t h e r e l a ti o n of t w o n o ti o n s t o e a ch
g .
g
o th e r is d e t e r mi n e d t h r o ug h t h e i r r e l a t i on t o a thi r d ; a n con s e ,

q u

dd
e n t ly e a ch mu s t b e co mpa r e d o n ce with t he i n t e r me di a t e n o t i on
, ,

d
an o n ce w i t h e a ch o t h e r I t is th us ma n ife st th a t t h er e mus t b e .

thr ee a n ca n n o t oss i b ly b e mo r e t h a n th r ee t m th t
, p e r s ; a a , n

d
t h e se th r e e t e r ms mu st in t h e i r th ee fo ld c o mpa r i s on c on s ti t ut e
th r ee a n on ly th r ee pr opositi on s I t is h ow e ver t o b e ob s er v e d
,

th a t it ma y oft en h a ppe n a s if; in a v a lid syllo

, .
r

, ,
,

Wh t i p p t
g d d l gi t i on s t h r ee t e ms But i n t h a t ca se t he t er ms
i m h e r e w e r e mo r e t h a n th r ee r i n ci a l n o
a s rO er o
g s t p p ,

d
be re ar e as a o

l te rm ,
r .
, ,
ca .

o r n o t i o n s a e o ly c om l e x a n e x r e ss e d b a r n
p p y ,

d
l ur a li t y of w or d s H e n ce it is t h a t ea ch s e v e r a l n o t i o n ex t a n t in
p .
,

a s yll o i s m a n d e n ote d b a s e a r a t e w o d is n ot o n th a t a cco un t

g y , p r ,

t o b e v i e w e d a s a l o g i ca l t e r m or t e r mi n u s b ut on ly t h o se which , ,

e i t h e r s i n g ly o r in c o e ct i on w i t h o t h e r s c o n s t i t ut e a pr i n ci pa l
nn ,

mome t u m of t he syll og i s m
n T h us i t h e fo ll owi n g syll og i sm .
2
,
n ,

t h e e a e ma n y mo r e t h a n th r e e s e v e r a l n o t i on s e x pr e ss e d b y t h r ee
r r

se v e r a l w o d s b ut th ese w e s h a ll n r , c on stit ut e in r e a li t y on ly ,
d ,

t h r ee pr i n ci pa l n o t i o n s or l og i ca l t e r ms

d d
d
S umption H e who con s ci en tiously p erf or ms his uty is a tr uly goo ma n ;

d
S ub sumpt ion S ocr a tes cons cien tio us ly p erf or ms his uty ;

C on clus ion T her efor e, S ocr a tes is a tr uly goo ma n .

H er e h er e a r e in a ll s ev e n s ev er a l
t n ot ons i d en o t e d by s e v e n sep

ar at e

5 . d
G oo
w o d s : 1 C o n s ci en ti ou s ly 2
,
r

6 . M an,
.

7 S . ocr a tes
; b u t o n ly t h r e e
p
, . P
r i n ci a l n o t i o n s o r
p
er
f or ms, 3 D . u ty ,

d
4 . T r u ly ,

l og
g o o d
i lt

Wh
ca

ma n ,
er ms,
3 . S
v iz

ocr a tes .
.
,
1 . C on s cien ti ou s ly p erf or ms hi s u ty , 2 T r u ly .

Q ua t er n i o
en , on

T er min or um
the

.
o th er
t he su

s ig n i ca t io n s,
ha n d , the
mpt i on
t
an

h
d
e x pr e s s o n o f

s ub s u

ma y , in
i
mpti on is
t
t he

hat
middl e
us e

c a se , a p
d
t er m in
in t w o
e ar to
er e p
be ly th r e e t e ms whil e t h e e a e in r ea lit y fo ur ; o r a s
on r ,
r r it is t e ch
n ica lly s t yl e d in l og i c a q u a t er n i o ter mi n or u m O n thi s 3
, . a cco un t ,

S ee S ch e ib l e r , O p er a L og ica , p a r s iv , p
1 . . . 2 K r ug , L og ik, 80, p 246. A nm 1 E D
. . . .

51 6 K ecke r ma n n , S y s tema L og iew M in us ,

.
[ C f F on seca ,
3 .
( I n ui t D ia l , L vi 0 20, p
. . . . . .

O p er a , t i . .
, p 239 . . ED . 3 59 .ED ] .
L E C T XV I L OGI C 21 7

d
. .

t he yll og i sm is v ici ous in po i n t of fo r m a n con se que n t ly ca n

s , , ,

a ffo d n o i n fe e n c e h o w b e i t t h a t t h e s e v e r a l pr o po s i t i o n s ma y in

p n
r

o i t o f ma tt e r b e a ll t r u e A n
r

w h
, y ?
,

b e ca use t h e r e is h e e n o
.

me di a t i o n con se que n t ly n o co n n ecti on b e tw e e n t he di ffe r en t t er ms

d r
,

of t he s yll o i s m F o r e x a mpl e :
g .

T he a n ima ls a r e voi d o f r ea son

ma l ;
d
M an is a n a ni

T her efor e, ma n is voi o f r ea son .

an d H er ec on cl usi on is in va lid t h oug h e a ch pr opositi on b y it self

t he
in a ce r t a i n s e n s e ma y b e t ue F or h e r e t h e middl e t e r m a n i
,

ma l is n o t t a ken i t he s a me me a n i n g in t h e maj or a n mi n or pr op
n
r
,

d
,

,
,

o s it io n s F o r in t he fo r me it is t a ke n in a n a r r o w er s i g i ca t i on
. r, n
,

c o v er t ib l e w ith a n ima te or g a n i sm
n

T h e s eco n d r ul e is : O f t h e pr e mi ses t h e s umpt i on mus t in

d
a s co v e r t i b l e w i t h br u te in t h e l a tt e r in a wid e r s i n i c a t i o n a s
, g
.
l
,

S e cond R l u e.
q u a n t i t y b e d e n i t e ( un i v e s a l o r s i

s ub s umpt i on mu s t in q u a li t y b e a f ma t iv e
g u l a r
) t h e r n

r
,

T he sumpti on mu s t in r e fe r e c e t o it s qu a n tity b e d e n i t e ; b eca us e

d
n

it a ffor d s t h e g e er a l r ul e of t h e syll og i s m F or if it w er e in e
n .

n it e t h a t is a r t i cul a r w e s h o uld h a v e n o s e cur i t y th a t t h e middl e

, p , ,

t e r m in t h e s ub s u mpt i o n c o mpr i se d t h e s a me pa r t of t he sph er e

whi ch it compr i s e d in t h e sumpti on P .

T hus L ab
_l
S

A ll S ar e P .

O r, in a c on cr e t e ex a mpl e

S ome wor ks of a r t a r e cubica l ;

A ll p ictur es a re wor ks of a rt

T her ef or e, a ll p ictur es a r e cubi ca l

In re
g ar d t o the mpti on ,
thi s is n e c e ss ar ily a fr ma ti ve T he
s ub s u .

d
s umpt i o n is n o t li mi t e d t o e i t h e r ua li t y b e ca use t he iti
q p p
r o os o n ,

e n oun ci n g a e n e r a l r ul e ma y i n di ffe r e n t ly d e cl a r e A ll M i s P
g an ,

N o M is P T h e a s s umpt i o n is t h us i n d e t e r mi n a t e in r e g a r d t o
.

u a li t y B u t n ot s o t h e i t i n e n o u n ci t h li t i f
q .
p po os o
g e a
ppr c a o n o a n

d
g en e r a l r ul e F or it must s ub s ume t h a t is it must a f m t h a t
.
, ,
r ,

s ome t hi n is c o t a i d u d a co n di t i o n i th e r e fo r e n e ces
g n n e n e r
; a n s

We must sa y S is M But in r espect of quan t ity

, ,

s ar ily a f r ma ti ve . .

1 K r ug , L og i lc, p 24 7 . E D
. .

28
21 8 L 0G I C . L E C T . XV I .

it is un d et e
mi n e d , for we
r i t h e r s a y A ll S i s M or S ome S i s
ca n e ,

M . I f t h e s ub s umpt i o n is
n e a t i v e t h e e is
g o i fe e n ce ; fo r it is ,
r n n r

n o t n e ce s s a y t h a t a g e n u s s h o u ld c o t a i
r o n ly t hi n s of a c er t a in
g n n

spe ci es T hi s is s h o wn in t h e fo ll o w i n g ex a mpl e
.

A ll men a r e a ni ma ls ;
N o ho r se is a ma n ;
T her ef or e, no hor se is a n a ni ma l .

O r , a s ab s r a t ctly ex
p r e ss e d

T h us it is th a t in a r eg ul a r e t en s i v e c a t eg or i cal syll og i sm t he
, x ,

s umpt i o n mu s t b e a lw a y s d e n i t e in q ua n t ity t he s ub s umpt i on ,

a l w a y s a f r ma t i ve in u a li t y

d
d
1
q .

I h a v e h o w e ve r t o a
, a n o b s e r v a ti on r e u i s it e t o
, q p r ev e n t t h e

o ss i b ili t y o f a mi s c o n ce t i o n I n st a t i n it as
p p g .

g d t d
a r ul e o f e x t e s i v e ca t e o ic a l s t h a t t h e s u m
M i p ti
s con ce i on n re
g n
p r ,

d
ar o t e f
n i e n e ss o
t i o n mu s t b e d e n i t e un i v e r s a l o r S ul a r If
( g ) in

b i t d
su mpt i oni n s e co n ,

o u a e a t a ll c o v e r s a t w i t h l o i c a l b o ok s y o u
l
ru e o v a e .
y r
g n n ,

i s
will h a v e n o t i ce d t h a t t hi s r ul e is n ot in u n i s o n
wi t h th e d oct r i n e th er e i n t a ug ht a n y o u ma y a cco di n g ly b e sur
e d t h a t I s h o u ld e n o un ce a s a n e r a l r u l e w h a t is a
,
d
r e n t ly
,
r ,

p r
g e
pp a

co n t ra di ct e d b t h e fa ct t h a t t h a e s yll o i s ms v a lid s llo

y e re
g y r

g i s m s o f v a r i o u s fo r ms in w hi ch t he s um t i o n is a
, p p a r t i c u l a o r r,

t h e s ub sumpt i o n a n eg a t i v e pr o po s i t i on I n e x pl a n a t i o n o f t hi s it
,
.
,

is en oug h a t pr e s e n t t o s a y t h a t in th es e s yll og i s ms t h e p e mi se s
a r e t r a n s os e d in t he e x r e s s i o n
p p Y o u will h e
,

e a ft e r n . t h a t t he ,
r ,
d r

s u m t i on is n o t a lw a y s t h e
p p po os i t i o n whi c h s t a n d s r s t in t h e
r

e n un ci a t i o n a s t h e co cl us i o n is n o t a l w a y s t h e n

d f pr oposi ti on w hi ch st a d s l a st S uch t r a sposi

,

Th m e

d t t i on s a r e h o w ever o n ly e x t e a l a ccid e n t s a n
er e or er o n . n

d
d
en m mi c on oes no
rn
, , ,
c on s t it tu eth mp su
t h e me r e o d e r I n wh i ch t he pr e mi se s a n
e
r con
ti b mp ti

d
on or su su on

e l us i on o f a syll o i s m a e e n o u ce d n o mo r e r n
in a r eas on n i g ,
g ,

c h a n e s t h e i r n a t ur e a t h e i r n ece ss a y r e l a t i on r
g n

t o e a ch o th e th a n d oe s t h e me r e o d e r in w hi ch t h e g a mma t i ca l
d
r, r r

p
d
a r t s o f a s e n t e n ce a r e e x r e ss e d a l t e
p t h e i r esse n t i a l ch a r a ct e r a n
,
r

d
d
r e ci p o ca l r e e n d e ce I t h h i b n us a b u i
p n e n
p ses . v r o o n s vra r n ,

in b ot h t h e vi r is a s ub st a n t i v e a
, t h e bon u s a n a dj e ct i v e n I n the .

1 K r ug , L og ik, p 248 . . Ba ch ma n n , L og ik, 12 4 E D . .

L E C T XV I L O GI C 21 9

d
. .

d
se n t e n ce

d
v a r o us i ly e n o un c e d ,
A lex a n
d er B a r i um vi ci t, A lex a n

d
dd
er vi ci t B a r i u m, B a r iu m A lex a n er vi ei l , B a r iu m vi ci t A lex
an er , V i ci t A lex a n er B ar iu m, V i ci t B a r iu m A lex a n er

h
in t es e , a di ffe r e n ce o f or er ma y d e n ot e a diffe r e n c e of t he i n t er

e st w e fe e l in t he i
i t u e t n ot i on s b ut n o diffe r e n ce of
v a r o u s co n s t n ,

th e i r g r a mma t i ca l o r r el a t i on s l og i ca l
I t is t he s a me w i t h s y llo .

g i s m s T h e me r e o r d er of e n un ci a ti o n d oe s n o t
.

Wh t t l y
d sub s umpti on i n t o a sumpti on I t I s th ei r essen
ch a n g e a su mpt i on i n t o a s ub sumpt i o n n or a
a ti ru con s '

d
t f th
u es mp i e su t on an

b mp t i
.
i

d
su su on n a r ea ,

s on ni g .
t i a l r e l a t i on a n cor r e l a ti o n in th o ug h t whi ch
con stit ut es t h e o n e pr o pos i t ion a maj o r a n the ,

o th e r a mi n o r pr e mi s e I f t h e fo r mer pr e ced e t h e l a t t e r in t h e
.

e x r e ssi o n of t h e r e a s o i n g t h e s yll o g i s m is t e ch n i c a lly r e ul a r ; if

n
p , g
t h e l a t t er pr e ce d e t h e fo r me it is t e ch n i ca lly i r r eg ul a or t r r, s r an

p o se d T hi .
, ,

d
s h o we v e r a s y o u w ill h e r e a ft e r mor e fully se e h a s n o t ,

b e e n a tt e n d e d t o b y l og i ci a n s a n
d
in co n s e q u e n ce o f t h e i r l o oki n g,

a w a y fr o m t h e i n t er n a l a n

d
t o t h e i r me e ly e x t e n a l an r r

dd
n e ces s a r y c o n s e cu t i o n of t h e

a ccid e n t a l a r r a n e me n t
g t h e
p r e mi s e s

sc i e n ce ,

ha b e en d e fo r me d a n p p
t u d e of di ffer en t for ms a s r e a l a n di stin ct w hi ch e x i s t o n ly a n
a r e o n ly di s t i n g ui s h e d b y c e r t a i n
,
d
e r l e x e d b y t h e r e co n i t i on o f a mul t i
g

for t ui t o us a ccid e t s o f e x pr e s
,

n
,
d
,

si on .T hi s b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d y o u w ill n ot ma v e l a t t he r ul e in , r

r e ar d t o the

d
u a n t i t y o f s u mpti o u s in e x t e n s i v e s yll o i s ms ( w hi ch
g q g ,

h ow e v er I li mi t e d t o t h os e t h a t w er e r eg ul a r ly a n fully e x pr esse d )
, ,

t h a t it m ust b e d e n i t e N o r w ill y o u ma r ve l a t t h e co u t er
. n

c a n on in r e a r d t o t h e u a li t y o f s um t i o u s in i n t e n s i v e s yll o i s ms
g q p g ,

t h a t it mu s t b e a f ma t i v e l
r .

T h e n e cess i t y o f t h e l a s t r ul e is e qu a lly ma n ife s t a s t h a t of t h e

T hi d R l r
p r e c e di n

s po
u e
g I t i
d
s : T h e co n cl usi o n mus t c or r e

in q ua t i t y w i t h t h e s ub s umpt i o n a n
.

n
.

in n ,
d
ua li t y wi t h t h e su mpt i o n T hi s r ul e is ot h e r w i s e e n o un ce d b

q .
y
l og i ci a n s
p a rt ,
t h e n e ative a n

g t h e pa r t i cul a r b e i n

w o r s er in r e l a ti o n t o t h e a f r ma t i v e a
gd
T h e co n cl us i on mu st a l w a y s foll o w t h e w e a ker o r w or ser
h
un i v e s a l
e ld t o b e w e a k er o r

d
T he con cl us i o n n r .
,

d
in e t e n s i v e ca t eg or ica ls ( w i t h whi ch w e a r e a t pr e s e n t o ccupi e d )
x

is ma d e up of t h e mi n or t e r m a s s ubj e ct a n of t h e maj or t e r m a s
, , ,

d d
r e di ca t e N o w a t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e t wo t e r ms t o e a ch o t h e r
p s .
,

d
i s d e t e mi n e d b y t h e i r r el a t i on t o t h e middl e t e r m a n a s t he mi
r

l e t e r m is co mpa r e d w i t h t h e maj o r t e r m in t h e s umpt i o n ; it fol

,

l ow s t h a t t h e maj or t e r m must h old t he s a me r el a ti on t o t he mi n or

1

A nm 3
[ S ee Ba ch ma n n , L og ik,
1 24 , pp 1 92 , 194
D r ob isch , L og ik, 73 , h 65 , 42 ,
. . K r ug , L og ik, 82 , p 24 9 . Cf 83 , p 264 , a n
.

F a cciol a ti , Ru imen ta L ogi ca ,

.

d
. d
. .
5 1 09 , p 362
. .

44 , pp 34 , 3 6 . S chul z e, L og ik, 79, p 11 4

. . . P . iii . 0. iii p
. .
2 20 L O GI C L E C T . XV I .

in t h e c on cl usi on whi ch it h e ld t o t h e middl e In t he sumpt i on I f .

th en t he s umpt i o n is a f ma t i ve s o like wi se must b e t h e co n c l usi on ;

r ,

o n t he o t h e r h a n d,
if t he s umpt i o n b e n eg a t i ve so likew i se must b e ,

t he con c l us i on . I nt h e s ub s umpt i on t h e mi o r t e r m is co mpa r e d

,
n

d
w i t h t h e middl e ; t h a t is t h e mi n or is a f r me d a s u n e r t h e middl e
,
,

I n t h e co n cl us i o n t h e maj o r t er m ca n o t th e r e for e b e pr e di ca t e
n

o f mo r e t hi n g s t h a n w er e a f r me d a s un d e r t h e middl e t e m in t h e
, ,

r
d
.

s ub s u mpt i o n. I s t h e s ub s umpt i on th er e for e u n i v e r s a l s o li ke w i s e

, , ,

mus t b e t he con cl usi on ; o n t he c on t r a r y is t he for mer par ti cul a r so

, ,

l ikewi se must b e t he l a tt er
1
.

1 K r ug , L ogik, 80, p 250-1 E D

. . .
 LEC T URE X VI I .

S Y

T O I C H E I O L O G .

S E C T I O N II .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T

1 11 .
T HE D O C T RI N E O F RE A S O N I N G S .

S YL L O G I S M S T H E I R D I V I SI O N S A C C O RD I N G T O I N T E RN A L
F O RM .

A . SIMP L E . C A T E G O RI C A L .
-I I . D ED U C T IV E IN C O M P RE H E N

S IO N I II . IN D U C T I V E I N E XT EN SIO N A N D C O M P RE H E N S I O N .

B . C O N D IT IO N A L . D I S JU N C T I V E .

IN my l a st L t
ft er t e r mi n a ti n g t he con sid er a t i on of t he
e c ur e , a

con s t i t u e n t e l e me n t s o f t h e C a t e g o i ca l S y ll o r
R ecapi t l t i u a on
i s m in n er a l wh h u a n t i t y of
.

e e t e r in t h e
g g q ,

C o mpr e h e n s i on o r of E x t e n s i on I s t a t e d t he s ub di v i s i o n of C a t e
g o g
d
r ic a l S yll o i sm i n t o D e d u ct i v e a n I n d u ct i v e a di v i s i o n

t er min e b y t h e di ffe r e n ce o f r e a s o n i n g f o m t h e wh ol e t o t h e pa t s
,

e d r
d
r ,

o r fr o m t h e p a r t s t o t h e w h o l e O f t h e s e t a ki n g t h e fo r me r . t he ,

D e d uct i v e r st i n t o co n sid e r a t i o n I w a s o ccupi e d d u i n g t h e , ,

r

r e ma i n d e r o f t he L e ct ur e in g i v i n g a v i e w of t h e l a w s w hi ch in , ,

t h e i r hi g h e r o r l o w er u i v e sa li t y in t h e i r r e mo t er or mor e pr o x i
n

ma t e a ppli ca t i on g o v e r n t h e l eg it i ma cy a n r e g ula ity of D e d uct i v e

,
r

d r

C a t eg o i ca l S yll og i sms
d
O f th e s e l a w s t h e hi gh e st a r e t h e a x i o ms
r .
,

of I d e n t i t y a n C o n t a di ct i o n b y w hi ch a ll C a t eg or i ca l S yll og i sms
r ,

a r e co n t r o ll e d T h ese w h e n pr o x i ma t e ly a ppli e d t o t h e t w o fo r ms
.
,

d
o f D e d u ct i v e C a t e o ica l s d e t e r mi n e d b y t h e t wo u a n t iti e s of -
g r
q ,

C o mp e h e si o n a
r E x t e si o n con st i t ut e t w o ca n o n s t he ca on
n n n , ,
n

of t h e I t e n s i v e S yll o i s m b e i g :
n
g W h a t b el o
g s t o t he
p r e di ca t e
n n

b e l o g s a l so t o t h e s ubj ect w h a t is r epug n a n t t o t he pr e di ca t e is

n

re u a t a l so t o t h e s ubj e ct ; t h e c a n o f t h E x t e n sive S l l
p g n n o e
y o n

g
an
i s m
d b e i n

n
g : W h a t b e l o g s t o t h e
g en us b e l o n s a l s o t o t h e s e ci e s
g
i di vid u a l wh a t is r epug an t t o t he g e n us is r epug a t a l so
n
p
n n n
222 L O GIC L E C T XV II

d
. .

t o t he i di id l
sp e c e s a n ih th h w n v ua . E ac of es e , o ev er , in it s mo r e
p r ox i li i
ma t e ill h d l d i
a
pp ca t o n , l li y is st fur t er eve o
p e n to a
p ur a t of

mo r e
er a l
ll d
li i l
l a w,
ex p

l di
d
f

i
or
c

l
d t i yll i
r u e s.

t h e D i ctu m
hi h h
( h i
l i li d
In
lly
r e e r e n ce

n t o a s e r es o f r u e s ,
e O mn i
to E
ci
x t e n s ve

e N u llo
S
as
og s

it is t e c
b e e n mu t p
m, t he g en
n ca

ca e ) is e v o ve w c a ve e

t o t we l
d
lly ll d
v e, a r e whi h h
usua i r eca e to s ix , b ut c ,
t r o w n g o ut of

d
a cc o u n t i l i f
rr e yll i g u ar an i ly mpe r e ct s o
g m,
ma
y b s
e c on v e n e n t

re

t i
d d
ve

in g t h
uce

yll i
S
h

dly th
h
h
to t
h
og s

ii
d ly h
i
r ee.

m mu s t
t i l

i
T e s e a r e,

a ve t
I
r e e, a n
. A

t
n E x t e n s ve

on

II
t r e e,

T he
C a e

t e r ms
g o

mpt
r ca D e

co n s t it ut

mus t in
uc

r e e, a n on r e e,
p ro
p os on s . . su on

q ua n t t iy d i bei l i l e n te i ( i . e .
,
un ve r sa or s n
g u ar
) ; t he s ub s u m t o n
p

d
mus t in q ua li y i
d li y i h
l i
t be a f r ma t ve . III . T he c o n c us o n mus t cor r e
s po n in qu a n t t i y wi h i t t he s ub s u mpt on , a n in q ua t w t
'

th e
s um t o n
p i T h e L . l d d wi h l i h
e ct ur e co n c u e t an ex
p a n a t on of t e se

r ul e s in d e t a il .

W h e av e th e r e for e
c on sid er i n t o wh a t r ul e s t he
n o w, ,
n ex t to
l a w o f I n t e n s i v e o r C o mpr e h e n s i v e S yll og i s m
2 3m I t

d
c te
l D d
s d e v e l o e d in it s mo r e r o i ma t e a li i
i '
"
f i
n en S e a '

p p pp c a t on ,
x .

S yl
0

g or i ca e uct i ve
N o w a s t he i n t e n s i v e a n e t en s v e s yll o s ms
g is m
x i i
.
, g
a r e a l w a y s t h e co u n t e a r t s o f e a ch o t h e r t h
p e r ,

r o x i ma t e r ul e s o f t h e t w o fo ms mu s t co n s e u e n t ly b e e i t h e r
p q p e r , , r

cis e ly t h e s a me or pr e ci s e ly t he co n v e r s e of e a c h o t h e r

d
, A c co d . r

in g ly t a ki n g t h e t h r e e r ul e s of e t e n s i v e s yll o g i sms w e n
, that x ,

t h e s t la w is a l s o w i t h o ut di ffe r e n ce a r u l e o f i n t e n s i v e s y llo

g i s ms B
r

u t t h e seco d a n
. t hi r t
,

o ma i n t a i n t h e i r e s s e n t i a l id e n
n dd ,
,

ti t y must b e e t e a lly con v e t e d ; for t o ch a n g e a n e t en si v e

,
x rn r x

d
s yll og i s m i n t o a n i t e n s i v e w e mu s t t r a n spose t he o r d e r o r s ub o r

in a t io n o f t h e t w o p e mi s e s a r e v e s e t he
n

e ci
p o ca l r e l a t i o n o f
r
,

,
n d r r r

t h e t e r ms T h e th r e e g e n e a l r ul es of a n I t e n s i v e C a t eg or i ca l
. r n

D e d u cti v e S yll og i s m will t h e e for e s t a n d a s foll o w s ,

r ,

1T L XI A . n I n t e n siv e C ate
g i ld u ct i ve S yll og i s m t h a t
o r ca D e

d ,

d
is, on e of D e pth
if r e g ul a ly a n ,
fully e x r

i gj i g ZLZf
a

p r esse is g o v e r n e d b y t he t h r ee foll o w i n g
d
, e O ,

l
d
i ca l D e u ct i v e S y ll o r u es

d
g i s m'
h a ve th r e e a n o ly t h r e e I . I t mu s t ,
n ,

t e ms co n st i t uti n g t h r e e a n o n ly t h r e e pr opos i t i o s
r , , ,
n .

d
I I O f t h e pr e mi ses t h e S umpt i on mus t i q u a li t y b e A f r
. n
,

ma t i v o a t h e S ub s umpt i o n in q ua t i t y D en i t e ( t h a t is u n i
, n n ,

v e r s a l o s i n g ul a ) r r .

d
I I I T h e C o n cl u s i o n mu s t n o t e x ce e d t he S umpt i o n in Q ua n
.

tity a n in Q ua li t y mu st ag r ee wi t h t he S ubs umpti on

, .
L E C T . X V II . L O GIC 2 23

In g re ar d to
th ese r ul e s
th e t h e r ul e whi ch is id e n ti ca l
r st of ,

fo r s yll og i s ms w h e t h er e x t e n s i v e o r i n t e n s i v e it ,

is n ee dl ess t o s a y a n y t hi n g ; for a ll t h a t I s t a t e d
i r eg a r d t o it u n d er t h e r st of th es e for ms is
n ,

v a lid in e a r d t o it un d e r t h e s e co d
g r n .

I p o ce e d t o t he se co d whi c h is
r T he sumpti on mus t in q ua l
n , ,

d it y b e a f ma t i v e t h e s ub s umpt i o n mus t in q ua n
r ,

d
S R l
econ u e
ti t y b e d e i t e ( t h a t is u i v e r s al or s i n g ul a )
.

n n r .
,

An h e e w e h a v e t o a n sw e t he qu e st i on Why in a n i n t en s i v e
,
r ,
r ,

s yll og i s m must t h e s umpt i o n b e a f r ma t i v e in q u a li t y t he s ub s u mp ,

t i on d e n i t e in q ua n t i t y ? L e t u s t a ke t h e fo ll owi n g syll og i sm a s
e x pli ca t e d

d
d d
S co mp r ehen s M ;

d d
M oes n ot co mp r ehe n P ;
T her ef or e, S oes n ot co mp r ehen P .

d d
d
mp r ehen
d
P r u en ce co s vir tue ;

dd d
B ut vi r tue oes n ot co mp r ehen bla mewor thy
T her e f or e, pru en ce oes n ot co mp r ehen bla mewor thy .

W d
di l ly
d
d fr o m t h e maj o r t er m p r u
H e r e a ll
g o e s on r e u a r
g . e e s ce n

en ce t o t he middl e t e r m vi r tu e, a n fr o m t he middl e t e r m vi r tu e t o
t he m n or t e r m bla mewor thy . But l e t u s r e v e r s e i s es t h e pr em .

We a t o n ce s e e t h a t t h o ug h t h e r e is st il l a discov e r a b l e me a n i g
it is n o t di r e ct ly g i v en a
t h o ug h t w h a t is pe v e s e a
t h a t w e mu s t r e ct i fy a ,

r e ss i o
n d
d
r e st o e i n d r
n ,

p p e o s t e r o us i
r er
p n I n t he r n x n .

r e v i o us e a m l e t h e s u m t i o i f r ma t i v e t he s ub s u m ti on n e
p p x
p s a , p n
g ,

a t i ve N o w l e t u s t a ke a n eg a t i v e s u mpt i on
.

d d
mp r ehen M
d
S oes n ot co ;
B ut M co mp r ehen s P .

H
co
er e

mp r ehen s P
t

cr e t e e x a mpl e :
h er e
d is no

,
n or
c o n c u s on

S d
l i
oes n ot
co mpe t e n t, for we ca n
com r ehen
p P O r d .
i t h er
ne

t o t a ke
say

a con
S

dd d
mp r ehen lea r ni n g ;
d
P r u en ce oes n ot co

B ut lea r n in g co mp r ehen s p r a isewor thy .

W
d
d r a w it is ev id en t n o con cl us i on for we can n e ith er sa y
e ca n , , ,

d
f o m t he r e l a t i on of the t w o pr o po si t i on s t h a t P r u en ce comp e
dd d
r r
,

hen s p r a i s ew o thy n o r t h a t P r u en ce oes n ot comp r ehen p r a i e

r , s

w or thy .
2 24 L 0G I c . LE C T . X V II .

T he why a n ex

d
t en s i v e syll og i sm r e q ui r e s a un i v e s a l sump
r e a so n r e

t i on a n
d
a n i t e s i v e s yll o i s m a n a f ma t i v e

df th l a w hy t h e o e r e qui r es a n a fr ma t i ve a n
g
d
n n r
, ,

g d
G r ou n s o e r u es n n

dS b mpt _ m : T he c on d i t i on co mmon t o b oth syll o sms

h d i m i on is t h e fo ll o w
re i g s p i t n
ar n
f f
u n
t h e o t e r a e t e s u b s u
p t n ,

dC m g
an u su i on in
i
E t
x i
e n s ve an o g
p re h i S
en s ve y ll g i m 1 8 ot h a t
s t h e
s. s u m p t i o n s h o u ld e p r e s s a r ul e But x .

in t h e e t e n s i v e syll o g i s m t hi s l a w is a u i v er
x n n

s a l r ul e t h a t is a r ul e t o whi ch t h e e is n o e x ce pt i o n ; b ut t h e n it
, ,
r

ma y b e e p e ss e d e i t h er in a n a f ma t i v e or in a n e g a t i ve for m
x r r
,

t i o n a s a fa ct a n
, ,
d
wh er e a s in t he i n t e n s i v e syll o g i sm t hi s la w is e x pr e ss e d a s a po s i
t h e r e for e a d mi t s o ly o f a n a fr ma t i v e fo m
, ,
n r ,

b ut a s it is n o t n e ces s a ily u n i v e r s a l it a d mi t s of li mi t a t i o s or
,
r ,
n

e x ce t i o s T hi i t h a r a ct e r o f t h e s u m t i o u s o f t h e t w o
p n s o.
pp o s e c p
fo ms of sy ll og i sms is co r r espon d e n t t o t h e o pposi t e ch a r a ct er o f
r

is a n
, ca d
t h e i r s ub s u mpt i o n s
n
I n t he e x t e s i v e s yll og i s m t h e s ub s umpt i on
.

o n ly b e a n a f ma t i v e d e cl a a t i o n o f t h e a pli c a t i o
,
r
p o f
n

r
,

t h e s umpt i o n a s a u n i v e r s a l r ul e I n t h e i t e s i v e s yll o g i s m t h e . n n ,

s ub s um t i on is e it h e r a n a f ma t i o n o r a n e a t i o n o f t h e a
'

p g r
pp l
ti o of t h e s u mpt i o a s a po s i t i v e l a w H e ce it is t h a t in a n i
n n . n n

t en s i ve s yll og i s m t he maj or pr e mi s e is n e ce ss a r ily a a f ma t iv e n r ,

whil e t he mi n o r ma y b e ei t h e r a n a f ma t i v e or a n eg at i v e p opo r r

s i t i ou .

I n r eg a d t o t he s e co n d cl a us e o f t h e s e co n d r ul e t h e r e a so n
r ,

why t h e s ub s umpt i on in a n i n t en s i v e s yll og i s m mus t b e d e i t e in n

d
u a n t i t y is b e ca us e it w ou ld o t h e r w i s e b e i m o ss i b l e t o a f m or
q , p r

d en y o f e a ch o t h er t h e mi n or a n t he maj or t er ms in t h e con cl u
S i on F o r e x a mpl e
.

S umpt ion d d d
d
. P r u en ce is a vir tue ; i . e ., P r u en ce co mp r ehen s vir tue .

S ub sump tion . S ome vi r tue is p r a is ewor thy i . e ., S o me vir t ue comp r ehen s p r a is ewor thy .

d r a w n o con cl us i o n for t he i n d en i t e s ome vi r

d dd
F r om t h e se w e can ,

tu e d o e s n o t c o n e ct t h e maj o r t e r m p r u en ce a n
n t he mi n or t e m r

p r a i s ew or th y i n t o t h e n e c e ss a y r e l a t i o n o f w h o l e a n
pa rt
r .

d d
'

I n r eg a d t o t h e t hi r d r ul e
r T he c on cl us i on must b e c o r e ,
r

T hi d
s po n e n t in u a t i t y w i t h t he s umpt i o an in n,
R l r u e.
q n

u a li t y wi t h t h e s ub s umpti on it is n ot m e ce s
q ,

sar y t o sa a n ythi n H i t h t i yll o i s m t h e co

y g er e a s n e e .e n s v e s , g x , n

cl us io n ca n o t b e s t r o n e r t h a n t h e w e a kes t o f it s a n t e c e d e n t s t h a t
n
g ,

d
is if a n y pr e mi se b e n e g a t i v e t h e co cl us i o n ca n n o t b ut b e n e g a t i v e, n

d
a l so ; a if a n y pr e mi s e b e pa r t i cul a r t h e con cl usi on ca n n o t b e b ut
n
,

p a r t i cul a r li ke w i se ; a n

s ub s u mpt i o n a n a w e a ke r,
a s

q
a w e a k
de

ua n tit y i
r
q
t
u

h
a l i t y is o ly fo u d i
e s um t i o n it foll o w s t h a t
p
n t h e

n
n

,
n
L E C T . XV II . L O GI C . 2 25

l d e cl a r es )
d l i l d mpt i on
( as the ru e the con c us on is re
g u ate by t he su

in re
g ar d t o it s q ua n t ity ,
an b y t he s ub s u mpt i on in re
g ar d t o it s

q u a lit y .h o w eve r e v id en t t h a t th o ug h w a a n t e d t o d a w a
I t is, , ,
rr r

d
u i v e s a l co n cl us i o n fr o m a g e n e r a l s umpt i on it is a l wa y s c ompe
n r ,

t en t t o a w o n ly a pa r t i cul a r
r .

S o mu ch for t h e pr o x i ma t e l a w s b y whi ch C a t e g o r i ca l D e d u ct i v e

II I d
. ti n

gi m
C t uc
S yll og i sms a r e g ov e r n e d wh en c on s id er e d a s
p er fe ct a n
ve
r e g ul a
a e~
i n e x t e n a l fo r m W e s h a ll d r
,

r .
,

d
g i l
or caSy ll o s s.
in t h e s e q u e l h a v e t o c o n sid er t h e spe ci a l r ul e s ,

t e mi e
r n d
b y whi ch t h e v a r i e ti e s o f D e d uct i ve C a t e g o r i ca l S yll og i s ms a s e
b y t h e i r e t e r n a l fo m a r e g o v e r e d ; b ut a t p e se t w e
x

mus t pr oce e d t o t he g e n e r a l co s id e r a t i on o f t he o t h e r cl a s s o f ca t
r

n
,
n r
,

eg or ica l s y l l o g i s ms a ffor d e d b y t h e i r i n t e r n a l fo m I me a n t ho s e r ,

o f I n d u ct i o t h e di scuss i on o f whi ch I s h a ll c omme n ce b y t h e

n,

foll owi n g pa r a g r a ph :

l L XI I . A n I n d u cti ve C a e t g o r ca i l S yll og i sm is a r ea s o n n i g

d
f m t h in w hi ch
o t i on we ar ue o f a ll
d t he con st i tue n t pa r t s i scr et iv ely t o t he
g o e n r

P M I n u e'
,
t iv e C B
a t e g or i ca l yl
m _w
l og i s n o t i on
ha tof t h e c o s t i t ut e d w h o l e c o ll e ct n

d
,
,

i v e ly I t s g e n e r a l l a ws a e id e t i ca l w i t h . r n

th ose of t he D e d uct i v e C a t eg or i ca l S yll og is m a it ma y b e ,

n

e x p e s s e d in li ke ma n n e r e i t h er in t h e fo r m o f a n I n t e n s i v e o r
r , ,

o f a n E x t e n s i v e S yll o i s m
g .

W h ll l h ave
d id er mor e pa r ti cul a r ly
e s a ,
in t h e se
q u e ,
to co n s the
n a t ur e an
p e c u li a i t i es r L og i ca l I n d u ct i o n ,
of

d wh e n
dh t r e a t o f t h e F i g ur e o f S y ll o
T he V ie w s O f l og i '

we co me to
e ia u s r eg a r in g th e
m w we d er t he n a t ur e o f L og i
,

is an en co n s i
n a tur e of L o g ica l In g ,

h i l os o ph ca l or F o r ma l ,
0

auction er r on e ous , ca l or In co n t r a st to P i

L og i c
Re a l I n d uct i o n u n d e r t h e h ea d of M o di e d
A t pr e sen t I s h a ll o n ly s a y t h a t a ll y o u w ill n in l o g i ca l
.
,
,

, d
w or ks of t h e ch a r a ct er of l og i ca l i d u ct i o n is ut t e ly e r o n e o us ; n r r

for a l mo st a ll l o g i ci a n s e x cept A r i s t o t l e con s id e r i n d u ct i o n n o t a s

, , ,

r eg u l a t e d b y t h e

d
e c es s a y l a w s o f t h o u h t b ut a s d e t e r mi n e d b r
g n
y ,

t h e pr ob a b ili t i e s a n p r es um t i o n s o f t he s ci e n ce s fr o m whi c h it s
p
ma t t e h a s a ccid e n t a lly b e e b o r o w e d T h e y h a v e n o t co n s id e e d
r n r . r

it l og i ca lly in it s for ma l b ut o n ly e x t r a log ica lly in it s ma t e r i a l

, , , , ,

c o n di t i o s T h us l o g i ci a n s h a v e t ea t e d i L g i c o f t he i n d ucti v e
n .
,
r n o

d
i n fe e ce f om t he pa r t s t o t h e wh ol e n ot a s e cl usi v e ly w a a n t e d
r n r , x rr

b y t he l a w o f I d e n t i t y i t he co v e r t ib ili t y o f t h e wh ol e a , a ll
n n n

it s pa t s b ut t h e y h a v e a t t e mpt e d t o e s t a b li s h a n ill a t i n f o m a fe w
o f t h ese
p
r ,

a r t s t o t h e wh o l e ; a t hi s e i t h e r a s s u
pp o t e d b y t h e n

29
d ,
o

r
r
2 26 L O G I C . LE C T . X V II .

en e r a l l i es f
an a o
o n a t ur e or b y t h e S pe ci a l pr e sumpti on s affor d e d
g g ,

b y t he s e v e a l s ci e n ces of o bj e ct i v e e i s t e n ce
1
r x .

L og i ci a n s wi t h t h e e x ce pt i on of A i st o t l e wh o is h o w e v e r v er y
d
r , ,
, ,

d
b i ef a u e pli ci t in his t r e a t me n t of t hi s s ub
r n n x

e ct h a v e t h u s d e fo me d t h e i

d
f s ci e n ce a
Th h e t c
j
a r a c er s O
, p e r r r ,
n

:sd il ; :
gi
e v e r y s i mpl e d o ct r i n e o f l o i ca l in
2 3
0

Z 3 p l e e t h x
g
i l 1 d
1
, a ,
ti
n uc
d uct i on b y con fo un d i g fo ma l W t h ma t er i a l
0n , ,
n r i

i n d u ct i on A ll i n d uct i v e r e a s on i g is a r e a s on . n

i g fr o m t h e pa r t s t o t he wh ol e ; b ut t h e r e a s o n i n g fr o m t h e pa r t s
n

t o t h e w h o l e in t h e v a i o us ma t e r i a l o r obj e ct i v e s ci e n ce s is v e r y r ,

di ffer e n t f om t h e r e a s on i g f o m t he par t s t o t h e wh o l e in the o n e

r n r

fo ma l o s ubj e ct i v e s ci e ce of L o g i c
r r I t h e for me t he ill a t i o n is
n . n r,

d
n o t s i m ly fo un d e d o n t h e l a w o f I d e n t i t y in t h e c o n v e t i b ili t y o f r
p ,

a wh o l e a n a l l it s a r t s b ut o n ce r t a i p e s um t i o s d a wn fr om
p n r n r
p ,

an e e r i e n ce or o b s e r v a t i o n o f t he c o n s t a n cy o f n a t ur e ; so t h a t in
p x ,

t h es e s ci e ce s t he i fe e ce t o t h e w h ol e is r a r e ly fr o m a ll b ut
n ,
n r n ,

e e a lly fr o m a s ma ll n umb e r of it s c o n st i t u e n t
p ar ts ; co u se
g n r ,

ue t ly in t h e m t h e c on cl u s i o n is r a el y i t ut h a n i n d u ct i o n

d
r n r
q n , ,

e ly s o c a ll e d b u t a mi x e d c on cl usi o n r a w n o n a n i n d uc t i v e
p p o
r r , ,

es u mpt i o c o mb i e d w i t h a d e d u c t i v e p e mi se F or ex a m l e
p r n n
p r .
,

t he phy s i ca l phil o s oph e r th u s r e a son s

d ma gnet a ttr act ir on

d
T his , tha t, an the other

B ut this , tha t, an the other ma gnet r ep r esen t all ma gnets ;

T her ef or e, a ll ma gnets a ttr a ct ir on .

N o w,

tha t, a n
ri c e
din t hi s

i l h t
t a a t u
the oth er
is u
s

n i fo r m a n
yll og i s m

c
ma g n et
n st a n t
, the
fo un d e d on t h e
t hi
l eg iti ma cy
r ep r es en t a

d
ll
of the
ma g n ets is
mi n or pr e mi s e, T h i s,
,

d
p n
p n , e o r a n o n s g e n , ,

e al i n ci l e t he r e a s on e r is hy s i ca lly w a r r a n t e d in ma ki f w
r
p p r
p , g a e n

a r t s e ui v a l e n t t o t h e w h o l e B u t t hi r o c e ss is w h o lly in co m
p q s p .

e t e n t t o t h e l o i ci a n T h l i i n k o ws n o t hi n f i i
p g e o
g c a .
g o a n
y p n c n r

l
dd
e s e ce t t h e l a w s o f t h o u h t H t t n d t he s h er e
p p x
g e c a n n o r a n s ce
p .

o f n ec e ss a r y an a ss i n t o t he s h er e of r ob a b l e t hi n ki n
p , p p g ; n or ,

ca n h e b i n b a k r
a i n cor por a t e i n t o his o wn for ma l s ci en ce t he
g c n , ,

co di t i o s w hi ch r e ul a t e t h e
n n r o ce d u r e o f t h e ma t e r i a l s ci e n ces
g p .

T hi s b e i n g t h e c a s e i n d u ct i o n i s e i t h e r n ot a l o g i ca l pr o ces s di ffe r
,

e t f o m d e d u ct i o n fo r t h e i n d u ct i o n o f t h e obj ct i v e
n r hil o s o h er
, p p e ,

in s o fa r a s it is fo ma l is in fa ct d e d u ct i v e ; o r t h er e must b e a n
r ,

i n d uct i on g ov er n e d b y o t h er l a ws t h a n t h os e whi ch w a r r a n t t he
i n d ucti on of t he obj e cti v e phil osoph e r N ow if l og ici a n s h a .
, d
1 C o mpa r e D is cussi on s , p 1 59 . . ED .
L E C T X V II L O G I C 227

dd
. . .

l ooke d to i th ei r n o t t o s ci e n c e s with whi ch a s

own sc e n ces, a n ,

l og i ci a n s th e y h a n o c o ce n t h e y w o uld h a v e ,
n r ,

dt" d I d
s ee n t h a t t h e e is a pr o ce ss of r e a so n i g f o m
C a n on sf th D o e e r n r
uc ? an m t h e pa r t s t o t h e wh o l e a s w ell a s f om t h e
n u ve
r
,
S y ll g m

d d
o is
q l ly s e ua

f m l
or a ,
wh o l e t o t h e
p a r t s t h a t t h is
p r oce s s I t
g o v e n e d ,
r

b y it s o w n l a ws a n is e q ua lly n e c e s s a r y a n ,

in d e pe n d e n t a s t he o t h e r T he r ul e b y w hi ch t he D e d u ct i ve S y llo .

g i s m

co t a i e d
is
g
n
o v e n e

ar ts
d is

T
: W
h
h a

u
t

l
b
r e

b
l o n

w
g s

hi
o r

h
d

t
o e

t a i n i g w h o l e b e l o n g s o r d o e s n o t b e l o n g t o e a ch a
h
s n

I
o t

d
b

u
e

t
l

i
o n
g

S
t o t h e c

a ll o f t h e

ll i m
o n

i
,

,
,

n d
n
p n e e
y c . e n c v e r
y o g s s

o v er e d is : Wh a t b e l o n s o d t b l t ll t h t it u
g n
g o s n o e o n
g o a e c o n,s r e ,

en t a t s b e l o n s o r d o es n o t b e l on t t h t i t ut d w h l
p r
g , g , o e c o n s e o e , .

T h es e r ul e s e x cl us i v e ly d e t e r mi n e a ll for ma l i n fe r e ce ; wh a t e v er n

t r a n sce n d s o r v i o l a t e s t h e m t a s ce d s o r v i o l a t e s L og i c Bot h
,
r n n .

a r e e u a lly a b s o l ut e I t w o uld b e n o t l es s ill e a l t o i fe r b t h

q .
g y e n

d e d uct i ve s yll og i sm a n a t t r i b ut e b e l o g i n g t o t h e w h l e o f s o me
,
n o

t hi n g it w a s n o t co n c e i v e d t o co n t a i n a s a pa t ; t h a n b y t h e i d u c r n

t i v e t o co n cl ud e o f t h e wh o l e w h a t is n o t co ce i v e d a s a pr e di ca t e
,
n

o f a ll it s co n s t i t ue t
p a ts I n e i t h e r ca se t h e co n s e u e n t is n ot
n

th o ught a s d e t er mi n e d b y t he a n t ece d e n t ; t he pr e mi s es o n ot
i n v o l ve t he co cl us i on n
1
r
q .
,

d
.

T o t a ke t h e ex a mpl e pr e v i ou s ly a dd u ce d a s a n ill ust r a ti o n o f 3 .

m ate ia l o hil s o hi ca l i n d uct i o n it w o uld b e

T h ese
il l t t d
i g r ea s o n n p s
o p r r ,

us r a e . th us e x pr ess e d a s a for ma l or l og i ca l

d
d
T his, tha t, an the other ma gn et a ttr a ct ir on ;
B ut this , tha t, an the other ma gn et a r e a ll ma gn ets
T her ef or e, a ll ma gn ets a ttr a ct i r on .

H er e

I n the
t he i n fer en ce
s ub s umpt i o n ,
is
it
d e t er mi e d e x cl u si v ely b y a la w of th oug ht
is s a id T hi s tha t a n ,
n

the o ther ma g et etc

, ,
d
d n .
.

are a ll ma g n ets T hi s me a n s , T hi s , tha t,

t h a t is , con s ti tu te, o r r a th e r , a r e con cei ve
.

dan th e
t o con s ti tu te
o ther ma g n et a r e,
a ll ma g n ets ,

h
t a t is t h h l the cla ss the g en u s ma g n et

d
I f; t h e r e fo r e,
e w o e .
, , ,

e pli ci t ly e n ou ce d it w ill b e a s fo ll o w s : T h i s th a t
x

ma g n et are
n

con cei ve
,

d to con s ti t u te the wh ole

,

cla s s
, an

ma g n et
the o ther
. T he

d
l i is T her ef or e a ll ma g n ets a ttr a ct i r on T hi s if e x pli
c o n c us o n

d
.
, ,

ca t e will g i v e T her efor e the wh ole cla s s ma g n et i s con ceive to

,

,

a ttr a ct i r on T h e w h o l e s yll og i s m t h e r e fo r e a s a l og i ca l i n d uc
.
, ,

t i on will b e
,

[C f
1

C omp en
.

d
K r ug ,

m
L og i k, 1 6 6 , 1 67 . S an d er son , [Q
d
ua s ti o n es in A n . P r i or .
, L . 11. q . vi ii .
p 3 16 ,
.

iu L og A r t is , L i ii
. . . c. x .
p . 1 12 . e . 1 6 10 E . D .
]
Wolf . P hil . Ra t ion a l is , 4 77 , 4 78 . S cot us .
228 L 0G I c; L e er . XV I I .

d
d d
T his tha t, an the other ma gn et a ttr a ct ir on ;
B ut this , tha t, an the other ma gnet ,
etc. , a r e con ceive to con stitute the gen us ma gnet ;
T her ef or e, t he gen us ma gn et a ttr a cts ir on .

I t is a l most
dl ess t o a d v e t t o a n obj e cti on whi ch I s ee a mon g
n ee r
, ,

h a s mi sl e d Wh a t e ly
b i t d
ot h er s I t ma y b e s a id
d
.

O bj ti
.
,
ec on o v a e
t h a t t h e mi n o r T hi s tha t a n
.

the o ther ma g , , ,

n et a r e a ll ma g n ets is ma n i fe s tly fa l se T hi s is a v e r y s upe r ci a l

,
.

o bj e ct i on I t is v e y t u e th a t n e i t h e h e r e n o r i n d e e d i a l mo s t
. r r r , n

an o f o ur i n d u ct i o n s is t h e s t a t e me n t o bj e ct i v ely cor r e c t t h t
y , a ,

t h e e n u me r a t e d p ar t i cul a s a r e r e a lly e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e wh ol e or r

cl as s w hi c h th e y co n s t i t ut e or in w hi ch t h e y a r e c o n t a i n e d But , .
,

a s a n obj e ct i o n t o a l o i ca l s yll o i sm it is w h o lly i n co m e t e n t a s

g g p , ,

wh olly ex t r a l og i ca l F o r t he l og i ci a n h a s a r ig h t t o suppos e a n y
.

dd
ma t e i a l i mpo ss i b ili t y a n y ma t er i a l fa l s i t y ; he t ak es n o a c c oun t of
r ,

wh a t is obj ecti vely i mpossi b l e o r fa l se a n has a r ig ht t e a ssume ,

d d
wh a t pr emi se s he pl ea se p ov id e d th a t t h e y o n ot i n v ol v e a co n
t r a ict io n in t e ms
T h i s th a t a n
I n t h e e x a mpl e in q ue s t i on t h e s ub s umpti on
r .

the other ma g n et a r e a ll ma g n ets h a s b e e n a l r e a dy

,
r

, ,

, , ,

e x pl a i n e d t o m e a

a r e s o th o u ht t o b e
g
n ot t h a t t h e y

I t is
e a lly a r e s o b ut me r e ly t h a t t h e y

o n ly o n the s u
n,

pp o s i t i on o f thi s tha t a n
.

the oth er ma g n et e t c b e i n g co n c e i v e d t o con

r ,

, ,
d
,
.
,

dd
F m
or f ma
ae
s t it ut e t h e cl a s s ma g n et th a t t h e i n fe e n ce pr o
or
,
r

d d en i e d t h at t he i n fer enpce is n ec essa r y I sta t e d

ti
ve S y ll g i m i o s s n
ce e s a n o n th i s s u pos1 t i o n I t Wi ll n ot b e
C mp h
o re i en s on an
, , ,

E t i
x en s on . .

in c ompr e h en si on a n in e x t e n s i on
th a t x y z r epr e sen t pa t s a n t h e l et t e r s A a n B w h ol es a n
d d
t h a t a n i n d uct i v e s yll og i sm is e qu a lly co mpe t en t
F or e x a mpl e l e t us suppos e
r
.

d ,

d
, , , , ,

w e h a v e t h e fo ll o w i n g for mul a of a n i n d ucti v e syll og i sm in

C ompr e h e n si on

d
x , y, z ,
con sti tute A ;

d
A co mp r ehen s B;
T her ef or e, x , y, z , co mp r ehen B .

hi s if c on v er t e d i n t o
T ,

t he pr emi s e s a n r e v er s i n
g d an

t he
ex t e n s v e

copu a , l
i
g i v e
s

s
yll og is m , by t r an sposin g

A is con ta ine dd un er B;

dd
x , y, z ,
cons titute A ;
T her efor e, x , y, z ,
a r e con ta in e un er B .

But in thi s s yll og i sm it is e v id e n t t h a t t h e pr emi ses a r e in a n un

We must n ot t h e e fo e h e r e t a n spose th e pr emi se s
a s we d
n a t ur a l o r d e r .

o in c on v er ti n g a d e d u cti v e c a t eg or i ca l of c ompr e h e n s i on
, r r ,
r ,
LEC T . XV I I . L 0G I c . 2 29

W
i i n d ucti v e syll og i sm in
t i
d ma y t i
n to on e o f ex en s on . e ob a n an -

t w o di ffer e n t an for ms
in e i t h e r c o mpr e h e s i on or e x t e n s i on
,
n ,

a cco r di g a s t he a t s s t a n d fo r t h e maj o r o r fo r t h e middl e t e m

n r
p r ,
.

I f t h e mi n or t e r m is fo r me d o f t h e pa r t s it is e v id e t t h e r e is n o ,
n

d
i n d uct i on ; for in thi s ca se t h e y o ly con st i t ut e t h a t q ua t i t y of
, ,
n n

t h e s yll o g i s m whi ch is a l wa y s a pa r t a n e v er a wh o l e L et x y ,
n .
, ,

d
z r e r e s e n t t he a t s ; wh e e n o t s u e r s e d e d b y z S wi l l r e pr e
p p p y x r r , , ,

s e n t t he maj o r t e r m in a co mpr e h e s i v e a n t h e mi n o r t e r m in a n n ,

d d
e t e n s i v e s yll o i s m ; P will r e r es e n t t h e maj o r t e r m in a n e x t e n
x
g p
s i ve a n ,
t h e mi or t er m in a compr e h e n s i v e syll o g i s m a n
n M t he ,

middl e t e r m in b oth I s h a ll st t a ke t h e I n d uct i v e S yll og i sm . r

of C o mpr e h e n s i on .

d SE C O N D d
d
d
FI R S T CA SE , ( T h e pa r ts h ol i n g . th e CA sn , ( T h e p a r t s h ol in g the
maj or t er m S mi le ter m

d
pla ce o f th e .
) pl a ce of th e .
)
S
d
X, y, z con s titute M co mp r ehen s X, y , z

d d
M co mp r ehen s P ; X, y , z con s ti tute P ;

T her ef or e, X , y , z co mp r ehen P . T her ef or e, S comp r ehen s P .

A g a i n , in t h e I n d uct i ve S yll og i sm of E x t en s i on
m d SE C O N D d
d
d
( ni s
FI R S T ( T h e p a r t s h ol in g th e CA sn , -
( T h e p a r t s h ol in g th e

maj or t er m P le t er m

dd
pl a ce O f the .
) pl a ce o f th e mi .
)

dd
X, y , z cons t itute M ; X, y , z a r e con ta in e un er P ;

dd dd
S is con ta in e un er M ; x , y, z con s titute S;

T her ef or e S is con ta in e un er X, y , z . T her efor e, S is con ta i n e un er P .

Be for e

Wh t ly d
l e a v i n g thi s s ubj ect I ma y n o t i ce t h a t t he l og i ca l i n d uc
a eth
t i on ma i n t a i n e d b y Wh a t e ly a n ma y o t h e s
di v er g e s e v e n mor e t h a n t h a t of t h e o ld e r l og i
an O er s
,

d n r ,

my m k t h
I d
d
m n ei a e e
cia s fr o m t h e t r ut h i n a s mu ch a s it ma ke s t hi s
e
n

D d
S y ll g m ,
.

d
n u c i ve o is

s yll o i s m a e d uct i v e s yll og i s m o f w hi ch t h e

e ti uc ve ,
g ,

s um t i o n w hi ch is u s u a lly un d e r s t oo d a n ot
p ,
n

e x r e ss e d is a l wa y s s ub st a n t i a lly t h e s a me n a me ly
p , W h a t b el o
g s , ,

n

o r d oes n ot b e l o n ) t o t h e i di v id u a l s w e h a v e
( g n

ld
D t i f
oc r n e th o e
e x a mi e d b e l o g s ( o r d oes n o t b e l o n g ) t o t h e n ,
n
o l gi i
er o c an s .

wh ol e cl a ss u n d e r whi ch t h e y a r e co n t a i n e d
.

T hi s d o ct r i n e wa s r s t I thi n k i n t r o d uce d b y Wolf for t he , , ,

1

Wol f j
d
Ra tion a lis , 5 479, ( E n thy mema te ) ve l ma or vel min or p r aemis
d
1 [C f . . P hilos op hia
W j
o l f, S ch r a mm,

d
r st e . 1 72 8 . S o, b e for e s a r um, i n h oc ( I n ucti o n e ) semper ma or

d d
A r ist ot . P hi l os P r in cip ia , p 2 7 ,
. . e . H el mst .
, p r op os it i o sn b in t ell ig it ur .

Re fe r s as f ol
ucti o n e ex mul t is sin gu l a r ib us l ow s D In P hilos A lz or , D isp

1 71 8 . In e u cti on e , . .

maj o r is
d d

collig it ur un i ve r s a le s up po s it o l oc o x x vi .
p 2 52
. et s eq .

S ee a ls o C r a k a n t h o r p e,
uicq u i compe tit L og ica , 0 p 21 7 , 1 6 77 [ C f D iscussions ,
pr op o sit ion is h oc ca n on e : Q . xx . . e . . .

mn ib us mpe tit t oti ; in ist o p 1 70, n ot e . ED ]

o p a r t ib us , h oe co . .
2 30 L 0G 1c .
L E C T XV I I

d
. .

pr e v ous i
l og i ci a n s v i ew e d t h e s ub sumpt ion a s t he co mmon a n .
, ,

t h e e fo r e t h e s uppr es s e d pr e mi s e t hi s p e mi se a l w a y s s t a t i g t h a t
r , ,
r n

t he i di v id u a l s o r pa t i c ul a s e n ume a t e d ma d e up t h e cl a s s u d e r
n ,
r r r , n

w hi ch t h e y w e e s e v e r a lly co t a i n e d F o r e x a mpl e in t he i n st a n ce
r n .
1
,

T h is , tha t, an d
f o m t he ma g n e t w e h a v e a l e a dy t a ke n t h e s ub su mpt i on w o uld b e
r

the o ther
r

ma g n et, an d so
,

f or th, a r e the wh ole cla s s

,

d
ma g n et
ld e r l og i ci a s is . T hi s d ti o c r n e of t he o n
C t f
o r r ec it as ar as
cor r e ct a s fa r a s it oe s ; a n t m a ke it a b s o
g oe s .
g o ,

l a t ely cor r e ct it w o uld o n ly h a v e b e en n e ce s sa y , r

t o h a v e e st a b li sh e d t h e di st i n ct i o n b e t w e e n t h e l og i ca l i n d u ct i on a s

g ove ed b
y t h e
rn a p r i or i co n di t i o n s o f t h o u h t a n
g p
i n d uct i o n a s l eg i t i ma t e d b y t he a p os ter i or i co n di t i on s o f t he ma t
hil os o
p hi c a l ,
d
d d
t e r a b o ut w hi ch t h e i n q ui r y is co n v e sa n t T hi s h o w e v e r w a s n ot
d d
r .
, ,
,

d t h e w h ol e
an oct r i n e o f l o i c a l i n d uct i o n w a s co r u t e
on e , g p r

co n fo un d e d b y l o g i ci a n s i n t o d u ci g i n t o t h e i r s ci e ce t h e co n

d
a n r n n

s id e a t i on o f v a r i o us ki n d s of ma t t e r a n a d mi t t i n a s l o i ca l a n
r
g g ,

i n d u ct i on s uppose d i mper fe ct t h a t is o n e in w hi ch t h e r e w a s i n fer , ,

e n ce t o t h e w h o l e fr o m so me o ly o f t he co n s t it ue n t ar ts T hi
p s n .

I mpe r fe ct I d uct i on t h e y h e ld in c o t i n g e n t n ,
n

f t I d
D t i f I mp er
m a t t e r t o b e co t i n e n t in n ece s s a y ma t t e r t o
oc r n e o
n
ti g ,
r

d
ec n uc on .

b e n ece s sa y a s if a l og i ca l i fe e n ce w e e n ot r ,
n r r ,

in a l l ca s es n e ces s a r y a n o n ly n e ce s s a y a s g o v e n e d b y t h e n e ce s
, ,
r r

s a r y l a w s o f t h o ug h t

c a l o r fo r ma l i n d u ct i o n
T hi s mi s a ppr e h e n si o n o f t h e n a t ur e o f l og i
an
.

i t s di ffe e n ce fr o m phil o s o phi ca l o r d r

ddd
dd
,

ma t e r i a l h a s b e e n t h e r e a so n w hy Ba co n is a t ,

f fa ul t in h is c r i t i ci s m o f A r i s t o t l e s d o ct r i n e o f
2 fi t z i d uct i on F or l o oki o n ly a t t he d o ctr i n e
t lt i h
2 F a u n
o

z iiiif f l iii i
c i n gn .
n .
,
n

of t h e i d u ct i v e s yll o g i s m g i v e n b y A r i st ot l e n

in t h e O r g a n on a n n ot e r ce i v i g t h a t t h e q ue s t i o n t h e r e w a s
p ,
n

o ly co n ce r n i n
n t h e n a t ur e o f i n d u ct i o n a s g o v e r n e d b y t h e l a w s o f
g
t h o ug h t h e fo r t h w i t h a ss u me d t h a t t hi s w a s t h e i n d uct i o p a ct i se d
d
,
n r

d
b y t h e S t a g i r i t e in his s t udy of n a t u e a n in t he t e e t h b o t h of r , ,

t h e pr e ce pt a n a ct i ce o f t h e hil o s o h e r c o n d e mn e d t h e A r i s
p p p r ,

t o t el ic i d u ct i on in t h e ma ss a s yi n g a t o n ce t o g e n e a l p i n ci pl es
n ,
r r

fr om t he h a st y e n ume r a t i o n o f a few i n di v id ua l i n st a n ce s I n d uc
t i on a s I me n t i o e d w ill h o w e v e r o ce a n
,

a t t e n ti o n i n t h e s e u e l ; b ut I h a v e th o u h t it
a ain
g n e n a e o ur
g g ,

r o e r t o b e s o me
, ,
n d ,
.

q g p p
wh a t e x pli cit t h a t y ou mi g ht c a r r y wi t h y o u a cl e a r er c on cepti on
,

1 [O n I n d ucti on in g en er a l , see Z a b a r el l a , xx p 254 . K ecker ma n n , O p er a , t i pp 259 ,

. . . . .

d L a mb e r t , N eues O r g a n on , i
T a b ulee i n A n . P r ior , p 1 70 et s eq , O p er a L og
. .
763 . 286 , 28 7 , .

d
mus ,
d
E l emen ta A '
uci) ,
i ca ; ( A ppen ix ) M o l in L o g ica
, p 18
. 3 E ug en ios .
O
y p 4 10 J o F r . . . .

L . i . 0 . ii .
p . 99 . I se n o or n , C ur s us L og ion s , P ious M ir a n ul a n us ] [ 0p er a , E x a men D oct . .

G en t L -E D
L . iii q . . 11 . p 361
. . C r ell ius , I sa g og e, L i ii c. . . Va n it . . . v. p 746
. et s eq . .
]
L E C T . XV I I . L 0G I C 231

of t he hi s pr ocess a s co n tra st e d with the pr ocess of t h e

n a t ur e o f t ,

D e d uc t i v e S yll o g i sm .

H a v i n g t er mi n a t e d t h e g en er a l co n s id e r a ti on of C a t eg or i ca l S y l
d
l og is ms D e d uct i v e a n
d
I d u ct i ve I n o w pr o
B C d.it i l S yl
on
ce e t o t h e n e x t cl a ss of Rea s on i n g s a ffor d e d
on a
,
n ,

l gi m
o s s.

1 D i j
. ti s un c
b y t h e i
ve .
t e r n a l for m ; I mea n t he cl a s s of D is n

j un ct iv e S yll ogi sms .

1T L XI I I A D isj l
d
l l gj t l m xllng ism is a r e a son i n g , wh ose
. l

fo r mis
j
P M

un ct i v e

Wh a t
. ma
sy
n . A
l l o g i s m.
D is

M iddl e
a d d
i sj un ct i v e
,
e t e r mi n e d b

an
y t h

ro
e l a w o f E x cl ud e d

w h o s e s umpti o n is a cc o r di n g ly
o s i t i on e it h er of C on tr a
p p ,

di ct i on (as ,
A is ei ther B or n ot B) o r of C on tr ar et i y (a s , A
is ei ther B, ) or j
C u d,g more n t it is e n o u c e d
D . In s uc h a ,
n

d
th a t B or n ot B or t h a t B C or D a s O ppos it e n ot i on s t a ken
, , , ,

t og e t h er a n

d d co n s t i t ut i n g a t o t a li t y a r e e a c h of t h e m a

b le a n o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e m a n e ce ss a r y pr e di ca t e of A
,
p o ss i

T o
,

, .

e t e r mi n e w hi ch o f t h e s e b e l on g s o r d o e s n o t b e l on g t o A t he

s ub s umpt i on mus t e i t h e r a fr m o n e o f t he pr e di ca t es a n t he
,

,
d ,

con cl us i o n eo ip s o co n s e q u e n t ly d e n y t he o t h e r o r o t h e s ; or
, ,

it mus t d e n y o n e o r mor e o f t h em a t h us n e ce ssi t a t e in the

,

,
n d r

c o n cl u s i o e i t h e r t he d e t e r mi n a t e a fr ma t i o n o f t h e o t h e r o r
n, ,

t h e i n d e t e r mi n a t e a f r ma t i o n o f t h e o t h e r s A D i sj un ct i v e .

p
t he M
do
,

dd
S yll og i s m is t h us e i t h e r A f r ma t i v e con s t i t ut i n g t h e M a ci a s

d
on en s o r M o u s p on en o t ollen s

u s t ollen s , o r
o r N e a t i v e co n s t i t ut i n g
g
M o us t ollen clo p on en s
,
,

.
,

b en
In
d f ll i
ch h
ea d h
in t he i
of

o
t es e

ow n g
mo es

mn e mon
t er e a r e

c v e r se s
t w o ca s e s , which I c ompr e

( A ) A F F I RM A T I V E ,
on M o n us P O N E N D O T O L LEN S

d
1 . F a lle r i s a ut f a llor ; f a llor ; n on f a ller is er go .

2 . F a ller is a ut fa llor ; tu f a lter i s ; er go ego ne m

u .

( B) N E G A T IV E ,
O R M o n us T O L L E N D O P O N EN S
1 . F a ller is a ut f a llor ; n on f a llor f a ller is er go. 1

2 F a ller is a ut f a llor n on f al ler is ; er go ego f a llor

d
. .

In ill ustr a ti on
thi s pa r a gr a ph I h a v e en e d a di sj un cti ve
of ,

s yll o g i s m o n e w h ose fo m is d e t e r mi n e d b t h
d
e r
E pli ti x ca on
y ,

l a w of E x cl ud e d M iddl e a n wh o se s umpt i o n
.

d
a c co r di n ly a di sj un ct i v e pr op o s i t i o n
is , g ,
I h a v e n o t a s l o i ci a n s
g .
,

in en er a l o de e d it di r e ct ly a s yll o i sm Wh ose maj o r re

g n
, g p ,

1 T h is l in e is fr om P ur ch ot, I ns t it P hilos L og ica , t l , p 1 84

. . . . . T he oth er s ar e t he A ut h or s
own . E D .
2 32 L 0GI C L E C T . XV II .

mi se is di sj un cti ve pr opositi on F or th oug h it b e tr ue th a t ev er y

a .

di sj u ct i ve syll og i sm h as a di sj un cti ve maj or

n

d ijf i fili g zi:

d
t o
m
s
i s e t h e co n v e r s is n o t t r ue ; fo r e v er y s l
p e e
r , y

d
s nc or
m th i s un ct l v e s um t i on is n ot
.

l t h
d
s a a s a
mj i se t s no y o g
n e cessa r j l
p ,

a i j tis un c o n t h a t a ccoun t
ve r ea son n e c e ss a r ily a i sj un ct i ve syllo ,

i g
n

g i sm F or a di sj un ct i v e s yll o i sm o n ly e me r e s
.
g g ,

a f ma t i on a n
r

in t he maj o r pr emi s e
g d
wh en t he con cl usi on ha s r efer en ce t o t h e r el a t i o n of r eci pr oca l
n e a ti on sub si s t i n
g b e t w ee n t h e di sj un ct me mb e r s

a c on di t i on n o t h o w e v e r con t a i n e d in t h e
, , ,

mer e e x i st e n c e of t h e di sj un cti ve s umpti on F or e x a mpl e in t he .

1
,

syll og i s m

B is either C or D ;
B ut A is B ;
T her efor e, A is either C or D .

T hi s syll og i sm is a s much a r ea s o n n
g i d et er mi n e d n ot , by t he l a w
o f E x cl ud e d M iddl e ,
b ut so e l ly by t he l a w of I d e n tity ,
as t he fol
l owi g n

F or in b oth we c on cl ud e , C (in on e , C or D ) is a n a ttr i bu te o B

f ;
bu t B i s an a ttr i bu te of A ther ef or e, C ( C or D ) is an a ttr i bu te of
A ,
a
p r o ce s s , in e it h e r c a se ,
re
g u a e l t d l i ly
e x c us v e b y t h e la w of

d
I d en t ity .
2

hi s
b ei n g pr e mi s e , I n o w pr o ce e d t o a cl o s er e x a mi n a t i on of
d
T
t h e n a t ur e of t hi s r e a s o n i n g, a n
n o t i o n o f it s

thi r dly
pr o ce d ur e ; th e n

it s
,

co n st
s e co
s h a ll , r s t , g i v e y o u a g en e r a l

n dly ,

i t ue n t
di s cu ss i t
ar
s
pr i n ci l e

ts
p ; a n ,
d
, p .

T h e g en er a l fo r m of t h e D i sj un cti v e S y l
en e r a l v iew o f
0
1 . G
t h e D is j un c tive sy m
o l og is m ma y b e g i v e n in t h e foll o wi n g s ch e me ,
g ism

su mpti on t o t he n eg a t i v e a n d
in w hi ch y o u will ob s e r v e
a f r ma t i v e mo d e s
th er e is a co mmon

A is ei ther B or C
) F or mul a for
.

a .
a

d
S y ll og ism w ith tw o A F F I RM A T I V E ,
O R M o n us N E GA T IV E ,
O R M O D U S TOL

j i s un ct memb er s . P O NE N D O T O L L E N S LE N D O P O N EN S
N ow A is B ; N ow A is not B;
T her ef or e, A is n ot C .

d
d d
1 C f S ch eib ler , O p er a L og ica , P
. a r s. i v p 553
. . . 2S ig w a r t , pp 1 54 , 1 57 [H . . an buch z ur V or

dm dd
WS
d
N eq u e en i m sy l l og is mus isj un ct us se mpe r les un g en ber ie L og ik, v on H f
. C . . ig w a r t
,

e st , cu m
d
p r op osit io es t
t ot a q uaesti o ispon it ur i n p r op ositi on e
isj un c ti v a , se

.

cu

ED .
3 e . T ub i n g en , 1 835 , M 245 , 24 8 E D . .
]
L E C T . XV I I . L 0G I c . 233

O r, in a con cr e t e ex a mpl e

S mp r onius is either honest or ishon est

e d .

A F F I RM A T IV E , on M on us P O N E N D O N E G A T IV E , on M O D us T OLLEND O

T O LLE N S P O N E N S

d d
N ow S emp r on ius is hon es t ; N ow S emp r on ius is n ot honest

T her ef or e, S emp r on ius is n ot ishones t . T her efor e, S emp r on ius is ishon est .

W) F
T hi s fo
mu
r mul a is, h o w e v er on ly c a lc ul a t e d for t he c a se in whi ch
,

t h e r e a r e o n ly t w o isj un ct me mb e r s th a t is for d
t h e ca s e o f n e g a t i v e o r con t r a di ct o y o ppositi o n ;
, ,

l
or a for a
r
s w t
gi ii siz: fo r if t h e di sj un ct me mb e r s a r e mor e t h a n t wo
og r

,
t is

d
o

membe r s t h a t is if t h e r e is a po si t i v e or con t r a r y o ppo s i

,

d d d d
,

ti on t h er e is t h en a t wofol or ma n ifold e mpl oy

,

men
a c cor
t
di
of

dg
t he
i d
as i
M
d
t he
o

i t
us

a fr d p
ma t
on en

on a n
o tollen s
ne
g a t on
an

is
M o us

e t er m
t ollen cl o p on en s ,
n a e or in e t er

m n at e
i
d t i
e er ly
.

m n ate d h
I f, in t h e M
th
d j t
d i d
a f r d me
o

,
us

t en
p on en olo

a ll t he
tollen s ,
o er s a r e
on e is
en e
un c

;
me mb er is
an if s ev

er a

on
l di j
ly th
s un ct

d i d
a t on e
i d t i
d
lymemb er s
is
d c t
en e
th
i l
ar e

.
n e er

I f; in t he M
m n at e
o us
a f r me ex

tollen olo p on en s ,
e
p o n e,

a s n
en

g e

memb er
d t i t ly
e er m na
di j
d
iof

dif
d i d h
e
t he
l d i d
a f r h me
h
s un ct on

l ; an
be en e

s ev er a
, t
be
en so

en e
me o n e of

, so t
t he ot

a t on e a on e
er s is

is l h
eft , hi t d t
en i ly t d hi will
s on e is e er m n ate a fr me .
1
T s ap
p ear

mor e
bo th
l ly f
c ear

of d d dd d
ll wi
t he
l
M
ro c
o us
m t he fo
p
i
on en
o

o
n
g fo r mu

t ollen s an
ae .

M
L e t t he
o us
o

tollen
mmon S umpt
o p on en s be
on

A is either B, or C or D .

I . T H E M on us PO N E ND O T oL L E N s

Fir st C a se . A is ei ther B or C or D ;
N ow A is B ;
T her ef or e, A is neither C D

d
nor .

S econ C a s e. A is either B or C or D ;

N ow A is either B or C ;

T her efor e, A is not D .

II . T H E M o n us T O LLEND O P O NE N S

Firs t C a se . A is either B or C or D ;

N ow A is n ot B;
T her ef or e, A is either C or D

d
.

S econ C ase . A is either B or C or D

N ow A is n either B n or C

1 E s ser L og ik,
, 5 9 3 , p 180 - E D
. . .

30
 23 4 L Q G I C . L E C T . XV II .

O r, to t a ke th es e in c on cr e t e ex a mpl e s, l et the C o mmon S ump

ti on be z \

T he a nci en ts wer e in gen ius either s up er ior to the mo d er ns , or inf er ior , or equa l .

d
I . T H E M O D U S PO N E N D O T O LLEN S

Fir s t C as e . T he a n ci en ts wer e i n gen ius either sup er ior to the mo er ns, or infer ior ,
or eq ua l

N ow the a n cien ts wer e s up er ior

T her ef or e, the a n cien ts wer e n either infer ior nor equa l.

S econ d C a se. T he a n cien ts wer e i n gen ius e ither s up er ior to the mo der ns , or infer ior ,
or equa l ;

N ow the a n cien ts wer e either s up er ior or equa l

T her efor e, the a n cien ts wer e n ot inf er i or .

d
II . T H E M o n us T O LLE N D O PO N E N S

Fir s t C a se . T he a n ci en ts wer e i n gen ius eithe r s up er i or to the mo er ns, or infer ior ,

or equa l .

N ow the a ncien ts wer e n ot inf er ior ;

T he r efor e, the a ncien ts wer e either s up er ior or equa l .

S econ d C a se . T he a n ci en ts wer e in gen ius either s up er ior to the d

mo ems , or i nf er ior ,
or equa l .

N ow the a n ci en ts wer e nei ther inf er ior nor equa l ;

T her ef or e, the a ncien ts wer e s up er ior .

S uch is a g en er a l v ie w of it s pr oce d ur e . N o w, for it s pr i n

ci l e
p
i m sy 11
n
.
P fn ciple f
i l ch a r a ct e r o f t h e D i sj un ct i v e
I f t he e sse n t a

$ 5
nc

5
18 e 0
yll o i s m c o s i s t in thi s t h a t t h e a f ma t i on
.

S g n ,
r

o r n e g a t i o n o r wh a t is a b e t t e r e x pr e s s i o n t he
, , ,

p os iti o n o r s ub l a t i o n of o n e o r o t h er o f t w o c o t r a di ct o r y a t t r i b ut e s
,
n

foll o w s f o m t h e s ub s umpt i o n O f th e O ppo sit e th e r e is n e ce ss a r ily

r

i mpli e d in t h e di sj u ct i v e pr o ce s s t h a t wh e n of t w o o ppos i t e pr e di
n , ,

d
c a t e s o n e is os i t e d o r a f me t h e o t h e r is s ub l a t e d o r d e n i e d ;
r
p ,

an t h a t w h e n t h e on e is s ub l a t e d or d e n i e d t h e o t h er is pos i t e d o r
, ,

a fr me d B ut t he pr opo si t i o
. t h a t of t wo r e pug n a n t a t t r i b ut e s
t h e o n e b e i n g posi t e d t he o t h er must b e s ub l a t e d a n ,
n,

t he o n e d ,
,

b e i n g s ub l a t e d t h e o t h e r mus t b e po si t e d is a t o n ce ma n i fes t ly
,

t h e la w b y whi ch t h e di sj un ct i v e s yll o g i s m is g o ve n e d a n ma n i
,

d r ,

d
fe st ly o n ly a n a ppli ca t i on o f t he l a w of E cl ud e d M iddl e F o r t he x .

M o us p on en olo t ollen s th e r e is t h e spe ci a l r ul e

d
t e r b e po s i t e d t h e ot h er c h a r a ct er is s ub l a t e d ; a n
I f t he o n e ch a r li e
for t he M o u s
,

d d
t ollen o p on en s t h er e is t h e s pe ci a l r ul e I f t h e o n e ch a r a ct er b e ,

sub l a t e d t h e o t h e r ch a r a ct e r is p o s it e d
,
T he la w of t h e di sj un cti v e .

syll o i s m is h e r e en oun c e d o n ly in r e fe r e n c e t o t h e c a s e in which

g ,
L E C T . X V II . L oG I C . 28 5

the memb e r s di sj un cti on a r e co t r a dict or ily oppose d A n O ppo

of

d
n .

s i t i o u o f c o n t r a i e t y is n ot O f p ur e ly l og i ca l co n ce r n me n t ; a
r a n

di sj un ct i v e syll og i sm w i t h ch a r a ct e s o ppo se d in con t a r i e t y i fa ct r r ,

n ,

c o s i s t s o f a s ma n y pur e di sj un ct i ve syll og i sms a s th e e a r e opposi n g

n r

d
r e di ca t es
1
p .

I n ow g o t o t h e thi r d a n l ast ma t t er of con sid er a ti on t he ,

s e v e r a l pa r t s O f a D
3 Th
ml p t
e se ve ar s
i
T he q ues t i o n con cer n i n g t he spe ci a l l a w s of

f D ij

d
o a ti S y ll
s un c ve o
a d i sj u ct i v e s yll o i sm o wh a t i s t h e s a me
i m g r n , ,

d
g s .

t hi g wh a t is t h e O i g i n a l a n n n e ce s s a r y fo r m
,
r

of a i sj un ct i v e syll og i sm a s d e t e mi e d b y it s g en er a l pr in ci pl e or
,
r n

l a w thi s q ue s ti on ma y b e a ske d n o t o n ly in r efe r e n ce t o t h e

, ,

d
wh o l e syll og ism b ut li ke w i se in r e fe e n ce t o it s s e v er a l pa r t s T he r .
,

or i g i n a l a n n e c e s sa r y for m of a di sj un ct i v e s yll og i s m co n s i s t s a s ,

w e h a v e s e e n in t h e r e ci pr o ca l po s i t i on or s ub l a t i o n O f con t a di ct o r y
,
r

d
c h a r a ct e s b y t h e s ub s umpt i o n o f o n e o r o t h e r
r ,
H e ce it foll o ws . n ,

th a t t he i sj un ct i ve syll og i sm mu st li ke t h e ca t eg o i ca l i v ol ve a ,
r ,
n

t h r e e fo ld j ud g me n t v iz : A j ud g me n t in w hi ch a s ubj e ct is
,
.

d e t er mi n e d b y t w o co n t r a di ct ory pr e di ca t es ; A j ud g me t in n

whi ch o e or ot h er of t h e oppos i t e pr e di ca t e s is s ub s ume d th a t is

n

is a fr me d e i t h e r a s e i s t e n t or n o n e x i s t en t ; a n
,
x A j ud g men t - d
,
, ,

in whi ch t h e n a l d e ci s i o is e n ou n ce d c on c e r i g t he e i st e n ce o r n n n x

d
n o n e x i s t e n ce O f o n e o f t he r e pug n a n t o r r e ci pr o ca lly e cl us i v e pr e
- x

ica t es But in t h es e t h r e e pr opos i t i on s a s in t he th ee pr opos i

.
,
r

ti o n s of a ca t eg or i ca l s yll og i sm t h e r e ca n on ly b e th r e e pr i n cipal ,

d
d
n o t i on s v i t h e n o t i o n of a s ubj e ct a n
z .
, t h e n ot i o n O f t w o con ,

d
t r a ict o r y a t t i b ut e s w hi ch a r e g e n e r a lly e n ou ce d in t h e s u mpti o n
r ,
n
,

an o f w hi c h o n e is po s i t e d o r s ub l a t e d in t h e s ub s umpt i o n in o r d e r ,

t h a t in t h e co n cl usi o n t h e o t h e ma y b e s ub l a t e d or pos i t e d T he
d
r .

cas e of co n t r a r y o ppos i t i o n is a s w e h a v e s e e n e a s ily r eco n cil e d a n , ,

r e d uce d t o t h a t of c o n t r a di ct o y o ppo s i t i on T he l a w s o f t h e
2
r .

sev er a l

d
a r t s o f a di sj un ct i v e s yll og i s m or mor e pr op e ly t he or i i r
p g ,

n al an n e c ess a r y fo r m of th e s e s ev e r a l ar ts i i t h
p ar e
g v en n e ,

foll o wi n g pa r a g r a ph

1T L XIV l a n per fe ct
. A r eg u a r d W
d
mus t h a v e th e e pr oposi t i on s in w hi ch if r , ,

P ar L X IV w t h e s umpt i on b e s i mpl e a n
T he la s
t h e di sj un ct i on
of the j D i s un ct i v e
u r e ly l o i ca l on ly th r e e i i l ti
s y l l og i s m p g pr n c
pa n o o n s ,

d
.

ca n b e foun d .

T he S umpti on i n r el a ti on t o it s qua n tity a n qua lity is

, ,

1 E s ser L og-
,
tle, 94 E
. D . 2 E sse r L ogi k
, ,
95 E D
. .
 L O GIC LE C T X V II
d
. .

a lwa ys un ifor m b ein g U n i v er s a l a n A f r ma ti ve ; b ut t h e

, S ub
s umpt i on is s u s ce t i b l e o f v a r i o u s fo r ms in b o t h r e l a t i o n s
p .

s umpt i o an d
T he C on cl us i on cor r e spo n d s in qu a n tity wi t h t h e
is O ppose d t o it in q u a li t y
n, .
1
s ub

T he r s t ru e g l is, p
- At di re
sj u u arl
n ct i v e s yll o i s m
gan d e r fe c

mu s t h a v e th r e e pr opos i t i on s in w hi ch if t h e
s umpt i o n b e s i mpl e a n t h e di sj un ct i o n pu e ly ,
d ,
, ,

l og i ca l on ly t h e e p i cipa l n oti on s ca n b e
,
r r n

foun d L i ke t h e c a t eg or i ca l s yll o g i sm t h e di sj u n ct i v e co n si s t s of
.

,

a s um t i o n co n st i t ut i n
p , g t h
d
e g e n e r a l r ul e ; o f a s ub s um t i on c o n

t a i n i n g it s a ppli ca t i on ; a n of a c on cl usi on e pr es s i n g t h e j ud g
p
,
x
,

d
me n t i n fe r r e d
g en u i e r e a s o n i
n
g s ; a n if
.

inn t h e s u m p
c on t r a di ct o y th e r e a r e in t h e s yll o i s m o n ly t h r e e
t i o nd
D i sj un ct i v e s yll og i s ms a e th er e fo e t r u e a n
t h e di s j u n c ti on

r i n ci a l n o
b e
r ,
r ,

r , g p p
ti on s I n t h e ca s e o f con t r a r y di sj un ct i o n s th er e ma y i n d e e d
.
, , ,

r e a li t y co mpo s i t e a n

n r
r

a r e ma d e u

r
,p o f a
pd
a ppe a r a g e a t e r n umb e r o f n o t i o n s ; b ut a s s u ch s yll og i s ms a r e in

l u r a li t y o f s y ll o i s ms w i t h

a co t a di ct o y di sj un cti o n t hi s O bj e ct i on t o t h e t r u t h O f t he r ul e is
g
,

a s li t t l e v a lid a s t h e ci r cu ms t a n ce t h a t t h e s ubj e ct in t h e s u m t i on , p
is s o me t i me s tw o fo ld t h ee fo ld fo ur fo ld o r ma i fold ; a s for e a m
,
r , ,
n ,
x

l e in t h e s um t i o n J ohn J a mes T h o ma s a r e ei ther vi r tu ou s or

p , p , , ,

vi ci ou s F o r t hi s is a C opul a t i v e pr o po s i t i on whi ch is co mpo s e d o f

.
,

th r e e s i mpl e pr opositi on s vi J ohn i s e t c I f; t h er efo e t h e r e b e z .

, . r ,

c a se like wi se composit e a n ma y b e a n a lyz e d i n t o a s ma n y si mpl e

, , ,
d
s u ch a s u mpt i o n a t t h e h e a d o f a di sj u n ct i v e syll og i s m it is in t hi s

s yll og i s ms wi t h t h r e e pr i ci pa l n o ti o n s a s t h e e a r e si mpl e pr opos i

n r
,

ti on s i t o w hi ch t h e s umpti on ma y b e r es ol v e d
n
2
.

T h e s econ d r ul e is

S d R l
econ
an

an
u e.
q u d
T h e s umpt i o n is in r el a ti on t o it s qu a n t i t y
,

d
a li t y a l wa y s un ifo r m b e i n

a fr ma ti v e ; b ut t h e s ub s umpt i o n is su s ce p
g u n i v e r sa l
,
,

tib l e O f diffe r en t for ms in b oth r el a t i on s I f w e l o ok i n d e ed t o t h e .

, ,

s ubj ec t a l o n e it ma m t b i b ly e ua lly g e n er a l o r pa r t icu

y s e e ,
o e
p o ss
q

d
l a r for w e ca n e q ua lly s a y of s ome a s o f a ll A th a t t h e y a r e e i t h e r ,

B or C But a s a ll un i v e r s a lity is r e l a ti v e a n
. a s t h e s u mpt i on is ,

a l w a y s mo r e e x t e n s i v e o r mor e co m r e h en s i v e th a n t h e s ub sump
p
t i on it is t h u s t r ue th a t t h e s um ti on is a lw a y s g en e r a l A g a in
, p .
,

l ooki n g t o t he pr e di ca t e or a s it is compl ex t o th e pr e di ca t es a l on e
, , , ,

th e y a s e x cl usiv e of ea ch o t h er a ppea r t o i n v o l ve a n eg a t i on But

, ,
.

d
in l ooki g a t t he wh ol e pr opos i t i on th a t is a t t he s ubj e ct t h e
c opul a a n t he pr e di ca t es in con n ecti on w e s ee a t on ce t h a t t he
,
,

,
, ,

1 E sser , l . c. K r ug , L ogik, 5 86 E D . .
2 K r ug , L og i k, l . 0. ED .
L E C T . . XV II . L O G I c . 287

copu a l is a f r ma ti ve, for t h e ne

g a ti on i n vol ve d in t h e pr e di ca t es is
c o n n e d to th a t t er m a l on e 1
.

In g re ar d t o t he whi thi r d
ch en oun c e s T h a t t h e con r u e, l ,

T hi d
cl usio n s h ould h a v e t h e s a me q ua t i t y wi t h t h e n
R l r u e.
s ub s u mpti on b ut a n O ppos it e q ua lity it is , ,
-

r e ui s it e t o s a y n othi n g a s t he r s t cl a use is on ly a s pe ci a l a ppli ca

q ,

ti on of t he r ul e common t o a ll syll og i sms th a t t he c on cl usi on ca n

d
c on t a i n n o thi n g mor e th a n t he pr emi s es a n must th er e for e foll ow ,
,

d , ,

t he w e ake r pa r t ; a n t h e s econ d is s elf ev id en t a s o n ly a spe ci a l -

,

a
pp li ca t i o n o f t h e pr i n ci pl e O f E x cl ud e d M iddl e for o n thi s l a w if , , ,

o n e co n t r a di ct o y b e a f r me d in t h e s ub s um ti o n t h e o th e r mu s t b e
r
p
d en i e d in t he con cl usi on a n if o n e c on t r a di ct or y b e d en i e d in
t h e sub s umpti o n t h e o th e r mus t b e a fr me d in t he co cl us i on
,
d ,

n .
,

T h e D i sj un cti v e like e v e r y o th e r spe ci e s o f syll o g i s m ma y b e

, ,

e ith e r a r e a so i n g in t h e u a n t i t y o f C o mpr e n
q
D i j m ti S yl
i
T
h en s io n o r a r ea son i n g in t h e q ua n ti t y of E x
le S u ve '

s on dt ens i on
,
I g m f C mp h
O is o o re en

i E
an x
t e n s m n .
T h e c o n t r a s t h o w e v e r o.f t h e s e t w o , ,

u a n ti t i e s is n ot ma n ife st e d in t h e s a me s i n al
q g
man n er in t he di sj un cti ve a s in t h e c a t eg or ic a l d e d ucti v e s yll og i sm ,

mor e e spe ci a lly o f t h e r st g ur e I n t h e c a t e g o r i ca l d e d ucti ve .

s y ll og is m t h e r e a so n i n g s in t h e t w o co un t er u a n t iti es a e ob t r us i v e ly
, q r

di st i n g uish e d b y a compl et e c on v er si on n ot on ly of t he i n t er n al ,

n ot o n ly d
s i g n i ca n ce b ut o f t h e e x t e n a l a p e a r a n ce of t h e s yll o i s m

d
,

o t h e r e l a t i v e t e ms c h a n e
p
g p l
g r

a c e s in t h e r e l a ti on of
r
F or .

wh ol e a n par t b ut t he con secut i on of t h e a n t e ce d en t s is r ev er se d ;

,

d
t he mi n or pr emi s e in t h e o n e s yll og i s m b e comi n g t h e maj o r pr emi se
in t h e ot h er T hi s h o w e v er is n ot t h e c a se in
.
, i sj un ct i v e sy llo
,

g i sms H . e r e t h e s a me
p p
d
o os i t i o n is in b ot h
q
maj or pr e mi s e ; a n t h e w h ol e ch a n g e th a t t a ke s pl a ce in con v er t
u a r
n

i n g a di sj un ct ive syll og i s m O f t h e o n e qua n t it y i n t o a di sj un ct iv e

t i t i es a l w a y s t h e , ,

s yll og i s m o f t h e o t h e r is in t h e s il e n t r e v e r s a l of t h e cop ul a fr om
,

o n e o f it s me a n i n g s t o a n o t h e r

a
pp a r e n t di ffe r en ce in s i n l e
g p p
T hi s h o wev e r a s it d e t e mi n e s n o
r o o s i t i on s a n a s t h e i sj u n c t
.

i ve
,

, d d , r

sub su mpti o n a n d
s u mpt i o n r e ma i n s a l w a y s t h e s a me pr opo siti o n o u t of whi ch t h e

t h e co n cl usi on a r e e v o l v e d in t h e o n e q ua n t i t y a s ,
,

in t he o th e r t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e s u mpti o n fr om e x t e n s i o n t o co m
, ,

r e h en s i on o r f o m co m r e h e n si o n t o e x t e n s i on
E mpl xa
p es.
p ,
r
,

in t he syll og i s m
o c ca si on s n e ith e r a r ea l n o r a n a a r e n t ch a n e
pp g
T a ke for e x ampl e t he di sj un cti v e syll og i s m
.
, ,

1 S ee K
L og i k, 5 86, A n m 2
r ug , ED . . .
q u a n tit a t em n isi sua r um p a r t ium sicut

[ Ba ch ma n n , L og ik,
d
14 1 , p 3 54 C on tr a : . . P r oposi tio H y p o t het ica h a b et t a n t um q ua n
T we sten , L og ik, 1 3 7 , e
L og ile, 95 .
182 5 , p 11 9
D er o d
E s se r

j
on ,
.

L og ica
un ctive;
. .

Res t it ut a , p
n ull am h a b et
.

. an d
t it a tem sn a r u

n ot e 1 .
m p a r t i um
ED ]
.
. S ee a b ove, p 1 74 ,
.

[ P r opositio D is
23 8 L O G I c . L E C T . XV I I .

d d
d
P la to is ei ther lea r n e or un lea r n e ;

d
B ut P la to is lea r n e .

T her ef or e, P la to is n ot un lea r n e

d
.

N ow let us e x p li ca t e t hi s i n t o a n i n t e n si v e a i n t o n a n ex t en s i v e
s yll og ism . A s in I n t en s i v e S yll o g i sm it w ill s t a n d

d d d
d d
P la to comp r ehen s either the a ttr ibute lea r n e or the a ttr ibute un lea rne

B ut P la to comp r ehen s the a ttr i bute lea r n e ;

A s an E x t en s i v e S yll og i sm i t will s t a n d

d d d d
dd d
P la to is con ta ine ei ther un er the cla s s lea r ne or the class unlea r n e

B ut P la to is con ta in e un er the cla s s lea r ne

T her efor e, etc .

d
F r o m t hi s it pp a th a t th o u h t h e di ffe r en c e o f r e a s on i n
ea r s, g ,

t h e s ev e r a l q ua n t i t i e s O f co mp e h e si o n a n r
g
din

e x t en s i on O b t a i n s in
n

i sj un ct i v e a s in a ll ot h e r syll og i s ms it d oes n ot in t he di sj un ct i v e
, , ,

c on s t u ct i o n a n
r

ca l s yll o i sms
d
s yll og i s m d e t e r mi n e t h e s a me e ma ka b l e c h a
r
g e i r t h e e x t er n a l

c on se c uti on of t he pa r t s whi ch it d o es in ca t eg or i
,
n n

g .
 T
m
L EC T URE X VI I I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y}

S E C T I O N II O F T H E
. P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

1 11 D O C T RI N E
. O F RE A S O N I N G S .

S YL L O G I S M S T H E I R D I V I S I O N S A C C O RD I N G T O IN T E RN A L
F O RM .

B . C O N D I T I O N A L H YP O T H E T I C A L . AND H YP O T H E T I C O
D I S JU N C T I V E .

H A V IN G id er e d C a t eg or i ca l a n D i sj un cti ve S yll og i sms

n o w con s d ,

t h e n e t cl a s s o f Re a s o n i n g s a ffo r d e d b y t h e di ffe e n ce o f I n t e r n a l
d
'
x r

o r E s se n t i a l fo r m is t h e H y po t h e t i ca l ; a n t h e g e n e a l n a t ur e o f r

th ese syll og i sms is ex pr es se d in t he fo ll o wi n g pa r ag r a ph

71 L XV . y po t h et i ca l S yll og i sm is a r ea son i n g wh ose

A n H

ti if xi if
x
i
l g
a C
n
p
o n s e ue n t
q I t
n id
for m is d e t e r mi n e d by the la w of Re a son
s t h e r e for e r e ul a t e d
g .
, ,

i t s g en er b y t h e t w o pr i n ci pl es o f w hi ch t h a t l a w is
a l c h a r a ct e r .

t he co mpl e me n t t h e o n e Wi t h t h e , ,

t h e c on s e q ue n t is a fr me d ; t he ot h e r Wit li t he
r e a s on

co n s e q ue n t
,

t h e r e a s on is d e i e d : a n
, th ese t wo pr i n cipl es
n d ,

d
s e v e a lly a ffo r d t h e co n diti o
r o f it s A f r ma ti v e o r C o n s t r uct i v e
n

d ,

d
an o f it s N e g a t i v e o r D e st uct i v e fo m (M o u s p on en s ci
r r

M o us t ollen s ) T he s u mpt i o o g e n e r a l r ul e in s uch a sy llo

. n r

g i s m is e c e ss a r ily a
n hy p o t h e t i ca l r o o si t i on
p p n
(f
I A i s the n B ,

d
i s) .I s u ch a pr o po s i t i o n it is me e ly e n o un ce d t h a t t h e pr i or
n r

d
me mb e r ( A ) a t h e p o st e r i o r me mb e r ( B ) s t a n d t o e a ch o t h e r
n

d
in t h e r e l a t i o n of r e a s on a n c on se ue n t if e x i s t i n g b ut wi t h
q , ,

o u t it b e i
g e t e r mi n e d w h e t h e r
n t h e y r ea lly e i s t o r n ot x

d .

d
S u ch d e t e r mi n a ti o n must foll o w in t he sub su mpt i o n a n co n

e l us i on ; a n t h a t e ith er b y t h e a b s ol ut e a f r ma ti on of t he
,
 24 0 L O G I c L E C T XV II I
d d
. . .

t c d en t in t he s ub sumpt i on a n t h e ill a ti ve a f ma ti on of
an e e ,
r

t he c o n s e q u e n t in t he c on cl us i o n ( t h e mo u s p on e s ) ; o r b y n

dd
t h e a b so l ut e n eg a t i o of t h e c o se q ue n t in t h e s ub s umpt i on n n ,

an t he ill a ti v e n eg a t i on O f t h e a n t ece d e n t in t he co cl usi on n

m e g e n e r a l for m of a n hy o th e tic al
)
1
( t h e o u s t ollen s T h p .

s yll o i sm is th e r e for e t he fo ll o wi n g
2
g , ,

C ommon S umption I f A is , then B is ;

2

M on u s T O L LE N S

But B is not ;

d
B
1) M O D
'
U S PO N E N S S i p oter is p ossum; se tu p otes ; er go ego p ossu m .

B A
2) M O D U S T O LLE N S S i p oter is p oss um non p oss u m; nec p otes er go.3

In ill ustr a ti n g thi s pa r ag r a ph

h a ll c on sid er T hi s spe ci es of ,
I s ,

E pli ti x
an
ca
s yll o g i s m in
on .
g e n er a l ;

I t s spe ci a l l a w s
I t s p
d
e culi a r

,
p i n ci l e ;
p
.
r

L i ke e v e r y o t h er spe ci e s o f s i mpl e syl log i s m t he H y pot h e t i ca l ,

1 H y p th t i l y l

g ene ral
o
is ma d e up O f t h r ee pr opos i t i o s
a s ub s umpt i on a n
e ca s a con cl u s i on
a s um ti o n

T h e r e must
p
,
d n ,

.
,

d
gi m i
in t h e r s t pl a ce b e a n hy pot h e t ic a l pr opo s i t i on
s n

, ,
C t th
o n ai n s p p r ee ro o

siti on s .
h o ld i n
g t h e
p l a ce o f a
g e n e r a l r ul e a n fr om ,

thi s pr oposi t i on t he ot h er pa r t s of t he syll ogi sm

mus t b e d e d uce d
s um t i o n
p
tiv e me mb er
B ut a s thi
T hi s r s t pr o pos iti on t h e r e for e con t a i n s a
s
.
p p
.

r o o s i t i on c o n t a i n s a r e l a t i v e a n co r r ela
, ,

d
o n e me mb e r t h e r e l a t i v e cl a us e e n o un ci n g a t hi n g
, , ,

d
a s c o n di t i o n i n t h t h t h l t i l u u i a t hi n
g; e o e r e co r r e a v e c a s e e n o c n
g , g ,
n

d
a s con di t i o n e d ; a n a s t he w h o l e r o o s i t i o n e n o u n ce s me r e ly t h e
p p
d epe n d e n cy b e t w e en th e s e r e l a t i ve s a n j u d g e s n ot hi n g in eg a r d
d
r
,

t o t h e i r e x i s t e n ce c o n s id e r e d a pa t a n in th e ms e l v e s t hi s r ,

e n ou n ce me n t mu s t b e ma d e in a s e c o n d
p pr o o s i t i o n w hi c h s h a ll

t a ke o ut O f t he s umpti on on e or oth er of it s r el a ti v es a n ca t eg or i ,
,

d
1 [ F or us e o f t e r ms p on en s a n d t ollens , se e P r ion , i . c. 23 , f . 60, V e n et . , 1 536 . M a g en

d
Boe th iu s , D S y llog is mo H yp o t het ico O p er a
e t in us , I n A na l P r i on f 16, b A l ex A ph r o
p . . .
,
. . .

W
,

d d d
6 11 . o l f P hil Ra t
. . 406, 4 1 0 M a r k D un
. . is ien sis , I n A n a l. P r i or .
,
if 8 7 , 88 ,
. 1 09 , 1 30,
,

d te r ms
d d
u se s t h e
ca n a p os iti o n e a p os i A l 1 520 I n T op ica , f 65 , A l , 1 51 3
. . . . . A n on y

t i on em, an

a re mo t ion e a re mot ion em .

mous A ut h o r , O n S y ll og is ms , f 4 4 , . e . 1 53 6 .

L og icee , L i v o 6 ,
[ I n s t it ut ion es 4 , p 240 . . . . . S che ib le r , O p er a L og ica , p a r s i v p 54 8 . . . B0 ] .

C f p 24 3 , S a lmu r ii, 1 8 12 E D ]
. . . .
z a n o, Wiss en s cha f t slehr e , L og ilc, ii .
p . 560 .

2 [ O n t h e H y p ot h et ica l S l l o ism i n
y g g en W it a z , O rg a n o n , I n A n . P r i on ,
i . c .

e r a l , se e A mmon i us , I n D e I n t er n , P r ooem .
,

f. 3, V en eti is , 154 6 . P hil opo n us, I n A n a l .

3 T h ese l in es a re t h e A uth o r s o wn .
E D .
L EC T . XV I I I . L O GI C . 24 1

lly i i t c i e x is t e n ce T hi s se con d pr o
d
'

e n o u n ce t s e x s e n e o r t s n o n l '
ca .

os i t i o n co n t a i n s t h e r e fo r e a s ub s u mpt i o n ; a n t h r ou h t hi s s ub
g
p , , ,

s umpt i o a j ud g me n t is li ke w i s e d e t e r mi n e d in a thi r d o sit i on

n,
p p o , r ,

wi t h r eg a r d t o t he o t h e r r e l a t i ve T hi s l a st pr opos iti o n t h er efor e .

, ,

con t a i s t h e co cl us i o r o e r O f t h e s yll o i s m

n p p n
g n .

But as t he s umpt i o n in a n hypo t h e t i ca l syll og i sm c on t a i n s t wo

dd

r e l a ti ve cl a us e s ah a n t ece d e n t a n a con s e ,
1 a hyp th l uen t it
O e
thca
e r e fo r e a e a r s d o ub l e ; a n
q pp as , ,

t w f ld
,
s y ll g i m t h
o s i m er e s co
i t h er o f i t s t w o me mb e r s ma b e t a k e n i n t he
k i nd y
e
p t t
e en a o o

s ub s u mpt i o t h e e is co n s e q ue n tly co mpe t e n t

dd a twofold ki n d of r e a son i n g F or we ca n e it h er
o f i g
r eas on n h m ,
t e o n, r , ,
f p a n e an " 20

i;m
0 '

in t h e r s t pl a ce co n cl ud e fr o m t h e t r ut h o f t he
.
,

a n t e ce d e n t t o t h e t r ut h o f t h e co se q u e n t ; o r in t h e s e co d pl a ce n ,
n ,

c o n cl u d e f o m t h e fa l se h oo d o f t h e con s e u e n t t o t h e fa ls e h o o d O f
r
q
t h e a n t e ce d e n t T he fo r me of t h e s e mo d e s of hy pot h e t i ca l i n fer
. r

e n ce co n s t it ut es wh a t is so me ti me s c a ll e d t he C on s tr u cti ve H yp o

theti ca l b ut mor e pr ope r ly t h e M o u s P on en s

,
t h e l a t t er w h a t d
t h e M o u s T ollen s d
is so me t i me s c a ll e d t h e D es tr u cti ve H yp oth eti ca l b ut mor e pr oper ly
A s e x a mpl e s of t h e t wo mo d es
.
1
,

M d
o us P on en s I f S ocr a tes be vir tuous , he mer its es tee m;
B ut S ocr a tes is vir tuous ;

d
T her efor e, he mer its es tee m .

mer i ts m;
d
M o us T ollen s I f S ocr a tes be vir tuous , he es tee

B ut S ocr a tes oes n ot mer i t es teem ;

T her ef or e, he is n ot vir tuous .2

S o much fo r t he h a r a ct er of t he H ypo t h e ti ca l S yll og i sm in

c

en e r a l I n ow
p r o ce e d t o co s id e r it s
p e cu li a r
pr i n ci l e n
g .
p .

I f t h e e ss en t i a l n a t ur e o f a n H y po t h e t i ca l S yll og i s m co n s i st

in thi s t h a t t h e s ub s umpt i on a fr ms o r d e n i es o n e o r o t h e r o f t he
,

t w o pa t s o f a t h o ug h t st a di g t o e a ch o t h e r in t h e r e l a ti on
r

of t h e thi n g c o n di t i o n i n g a n t he t hi n g co n di t i on e d it wil l b e t he
,

d n n

1 K r ug L og i k, 81 , A n m 1 , p 254 C o m H er e , If it be d
d d is ca l l e b fr yozi/ wvov,

dd
.
T
.
ay
.
,

pa r e E ss e r , L og ik, 90, p 1 73 ED
d b ot h b y P e r ip a t e t ics a n b y S t o ics ; t he s un is
. . .

d
[ N o me n cl a t ur e
d
2 of T he o ph r a st us , E u e on t he ea r t h, b r tt el/ O V b y P e r i p a
is ca ll e T

mus ,
d d
an o th e r P e r i pa t e t ics , in r eg a r to t et ics , 76 57 01" b y S t o ics T h e w h ol e , [ f i t

dd d
.

H y p ot he tica l S y ll og ism, in con t r a st with th a t be a y , the sun is on the ea r th, is ca l le T b

d d

o f t h e S t o ics o w nuue uou b
y P e r i p a teti cs , T b r pomx v b y
.

'
wa r a pr ma l ( P e r ipa te t ic) ,
'

d dd
yua r a vor ( i
S toics : But it is i s p e r h nxpt s t o P e r i
WWW
ay
,
ca ll e b y th e S t o ics r espe ct ivel y , 7 127
p a te tics ,
are

d
/ t s t o S t oics T her efor e, t he .

x vow a empopm A efcr .

s un is on t he
'
ea r th is o utt vr e a a t a t o P e r i a
,
, p / p

d
T a ke this H y p ot h et ica l S y l l og ism m cpop

t e t ics , e t o S t o ics S ee P hil op o n u s ,
d
.

d
I n A n a l P r ior L
d
If it be ay, the sun is on the ea r th
. .
,
. i . c 28 , f . 60 a, e . V e n et.

B ut i t is a y
1 53 6 . Br a n is , S chott a , p
'
1 69 . c l

. A n on y

T her efor e, the sun is on t he ea r th. mo us A ut h o r , O n S y llogi s ms , f .

 24 2 L 0G 1c .
LEC T . XV I I I .

hypoth etic a l syll og i sm th a t

d c on diti on
la w of a n , ,
I f the or a n t e ce

2 0 ' I ts P ecu l i a r P
d e n t b e a i me
m t ion e d t dd l

d
h
r

o r co n s e q u e n t , a n
,
so a so

t
mu st b e
at if t h e
the
c on di t i on e
c on

d
di

d
cip l e , th e l a w of Re a
s on a n C o n seq uen t .
or co n s e q u e n be e me , so li ke W1 s e must b e
the co ndi i d t on o r a n t e ce en t. But thi s is ma n i

dd
fe s t l y n ot hi n
g l
e se t h an t he la w of S ui cie n t Re a s on , or of Re a s on

d
T h e pr i n ci pl e
d
thi s syll og i sm is th us v a ri ously
1
an C on se
q u en t . of

d d
e n o un ce P os i ta con i ti on e, p on i tu r con i ti on a tw n s u bla to
,

d
H ow e n oun ce d .
con

A ra ti on e a d
i ti on a to, t olli tu r con i t i o O r ot
ra ti on a tu m, a n eg a
.

ti on e
h e r wi s e
ra ti on a ti
,

e ith er
t ollen s
ne
g

.
a

ru e
2
ti on em

l b ei n g
ra

re
ti on i s , va let

g u l i
a t v e of mo d
con s eq u en

us p
ti a

on en s ,
. T he
the
on e a

o th er
l t er n at i v e
of the mo d of

us

But h er e it ma y b
d why a s w e c on cl ud e fr om t h e t r ut h
e a ske , ,

Wh y w m m
l d
e 03
o f t h e a n t ece d en t t o t h e t r u t h o f t h e c on s e q u en t

( a r a ti o n e
con
a r

a t i on a tu m ) a n fr o m t h e fa l s e d ,
d
d
c u f m t h t th
e rc e ru

o f th e q t t
con s e
h o o d o f t h e c o n s e u e n t t o t h e fa l s e h o o d o f t he
u en o q
a n t e ce d e n t
( e a ti on e r a ti on a ti a n e a ti o

dt d
th t e th ru f th t o e an a n
e g g

df th ante f om the tr ut h of the co n se quen t t o t he t uth

n em r a t i on i s a n w e n o t c o v e r s e ly c o cl u d e
f m th
ce en , an ro
) ce
,
n n

dt t th f l of the a te ce d en t a f o m t he fa l s eh o od of the d
f l h
a se o O e

r r

df th
ce en o e a se
n n r
h oo o e con se , ,

q uent . a t e ce d e n t t o t h e fa l s e h o o d o f t h e co n s e qu e n t ?
n

I n a n s w e r t o thi s q u e s t i o n it is ma n i fes t t h a t ,

t hi s co uld b e v a lidly d on e on ly o n t he foll o wi n g s uppo s iti on

n a me ly if e v e r y c o n s e u e n t h a

r
, q o n ly o n e p oss i b l e a n t e ce d e n t

if; f o m a n a n t e ce d e n t fa l s e a s con s id e r e d a b s ol ut e ly a n
an

in i t s e lf it
,

d d d ,

w er e i mpossi b l e t o h a v e con se q u en t s t u e a s fa ct s r .

T h u s in t h e r s t pl a ce it is i n compe t e n t t o c on cl ud e th a t b e

, ,

ca u s e B e i s t s th a t is b e ca u se t h e co s e q u e t memb e r o f t h e s ump
x , ,
n n

tio c o n s id e r e d a s a n a b s o l u t e
n, r o o si t i o
p p is t r u e t h e r e fo e t h e n, ,
r

su
pp o s e d r e a s o n A e x i st s t h a t is th e e fo e t h e a ll e e d a n t e ce d e n t

me mb er mu s t b e t r u e ; for B ma y h a v e o th er r e a so s b esi e s A
g , ,
r r

n d ,

s u ch a s C or D I n like ma n n e r in t h e s e co n d pl a ce w e s h o uld
.
, ,

dd
a t e d t o i n fe r t h a t b e ca u s e t h e s uppo s e d r e a so
n ot b e w a rr n A is n
,

un r e a l a n t h e a n t e ce d e t memb e r fa l s e t h e r e fo e t h e r es u l t B is
, n ,
r

a l s o un e a l a r t h e c o se q u e t me mb e r fa l se ; fo t h e e x i s t e n ce o f B
,
n n n r

mi g h t b e d e t er mi n e d b y ma n y o t h er r e a s on s th a n A F or e x a mpl e : .
8

I f ther e a r e s ha rp er s i n the co mp a n y ,
we ought not to ga mble ;

B ut ther e a r e no s ha rp er s i n the co mp a n y ;
T her efor e, we ought to ga mble .

1 E sser fkog a , 91 , p 1 74 E D
. . . 2 S ee K an t ,
L og ik, M 75, 76 . K r ug , L og ik, 5 82 E D . .

3 K rug , L og ik, 8 2, p 2 56 . .
-E D .
L E C T . X V I II . L 0G 1 c . 24 8

H er e t he c on cl usi on is as fa l s e as if we c on v er s ely i n fe r r e d th a t ,

beca u s e we

L og i ci a n s
oug h t n ot

h a ve g i ve n t h e ms e l ves a w o ld o f pa i n s in t he is
t o g a mble, ther e a r e n o s h a rp er s

r
i n th e
:
r oo m
d .

co v e r y o f g e n e a l r ul e s fo r t h e c on v e s i o n o f r r

H y po t h e t i ca l S yll ogi sms i n t o C a t eg o r i ca l But

C i f H Y
on v e r g on O l
.
,

fgl zx g izg ff
h t t
in t he r s t pl a ce t hi s is un n e cess a r y in s o fa r a s
'

, ,
r

U n n ecess a r
y
i t is a
pp
,
li e d t o ma n ife s t t h e v a lidi t y o f a n hy po

th et i ca l syll o g i sm ; for t he hypot h e ti ca l sy llo

i m m i f t it w n v a lidi t y w i t h a n e v id e n ce n ot l es s o b t r us i v e

d
-
g s a n es s s o

tha d o e s t he ca t eg or i ca l a n t h er efor e it st a n d s in n o n e e d of a
n

r e d uct i o n t o a n y hi g h e r fo r m a s if it w e r e o f t hi s a o n e s id e d a n

Wi t h e q ua l pr o pr i et y might we i n q ui r e
,

,
, ,

- d
a ccid e n t a l mo di ca t i on .
,

h o w a ca t eg or ic a l s yll og i s m is t o b e con v e r t e d i n t o a n hy po t h e t i ca l .

ib l
N t lw y p o
I n t he s e co n d pl a ce t hi s con v er s i on is n o t
a l w a y s po s s i b l e
a a s
an th
os
e r e fo r e it is n e v er n e ,
d ,
,

d
s e.
ce s s a r y I n ca s e s wh e r e t he s umpt i o n o f a n .

hy poth eti ca l syll og i sm con t a i n s on ly t h r ee n ot i on s a n w h er e of , ,

t h e s e t h r e e n o t i on s o n e s t a n d s t o t he o t h er t w o in t he r e l a t i on o f
,

a middl e t e r m in th e s e c a s es a n hy ot h e ti ca l s yll o i s m ma
p , g y ,

wi t h out difcul t y b e r e d uce d t o ca t eg or ica ls T h us w h e n t he .

,

fo mul a If A i s then B i s s ig n i es [ f A i s C then A i s a ls o B ;

r , , ,

d
t h a t is A i s B i n a s mu ch a s i t i s C ;
, in t hi s ca se t h e c a t eg or i ca l
,

for m is t o b e v i e w e d as t he o r ig i n a l a n t he hypoth etic a l a s t he ,

d er i va t i ve F or e x a mpl e .
2

I f C a ins be a ma n ,
then he is mor ta l ;
B ut C a ius is a ma n ;
T her ef or e, he is mort a l .

H er e gt he
c on t a i n e d u n d e r t h e n o t i on mor ta l an
c om p r e h e n di n
n ot on

a s b ei n
g c o
i
g
m
,
i
p
n it or a s

r eh e d e d
ma n is re ar ded as

d ,

in o r a s c on t a in i n g un d e r it t he n o t i on O a i us ; it ca n t h e r e fo r e
, , , ,

s e r ve a s middl e t e r m in t he ca t e g o r i ca l s yll o i s m t o con n e c t t he

t wo n o ti on s C a ius a n mor ta l T h us
g
d .

M an is mor ta l ;
C a ins is a ma n ;
T her efor e, C a ius is mor ta l .

Wolf
1 [ F or
P hil os Ra t , 4 12
.
d
th e r e ucti on o f h y p oth etical s, see
Reus ch , S y s t ema
. .
se e

559 .
K r ug L og ik, p
,

F r ies , L og ik ,
. 356,
62 , p 2 6 7
an d L
Ba ch ma n n ,
ex ikon , in .
p .

, . .

d
L og i cum , 563 M o l i n aeus , E lemen ta L og ica ,
. L ogi k, 89 , A n m . 2.
( I n pa r t ) , A r is t otl e,
L i t r a ct iii c l , p 95
. . K ecke r ma n n , O p er a ,
. . . . . A n a l P r i on , L i c 44 , p 2 74 , e
. . . P a cii
.
(I n . . .

t i p p 266 , 7 6 7
. . C r e llius , I s a g og e, L iii 0
. . . . .
p a r t ) , P a cius , I n A r is t , O rg a n on , la c cit , p . . . .

1 7 , p 243 . K ie sewet ter ,

A llg emein e L og ik, i . 1 94 ]
9 239, p 1 1 5 . . E s se r , L ogilc, A g a in st , 2 K r ug , L og i k, p 258, A
. n m 3 . E D .
2 44 L0G 1c . a r . XV I I I .

Inch c a ses it r equi r es o ly t o di s co v er t he middl e t e r m in
su n
,

an d
o r d e r t o r e d uce t h e hy po t h e ti ca l s yll og i s m t o a ca t e o i ca l fo r m ;
g
n o r ul e s a r e r e q ui s i t e for th o s e wh o co m r e h en d t h e n a t ur e o f

t h e t w o ki n d s o f r e a s o n i n g
p
.
r

But in t h os e c as es wh e r e t he s umpti on o f a n hy po th et i ca l s y llo

i s m c on t a i n s mo r e t h a n th r e e n ot i o n s s o t h a t t h e fo r mul a I f A
g , ,

a n e a sy a n d
i s then B i s s i g n i es I f A i s C then i s B a ls o D in s uch ca se s
, ,

di r e ct co n ver si on is i mpossib l e a s a c a t eg or i ca l sy llo

,

,
, ,

i s m a d mit s of o n ly t h r e e pr i n cipa l n ot i o n s T o a cc om li s h a
g p .

r e d uct i o n a t a ll w e must ma ke a ci r c uit t h r o ug h a pl ur a li t y o f ca t

,

e or ica l s yll og i s ms b e fo r e we ca n a r r i v e a t a n id en t i ca l co n cl us i on

d
g
a
p o ce ss whi ch s o fa r fr o m t en di n
r

uc e s o n ly t o per pl ex a n ob s c ur e
g t
, o s i m p li f y
d an e x pl a i n con
1
.
d ,
,

O n t h e oth er h a n d w e ca n a l w a y s e a sily c on v er t a n hypo th e t i

,

yll i m f m
d i t h
d
ca l s og s o f o n e o r n o a n o t e r t he ,

d
mo u s p on en s i n t o t he mo us t ollen s
d
H y p th ti l o yn e ca S o'
t he ,
gi m f f m on e
T h i s 18
or
o u s t ollen s 1 n t o t h e mo u s p on en s
s s o

il y t ib l i n t o
m .

d
ea s con ver e

mt r a teh an o
d o n
er e ,
b y a m e r e co n t r a
p o s i t i o n o f t h e a n t ece

d en t a n co n se quen t of t he sumpti on T h us .
,

t he P on e n t or C on st r ucti ve S y l log i sm

I f S ocr a tes be vir tuous , then he mer its es tee m

B ut S ocr a tes is vir tuous ;
T her ef or e, he mer its es tee m ,

may th us b e c on v er t e d i n t o a T o ll en t or D es r u t cti ve syll og i sm

I f S ocr a tes d
o not mer it esteem ,
then he is n ot vir tuous ;

B ut he is vir tuous ;

T her efor e, he mer its es tee m .

g i
hi s l a tt er syll og i s m th oug h appar ently a C on str uctive sy llo

d
T
s m is in r e a li t y a D es t r u ct i v e F
,

o r i n mo o p on en te w e c o n .
,
d ,

d
,

cl u e fr o m t h e t r uth of t h e a n t e ce d e n t t o t h e t r ut h o f t h e c on se

u e t ; b ut h e r e w e r e a lly co n cl ud e fr o m t h e fa l s e h o o of t he
q n

c on s e q u e n t t o t h e fa l s e h o o d o f t h e a n t e ce d e n t T hi s l a tt er sy l 2
.

l og ism if fully e x pr e s se d w ould i n d e e d b e a s fo ll o w s

, ,

I f S ocr a tes d o not mer it es teem ,

he is n ot vir t uous ;

d
B ut S ocr a tes is not n ot vir t uous ;

T her ef or e, he oes not n ot mer it es teem .

Wiss
d
1 C omp a r e M ar k D un ca n ,
I n s tit L og , L i v
. . . .
[ B ol z a n o, ens cha slehr e, L og ik, ii 266 , p . .

c . 6, 4 , p 240 et s eq
. D er o . o n , L ogi ca Res t i 5 62 ]
t uta , D e A r g umen ta tion e, 1 06 , p . 6 72 . E D .
2 K r ug , L ogi k, p 259 , 260 E
. . D .
 L E C T X V II I L O GIC 2 45

d
. .

I n ow
g o on to t t men t a n c on sid er a ti on
a s a e of th e s pe c a l i
r u es l by whi ch an hypoth et ic a l syll og i sm is g over n e d .

P ar . v 1. 3 0
, S pe If L X V I . T he spe ci a l r ul es b y whi ch a n
y pot h et i ca l H S yll og i s m is r eg ul a t e d a r e t h e

I A r eg ul a r a n
.

r o os i t i on s i
p e

n whi ch
fo ll owi g

h
p
ow ev er m
d
r fe ct hy o t h e ti ca l s yll o i s m mu s t h a v e th r ee
g
or e t h a n th r ee r i n ci a l
n

p p , p ,p ,

n o t i o n s ma y b e fou n d

I I T he S umpti on is in r eg a r d t o q u a n t ity a n q u a li t y un i for m

.

b e i n g a l w a y s D e i t e a
,
.

A fr ma t i v e wh er e a s t h e S ub s ump
n n d d , ,

t i o n v a r i es in b o t h r e l a t i o n s
I I I T he C o n cl usi on is r eg ul a t e d in qu a n ti t y a
.
q u a lity b y th at
.

n d d
p
me mb er of th e sumpt i on whi ch is n ot s ub su me d ; i n mo o
o en te th e y a r e c on r u e n t ; i n mo o t ollen te t h e y a e o
n
g , pp os e d d ,
r
1
.

T h e q u e s t i on t ouchi n g
hy poth e ti ca l sy l the spe c a i l l a ws of the

R l
E pl
u e
x t
T his
F

g l t
t
i ca i on
log ism or w h a t is t h e s a me t hi g t h e q u e s t i on
t
irs

o uch i n g t h e or g n a l a n
.

re u a es
,

n e c e ss a y fo r m o f t h e
,

1 1 d n

r
,

d
.

th e g l f m
en e r a f hy po t h e ti ca l syll og i sm a s d e t e r mi e d b y it s
or o ,
n

hy p m l y
r al r i n ci l e R
e ca S
3m
9 o
g e n e p p t h e l a w o f e a s on a ,
n

d
gla
C on s e qu e n t thi s qu e s ti o n ma y b e r e fe e d ,
rr

d
b oth t o t h e w h ol e r e a s o n i n g a n t o it s s ev e r a l pa r t s T he o ig i a l . r n

n e ce s s a r y for m o f t h e hy p o t h et i ca l s yll o i s m a s d e t e r mi n e d b y
an g ,

it s g e n er a l p i n ci pl e w e h a ve a l r e a dy co s id e e d
r ,
F r o m t hi s a s n r .
,

a l r ea dy n o t i ce d it fo ll o w s a s a co r oll a y t h a t t h e hy p o th e t i ca l li ke
,
r , ,

e v e r y o t h er s yll og i s m mus t con t a i a t h e e fo ld j ud me n t :

,g A n r

j ud g men t w h o se con st it uen t memb er s st a n d t o e a ch ot h er in t he

r el a t i on of re a son a n c o n s e q ue n t ; d
A j ud g me n t whi ch s ub
s ume s a s e x i s t e n t or n o n e x i t e n t o n e o r o th e r o f t h e s e c o n s tit ue n t

d
- s
, ,

s e q ue n t ; a n
r ,

d
me mb e s st a n di n g t o e a ch o t h e r in t h e r el a t i on of r e a son a n con
F i n a lly a j u d g me n t d e ci s i v e o f t he e x i st e n ce or
, ,

n on e x i s t e n ce o f th a t c on s ti t u e n t me mb e r whi ch w a s n o t sub s u me d
-

in t h e s e con d j ud gme n t
s ub su mpt i on a n co n cl u s i o n ,
d
I n t h e se th ee pr op os i t i on s su mpt i o n
.

t he r e ma y h o w e v e r b e foun d mor e
th a n t h r e e pr i n cipa l n ot i on s ; a n thi s is a l wa y s t he ca se w h e n t h e d
r

, ,
,

s u mpt i o n co n t a i n s mor e th a n th r e e p i n ci pa l t er ms a s is e x e mpli e d

dd
r ,

in a pr opo s i t i on li ke t h e foll ow i n g : I f G o r ewa r vi r tu e then w ill ,

vir tu ou s men be a ls o h app y H e r e h ow ev e r it must a t t h e s a me .

, , ,

ti me b e u n d er s t ood t h a t t hi s p opositi on in whi ch a l a r g er pl ur a l

, ,
r
,

it y of n o t i on s th a n th r ee is a ppar e n t c on t a i n s h o w ever on ly t he , , ,

1 K r ug , L og ik, 83 E D. .
24 6 XV I I I
dd
L O G I C . L E C T . .

th o ug ht t c e en t a n o f on e c ons e q uen t ; for a si g l e con

of o n e a n e n

s e ue n t s u

d
o s e s a w h o l e a te c e d e n t h o w co mpl e x s oe v e r it ma y n
q pp ,

b e an
, a s i n g l e a t e ce d e t i n v o l v e s in it a wh ol e c on s e q u e n t
n n ,

t h o ug h ma d e u p o f a n y n u mb e r o f pa r t s Bo t h of t h e se poss i b ili .

t i e s a r e s e en in t h e e x a mpl e n o w a dd uce d of a n hy po t h e t i ca l j ud g , ,

men t in whi ch th e r e o ccur mo e th a n th r ee pr i n ci pa l n ot i on s I f

,
r .
,

G
e
r ound whi h_ o n ly t he th o ug ht of a S i n gl e a n te ce d en t an
t h H y p th i l S y l o
h ow e v er a n hypo th etic a l pr oposit i on i n vol ve
on

et ca
c
,

d
o f a s i n g l e c o n se q ue t it will foll o w t h a t a n y

g d dh i g ly hypot h et i cal syll og ism con sists n ot of mor e th an

l gi m h
o s b as een re n ,

dtw t hr e e b ut of l ess t h a n thr e e capit a l not ion s ;

ar e as av n on

Lfsp zzizz d
l f n o
, ,
o s

an in a r i g or o us sen s e t hi s is a ct ua lly t he
, ,

O n thi s g r o un d a ccor di n g ly some l og i ci a n s of g r e a t a cut e

1
c as e .
, ,

n es s h a v e v i e w e d t h e hy po t h e t i ca l syll og i s m a s a syll o g i s m of t w o

T hi i w
sv e
t er ms a o f t wo pr opos iti o n s
e r r on eous .
ever e r r o n e o u s ; fo r
T hi s is h o w
n

in a n hypo th e t i ca l sy llo
d .
2
,

, ,

g i s m t h e r e a r e v i r t u a lly th ee t e r ms
,
T h a t un d e r t hi s for m of
r .

r e a son in a wh o l e s yll o i s m c a n b e e v o l v e d o ut of n o t mo r e t h a n
g g
t w o ca pi t a l n o t i o s d e pe n d s o n t hi s th a t t h e t wo co n st i t u en t
n ,

n o t i on s of a n hypoth et i ca l syll og i sm pr es en t a ch a r a ct er in t he

d
s u mpt i on a l t og e th er di ffe e n t fr o m wh a t t h e y e hi b it in t h e sub r x

d
su mpt i o n a n c o cl usi on I n t h e sumpt i on th e s e n ot i on s st an
n

b o u nd t og e t h er in t he r e l a t i on o f r e a s o n a n co n s e que n t w i t h out
.

h o w ev er a n y d et er mi n a t i o n in r eg a r d t o t he r ea li t y o r un e a lity o f
d ,

r
,

o n e o r o t h e r ; if o n e b e t h e n t h e o t h er is is a ll th a t is e n o u n ce d
, , .

I n t h e s ub sumpt i o o n t h e o t h er h a n d t h e e x i s t e n ce o
n, n on e x i st ,
r -

a sse r t e d a n d
e n ce of wh a t o n e o r o th e r o f t h e s e o t i o n s co m r i se s is e x
p
t h u s t h e c on ce pt e x pr e s sly a fr me d or e x pr e s sly
,

n i e d ma n i fe st ly ob t a i n s in t h e s ub s u m t i on a wh o lly di ffe e t s i
p essly

e ,
n r

d
, p , g ,
r n

dd
n i c a n ce f o m wh a t it b o r e wh e n o ly e ou n c e d a s a c o n di t i on o f
r n n

r e a li t y o r u n r e a li t y ; a n in lik e ma n n e r t h a t n oti o n whi ch t he s ub

, ,

s umpt i o n l e ft u n t o u ch e d a n c o n ce r n i n wh ose e x i st e n ce o r n on
g ,

de x i s t e ce t h e con clu s i on

d
d e cid e s o b t a i n s a ch a r a ct e r a l t og et h er
d
n
,

iffe en t in t h e en fr om wh a t it pr ese n t e d in t he b eg i n i g A
r n n . n

th us in s t r i ct pr opr i ety t h er e a r e foun d o ly t h r e e ca pi t a l n o t i on s

, ,
n

d
in a n hypo t h e ti ca l syll o g i s m n a me ly T he n ot i o n of t h e r e cip o , ,
r

c a l d e pe n d e n ce o f s ubj e ct a n
p r e di c a t e

r e a li t y o r un e a li t y of t he a n t e c e d e t a n
r

r e a li t y or un r e a lity o f t h e c on s e u en t S
T h e ot i o n o f t h e

T h e n o t i o n of t h e
o much in e x pl a n a ti on
n ,
3
d
,

,
n

q .

1 E sser , L og ik
,
92 , p 1 75- 6 E D
. . . L og ik, 2 10, 251 H . er b a r t , L og ik, 65 . F is
Ka K
S ee
d v iew
2 n t, L ogi k, 7 5 a n t
.

s is ch e r , L ogi k, 100, p .

mb a tt e b y K r ug , L og ik, 83 E D [A
d
co . .

view simi l ar t o th a t of K a n t i s he l b y Weiss , 8 E sser , la c . ci t . ED ,

 LEC T . X V II I . LO G I C 247

of t he r s t i l la w or th a t r eg ul ati ve of t he g en er a l for m of t he
s
p ec a ,

hy po t h e t i ca l syll og i s m
T he se con d la w s t a t e s t h e con it ion s of th e s e t w o pr emises
.

d ,
z

d d
th a t t he s umpt i on in r e fe r e n ce t o it s q u ant it y ,

d
S R lec on u e
u a li t y is u i fo r m b e i n l y d n ite
.

an
q g a w a s e ,
n , ,

th a t is si n g ul a r o r u i ve sa l a n air ma t ive ; wh il e t he sub s ump

, n r ,

d
t i o n in b o t h r e l a t i o n s r ema i n s fr ee
, , .

d
I n r eg a r d t o t he s umpt i on wh en it is s aid th a t i t i s a l wa y s e
'

n ite t h a t is s i n g ul a r or un i ve r s a l a n , a f ma , ,
r

d dd
T h t th a mP t i e
ve
su
t hi s mu st b e u d e s t o o d in
on
a u a li e d
_ , q n r

d m d
lw y mt
O

18 a a t s e e o
s e se T o u ch i n t h e fo r me r i t ma
n 1 n ee b e
g y
d
.
.
i ,
b e un e oo n a

s a id th a t u a t i t y m a b l t t h t h w
q ua li e se n s e . q n
y e a og e er r o n

o ut o f a cco u n t in a n hypot h e t i ca l syll og i s m .

1

F or a r ea son b e i n g on ce s uppo se d it s c o se q u e n t is n ecess a ily

d

, n ,
r

a fr me d w i t h o ut li mi t a t i o n ; a n b y t h e di sj un ct i o n t h e e t e n s i o n , ,
x

o r c o mpr e h e n s i on o f t h e s ubj e ct is s o d e e d t h a t t he o ppo s i t e n ,

d et er mi n a t i on s must t og et h e r wh olly e x h a us t it I t ma y i n d ee d .
, ,

s ome t i mes a ppe a r a s if w h a t w a s e n o u n ce d in a n hy po t h e t i ca l s ump

ti on w e r e e n oun ce d o n ly of a n i n d en i t e n umb e r o f s o me ; a n
it con s e qu en t ly t h e n a ss umes t he for m o f a pa r t i cu l a r pr opos i t i o n
, d
.
, ,

F or i n s t a n ce I f s ome men a r e vir tu ou s then s ome other men a r e

, ,

vi ci ou s But h e r e it is e a s ily s ee n th a t s u ch j ud g me n t s a r e o f a n
.

u n i ve s a l o r e x h a ust i v e n a t ur e
r I n t he pr o po s i t i on a dd uce d t he .
,

r e a l a n t e ce d e n t is I f s ome men ( o n ly ) a r e vi r tu ou s ; , t h e e a l con r

se qu e n t is then a ll o ther men a r e vi ci ou s

b e e n b e tt e r h a
,

d I t w o uld pe h a ps ha v e
t h e r e l a t i v e t ot a li t y o f t h e maj o r pr opos i t i on of a
.
,
r ,

d
hy pot h et i ca l s yll og i sm b e e n e xpr ess e d b y a n ot h er t e m t h a n u n i ver r

sal . F o r t h e s a me r e a son it is t h a t t he di ffe r e n ce o f e x t e n s i v e a n

2
,

c o mpr e h e n s i v e q u a n t i t y d e t e r mi e s n o e t e rn a l ch a n g e in t h e e x n x

e s s i o n of a n hy po t h e t i ca l syll og i sm for e v e r y hy po t h e t i ca l s y llo

p r

g i s m r e ma i n s t h e s a me wh e t h e r w e r ea d it in t h e o n e qu a n tity o r ,

in t h e o t h e r .

I n r eg a r d t o t he o th er s t a t emen t of t he r ul e th a t th e sumpti on ,

of a n hypot h et ic a l syll og i sm must b e a l wa y s

Th that mpti i e su on s
a i r ma t iv e t hi s li ke w i s e d e ma n d s a w o r d o f
a lw y a f m t i
s a r a ve .
, , ,

ill ust r a ti on I t is t r ue t h a t t he a n t e ce d e n t o r .

t he con se quen t of s uch a s umpti on ma y b e n eg a ti v e a s w e ll a s

d
-

a f ma t i v e
r
; f o r ex am l e I
p f C a iu s be n ot vir tu ou s he i s n ot en ti tle

to r esp ect ; I f the s u n be n ot r i s en i t i s n ot ay

,

But h er e t he ,
d ,

1 [ S ee A l ex a n d er d
d dm
A ph r o isien s is , I n A n a l . 2 p 1 88
S ee a b ove . . C o mpa r e E s ser , L ogi k,

d
P r ion f 5 Br a n is , p 1 44 92 1 77 ED
,
. a . S cholia , e . . .
$ ,p . . .

D er o on L ogi ca Rest itut a , p

,
.
[C o par e
a b o ve , pp 1 88 , 236
. ED ] . .
 24 8 no G I C a r X V I II
d
. . .

pr o
p os h ypoth eti ca l j ud g men t is a n must b e a fr ma ti ve
i t i on ,
a s an , .

F o r t h e a f r ma t i v e in s uch a j u d g me n t is con t a i n e d in t he pos i t i v e

a s se t i o n of t he d e e d e ce of c o n se q u e n t o r a n t e c e d e n t ; a n
r
p n n

s u ch a d e p e n d e n ce b e n o t a f r me d a n hypo t h e t i ca l j u g me n t ca n
if
d d
,

n ot e x i st .

I n r eg a d t o wh a t is st a t e d i t h e r ul e con ce r n i n g t h e con diti on s

r n

o f t h e s ub s umpti on t h a t t hi s ma y e i t h er b e ,
-
Th b mp ti
e su su on .
e n e r a l or a r t i cul a r a f r ma t i v e or n e a t i v e
g p g , ,

it will n ot b e r e qui s it e t o s a y a n ythi n g in ill ust a t i on F or a s t he r .

,

p
t h e s umpt i on a n ,
d
s ub s u m t i on is me e ly a n a b s o l ut e a s s e r t i o n of a si n g l e me mb er of
r

a s s u ch me mb e r ma y a s a n i s o l a t e d

b e o f a n y qu a n ti t y o r a n y q ua lity it foll o w s th a t t he s ub s umpti on

p po o s i t i on , r ,

is e qu a lly u n li mit e d .

I n r e fer e n ce t o t he t hi d r ul e whi ch s t a t e s th a t t h e c on cl usi o n is

r ,

d
T hi d R l

d
r
r e u l a t e d in
g
u e.
q u a n t ity a n
q u a li t y b
y
b e r of t h e su mpt i o n w hi ch is n o t s ub s u me d a n
thi s i n mo o p on en te b y co g r ue n ce i n mo o t ollen te b y O ppos it i on n
t h a t me m

d , d
, ,

it w ill n ot b e r e qui s it e t o s a y mu ch .

d
I n t h e co n cl us i o n t h e l a t t e cl a us e o f t h e s umpti on is a fr me d

,
r

i n m o o p on en te b e ca us e t he for me r is a f me d in t h e s ub s umpt i o n
,
r

d .

I n t hi s ca s e t he co n cl us i on h a s t h e s a me q u a n t i t y a n q ua lit y a s t he
cl a u s e w hi ch it a fr ms
,

I n mo o t ollen te t he a n tece en t o f t he
. d d
t h e con s eq u en t cl a use h a

o i t i
b e en d e n i e d d
s umpt i on is d en i e d in t h e c o n cl us i on b eca u se in t h e s ub s umpti on

T h e r e t h us eme r g e s a n
on b e tw e e n t h a t cl a us e a s d e n i e d in t h e c o n cl us i o n a n
,

d
pp os , ,

th a t cl a use a s a f r me d in t he sumpti on T he c on cl usi on is t h us .

a l w a y s o ppos e d t o t he a n t e ce d e n t of t h e s umpt i o n in u a t i t y or
q n ,

mi n e d b y t he
e x am l e :
,

d
in q ua li ty o r in b oth t og et h e r a cco r di n g a s t hi s is di ffe r e n t ly d e t er
i b r e n t con sti t ut i on of t h e pr opositi on s
,

F or .

d d
d
If so me men wer e o mn isci en t then woul
,
they be as Go s ;
B ut no ma n is a Go ;
me men mn iscien t, tha t is , ma n is omnis cien t

T her ef or e, so a r e n ot o no .
1

I n ow
p ro c ee d t o the c on sid er a ti on of t h e l a s t cl a ss of s yll og i sms
3 H yp ot h et ico- d is
d
a ffor e d by t h e I n t e n a l F o r m t h e cl a s s of r ,

d
,

j un ct i ve or D i le m D il e mma t i c o r H y po t h e ti co di sj un ct i v e S y llo -

ma t ic S y ll og isms i m I co mpr i s e a g e n er a l en un ci a ti on of
.

s s an
g ,

th ei r t
n a ur e in t h e foll ow i n g pa r ag r a ph .

1 K r ug , L og ik, 5 83 , p 265 . .
ED .
a r . XV I I I . L 0 GIC 2 49

if L XV I I . I f the su mpti on
d dd
yll og i sm b e a t
of a s

th et i ca l a n di sj un ct i v e a n if , ,
on

in t h e
c e hypo
s ub

d
P v n H y '
s umpt i o n t he wh o l e
ar '
isJun ct io
.

n a s a cou s e
p o t h e t i c o - i s j u n ct i v e
S y l l og i s m D i u e n t b e su b l a t e d l n o r d er t o l t
s ub a e t he
or
q , ,

d
l e mm a
a n t e c e d e n t in t h e con cl us i on ; s uch a r ea

s on n i g is ca ll e d H yp otheti co- i sj u n ctive S y llog i s m,

an or a

D ilemma . T he for m o f thi s s yll og i sm is t he foll owi n g :

If A ex is t, then either B or C ex ists ;

d
B ut n ei ther B n or C ex is ts ;
T her ef or e, A oes n ot exi s t.1

W h for mer ly seen th a t a n hypoth e ti ca l ma y b e c omb i n e d

e av e

wi t h a di sj un ct i v e j ud g me n t ; a n if a pr oposi
ti on of s uch a ch a a ct er b e pl a c e d a t t he h e a d r
d
of a r ea s on i n g w e h a v e t h e H y po th e ti co di sj u cti v e S yll og i s m o r
,
- n

D il e mma T hi s r e a son i n g is pr o pe r ly a n hy pot h e tic a l s yll og i s m in

.
,

whi ch t he r el a ti o n of t he a n t ece d en t t o t h e con se quen t is n ot ab so

l ut e ly a fr me d b ut a f r me d th r o ug h oppos it e a n ,
r e ci r oca lly e x
p d
e l us i v e
p r e di ca t es I f A ex is t th
s umpt i on is t h u s a t on ce hy po t h e ti ca l a n
en ei ther B or . C ex i s t

di sj un ct i ve T he sub
T h e ,

d .
.

s u mpt i o n t h e n d e n i e s t h e di sj un ct i v e m e mb er s con t a i n e d in t h e co n

ex i s t A . n d
s e q ue n t or p o st e r i or cl a use o f t h e s u mpt i on B u t n ei ther B n or C
th en t h e i n fer en ce is d r a wn in t h e con cl usi on t h a t t he
.

r e a son
g i v e n in t h e a n t e ce d e n t or
p r i or cl a u s e o f t h e s u m t i on mu s t

like wi se b e d en i e d T her ef or e A oes n ot ex i s t F or ex a mpl e .

p
d .
2

d
If ma n be not a mor a lly r esp on si ble bei n g, he mus t wa n t either the p ower of r ecogn iz ing

d
mor a l goo ( as a n i n tell igen t a gen t ) or the p ower of willin g it ( a s a fr ee a gen t) ,
.

B ut ma n wa n ts n either the p ower of r ecogn iz i n g mor a l goo ( as a n in telligen t a gent ) , nor

the p ower f
o willin g i t ( a s a f r ee a gen t)
T her efor e, ma n is mor a lly r esp ons ible bein g:

dd
a

hypot h eti co di sj un ct i ve syll ogi sm is c all e the ilemma or

A
dd
-
n

h or n e s y llog i s m in t he b r o a d er a cc ept a ti on of

d e t er m emma cer a ti n u s cor n u tu s s e s llo

D ig
f
eS f th t h
n
( i
on S
l e
y
y p mt
, , .

W
fw S y ll g m
dd
o e c S u n c'

e
f J
g i s mu s
) e mus t n o t h o w e v er c on fo u n d t h e .
, ,
o 1s .

cor n u t us an cr oco i li n u s of t he an men t s W1th

o ur hypoth eti co di sj u ct v e s - n i yll i f o
g m s . T he or w er e s ophi sms
mer
of a a r ti c ul a r ki n d whi ch w e h er ea ft er t o con s id e r ; t he l a t t er
p ,
ar e

1 K r ug L og ik, ,87 ED [ C on tr a , see . . 257 . A l dd d

r ich , Ru imen t a L ogi cce , 0. iv3, p
. .

T h a t t h e D ilem
d
T r ox l er , L og ik , ii p 103 n * . . . 107 , O x fo r , 1 852 . P la tn er , P hilosop his che
ma is a n eg a t ive in uction , see a llis , L og ica , W A p hor ismen , i 5 5 83 , p . .

L i ii c 1 9 , p 218 C f F r ies , L og ik, 5 60, p 2 Kr u l . ci t

- ED
g, oc
. . . . . . . . .

32
 2 50 L O GI C L E C T XV I I I
dt
. .

d
is a re
g u a r l an

lcgit ima t e
fo r m of r e a so n i n g I n r eg ar d t o t he .

a
pp li ca t i o n o f t he e r m s it is c a ll e d t h e cor n u tu s o r h or n e s
y lla
, ,

i s m b e ca use in t he s um t i o n t h e di sj un c t i v e me mb e r s o f t h e co n
g p

s e ue n t a e o
q pp o se d li ke rh o r n s t o t h e a s se r t i o n of t h e a d v e r s a y
; r

with t h e s e we t h r ow it fr o m on e s id e t o t he ot h er in t h e s ub sump
,

ti on ; in o r d er t o t oss it a l t og e t h er a w a y in t he con cl u si on I f t he .

d
disj un ct i o ha s on ly t wo memb e r s t he syll og i sm is th en ca ll e d a

d ou ble s ump ti on
n

i lemma ( bi cor n i s ) in t he s t r i ct a n r o er s i n i ca t i o n li t e a lly

p p g
O f t hi s t h e e x a mpl e pr ev i ou sly g i v e n is a n i
.
,

d ,
r

d
s t a n ce I f it h as t h r e e fo ur o r v e me mb er s it is ca ll e d tr i lemma
.
, , ,

r i cor n is ) , tetr a lemma i cor n is ) , p en ta lemma

( t ( gu a r
( gu i n
g u ecor ni s
)
if mo r e t h a n fo ur it
h o w e v e r usua lly ca ll e d p oly lemma ( multi
, is, ,

B n t h e l o o s er s i n i ca t i on o f t h e w or d D i lemma is a
cor n i s
) u t i .
g , ,

en e i c e x pr es s i o n for a th 1
g r
y o r a ll o f es e n .

C on s id er e d in i t sel f; t he hy po th e t i co di sj un cti v e syll og i s m is n o t -

t o b e r ej e ct e d fo r in thi s for m o f r ea son i n g w e ,

d
R l f
u es ift i g
ca n co n cl u d e with cog en cy pr ov id e d w e a tt e n d
or s n a

D il mm
,

d d
p p ro ose e a.
t o t h e l a w s a l r e a dy g i ve n in r e g a r d t o t he hy po
th eti ca l a n di sj un ct i v e s yll og i sms I t is n ot h o w e v e r t o b e e .
, ,

n i e d t h a t thi s ki n d o f s yll o i s m is v er y e a s ily a b u s e d fo r t h e

,

o f d e ce i v i n
g th
n
g
g
r o u h a t r e a ch er o us a
, pp e a r a n c e o f solidity a n

t er r i fyi g a t i mo r o us a d v e r s a r y b y it s h o r n e d a spe ct
u
p p r os e

f om

I n t h e s ift i n g .
,
d r

of a r o os e d dil e mma w e o u ht t h er e for e t o l o ok cl o s e ly a t t he

p p g , , ,

Wh eth er a v er it ab l e con se quen ce

t h r e e fo ll o w i n g pa r ti cul a r s
s ub s i s t s b e tw ee n t h e a n t e ce d e n t a n con s e qu e n t o f t he s umpt i o n ;

Wh eth e r t he opposi t i on in t he con seq ue n t is th or oug h g o i n g a

d d
d
- n

v a lid ; a n Wh e t h er in t he s ub sumpti on t he di sj un ct iv e me m
,

b er s a r e l e g i t i ma t e ly s ub l a t e d F or t h e e x a mpl e of a dil e mma .

whi ch v i ol a t es th es e c on di t i o s t a ke t he foll o wi n g n ,

If vir t ue wer e a ha bit wor th a cqui r i n g, it mus t ins ur e either p ower , or wea lth, or honor ,
or p lea s ur e ;
B ut vi r tue ins ur es non e o f thes e ;

T her ef or e, vir t e u is n ot a ha bit wor th a tta in in g .

i n fer en ce in g en er a l is i n va lid : for a t hi n g ma v

d
H er e T he

d
b e w o t h a cq ui i n g t h o u h it d o e s n o t s ecur e a n y o f t h os e a v a t a
r r n
g ,

g es e n ume r a t e T h e di sj u n ct i on is i n c o m
.

pl e t e ; fo r t h e e a e r r

o th e r o o d s whi ch v i r t ue i n s ur e s th ou h it ma t i s ur e t h o s e
g g y n o
,
n

h e e oppo se d
d
T h e s ub s umpt i on is a l so v i ci ous ; for v i r t u e h a s
r .

fr e q ue n t ly ob t a i n e for it s possessor s t h e v er y a d v a n t a g e s h e r e
d e i er
n
2

1 K ru
g , loc cit . A n m ,2 . .
E D .
[ C f K eck
. 2 K r ug , L og ik, 5 87 . A n m . 3 , p 28 1
. .

er man n , O p er a , t i pp 2 68 , . . . E D .
a r . X V I II .
L 0G 1 c 251

Be fo r e l e a v in g thi s . sub ec j t ,it ma y b e pr oper t o ma ke t w o o b s er

~

v a t io n s . T h e r s t of t h e s e is, t h a t t h o ug h it h a s
d t h a t C a t eg or i ca l S yll og i s ms a r e g ov
d d
T h e w h ol e O f the b ee n st a t e

t d
] gw l
e r n e d b y t h e l a w s of I d e n t i t y a n
? a
C o n t a ic r

l d dM id d d
l d

d
t ty
i C t on ra i c i on

m
,

ti h t i j ti yll i d
,

t D S
dC
u e g s
e
v o s a v
E x c u e o n a e n
s n c ,
r
g o e r n e

R ea so n anb y t h e la w of E x cl ud e d M iddl e a n t h a t H y po
ouse
,

d
are
?
m
en h p ti
th e ti ca l
O
S yll og i s ms a r e g ov er n e d b y t he l a w
er a ve

h f m f y ll
ea c or o s o
o f Re a so n an C on seque n t t h s s t a t e men t ,
i

is n ot h o w ev e r t o b e un d er st o o d a s if in t h e s e
, , ,

s e v e a l cl a ss e s of s yll o i s m
r o o t h e r l a w w e r e t o b e fo un d in
g ,
n

O pe r a t i o n e x ce t th a t b w hi h t h i e u li a f r m is d e t e r mi n e d
p y c e r
p c r o .

S uch a s upposi t i on w o uld b e a l t og e t h e r er r o n eo us fo r in a ll o f t h e s e ,

di ffer en t ki n d s of syll og i sm b e sid e s t he la w b y whi ch ea ch cl a ss is

p i
r n ci a lly r e u l a t e d a n
p g f d ,

r o m whi ch it ob t a i n s it s di s t i n ct i v e ch a r
,

d
a ct e r a ll t he o t h e r s co n t r i b u t e t h o u h in a l e s s ob t r us i v e ma n n er t o
g , ,

T hi i ll t t d
1 I
s

C t g i l
. n
a ll o w a n

a e
t o n e ce s s it a t e t h e pr o ce s s
th oug h t he l a w s of I d en tity a n C o n t r a di ct i on
us r a e

or ca
a r e t he l a w s w hr ch r e e ml n e n t l
T h us

r e ul a t e t h e
d .
,

S y ll gi m p y g

d d
o s s.

C a t eg or i ca l S yll og i sm still with o ut t h e l a w s ,

of E x cl ud e d M iddl e a n Rea s on a n C on s e qu e n t a ll i n fe e n ce in
, ,
r

th es e syll og i sms w ould b e i mpo ss ib l e T h us th oug h t h e la w of

d
I d e t i t y a ffor d s t h e b a si s o f a ll a f r ma ti ve a n t he l a w o f C o n t r a
n
.

, d
,

a f r ma t i on a n
d
d
i cti on t he b asi s of a ll n eg at iv e syll og i sms st ill it is t h e la w of

d
E x cl ud e d M i le w hich l eg i t i ma t e s t he i mpli ca t i o n t h a t b e s id es
n e g a t i o n th e r e is n o ot h e r

i b l u a li t y o f r e di
, ,

, ,

p oss , e
q p
ca t i o n I n li ke ma n n e r n o i fe r en ce in c a t eg o i ca l r e a so n i n g co u ld
.

b e d a w n w e r e w e t o e x cl ud e t h e d e t er mi n a t i on of Re a so n a n
C o n s e q ue n t
r ,
,

F or w e o n ly in d e d u ct i v e r e a s o n i n g co n cl ud e o f a
.
n r

d
, ,

a r t w h a t w e a ss ume o f a wh o l e i n a s mu ch a s w e t hi n k t he wh ol e a s
p ,

t he r e a so n t h e con di t i on

q
,

a s a co n se u e n t is d e t e r mi n e d ; a n
t h e a n t e ce d e n t

,
w
b y w hi ch t he pa r t
,

e o n ly in i n d uct i v e r ea s on d ,

,
,

in g co n cl ud e o f t he wh ol e wh a t w e a ss ume of a ll t he pa r t s i a s mu ch
, ,
n

a s w e t hi n k a ll t h e p a r ts a s t h e r e a s o n t h e co n di i
t o n t he a n t e , ,

ce d e n t b y whi ch t he w h ol e a s a con s e qu e n t is d e t e r mi n e d
, , In , .

T h l w f Id e

m mth
t ity
a
p o i n t o f fa ct l og i c a lly o r for ma lly t h e l a w o f
,

I d e t i t y a n t h e l a w of Reas o n a n C o n s e q ue n t
o en n d ,

d ,

d t he la w of I d en t i t y con st i tut es on ly t he la w of
f m ny t h
in it s a f ma t i v e fo r m a r e a t b o tt o m t h e sa me ;
or a e sa e
r ,

d
th t a f R o ea son an

C on s e
q t uen

d
.

Re a son a n C o n se q ue n t t he t w o r e l a ti v es ,

b e i n g con ce i v e d s i mul t a n eo usly th a t is a s s ubj e ct a n

t h e l a w o f Rea son a n d
C o se qu e t c o n s ti t ut es on ly t h e la w o f
I d en tity t h e t w o r e l a ti v es b e i n g c on ce i v e d in se q uen ce th a t is a s
p r e dic a t e ;

n
,

n
,

, , ,
252 L O GI C L E C T XV I I I

d d d
. .

an t ec ed en t an c on se qu en t 1
. A n as t h e la w Rea son a n C on
of

se
q ue n t , in it s po s t v e fo r m, is o n y t a t
ii l h of I d e n t i t y in mo v e me n t
;
s o, in it s n eg a t i v e fo r m, it is o n ly t h a t o f C o n t r a di ct i o n in mo v eme n t .

In D isj un ct i ve g h S yll og i s ms ,
o u h t he la w o f E
g a c l
a n,
u i
d e d t x

M iddl e b e t he pr i n ci pl e whi ch b es t o ws o n t h e m
2 I D ij ti S y]
th ei r eculi ar for m s t ill th e s e s yll o i s ms a r e n ot
. n s un c ve

m p g ,

d d
I g Oi s s.
i n d epe n d en t of t he l a w s of I d en t it y of C on t r a ,

d
di cti on a n o f Re a s on a n C on se q uen t T he la w of E x cl ud e d
,
.

M iddl e ca n n o t b e c o n ce i v e d a pa r t fr o m t he l a w s of I d e n t i t y a n
d
d
C o n t a di ct i o n ; t h es e it i mpli e s a n with out t he pr i n cipl e of Re a son
r , ,

an

d
C o n se q uen t n o mo v eme n t f o m t he con di t i o n t o t he con di r
,

t ion e t h a t is fr om t he a f r ma t i o n or n eg a ti o n of on e con t r a di ct or y
, ,

t o t h e a f r ma t i o n o r n eg a t i on o f t he o th er w o uld b e pos s ib l e , .

F i n a lly in H ypot h e tic a l S yll og i sms th oug h t he l a w o f Reason

,

an d
C o n s e q ue n t b e t h e pr o mi n e n t a n di sti n o
,

d
d
3 I H y p th ti l
.

S y ll g i m o
n

s s.
ti v e pr i n ci pl e s t ill t h e l a w s of I d e n t i t y C on t r a
o e ca
, ,

di ct i o n a n E x cl ud e d M iddl e a r e a l so t h er e a t
,

C o n s t u ct i v e a r ,
n d
Wor k T he la w of I d e n t ity a ffor d s t h e con di t i on of A f r ma t i v e or
t h e l a w o f C o t r a di ct i on of N eg a t i v e o r D e s t r uo
tiv e H ypot h e t i ca l s ; whil e t he la w o f E x cl ud e d M iddl e li mi t s t h e
n

r ea s o n i t t h ese t w o mo d e s a l o n e

o
g n .

T he s e co n d ob se r v a t i on I h a v e t o make is on e s ugg e st e d b y a ,

g d
di f cul t y whi ch h a s b e en p opo se d t o me in r

dt th t ei t h er fr om wh ol e t o ar t or fr om t he ar t s t o
D if lt y i
r e a r d t o t h e d oct r i n e th a t a ll r e a s o n i n
cu n re ar
g g is ,
to th e oc r i n e , a

a ll i g i either
r ea s o n n s p p ,

t h e wh ol e T he di f cul t y whi ch co uld o n ly

d
f m wh l t p t
ro o e o ar or .
,

t d
f m th P
ro
i
th
e ar s
h a v e
p r e
0
s e n t e de
it se lf t o a n a c u t e a n o b s e v a n t r

d
Wh l o e, b o vi a e
a v e me mu ch s a t i s fa ct i o n t o h e a r
.

1 n t ell e ct r t
g ,

r o os e d ; a n I h ll h till r e a t er r a t i ca t i o if I s h o u ld
p p s a a v e s g g n,

b e a b l e t o r e mov e it b y s h o wi n g in wh a t sen s e t h e d oct r i n e

.
,

a d v a n ce d is t o b e u n d e r s t o o d I t w a s t o thi s
d d
e f fe c t z . I n C at e
or i ca l S yll o i s ms d e d u ct i v e a n i n d u cti ve i n t en s i v e a n ex t en
g g , ,

s i v e t h e r ea s o n i n

p
t i
,

a r t s t o t he wh o l e

l t i
g is

a
m
n t h e

i
r e fo

l
r e in

i
r e
, g ar

h
d d
a n i fe s t ly fr o m wh o l e t o pa r t o r fr o m t he

,
t o

w
t h e d o ct r i n e in

o di f c ul t y
,
,

q u e s o a s r e n a v
, e t o c a t e
g o r c a r e a so n n
g t er e a s n ,
.

But t hi s w a s n ot t he ca s e in r e g a r d t o H y po t h e ti ca l S yll og i sms

T h e se a e g o v er n e d b y t h e l a w of Rea s o n a n
r C on s e que t a n it
dd n , d .

d
d oe s n o t a ppe a r h ow t he a n t ece d e n t a n c on se quen t s t a n d t o e a ch

d
o t h e r in t h e r e l a t i on o f wh o l e a n ar t
p .

a s wh o l e a n p
n

d
I n sh o w i g h o w t he r e a so n a n t he con s equen t a r e t o b e v i e w e d
a r t it is n e c e ss a r y r st t o r e e a t th a t t he r e as on
, p , , ,

1 [ C ompa r e K appen , D a r stellun g dW d

es esen s er P hilosop hie, p 1 02 et . s eq . , N ii r n b er g ,
L E C T XV I II L O GIC 25 3

d
.
. .

or c e d e n t mea n s t he con i ti on th a t is t he c ompl emen t of a ll

an te , , ,

El
T hi d s

er e
l ty
wi t h out whi ch s o met hi n g el s e wo uld n ot b e ;
ddW th m is the compl e ment of all t h at is et er min e d t o
if an
1
t he c on se q u e t me a n s t h e con i ti on e
cu

re
00n '
d th at n d
d d ,

,
t H y p th t
o l y ll
o e i ca s o
b b t h x 1 s t e n ce o f s o me t h i n l Y u

dt d
e e e g e s e o
gi m s s. y .

dd
must fu t h e r b e a r l n mi n d th a t w e h a v e n o t h i n g
A t n e ce C en an on r ,

eq ua l t
d d d r ea son a n c on s e uen t e x ce t 1 11 s o far a s t h e y
o wi t h t hi n g s s t a n di n g in t h e r e l a t i o n o f
seq fh eh are ?
to
C ont C
i i on a n on r

tim ed q p ,

d d
.

a r e th o ug h t t o s t a n d in th a t r e l a t i on ; it is wi t h

d
t h e r a ti o cog n os cen i n o t w i t h t h e r a ti o es sen i t h a t we h a v e t o , ,

d
o in L o g i c ; t he f r me r is i fa ct a l on e pr o per ly d e n o mi n a t e d
o ,
n ,

dj
con s e u en t w hil e t h e l a t t e o u ht t o b e di st i n ui sh e d

d d
r ea s on a n
q g g, r

as ca u s e a n e ect . T he ra ti o es s en i, or t h e la w of C a us e an

E ffect ,
n os cen i o r o f t he di d d
ca n

p
ly b e t h o ug h t u n er t h e or m of t he r a ti o cog
i
, p
n ee

n ci l e o f Re a s o n a n
on

C on s e q ue n t b ut a s t h e
r
d
df

d
t wo a e ot con v e r t i b l e i a s mu c h a s t h e o n e is fa r mo e e x t e n s i v e
r n ,
n r

th a n t h e ot h e r it is pr ope t o di s t i g ui s h t h e m a n t h er efo r e it is
, r n , , ,

d d
t o b e r e co ll e ct e d th a t L o g i c is a l o n e c o n v e r s a n t wi t h t h e r a ti o co
, g
n os cen i or t h e l a w o f Re a son a n
, C on s equ e n t a s a l on e con ver s a n t ,

wi t h t he for m o f th o ug ht .

T hi s b e i n g un d er st o od if t h e r e a son b e con ce i v e d a s t h a t whi ch ,

con di t i o s in o t h er w o r d s a s t h a t w hi c h co n n , ,

d
H th
con iti
e n ce

m t
on
t a i n s t h e n e c e ss i t y of t h e e x i st e n ce o f t h e con
e r ea s on or

us c on
s e q u e n t ; it is e v id e n t t h a t it is c o n ce i v e d a s
t i th
a n t
e c on s e
q ue n .

co n t a i n i n t h e co n s e u en t F i t h r st
g q o n e . r,

l a ce a r e a son is on lY a r e a s o n if it b e a s ufci en t r ea so n t h a t is if
7 a 7

it compr i se a ll t he con dit i o n s t h a t is a ll t h a t n e cessi t a t es t he e x i st , ,

o f t h e co n se q ue n t ; fo r if a ll t he con di t i o n s o f a n y t hi n
g
d
e n ce , ar e

r e s e n t t h a t t hi n m u s t n e cess a ily e x i s t s i n ce if it t i t
p , g o n o e x s r , , ,

t h e n s o me co n di t i o n o f it s e i s t e n ce mus t h a v e b e e n w a n t i g t h a t x n ,

is t h e e w a s n o t a s uf ci e n t r e a so n o f it s e x i s t e n ce w hi ch is co n
,
r ,

t a r y t o t h e s uppos i t i o n
r I n t he se co n d pl a ce if t h e r e a so n t h e .
, ,

s uf ci e t r ea s o n b e co n ce i v e d a s co mp i s i n g a ll t h e co n di t i o n s o f
n , r

t h e e i s t e n ce o f t h e co se q u e n t it mu s t b e co ce i v e d a s co mp i s i g
x n , n r n

t h e co s e q u e t t o g e t h e r ; fo if t he co s e q u e n t b e s uppo se d t o c o n
n n r n

t a i n in it a n y on e pa r t n o t co n ce i v e d a s co t a i e d i t he r e a s o it n n n n,

ma y co n t a i n t wo t h e e o r a y n u mb e r of pa t s e qua lly u co t a i e d
,
r ,
n r n n n

in t he r e a s o n con s e q ue t ly it ma y b e co n ce i v e d a s a l t o g e t h e r um
,
n

c on t a i n e d in t h e r ea so n But t hi s is t o suppose t h a t it ha s n o .

r e a so n o ,
r

d
t h a t it is n o t a con s q u e t ; whi ch a g a i n is co t a y t o e n n r r

t h e h y po t h e s i s
d dd
T h e l a w o f Re a so n a . C o s e q ue n t o o f t h e n n ,
r

C o n di t i o a t he C n i t i o e is o ly in fa ct a o t h er e p s i o
n on n , n n x re s n

o f A i s t o t l e s l a w th a t t h e wh o l e is n e ce s s a r ily con ce i v e d a s pr i or

r ,
25 4 L O GI C LEC T . XV I II .

t o t he pa r t , totum p a r te p r i us es s e, n eces se es t
}
. . I t is, h owever ,

mo r e a c c ur a t e ; fo r A it l
r s ot e s

la w is e i t h e r

d i mb i g u o us . I n a ccur a t e , for it is
T he L a w of Reas on n a ccur a t e . or a
an C on s eq ue n t o n ly

ano th er i ex f r e ss on o
h no mor e
a t t h e wh ol e is n e ce s s a r ily t r ue t o sa y t
p
r i or in t h e or d e r of t h o u ht t o t h e t t h
A i t tlr s o l w th te s

p a a g p a r s an ,

d
t o s a y t h at t h e p a r t s a r e n e ce s s a ily p i or in t h e
i dp i
t h Wh le i o e s n ecessa r r

W
d
il y
o r d e r o f t h o ug ht t o t h e wh ol e h ol e a
r co n c e ve as r or
. n
t th p t
o e ar
a t s a e r e l a t i ve s a n a s s u ch a r e n e ces s a r ily
.

p r r ,

i d
d
A i t tl s l w
r s o iti e

a cr
co ex i st e n t in t h o u ht B u t whil h i m li
c z e . g e e a c
p es .

t he o t h e r a n t h e n ot i o n o f e a ch n e ce s si t a t e s ,

t h e n o ti on of t h e o t h e r w e ma y it is e v id e n t v i e w e i t h er in , , , ,

Wh l d
th ought a s t he con di t i on i n g or a n t e ce d e n t or a s , ,

d
P t
t h e co n di t i o n e d o r co n se q ue n t T h us o n t h e o n e
o e an ar s r e

i w d
m y b
.
,
p t i ly

d
s ec ve a e
h d w m d t h wh l t h i
d
a e a r e a r e e a s
v e ie t h g h t n
n
you g o e, p or a n r

d et er mi n i n g n o t i on a s con t a i n i n g t he pa r t s a n
d
e i th erth as i e c on
, ,

d d
ti
t he p a r t s a s t h e post e r i or a n d e t er mi n e d n o ti on
i g
on n th or as e con
,

d
iti on e
a s c o n t a i n e d b y t he wh o l e O n t he o t h e r h a n d
.

.
,

d d
w e m a y r eg a r d t h e pa r t s a s t h e pr i or a n d e t e r mi n i n g n o t i o n a s co n ,

s t it ut in g t h e w h o l e a n t h e w h o l e a s t h e po s t e r i o r a n
,
d et er min e d
n o t i o n a s co n s t i t ut e d b y t h e I n t h e fo r me r c a se t h e w h ol e is
2
a ts
, p r .
,

th o ug h t a s t he e a s on t he p ar t s a r e t h o ugh t a s t h e co n se quen t ; in
r ,

t he l a t t er t he pa r t s a r e t h o ug h t a s t h e r e a son t h e w h ol e is t h o ug h t a s
, ,

t he c o n se qu e n t N o w in so fa r a s t h e w h ol e is th o ug ht a s t he r e a
.
,

c e iv e d
s on t h e r e w ill b e n o di fcul t y in a d mi t ti n g th a t t h e r e a s on is c on
,

a s co n t a i n i n
g t h e
p ar t s B u t it m a y b e a ske h o w ca n t h e . d,

a r t s wh e n t h o ug ht a s t he r e a son b e s a id t o c on t a i n t h e wh o l e ?
p , ,

T o thi s t he a n s w er is e a s y A ll t h e pa r t s con t a i n t he wh o l e j ust a s .

,

much a s t h e w h ol e con t a i n s a ll t he pa r t s O bj e ct i v e ly co sid e r e d

d
. n ,

t h e wh o l e d o e s n o t c on t a i n a ll t h e pa r t s n o r

,
o a ll t h e p a r t s co n

t a i n t he w h ol e for t he w h ol e a n a ll t he pa t s a r e p e ci sely e q uiva

l en t a b sol ut e ly id e n t i ca l But s ubj e ct i ve ly con sid e ed t h a t is
d ,

r r

r
,
.
, , ,

a s me r e th o ug ht s w e ma y e i t h e r t hi n k t h e w h o l e by a ll t h e pa r t s
, ,

o r t hi n k a ll t he pa r t s b y t h e w h o l e I f w e t hi n k a l l t h e pa r t s by .

t h e wh o l e w e s ub or di n a t e t he n o t i o n o f t he pa r t s t o t h e n o t i on of
,

d
d
d
1 M eta p hy s ics , iv 11 A r ist otle , h owever , gar e a s coex te n sive w it h t h a t g iven in th e

d
. .

d dm
T h e w h ol e , w h en t ex t S ee t h e n ex t n o te E D
a l l ow s a oub le r e l a t i on .
. .
.

d d d
2 T h is i s s ub s t a n t ia ll y p r esse
ex by A r is
c on ce i ve a s a ct ua l ly con s tit ute ,
ust be

d
l a tt er t o t le , l w h o se ist in ct i o n is a ppl ica b le
p r i o r t o t he pa r t s ; fo r t h e
r eg a r e as . e , .

on l y e x is t a s p a r ts i n r e l a t i on t o th e w h ol e . e it h e r
K d
dt o the or er
'
of t h oug h t or t o t h a t of

ddd
P o t en t ia l ly , h o we ver , t h e p a r t s ma y b e r e ex ist en ce .
at yeve a w ( i e , r eg a r e a s a
ar

. .

d d
e mig h t b e mpl e t e sy s t e m) , t h e w h o l e is a ct u a ll y , t h e

dK d d d
g a r e as p r i o r ; f o r t h e w h o l co

est r o y e a s a s y s t e m w it h out t h e e st r uct i o n

d
p a r t s a re o n ly p ot en t ia l l y , ex ist en t ; w h il e , on

d
W
d d d 8 0p
'
o f t h e pa r ts h e r e t h e w h ole is n ot co n
. t he ot h e r ha n ,
a r u (i . e . , r eg a r e

d
c ei ve as a ct ua l l y co n s t it ute , t h is r e l a t i on is as is o r g a n iz e e le me n t s ) , t h e p a r ts ex ist a c

r everse . T hus l
A r ist ot e s r ule ma y be re t ua ll y , t h e wh o l e o n ly p ot en t ia l l y . E D .
L p crf .
XV I I I . L 0G I c 2 55

t he w h ol e ; th a t is we c on c ei ve t he par t s t o ex i st a s we con c ei v e
, ,

t h e i e i s t e c e g i v en t h r o ug h t h e e x i st e n ce of t h e wh ol e c o t a i i g
r x n n n n

th e m I f w e t hi n k t he wh ol e b y a ll t he pa r t s w e su b or din a t e t h e
.
,

n o t i on o f t he wh o l e t o t h e n o t i o n of t h e p a r t s th a t is w e co n ce i ve ,

t he wh o l e t o e i s t a s w e con c e i v e it s e x i s t e n ce g i v e n t h r o ug h t he
x ,

e i s t e n ce o f t h e pa t s whi ch co n s t i t ut e it
x N o w in t h e o n e ca s e
r .
, ,

w e thi k t h e Wh o l e a s co n di t i o i g o r co mpr i s i n g t he pa r t s in t h e
n n n ,

o t h e r t h e p a r t s a s co di t i o n i n g or c o mpr i s i n g t h e wh o l e
,
n I n t he .

for me r ca se t h e pa r t s a r e th o ug ht t o ex i s t b e ca use t h e i r w h ol e
, ,

e i st s
x i n t h e l a t t er t h e wh ol e is th o ug ht t o e x i st b e c a us e it s p a rt s
, ,

e x i st I n e i t h er c a s e t he pr i o o r d e t er mi i n g n o ti on is th o ug ht t o
.
,
r n

c o m r i se o r t o con t a i n t h e t i d t
p po s e r o r o r e e r

dm t th a w h an d ev er y sci en ce is t r ue 0IY a s a ll 1t S sev

mi n e d T o a pply t hi s d oct r i n e : O n t he on e
A pp l i t i caf t hi on O s
.

f th d
oc ne o e s

d
tion o if l ty e cu

i
r e v ous l t t e r a l r ul e s a r e t r u e ; in t hi s i n s t a n ce t h e s ci e n c e
s a e
p y ,

is c on ce i v e d a s t h e d e t e r mi n e d n o t i o n t h a t is , ,

a s c on t a i n e d in t h e a gg r eg a t e o f it s con s t i t ue n t r u l es O n t he .

o t h e r h a n d e a ch r u l e o f a n y s ci e n ce is t r ue o n ly a s t h e s ci e n ce
,

its elf is t r ue in thi s i n st a n ce t he r ul e is con ce i v e d a s t he d e t er .

-

mi n e d n o ti on t h a t is a s con t a i n e d in t he wh ol e sci e n ce T h us
, , .
,

e v er y s i n g l e s yll og i sm ob t a i n s it s l og i ca l l e i t i ma cy b e ca u s e it is a

g ,

c on s e qu e n t of t he d oct r i n e of s yll og i sm t he l a t t er is t h er efor e

t he r e a so o f ea ch s e v e r a l s yll o i s m a n
n
g t h e w h o l
L og i c is a b oli s h e d if e a ch s ev e r a l s yll og i s m c o n for me d t o t hi s o c
e s c i e n ce o f , d ,

d
,

, ,

t r i n e b e n o t v a lid
, O n t he o t h er h a n d t h e sci e n ce of L og i c a s a
.
, ,

a r e n e ce s s a r y ; a n d
Wh ol e is o n ly n e c es sa r y i n a smu ch a s it s compl e me n t a r y d o ctr i n es
,

th ese a r e on ly n e c ess a r y i n a s mu ch a s th ei r i n di
v id u a l a ppli ca ti on s a r e n e ce ss a r y ; if L o i c th e r e fo r e a s a w h ol e b e
g , , ,

d d
n o t n e c e s s a y t h e n e c e s s i t y of t h e
r , p a r t s whi ch c o n s t i t ut e d e t er

mi n e a n co mpr e h e n d th a t w h ol e is sub v er t e d I n on e r e l a t i on
, ,
,

d
,

th er efor e r e a s on a n con se que t a r e a s t he wh ol e a n a con t a i n e d

p ,
,

a r t in a n o t h er a s a ll t h e p a r t s a n

Wh ol e But in b ot h r el a ti on s t h e r e a s on
.
t h
,
e c on st i t u t e d o r com r i s e

t h e d et e r mi n i n g n o t i on
p
n

d -
d
,

is t h ou ht a s i n v ol vi n in it t he e x i s t e n ce of t he con s e ue n t or
g g , q
d e t e mi n e d n ot i on T h us in on e poi n t of v i e w t h e g en us is t he
r .
, ,

d et e mi n i g n ot i on or r e a son o ut of whi ch a r e e v ol ved a s con se

q
r

ue t s t h e spe ci es a n
n ,
n

i
,

d
n di v id ua l ; in a n o t h er t h e i di v id u a l is t h e
,

,
n
,

d et er mi n i n g n ot i on or r e a son o ut of whi ch a s co n se quen t s a r e

e v o l v e d t h e spe ci e s a n g e n us I n li ke ma n n e r if w e d e
g a r d t he
,
1
.
,

,
r
,

s ubj e ct a s th a t in whi ch t h e a tt r i b ut es i n h er e in thi s v i e w t he ,

s ubj ect is t h e r e a son th a t is t h e Wh ol e of whi ch t h e a t t r i b ut es a r e

, , ,

d W H amilton
d d
himself, D iscuss ions , p
1 T his i s ex p r essl y a ll ow e b y A r ist o tl e , . . 1 73 .

M et a p h iv . 25 , a n is q u ote fr om h im b y S i r E D .
2 56 L O G I C . L EC T . XV I I I .

a p a r t ; wh er ea s if we r eg ar d t he a t t r ib ut e s a s t he mo d e s t h r ough
whi ch a l on e t he subj e ct ca n e x i s t in t hi s v i e w t he a t t r ib ut e s a r e
,

t he r eas o n t h a t is t h e w h o l e o f w hi ch t he s ubj ect is a pa t

d
, , , In a r .

Wor d wh a t e ve r w e t hin k a s co n di t i o n e d w e t hi n k a s co t a i n e b y
, ,
n

s o me t hi n g e l s e t h a t i s e ith e r a s a pa r t o r a s a c on s t it ut e d wh o l e ;
, , ,

wh a t e ve r w e thi n k a s co n dit i o n i n g we thi n k e i t h er a s a con t a i i n g

, n

wh ol e o r as a s um o f c on st i t ut i n g pa r t s Wh a t th er efor e t he
,
.
, ,

a n o t i o n c on c e i ve d a s c o n di t i o n i n g a n ,
d
s umpt i o n o f a n hy pot he t i ca l s yll og i s m d e n o t es is s i mply t hi s : I f A

th er e fo e a s i n v ol vi g B
,
,

r , n
,

e x i s t t h e n B a l s o is n e c essa r ily co n ce i v e d t o e x i s t i n a s much a s it is

, ,

c on ce i v e d a s fully con di t i on e d b y o r a s i n v ol ve d in A I a m a fr a id
, , .

th a t wh a t I h a ve n o w s a id ma y n ot b e fou d t o h a v e r emov e d t he

u t
,

a sol u ti on of t h e ii c ul td
dif culty b ut if it sug g est t o y ou a t r a in of r e ecti on whi ch ma y l e a
b y u r o wn e ffo r t it w ill h a v e
n

d
y o o y y o ,

d on e b e tt e r .

S o much for H ypoth e tic o di sj un cti v e syll og i s ms t h e l as t of t he

-
,

four cl a s s e s d e t er mi n e d b y t he i n t e r n a l fo r m of r e a s on i n g I th es e . n

d
four s yll og i sms t h e C a t e g or i ca l t h e D i sj un cti v e t he H y pot h et
,

ic a l a n t h e H ypot h e t i co di sj un ct i v e a ll t h a t t h e y e x hib i t is con

,
-
,

d
,

d
t in g uish e dd
fo r ma b l e t o t he n e ce ss a r y l a w s o f th o ug h t a n t h e y a r e e a ch
f o m t he ot h er b y t h e i r e sse t i a l n a t u e ; for t h eir
r
,

n
is
r

s umpt io n s

d
as j u m en t s r e s e n t ch a a ct e r s fun d a me n t a lly di ffe r
r
g p ,

d
,

en t an
,
fr o m t he sumpt i on a s a g e n er a l r ul e the va lidity of sy llo
, ,

is ms r i mar ily a n r i n ci a lly d e e n d s

p p
g p p .
 LEC T U RE XI X .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y .

S E C T I O N II O F T H E
. P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

1 11 D O C T RI N E
. O F RE A S O N IN G S .

S YL L O G I S M S .
T H E IR D IV I S IO N S A C C O RD I N G T O E XT E RN A L
F O RM .

A . C O M P L E X, E P I C H E I RE M A AND S O RI T E S .

IN o ur t r e a tmen t of S yll og i sms, w e

h a v e hith er t o t aken n ot e on ly
o f t h e I n t er n a l or E ss e n ti a l F o r m o f Rea son ,
S y ll g i m th i
But b e s id es thi s i n t er n a l or e s sen ti a l fo r m
o s s, e r
in g
l F m
, ,
.

d
E t
x er n a or .

th er e is a n oth er a n E x t er n a l or A ccid en t a l ,

F or m ; a n a s th e fo r mer w as c o n t a i n e d in t h e r e ci r oca l r e l a t i on s

o f t h e con s t it ue n t pa r t s o f t h e s yll o i s m a s
g
p
e t e r mi n e d b
y t h e ,
d
n a t ur e o f t h e thi n ki n g s ubj e ct i t se lf; so t he l a tt er is con t a i n e d in t he

d d
o ut er e x pr ess i o n o r e n o u n ce me n t o f t h e s a me pa r ts wh er e b y t h e

t er ms a n pr oposi t i on s a r e v a r i o usly a ffect e d in r e spect of th ei r

,

n umb e r po s i t i on a n
, o r d e r o f con se cut i on
, T he v a r i eti es of S y l .

log is m a r i s i n g fr om th e i r e x t e r n a l for m ma y I thi n k b e con , ,

v e n ie n t l y r e d u c e d t o t he th r ee h ea d s e x pr ess e d in t h e foll owi n g

ar a r a h
p g p

l L XV I I I . th ei r E x t er n a l F or m
S yll og i s ms, in r es
pe ct of ,

a t h r e efo ld mo di ca t i o n
a d mit of F or .

m m

d d
P v p
W r e a t on ce E l m le
ar ' " ' '
h 1le h
.

as
p u re t e
y a p

dt
i on of m S y ll og i s

d
s s ao

c or in g an
o E C omp lete a n
x t er n a l R eg ula r s o a s qu a l i , , ,
a
e t h e y a r e e ith er C omp lex or I n com

, ,

p l ete or I
, r r eg u la r ; t h e t w o for me r o f th es e m o di ca ti on s

r e ar di t h n u mb er o f t h e i r r ts a s a t ly ith t o o
g g e n
p a
pp a r e n e er ,

ma y or t o o fe w ; t he l a st r eg a r di n g the i n ver t e d or d er in
n

whi ch th ese pa r t s ar e en oun c e d .

33
258 L O G I C .
I
L EC T . XI X .

A C o mp l e
. S y ll
o r d er ; a n

f
x
r o m t he si m l e f
o
l di vi si on s in t h e i r

r m of r e ason i n
I
r st of t h e s yll o gi sms whi ch v a r y
s

h
d
h a ll c on sid er th ese
,
.
,
s ev e r a

p o
g b y t e r
gi m s s.
i

a a r e n t co m l e x i t y
pp p .

But b e for e t ou chi n g o n t he v a r i e ti e s of syll og i sm a ffor d e d by

,

t h e i r a ppa r e n t c o mpl e x ity of c o mpo si t i on it ,

R l ti f S y ll
e a
ma y b e pr ope r t o pr e mi se a fe w w or d s in r e
on o o

i m h h

d
g s t s t o ea c o er .

a r d t o t h e r e l a ti o n of s yll o sms t o e a ch o t h e r
g ,
gi .

d
, ,

E v er y syll og i s m ma y b e c o n s id e r e d a s a b s o l ut e a n i d epe n d en t n ,

i n a smuch a s it a l wa ys c on t a i n s a complet e a n i n cl usi v e s er i es of

-

.
~

th ought But a syll ogi sm ma y a l s o st a n d t o oth e r s yll ogi sms in

.

s uch a r e l a ti on t h a t a l on wi t h t h s e cor r e l a ti v e s yll o i sms i t

g e , g- -
,

make s up a g r e a t er or l e sse r s e r i e s of th o ug ht s a ll h oldi n g t o e a ch

o t h e r t h e d e e n d e n c e of a n t ece d e n t a n
p c on s e que n t A n s u ch a d ,

. d
r e ci r oca l d e e n d e n c e of s yll og i s ms b e c o me s n e ce ss a r y wh e n on e
p p ,

com l e t e cer t a i n ty
p an wh ,
d
o r o th e r o f t h e pr e di ca t es o f t h e pr i n ci pa l s yll og i s m is d e s t i t ut e o f

e n t hi s c e r t a i n t y mus t b e e s t a b li s h e d

th r oug h on e o r mor e c or r e l a t i ve syll ogi sms A s yll og i sm v i e w e d

d
1
.
,

a s a n i s ol a t e d a n i n d epen d en t wh ol e is ca ll e d
d dig a M on osy llog ism (mon osy llogi smus ) t h a t is a ,

l t d
Cl a sses an es
, ,
f
t
i
fn m M y ll
5 17
s i n g l e r ea son i n g ; wh er e a s a s e i es of co r e l a ti v e
a on s O re a e 8 7

,
r r

d
O S . on os o

i m
s s yll og i s ms fo ll o w i n g e a ch o th er in t h e r e cipr o
g , ,

ca l r e l a ti on of a n t e c e d e n t a n c on s e ue n t i s
P ly y ll g m q ,

d
o s o xs or
ll d i sm m h t
,
P l ll (p y g g
l ll )
0

C hm
-
f R
n o i g c a e a
eas o n n
o s
y y og.
o s o i s u s t a .

is a mul t i pl e x o r compo sit e r e a s o n i n g a n ma y

, ,

like wi s e b e d en omin a t e d a C ha in of R ea s on i n g ( s er i es sy llog is ti ca ) .

d
S uc h a ch a i n such a ser i es ma y h o we ver h a v e such a n or d er o f
e pe n d e n ce t h a t e ith er e a ch s ucc ess i v e s yll o i sm is t he r e a so n of
, g
th a t whi ch pr ece d e d or t h e pr e ce di n g syll og i s m is t he r e a son of
, ,

T hi A
S y th tin
l y ti
s

e
d clu e a n a lytically or r egr essively ; in t he s econ d
th a t whi ch foll ows I n t he for mer ca se w e con
c.
na c an

s y n th e ti ca lly o r pr og r e ssiv e ly
d .

T h a t s yll og i sm .
.

.

,

in t h e s e i es whi ch c on t a i n s t h e r e a son i n g of t he pr e mi s e of a n o t h e r

y ll gi m
r

is ca ll e d a P r osy llog i s m (p r os g llog i s niu s ) ; a n d

,

P r os
th a t syll og i sm whi ch c on t a i n s the co n se q u e t of
o s . '
n

a n o th e r is ca ll e d a n E p i sy llog i s m ( ep i sg llog i s
E pi y l l g i m s o ,

d
s .

mu s ) E v er y C h a i n of Re a son i n g mu s t t h e e . ,
r

for e b e ma d e up b ot h of P r o syll og i sms a n of E pisy llog is ms

,

.

Wh en t he s er i e s i s compose d of mor e th a n t wo syll og i sms t he ,

an d
s a me s yll og i s m ma y l n di ffe r e n t r e l a ti on s b e a t o n ce a pr o syll og i s m

a n e pi s yll og i sm; a n
,

th a t r e ason i n g whi ch c on t a i n s t he p i ma r y d ,

1 E sser , L ogi k, 5 1 04 E D . .
2 K r ug , L og z k, 111 .
ED .
 L O G IC . 9

or high est r ea son is a l on e ex cl us i v ely a pr osyll og i sm; a s th a t r e a son-

.
x

in g w hi ch e n oun ces t he l a st or l o w e s t con se quen t is a l on e e x cl u - .

siv e l y a n e pi syll og i s m

a n t ece d e n t s a n con s e qu e n t s d
But thi s c o n c at e n a t i on of s yll og i s ms a s

ma y b e e i t h er ma n ife st or occul t
a cc or di n g a s t h e pl ur a li t y o f s yll og i s ms ma y e i t h e r b e o pe n ly
,

is
'
:
,
,

d ,

l ay e d or a s it ma a r on ly a s a s i n g l e s yll og i s m T h e poly
p y pp
a e .
.
,

s yll og i sm is th er efor e like wi se eith er ma n ife st or o cc ult T he

, ,
.

o cc u lt po lys yll og i sm wi t h whi ch a l on e w e a r e a t pr e se n t c on

d
:
,

c er n e d con s i s t s e it h er of pa r tly comple t e a n pa r t ly a bb r ev i a t e d

,

s yll og i s ms o r o f s yll og i s ms a ll e q ua lly a b b r e v i a t e d

,
- I n t h e for mer .

c a se t h er e e mer g es t he compl e x syll og i s m ca ll ed E p i cheir ema ; in

,

t he l a t t er t he c ompl ex syll ogi s m c a ll e d S or i tes O f t h ese in 1

.
,

th eir or d er .

il L XI X . A s yll ogism is n ow vu l g ar ly c a ll e d a n E p i cli ei

rema wh e n t o eit h er of t he t wo
P ar . L XI I . T he
r e mi se s, to b o th th e e i s a n n ex e d a
E p i ch e i r e ma . p or ,
r

r ea s o n for it s s uppor t . A s

B A ;
B ut C is B ; f or it is D ;
T her ef or e, C is a lso A 2
.

A ll vice is od ious ;
ma kes men sla ves ;
d
B ut a va r ice is a vice f or it
T her efor e, a va r i ce i s o ious .
3

In ill ust r ati on hi s pa r a g r aph it is t o b e ob ser ve d th a t t he

of t ,

E pi ch e i r e ma o r Rea son -r en d e r i n g S yll o g i s m , ,

E p li t i
x ca on .
is e i t h e r s i n g l e o r d oub l e a cco r di n g a s on e ,

or b o th o f t he pr e mi ses a r e fur n i s h e d wi t h a n a ux ili a r y r e a s on .

on d
T he s i n g l e e pi ch e i r e ma is e i t h e r a n e pi ch e i e ma of t h e r s t or s e c
o r d e r a c cor di n, g a s t h e a d sci t i t i ous
p pr o os i t i on b e l o n s t o t he
g
r

s u mpt i o n o r t o t h e s ub s umpt i on T h er e is lit t l e or n o thi n g r e qui

.

s i t e t o b e s t a t e d in r e a r d t o t hi s v a r i e t y o f com lex s yll o i s m, a s

g p g
it is ma n i fe st ly n ot hi g mor e t h an a r eg ul a r e pi syll og i sm with a n
n

a bb r e vi a t e d r o s yll og i sm i n t e r w ov e n T h e r e mi ht b e so methi n

p g g
.
.

1 E sser
, L og ilc, 104 ED [ C f Re usch ,
. . . 8 I n full ,
S y st ema L og icum, 5-578 , p 6 64 , I en ae ,
2 I n ful l
.

Wh at men sla ves is a vice

I
) But a va r i ce ma ke s men s la ves
H er efor e, a va r ice is a vice.
260 L O G I C . L E C T . XI X .

sa id t ouchi n g t he n a me whi ch a mon g t h e a n ci en t r h e t or i ci a n s wa s

, , ,

use d n o w in a st i ct e r n o w in a l o o s e r s ig n ica t io n T hi s h ow 1
r , , .
,

e v e r a s it h a s li tt l e i n t e e s t in a l o g i ca l po i n t o f v i e w I s h a ll n ot
,
r

d ,

d
tr oub l e y ou b y d et a ili n g ; a n ow p o ce e d t o a fa r mor e i mpor t a n t n r

an i n t er e s t i g subj ect t h e s e c on d v a r i e ty of c ompl e x s y ll o

n ,

g i sm s t h
,
e S or i t e s .

1T L XX . Wh en , on p i ci p l e o f a the
l l r e a s on i c ommon
n
g r n ,

d
t h a t t he a r t of a a r t is a r t of t h e
p p p a
P L XX T he
8
ar . .

wh ol e 0
we o n o t s t o p a t t h e s e co n
, d
d d
r it es .

r a d a t i on a t t he a r t o f t he hi h est
g or
p g ,

p ar t ,
an c on cl ud e th a t pa r t of t h e wh ol e a s A ll B i s a p a r t ,

o f the wh ole A ,
an a ll C is a p ar t of the p a r t B, ther ef or e a ll C
is a ls o a
p ar t of the wh ole A i n d e n i t e ly , b ut pr o c e e d t o so me
r e mo t e r ar t as D E F G H e t c whi ch o n t h e en er a l r in
p , g , p , , , ,
.
, ,

ciple w e c on n e ct in t he co n cl us i o n wi t h it s r e mo t e s t wh o l e
, ,

thi s co mpl ex r e a son i n g is ca ll e d a C ha in S y llog i sm o r S or i tes - .

I f t h e w hol e fr om which w e d e s ce n d b e a compr e h en s i ve qua n

ti t y t he S or it es is o n e o f C ompr eh e n si on ; if it b e a n e x t en si v e
,

q u a n t i t y t he S or it es is o n e of E x t e n si on
, T h e for m u l a of t h e .

r s t w ill b e

d
d
1 ) E i s D ; th a t i s , E co mp r ehen s D ;

mp r ehen
d
2 ) D is C ; th a t is, D co s C ;

d
3) C i s B ; t h a t is , C co mp r ehen s B;

d d
4 ) B is A ; t h a t is, B co mp r ehen s A ;
T her ef or e, E is A ; in o th er wor s, E co mp r ehen s A .

T he for mul a of t he s e con d will b e

d
1 ) B is A ; t h a t is , A conta ins un it B;

d
2) C i s B ; th a t is , B conta ins un er it C ;

d
3 ) D is C ; t h a t is , C con ta in s un er it D ;

d d
4 ) E i s D ; th a t is , D con ta in s un er it E ;

T her ef or e, E is A ; in oth er wor s, A con ta ins un er it E .

Th ese r ea s on i n g s a r e b oth P r og r es s ive e a ch in it s s ever a l quan ,

tity a s d e s ce di n g f om wh ol e t o pa r t But a s w e ma y a l so a r g u
,
n r .
,

in g b a ck fr om pa r t t o wh ol e o b t a i n t h e s a me c o cl us i o n t h e r e is ,
n ,

a l s o compe t e n t in e i t h er q u a n t i t y a R eg r es s i ve S or i tes H ow e ve r .
,

d
1 F or some n ot ice s of th e se v a r ia tion s, see 33 ; F a cci ola t i, A cr oa s es , D e E p ichir ema te, p .

d I n A r ist ot l e t he t e r m i s use fo r a
Q uin t ilia n , I n st O
. ra t .
, v. 1 0, 2 , v. 14 , 5 . C o m 12 7 et s eq .

d
par e a ls o S ch we ig h aeu ser E pict etus , i 8 ;
on . ia l ectic s y ll o g is m
. S ee T op ica , viii . 11 .

T r en el en b ur g , E lemen ta L og ices A r is t otelicce , ED .

L EC T . XI X . L O G I C . 2 61

t h e fo r mu la of the Reg r e ss i ve S or i t e s in t he on e
q uan tity will, be
on ly th a t of t he P ro
g r e s s ve i S or it e s in t he o th er .
1

E x plica tion . A s a c on cr et e ex a mpl e of th ese

I . P RO G RE S S I V E C O M P RE H E N S I V E SO RI T E S .

dd
B ucep ha lus is a hor se

dd
C on cr et e ex a mpl es
A hor se is a q ua r up e ;

of S or ites . A qua r up e is a n a ni ma l
A n a ni ma l is a subs ta n ce ;

T her ef or e, B ucep ha lus is a s ubs ta nce .

O r a s ex
p lic a t e d
T he r ep r esen ta tion o f the i n ivi ua l dd B ucep ha lus co mp r ehen d s or conta ins in it the
n otion hor se ;

d
1 [O n t he S or ites in g e n e r a l , see G r a k a n cepts ar e coex te n s ive S ee a b ove , p . 1 33 ,

d
t h or p e , L og ica , L i ii c 22 , p 2 19 V a ll a ,
. . . . . D ia g r a m 2 D ia g r a ms N o s 3 a n 4 r ep r esen t
. .

d
D ia lect .
,
L . ii i . c . 54 , fol 3 8 , . e . 1 509 . M . D un t h e A f r ma t i ve S o r it es i n t h e ca se i n w h ich
ca n , I n s i ti . L og 6 , p 255
. L Fac . iv . c . v ii . . . t he c on ce pt s a r e s ub or in a t e . S ee a b ov e , p .

ci o l a t i , A cr oa s es , D e S or it e, p 1 5 et s eq M e . . 1 33 , D ia g r a m 3 D ia g r a m N o 5 , t a k e n
. . in
] a n ch t h on , Br ot em D i a l , L iii D e S or i t e , p
. . . . . c o n n e ct i o n w i th N o 3 , r e r esen t s t h e N e g a
p .

7 43 . W lf o , P hil . Ra t .
, 466 , et s eq . VV a l ch , t i ve S o r it es . T h u s, t o t a k e t h e P r o g r ess ive

d
L ex i/co n , v . S o r ite s . F r ies, L og ik, C o mp r e hen si ve S or it es z E is D ,
D is C , C
D ia g r a ms N os 1 a n 2 r e p r e s en t t he a f r
2 . is B , B is A ,
no A is P ; ther ef or e, no E is P .

ma ti r e S o r it es i n t h e ca se in w hich t he con E D .
26 2 L 0G I c .
LECT . XI X .

d dd
dd d
T he notion hor se comp r ehen s the notion qua r up e

ma l ;
d
T he notion qua r up e co mp r ehen s the n ot ion a n i

T he n otion a n i ma l co mp r ehen s the n otion s ubsta nce ;

dd d
T her ef or e ( on the common p r in cip le tha t the p a r t of a pa r t is a p ar t f
o the whole ) ,

the r ep r es en ta tion f
o the in ivi ua l, B ucep ha lus, co mp r ehen s or con ta i ns in it
the no tion s ubs ta nce.

II . RE G RE S S I V E C O M P RE H E N SIV E SO RI T E S .

dd
A n a ni ma l is a subs ta n ce

dd
A qua r up e is a n a ni ma l
A hor se is a qua r up e

B ucep ha lus is a hor se ;

O r a s ex
p lic a t e d
d
dd d
T he notion a n i ma l comp r ehen s the notion substa nce ;

d dd
T he notion q ua r up e co mp r ehen s the notion a n i mal ;

d
T he no tion hor se comp r ehen s the notion qua r up e ;
T he r ep r esenta tion , B ucep ha lus, co mp r ehen s the notion hor se ;

d
T her efor e ( on the co mmon p r i ncip le, etc. the r ep r es enta tion , Bucep ha lus,
hen s the notion subs ta nce.

X d mmon
d
I II . P RO G RE S S I V E E T E N SIV E SO RI T E S ( wh ich is , a s en oun ce b y th e co

copul a , i en tica l in ex pr es sion wi th th e Regr essive C ompr eh en sive S or ites,

N o. II ).

dd
A n a ni ma l is a s ubs ta nce

dd
A qua r up e is a n a ni ma l ;
A hor se is a qua r up e

B ucep ha lus is a hor se ;

T her ef or e, B ucep ha lus is a s ubsta nce.

O r as e x p lic at e d
dd
dd dd
T he notion a ni ma l is con ta ne i un er the notion Substa nce
na nima l
dd dd
T he n otion qua r up e is con ta ine un er the notio

dd
T he notion hor se is con ta ine un er the notion qua r up e ;

d
T he r ep r es en ta tion B ucep ha lus is con ta ine un er the notion hor se ;

d
T heref or e ( on the co mmon p r in cip le, the r ep r es en ta tion B ucep ha lus is conta ine

un er the notion s ubs ta nce.

X d m
d
IV . T H E RE G R E SSIV E E T E N S IV E SO RI T E S ( wh ich is, a s ex pr esse b y th e a

b iguo us co p ula , ver b ally i en t ica l with th e P r ogr essive C ompr eh en sive
S or ites, N o. I )
.

dd
B ucep ha lus is a hor se ;

dd
A ho
r se is a qua r up e

A qua r up e is a n a ni ma l ;
A n a ni ma l is a s ubs ta n ce ;

T her efor e, B ucep ha l us is a s ubsta nce.

L EC T . XI X . L O G IC .

O r a s ex
plic a t e d
dd
dd dd
T he r ep r esen ta tion Bucep ha lus is con ta ine un er the notion hor se

dd dd
T he n otion hor se is con ta ine un er the n oti on qua r up e

nqua
dd
T he noti o r up e is con ta ine un er the n oti on a n i ma l ;

dd
T he notion a n i ma l is con ta in e un er the n otion s ubsta nce ;

T her ef or e, the r ep r es en ta tion B ucep ha l us is con ta in e un er the notion substa nce.

T h er e is th us n ot t he s mll
t difcul t y e ith er in r eg ar d t o t he
a es

p ec u li a r n a t ur e o f t he S or i t e s o r i n r e ar d t o
g ,

1 Th f m l i fe or it s r e l a t i on t o t h e s i mpl e s yll og i sm
a n er I n t he r s t .

d
i s it ny
en ce

n ecessa r
n

i
or
q
fmpl
as
es e
pn
l a ce it is e v id e n t t h a t t h e for ma l i n fe r en ce in
Si
a

e
,
y
sy ll g i m
o s .
t h e S o r i t es I S e
q u a lly n e c e s s a r y a n e
q u a lly
ma n ifes t a s in t he s i mpl e s yll og i sm fo r t he pr i n ,

cipl e the p r a t o f a p a r t i s a
p a r t o f t h e wh o l e is p l a i n ly n o t
l ess a ppli cab l e t o t h e r emot e st t h a n t o t h e mo s t pr ox i ma t e li n k in
t h e s ub o r di n a ti on of Wh o l e a n p a rt I n t h e se con d
pdl a ce it i s .
,

e v id en t th a t t h e S o r i t es ca n b e r eso l v e d i n t o a s

ma n y s i mpl e syll og i sms a s th er e a r e middl e

d
2 S
. it or l bl
es r eso va e

impl y ll g i m

d d
i t
n o s e s o s s.
t er ms b e tw e e n t he subj e ct a n pr e di ca t e of t he

g r e a t e s t wh ol e a n t
,

h d
c on cl usi on th a t is i n t er me i a t e wh ol es a n pa r t s be t w een t he
,

e sma ll e st pa r t whi ch t he r e a s o n i n g c on n ect s

'
, .

T h us t h e co n cr e t e e x a mpl e o f a S or i t e s a l r ea dy g i v e n is V i r t ua lly
,
l

, ,

c o mpo s e d of t h r ee S i mpl e s yll og i sms I t will b e e n o ug h t o S h ow

thi s in o n e of t h e q ua n ti t i es ; a n a s t he mos t per spi cuous let us d ,
.

t ake th a t of C ompr eh e n si on .

T hi ill t t
s us r a e
T h e P r ogr e ssi v e S or it es in thi s qua n tity wa s
d
a s fo ll o w s .

e x pli ca t e it )

( a n it is n e e dl ess I pr esume t o d , ,

dd
B ucep ha lus is a hor se ;

dd
A hor se is a qua r up e

A qua r up e is a n a ni ma l ;
A n a ni ma l is a s ubs ta n ce ;

T her efor e, B ucep ha lus is a substa nce.

d d
d d
H e r e, b esid es the maj or an i m n or t er ms (B u cep ha lus an sub

s ta iz ce h a v e t h r ee m h or s e iddl t e r ms
) we

e u a u
, q r p e a n i , ,

ma l We S h a ll c on se que n t ly h a v e th r e e si mpl e s og s ms T us
.
, , yll i h .

dd
,

in t h e r st pl a c e w e ob t a i n fr o m t h e middl e t er m hor s e t he foll o w

, ,

in g syll og i s m c on cl udi n g qu a r up e of B u cep ha lus

,

dd
I . Bucep ha lus is a hor se ;

dd
B ut a hor se is a qua r up e

T her ef or e, Bucep ha lus is a qua r up e .

2 64 L 0G I c LE C T XI X

dd
. . .

dd
i g th us es t ab li sh e d th a t B u cep ha lu s i s a qua r up e w e
H av n ,

e mpl o y q ua r u e a s a middl e t e r m b y w hi ch t o co e ct B u ce ha
p p nn

lu s w i t h a n i ma l We t h e r e fo e ma ke t he co n cl us i o n o f t h e pr e v i ous
. r

s yll o i s m N o I h e s u mpt i on of t h e fo ll owi n g syll og i s m N o I I

g ( ) t . .
( ) . .

dd
5

dd
II . B ucep ha lus is a qua r up e ;

B ut a qua r up e is a n a ni ma l ;
T her ef or e, B ucep ha lus is a n a ni ma l .

d
d
H i
t i d a n oth er st ep w e in like ma n n er make a n ima l
a v n g ob a n e , ,

whi ch w a s t h e mi n or t e r m in t h e p e ce di n g s yll og i s m t he mi le
d

r ,

t er m of t h e foll o w i n g ; a n t h e con cl usi on of N o I I for ms t he . .

maj or pr e mi se of N o I I I . .

I II . B ucep ha lus is a n a ni ma l ;
B ut a n a ni ma l is a s ubs ta n ce ;

T her ef or e, B ucep ha l us is a s ubsta nce.

In thi s l a st syll og i sm we r e a ch a c on cl usi o n id e n tic a l with th a t

,

o f t h e S o r i t es .

I n t h e t hi r d pl a ce it is e v id e n t th a t t he S o r it es is e qu a lly n a t ur a l
,

a s t h e s i m l e s yll o i s m ; a n
p g
d d
a s t h e r e l a t i o n is ,

d d d
s o me
e u a lly c o e n t a n e q u a lly ma n i fes t b e t w e e n a
3
q ? ll y e ua

mpl y l
q g

d
t
n a ur a l as S i e s

l gi m
o s .
wh ol e a n a r e mo t e a n a wh o l e a n a
p r om ,

ma t e pa r t t h a t it is fa r l e s s pr oli x a n couse
, , , ,

W
q u e n tly fa r mor e c on v e n i e n t
,
h
d
a t is o mi tt e d in a S o r it es is o n ly
.

t h e idl e r e pe t i t i on of t he s a me se lf e v id e n t pr i n ci pl e a n
d
a s t hi s ca n
-
,

Wi t h o ut d an g e r or i n co n ve n i e n ce b e a dj o ur n e d u n til t h e e n of a
s er i e s of n o t i o n s in t h e d e pe n d en ce o f mut ua l s ub or di a t i o n it is n ,

p l a i n t h a t in r e fe r e n ce t o s u ch a s e r i es a s i n l e S o it e s is a s mu ch
, g ,
r

r e fe r a b l e t o a n u mb er o f s i m l e s yll o i s ms a s a co mp e h e n s i v e
p p g ,
r

c i h e r is r e fe r a b l e t o t h e a r t i cul a t e e n u mer a t i on of t h e un i t s w hi ch
p p
it coll ect i ve ly r epr esen t s .

d
Be fo r e pr oce e di n g t o t o uch o n t h e l og i ca l hi s t or y o f t hi s fo r m of

d
s yl log i s m a n , t o co mme n t on t he d o ct r i n e in r eg a r d t o it ma i n
t a in e b y a l l l og i ci a n s I s h a ll c o n cl ud e Wh a t it is pr ope r fur th er t o
,

st a t e co n ce r n i n i t s e e a l h ct
g g n r c a r a e r .

1T L XX I A S or i t e s ma y b e
d
. ith er C a t eg or ic a l or H ypot het e

i ca l ; a n in b o t h for ms it is g o ve r n e d b y , ,

XX t h e foll o w i g l a ws S pe a ki n g o f t he C o m
d
I m L I r it e s:
n
C a t e g or Bi ca l an y
mo n o r P r og r e ss ve S or i t e s (I n wh i ch r ea
.

i
t h e t i ca l ,

son i g y o u w ill ob s e r v e t h e me a i n g of
n n

t he w or d p r og r es s i ve is r e ver s e d) whi ch pr o cee d s fr om t he ,

 L O G I C 265

d
.

i n di v id ua l t o t he g e n e a l a n t o w hi ch t he oth er for m ma y b e
r ,

e a s ily e d u ce d :
r T h e n u mb e r o f t h e p e mi s e s is un li mi t e d r .

d
A ll t h e p e mi se s w i t h e ce pt i o n O f t h e l a st must b e a fr
r ,
x ,

ma t ive a , w i t h e c ept i o n of t h e s t d e i t e
n ,
x T he r s t r ,
n .

r e mi s e ma b ith r d en it e or i n d e n it e T h e l a s t may
p y e e e .

b e e ith e r n eg a ti v e or a f r ma t i ve .

E x p li ca t i on .
h a v e a l r ea dy g i v en y ou e x a mpl es of t h e ca t
I
F or mul a of H yp o e or i ca l S or i t es T h e foll owm I S t h e for mul a
g g .

of t he hy pot h e tic a l :
t hetica l S O r iteS '

P RO G RE S S I VE . RE G R E SSIV E .

I f D is , C is ; I f B is, A is ;

I f C is, B is ; I f C is , B is

d d
I f B is , A is ; I f D is , C is ;

( I n mo o po n en te ) , ( I n mo o p on en te ) ,
N ow D is ; N ow D is

d d
T her ef or e, A is a l so. T her efor e, A is .

( O r in mo o t o llen te ) , ( O r in mo o t ollen te ) ,

N ow A is n ot N ow A is n ot ;

T her ef or e, D is n ot. T her efor e, D is not.

O r, to t a ke a c o n cr e t e e x a mpl e

P R O G RE SSIVE .

d d
If H a r p a gon be a va r icious , he is in ten t on ga in

d d
I f inten t on ga in , he is is con ten te ;

If iscon ten te ,
he is unha p p y

N ow H a rp a gon is a va r icious

H e is, ther ef or e, un ha p p y .

RE

d d
G RE S S I V E .

d d
I f H a rp a gon be iscon ten te ,
he is unhapp y ;

I f i nten t on ga in , he is ,
is con ten te ;

If a va r icio us , he is in ten t on ga in ;
N ow H a rp a gon is a va r icious

T her ef or e, he is un ha pp y

d
.

d
l i o n of t h e H ypoth eti ca l S or it e s i n t o S i mpl e
In re
g a r t o t h e r e s o ut
s yll og s ms I t S e v en t t h a t I n t h s P o r e S S I v e
R eso l u t i o n H y p o
i ,
I
g I i r

dh
.

t h etica l S o r i t es i n to S or i t e s w e mu st t a ke t h e t w o r s t pr opos i t i o n s
si mple S y l lo g is ms a s pr e mi s e s , a n t e n in t h e con cl u s i o n co n n e ct
I' P r o g r ess j ve s or it es '
t he a n t e ce d en t O f t he for mer p ro
p o s iti on wi t h
the co n s e
q ue n t O f t he l att e r. T h us
34
2 66 w e re . LECT . XI X .

in ten t on
d d
I . I f H a rp a gon be a va r icious , he is ga in .

d d
I f i n ten t on ga in , he is iscon ten te

T her efor e, if H a rp a gon be a va ri cious , he is is conten te .

,
W e n ow t li s h thi s c on cl usi on
es ab , as the su mpti on of t he
foll o wi n g s yll og i s m

d d
d d
I I I f H a rp a gon be a va r icio us, he is
. iscon ten te ;
If is content e ,
he is un hap p y

T her ef or e, if H a rp a gon be a va r icious ,

he is unhapp y .

In like ma n n er w e g o t o t he n ex t syll og i sm
I II . I f H a rp a gon be a va r icious , he is un happ y

N ow H a rp a gon is a va r icious

T her ef or e, he is unhap py .

I n t h e Reg r ess i ve S or it e s, w e pr o c ee d in t he sa me
fashi on on ly
t h a t , a s h e r e t h e con s e qu e n t O f t h e s e con d ro
p p
II Reg r essive S or ites
den t t h e r s t w e r e v e r s e
.

of
.

o sit io n is t h e a n t e ce ,

t he con secut o n O i f th e se p mi
re s es . T h us

d d
d d
I . If H a r p a gon be in ten t on ga i n , he is iscon ten te
If iscon ten te ,
he is un hap p y

T her ef or e, if H a r p a gon be i n ten t on ga in , he is un hap p y .

W th
t ake t h e t hi r d pr o positi on for t h e s umpti on of t he n ex t
e en

t h e seco n d s yll og i sm a n

s ub s umpt i on
d
t he con cl usi on O f t h e pr e c e di n g for it s
,
,

II . If H a rp a gon be a va r icious , he is i n ten t on ga i n

I f i n ten t on ga in , he is unhapp y ;
T her ef or e, if H a rp a gon be a va r i cious , he is unhapp y .

W e n ow t ake thi s l a st con cl usi on fo r t he su mpt i on of t he l as t

s yll og i sm
III . If H a rp a gon be a va r icious , he is unhapp y ;
N ow H a rp a gon is a va r icious

T her ef or e, he is un happ y .

But it ma y d ca n t h er e b e n o D i sj un cti ve S or it es ? T O
be a ske ,

d
t hi s it ma y b e a n s w e r e d th a t in t he s e n s e in
D i j
,
ti S it
s un c ve or es .
whi ch a ca t eg or i ca l a n hypot h et ic a l syll og i s m
is po ss i b l e v i so t h at a t e m o f t h e
,
z .
, p r e c e di n r o o si t i o n
g p p r

s h o uld b e t h e s ubj e ct o r r e di c a t e o f t h e fo ll o wi n i t hi e
p g n s s e n s , ,
L EC T . XI X . L O G I C . 7

a disj un ct iv e s or it es is i mpo ssib l e : s i n c e t wo o ppo si n g n ot i on s

wh et h e a s co n t r a r i es or co n t r a di ct or i e s e x cl ud e e a ch ot h e r a
r ,

d ,
n d ,

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,
r , pr e dic a t e B ut .

wh en t he O bj e ct h a s b ee n d et e r mi n e d b y t wo oppo si t e ch a r a c t e r s
t h e di sj un ct me mb e r s ma y b e a mpli e d a t pl e a sur e a n t h er e fol ,
d ,

l o ws ce r t a i n ly a c or r ect c on cl usi on pr ov id e d th a t th e disj un ct i on ,

b e l og i cally a cc ur a t e A S .

A is either B or C .

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D is either H or I F is ei ther M or N ;
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lth ough th er efor e it b e t r ue th a t s uch a S or it es is c or r ect ;

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ma ke s o me O b se r va ti on s pa r t ly hi s t or ic a l pa r tly cr itic a l in co n n e c
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ti o n w i t h t hi s s ubj ect .

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r e a so n i n
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r

ce l o f t h e l og ic a l i n h e ri t a n ce b e q ue a t h e d t o us by A r i s t o t l e N ot h .

in g ca n h ow e v e r b e mo r e e r r o n e o us T he n a me
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a ll usi on a n r efer e n c e t o wh a t t he n a me is n ow e m l oy e d t o e x
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26 8 L O G I C .
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S or ite s , with a n cien t t t
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th a n t h a t O f a pa r t i cul a r ki n d of S ophi sm of ,

whi ch t he S t oi c C h ys i ppus wa s r eput e d t he ih r

E wpos y ou kn o w, in G r e e k, me a n s a heap o r p ile o f a n y

d

2
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,

a gg r e g a t e d s ub s t a n ce s, a s s a n d , wh ea t , e t c ; a n S or i tes , li t e r a lly a .

h eap er , w a s me g i ve n t o a c er t a i n ca pt ion s a r g ume n t

a na
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p hi m
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thi n g O f v a r i ab l e a mo un t w er e l a r g e o s ma ll r ,

Sa y a c er t a i n sum of mon e y I f y o u sa id it w a s s ma ll t he a d v e r s a r y .
,

w e n t o n g r a d ua lly a ddi n g t o it a ski n g y ou a t e a ch i n cr e men t ,

wh et h e r it w er e st ill sma ll ; till a t l e n g t h y o u sa id th a t it wa s l a r g e

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t h e n u mb er t ill e i t h e r y o u a d mit t h a t h e wh o w a s n o t b a ld wi t h a
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ce r t a i n n umb er O f h a i r s b eco mes b a ld wh e n t h a t co mpl e me n t is

di mi n i h e d b y a S i n g l e h a i r ; or y ou g o on en yi n g him t o b e b a ld
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u n t il h is h e a d he hy o t h e t i ca lly d e n u d e d
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n o w k n o w n in l o i c un d e r t he n a me O f S or i tes
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g g .

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1

P ri on , i 25 But t h e r e w a s n o n ee
. . of a
d d . 2 P e rsius S
,
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u
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d
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S pe cia l tr ea t me n t
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of t h e S or it es, a s it i s

dj d d
mer ely a co mb in a t i on of or in a r y sy l [ C icer o a pplies S t o a n a r g umen t w h ich
or it es

d
l o g isms ,
an s ub e ct to th e sa me r ul e s . E D . w e w oul ca ll a S or it es , b ut it coul a ls o b e a

d dd
[Th e pr in cipl e O f t h e S or i t es i s t o b e fo u n i n C h r y s ippe a n .
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D e F in ib us , L . iv . 0 .

d P r ae ica t um
d D ivin a z ion e, ii ma mo m
A r ist o t e s r ul e , C a t eg , c 2
l
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ic a t i ica t um s ubj ect i q ue m, si L

?
est p r ae

S ee al s o , S o r i t i r es ist a s n e ce s se s i t, a tin o
p r ze .

A nal P . os t . , I 23. ci s eq . Cf P
. a ci us , C ommen t .
,
v er b o l icea t a cer c a l e m a ppe ll a r e C f F a ccio
. p

d
p . 1 59 . Ber t in s , L og ica P er ip a tet ica , L . i ii . l a ti , A cr oa s is , ii p 1 7 et
. . s eq . E D .

A ppe n ix , p . 4 L . ii . 108 E
. D .
L EC T . XI X .
L O G 10 . 26 9

But w h e n w a s t h e me per v e r t e d t o thi s, it s s e c on d a r y sig n i ca

na

t i o n ? O f t hi s I a m co n d e n t , t h a t t h e ch a n g e w a s
L a ur e n t iu s v a na t h e n ot O ld e t h a n r t he ft ee n t h ce n t ur y . It o c cur s in
r st t o S o r it es in
it p re en t _
us e
l o i c i a n s pr e v mu s t o th a t pe r i o d
g n on e O f the .

s pts a cce a

ti on .
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o f t h e L o w e r E mpi r e ; n o r is it t o b e me t w i t h

in a n y of t h e mor e c el eb r a t e d t r e a t i se s o n L og i c b y t h e p e v i ou s r

L a t i n s ch o o l men T he e a r li es t a ut h or t o wh o se w r i t i g s I h a v e b e e n
. n

a b l e t o t a ce it is t h e c e l eb r a t e d L a ur e t i us V a ll a w h o se w o k o n
r ,
n ,
r

D i a lecti c w a s pub li s h e d a ft er t h e middl e O f t h e ft e e n t h ce n t u y r

d
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it .
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I n t he s y s t e ms of L o g i c a ft e r t h e co mme n ce me t O f t h e S ix n

t e e t h ce t u y n o t o ly is t he fo r m O f r e a s on i g i t s e lf d e s c i b e d
n n r ,
n n r ,

b ut d e s c i b e d un d e t h e n a me it n o w b e a r s
r r .

I h a v e b e e n t h us pa r t i cu l a r in r eg a r d t o t he hi st or y O f t h e S or ite s

dt i ? f 1 of the i mpor ta n ce of t hi s hi st or y con sid e e d in

w or d a n t hi n g n o t ce r t a i n ly on a cco u n t d ,
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di w f t h t o a ppr eh en d wh a t is n ow t o b e sa id of t he ill us
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.

c e s s a ffo d s O f t he on e s id e d V i e w whi ch th e y h a v e a ll t a ke n of t h e
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n a t ur e O f r e a s o n i n g in g en e r a l .

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n ,

o f l ogi ca l w h o l e a n t w o ki n d s O f l og i ca l pa r t d
d e d uct i v e r e a so n i n g is fr om wh ol e t o pa r t t h a t th e e a r e t w o ki n d s
t h e o n e in t he ,

r

q
an
u

d
a n t i t y o f c o mpr e h e n s i o n t h e o t h er in t he q u a n t i t y of e x t e n s i o n

t h a t t h e r e a r e co n s e qu en tly t wo ki n d s o f r e a s on i n g co r r e sp on i g
,

d
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t o t h e s e s e ve r a l q u a n ti t i e s
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I fur t h er s h o w e d t h a t l og i ci a n s h a . in

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s i mpl e s yll og i s ms ma r v e ll o usly o v e r l o o ke d o n e a n

most n a t ur a l of th e s e d escr ipt i o n s of r e a son i n g ,

in g i t h e q u a n t i t y O f co mpr e h en s i o n ; a n t h at a ll t h e i r r ul e s w e r e
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p g , ,

e q u a lly co mpe t e t a r e a s o n i n g in c o mpr e h en s i on a n n in e x t en sion ,

t h o ug h un d o ub t e dly i n t h e o n e ca s e a s in t he ot h e r t h e r e a son , ,

1 D ia le ct ica; D isp u ta tion es , L ib i ii . . S ee 2 S ee G eor gn i T r a p ez u n t ii D e Re D ia let ti ca

d
L a ur en t ii Va llce O p er a , Ba sil eae, 1 540, p 742 . . L ibell a s , C ol on ies ,
1 533 , f 603
. . C f t he S ch ol ia
.

ED . of N eo mag us, i bi . f . ED .
27 0 L O G I C L E C T XI X

dy
. .

in g in co mp eh r en s on i is mor e n a t ur a l an e as in it s e v o ut o n l i t h an
the r e a s on n i i i a smu ch a s th e middl e t e m in t he
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n n ,

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n ot in s i t ua t i o n middl e b ut occup i es t he pos it i on of one or ot h er of

,

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s ess i on t h e y s h o uld in t h e c a se O f t h e S o i es ,
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h a ve a l t og e th er o ve r l o oke d t he poss ib ili t y o f a r e as on i n g i e x t en n

si on But S O it is T h e y h a v e a ll fo ll o we d e a ch o t h er in d e n i n g
1
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t h e S o r i t es a s a con ca t e n a t e d s yll o g i s m in whi ch t he p e di ca t e of r

t he pr o posi t i on pr e ce di n g is ma d e t h e s ubj e ct of t h e pr opos i t i on fo l

l o wi n g u n t il we a r r i v e a t t he con cl udi n g pr o pos i t i on in w hi ch t h e
, ,

e di ca t e O f t he l a st O f t h e pr e mi s e s i s e n o u n ce d O f t he s ubj e ct of
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t he r st
d
T hi s d e n i t i on a ppli e s o n ly t o t h e P r og r essi v e S o i t e s in
. r

d
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p ,g x

t h at t h ey i n o t co n t e mpl a t e t h e l a t t e r fo r m at a ll is ce r t a i n b ot h

d d d ,

d
b e ca us e it is n o t li g h t ly t o b e pr es ume d th a t th e y h a in v i e w t h a t
a r t i ci a l a n r e co n di t e fo r m a n b e ca u s e t h e e x a mpl e s a n ill ust r a
ti o s th e y s upply po si t i v e ly pr o ve t h a t t h e y ha n ot
n

T o t h e P r og r ess i v e S o r i t e s in e x t en s i on a n
,

t o t h e Reg r e ss i v e
d
d .

S or i t es in c o mpr e h e n s i o n t hi s d e n i t i o n is i n a p ,

D iff b tw
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r e s s i v e S or i tes o f e x t e n s i o n t h e middl e t e r ms

r e mi s es a n t h e s u bj ect s o f t h e d ,
r

p p p p os ,

t e r io r ; t h e middl e t er m is h er e in pos iti on i n t er me di a t e b e t we e n

t h e e x t r e mes
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.
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sion a in t h e Reg r es s i v e S or i t es O f co mpr e h e n si o n t h e middl e
n ,

t er ms a r e t he s ubj e ct s of t he pr i or pr emi ses a n t he pr e di ca t e s of

t h e po s t e i o r ; t h e middl e t e r m is h e r e in
r os i t i on n ot i n t e r me di a t e
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d
T o t h e ques t i o n w h y in t h e ca s e o f s i mpl e syll og i sms t he
, , ,

l og ici an s over l ooke d th e r e a son i n g in compr e h e n s i on a n in t he , ,

d d
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l n o t ic e s the e r r or of t h ose w h o P e r i p a t e t ici, e t c u m h is G a ssen us , q ui S or i
ma k e S o r i t e s on ly of c o mp r e h en si ve w h o le . tem s o lu m a p r ac ica t u p er ti n e r e e x is t i
S ee his D e S en s u V er i et F a ls i , L . ii . 0 . 10, 5
Q
ma t .

E D .
]

p 400. . C f p 343. . n [ E r r a n t vu l o
g
 LE C T . XI X . L O G I C

ca s e .
O f t he S o r it e s; t he r e as o n n g i in t
ex en s on , i it ,
is, per h a ps , im
p o ss ib l e , to - affo r d a i
s a t s fa ct o r y .
ex
pl a n ati o n.
P r ob a b l e r e as o n
But w e ma y pl a us i b ly c o nj ect ur e wh a t i t I s o ut

d
,

wh y 1o gi G ia n a eh

100k e i n t he c a se o f O f o ur p ow e r
-
ce r t a n i ly t o pr o v e .
-
In re
g ar d to

d
,
,

simple sy l l og is i mpl e s yll og i sms it w a s a n or ig i n a l d og ma o f t he

m the
, s ,

8 i C ompr e
P l a t o n i c sch o ol a n a n e a r ly d og ma O f t h e P e i
221321
8 11 n
,
r

d
1
a t e t ic t h a t phil o s ophy th a t s ci e n ce s t r i ct ly
p , ,

SO

t a in e
c a ll e d

d w a s on ly con v e r s a n t wi t h a n
in un i v e r s a l s ; a n
, d
w a s e x cl us iv ely co n
t he d o ct r i n e O f A r i s t o t l e w hi ch t a ug h t
,

t h a t a ll o ur g en e r a l kn o wl e d g e is on ly a n i n d uct i on fr o m a n O b s e r v a
ti on of pa r t i cul a r s w a s t oo e a s ily fo r g ot t en or per ve r t e d b y his fo ll o w
,

er s . I t t h us O b t a i n e d a l mo st t he fo r ce O f a n a ckn o wl e d g e d pr i n ci pl e ,

th a t e ve r y thin g t o b e kn ow n must b e kn o wn un d e r s o me g en e r a l '

d
for m or n ot i on H en ce t he e x a g g er a t e d i mpor t a n ce a t t r i b ut e d t o
.

d en i t i on a n d e d uct i on ; it n o t b ei n g co n sid e r e d t h a t w e on ly t a ke
d ,

d
o ut O f a g e n e r a l n o t i on w h a t w e h a r e v i o usly l a ce d th e e i n ; r
p p
an t h a t t h e a mpli ca t i on O f o ur kn o wl e d g e is n ot t o b e s o ug h t fo r
fr om a b ov e b ut fr o m b e l o w n ot fr om spe cul a t i on a b out a b st r a c t
, ,

g ,

d d
e n er a li t i es b ut f o m t h e O b s e r v a t i on O f co n cr e t e
r

h ow e ver e r on e o us a n i r r a t i on a l t he per su a si o n ha it s a y a n
p a r t i cul ar s B ut

,
dd d .
,

d
'
i n uen ce a n it pe r h a ps d et e mi n ed a s o n e O f it s e e ct s t he t ot a r , ,
'

n eg l e ct O f o n e h a l f a n th a t n ot t he l ea s t i mpor t a n t h a lf of t h e
-
; ,

r e a so n i g pr o ce s s n F or w hil e me n t h o ug ht o n ly O f l ooki n g up
.

w a r d s t o t h e mor e e x t e n s i v e n o ti o s a s t h e o n ly O bj e ct s a n
,

t he n ,
d
o n ly me di a o f s ci e n ce t he

h en s iv e n o ti o n s a n ,
y t oo k lit t

,
l e h e e d
d
whi ch could n e it h er b e sci e n t i ca lly kn ow n in t h e ms e l v e s n o r s up
o
, f t h e mor e co mpr e

a b s ol ut e ly co n t e mn e d i n di v id u a l s a s O bj e ct s ,

,
.

e c o n di t i on s o f sci e n t i ca lly kn o w i n h
d
e s id es
py l t h g a u g t b T h e .

d
l og i c O f compr eh en si on a n O f i d uct i on w as t h er e for e n egl e ct e d n , ,

t iv a t e d
o r i g n o e d t h e l og i c O f e x t e n s i o n a n
r

a s a l o n e a ffo r di n
,
,

g t h e r ul es b
y
d e d uct i on e x cl usi v ely cul
w hi c h w e mi g ht e v o l v e

hi g h e r n ot i o n s i n t o t h ei r s ub or di n a t e con cept s T hi s ma y h el p t o .

e x l ai n wh s ub s e ue n t ly t o A r i st o t l e L o i c w a s cul t i v a t e d in s o
p y q , g ,

p
p
r
a r t i a l a ma n n e r ; b ut w h

a l t o g e t h e r a t a l o ss t o i ma i n e
y s u b s e
q

B
u

p
e

u t
n t ly t o Ba c o n t h e l o i c O f co m

e h e n si on s h o uld st ill h a v e e s ca e d O b s e r v a t i on a

t t h u ti
,g
s t u dy I a m

w h w h
,

n d ,

g o e
q es o n
y .
en , ,

r e a s on i n i e n e r a l w a s v i e w e d o ly a s in t h e u a n tity O f e x t e n
g n
g q n

A d
s i on t h e mi n or fo r m O f t h e S o r i t es s h o u ld h a v e
,
Why i th
b e e n v i e w e d as e x cl us i v e ly in t h a t O f co mp e
n n e
r

k d
.

cas e f tho S t e or i e s ,

th ye l th
o v er oo h e n s i o
e
n m a
y p e re
h a
p s b e e x
p l a i n e d b y,
t h e fol
, ,

l owi n g co n s id er a t i on : t hi s fo r m w a s n ot o i g i
d
r e a s on ni g i : E t n x en r

n a lly a n a lyz e d a n e x o un d e d b
i
B on '

p y t h e a cut e n e s s

o f A r i st ot l e But it c ould n ot e s c ape n ot ic e th a t th e r e w a s a for m

2 72 L O G I C L E C T . XI X .

d iy fr e u e n t e m l o yme n t b ot h b
of v e r hil h
of r e a s o n n
g q , p y p o s o
p er s ,

an h e t or i ci a n s in whi ch a s i g l e co n cl us i o n w a s d r a w n f om a
r ,

mu l t ipli ci t y of pr e mi s es a n in w hi ch t he pr e di ca t e of t he for eg o ,
d n r

d d
in g p e mi s e w a s u s ua lly t h e s ubj e ct of t h e fo ll o wi n g
r C i ce o fo r . r ,

ex a m le an

d
S e eca a e full o f s u ch a r u me n t s ; a n
n t
r h t l
p , g , e a u a n r

an e as y e v o l ut i o n o f t h e r e a son i n g is i n d ee d pe culi a r ly a i t
pp p ro a e r

t o d e mo n s t r a t i o n T h us t o p o v e t h a t e v e r y b ody is mov a b l e w e
.
,
r
,

h a v e t he foll owi n g s e lf evid en t d e d uct i o n E v er y b ody is in spa ce - .

w h a t is in s pa ce is in s ome o n e pa r t of spa c e ; wh a t is in o n e pa r t
o f sp a ce ma b e in a n o t h e r ; wh a t ma y b e in a n ot h e r a r t o f s a ce
y p p
ma y ch a n g e it s S pa c e ; wh a t ma y ch a n g e it s spa ce is mov a bl e ;
t h e r e for e e v er y b o dy is mov a b l e
, Wh e n t h er efor e V a ll a or who .
, , ,

e v e r e l s e h a s t h e h o n or o f r s t i n t r o d u ci n
g t h e co n s id e r a t i on of t hi s

for m of r e a so n i n g i n t o L og ic w a s st r uck w i t h t he cog en cy a ,

n d
cl ea r n e s s o f t hi s c o m e n di o us a r ume n t a t i o n h e did n o t a t t e mpt t o
p g ,

d
r e d uc e it t o t h e c o n di t i o n s o f t h e e t e n s i v e s yll o i s m ; a n

q u e n t l o i ci a n s wh e n t h e for m w a s on ce i n t r o d uc e d a
g ,
g

in t h e i r s ci e n ce w e r e a s us ual co n t en t t o copy o n e f om a n o t h e
s ub se

e co n iz e d
g
x

r
d r

r,
, , ,

w i t h o ut s ubj e ct i n g th e i r b orr o w e d ma t er i a l s t o a n y or i g in a l or
r i o r ous c r itici s m
g .

dd
dd
Ut ne mo in se se ten ta t escen er e ; ne mo !
Se pr aece en ti spect a t ur ma n tica ter g o 1 .

A c cor di n gly , h em ha s n oti ce d th a t t he S or it es of th e ir

n ot on e of t ,

s y s t e ms r o ce e d s in a di ffe r e n t u t i t y fr o m t h a t of t h ei r s ll o
p q a n y
i n e al th t th i l i h a t v a r i a n ce w i t h i t s e l f ;

d
g s m s in
g e a e r r o g , c is t u s

fa l e ss did a y of t h e m ob se r v e th a t thi s a n
r n a ll o t h e for ms of ,
r

r ea s o i g a r e c a ab l e o f b e i n
n n
p , g d r a wn in

t h a t w hi c h t h e y a ll e x cl us i v e ly c on t e mpl a t e d
a n ot h e r

An
q
y
u a n t i t y fr o m

et ha t h ey . d d ,

a
pp li e d t h e i r o b se r v a t i on wi t h o ut
p pr e o s se s s i o n t o t h e ma t t e r t h e y ,

w o uld e a s ily h a v e s e e n th a t t h e S o r i t e s co uld b e ca st in t h e qu a n

t i t y o f e t e n si o n e qu a lly a s co mmon s yll og i s ms a n
x

s yll og i sms c ould b e c a s t in t he

,
t h a t co mmo n ,
d
u a n tity o f c o mpr e h e n s i o n e q u a lly
q ,

a s t he S or i t e s I h a v e a l e a dy s h o w n t h a t t he s a me S or i t es ma y b e
.

d r a wn ei t h er in c omp e h e n s i on o in e x t en si o n ; a n in b ot h q ua n r
r

r d
t i t i e s p o ce e d e i t h e r b y pr o gr e ss i o n or b y r eg r e s
r

d
n
f pl
a rf th Se O
s i o
e
B u t
O
t h
'

e e x a m p l e n
g i v e n ma
.
y p e ha s be
p ,
r ,

si on d
C mp h

d
t

t
r i es in o re en
V e w e d a s s e l e ct e L e t u s t h e e for e t a ke a n y
E t ens i on
i .
,
r ,
an x .

oth e ; a t h e r s t t h a t o ccur s t o m
r
yn r e colle c

ti o n is t he foll owi g fr om S en e c a whi ch I sh a ll tr a n sl at e

n
2
,

I P er sius , iv 2 3
. .
- ED . 2 E p ist .
, 85 . ED .
LECT . XI X . L 0G I C 2 73

H e who is p r u d
en t is temp er a te

d
H e who is temp er a te is cons ta n t ;

d
H e who is cons ta n t is unp er tur be ;
H e who is unp er tur be is wi thout sor r ow ;

d
H e who is without sor r ow is hap p y ;

T her ef or e, the p r u ma n is happ y

d
ent .

In thi s ythi n g slid es e a sily a n smoothly fr om the

S or it es, ev er

wh ol e t o t he pa r t s of co mpr e h en si o n But th o ug h t he pr o cess will .

,

b e r a t h e r mo e by hit ch es t h e d escen t un d er ex t en si on will if n ot

q uit e s o p l ea s a q p
r

n t b e e u a lly r a id a n c e r t a in
,
,

d .
,

d
H e who is without sor r ow is hap p y ;

d
H e who is unp er tur be is without sorr ow ;

H e who is consta n t is unp er tur be

d
H e who is temp er a te is cons ta n t ;

d
H e who is p r u en t is temp er a te ;

T her ef or e, the p r u ent ma n is happy

d
.

I
which
o n ot

y ou
thi n k it n e c ess a r y t o ex pli c a t e th ese t wo r ea son i n gs
a r e fully c ompe t e n t I a m s ur e t o o with o ut
,
ii cult y ,
d d ,

for y o ur se l ves
d .

Wh a t r en er s it stil l mor e w on d er ful th a t t he l ogici an s did n ot

rit
Th G
es.
e l i S
e v o l v e t h e com e t e n cy of thi s pr o c e s s in e ith er
oc en a n
q u a n t ity a n t
o
h
p
us ob t a i n a ke
y t o t h e O pen i n
,

up of t h e wh o l e my s t er y of s yll og i st ic r ea s o n
dg

in g is thi s
, th a t it is n ow a b ove t wo c en tur i es S i n ce t he I n v er se
or Re g r e s s i v e S or it e s in c om r e h e n si o n w a s di sco v er e d a n
p si n a l
g d
iz od b y Ro d ol ph us G ocl en i us a c e l ebr a t e d phil osoph er of M a r b ur g

hy s i cs T hi 1
it
n
'

in whi ch u i v e s ity b e o ccupi e d t h e ch a i r of L og i c a n

f
r
,

r o m him o b t a i n e d t he n a me of G ocle
M et a d ,

p s S
. o r e s h a s

n ia n whil e t h e pr og ressi ve S or i t es h a s b e en call e d t he conr mon or

,

A r i st o t e li a n
n o t i ce d T hi s l a tt er d e n o mi n a ti on is a s I h a v e pr ev i o usly
.

a n e r r o r ; for A r i s t o tl e th o ug h c e r t a i n ly n ot i g n or a n t of
, ,
,

t h e pr o ce s s of r e aso n i n g n o w ca ll e d S or i tes d oe s n o t e n t er upon it s ,

c on sid er a t i on e it h er un d er on e for m o r a n ot h er T hi s ob ser va ti on

,
.

b y G o cl e n i us of w hich n o n e of o ur Br iti sh l og ici a n s s eem a w a r e

,

w a s a s t e p t ow a r d s t he e x pli ca t i on o f t h e wh ol e pr o c ess ; a n w e d ,

an d
a r e th e r efor e l eft s t ill mo r e t o ma r v el h ow thi s ex plic a t i o n s o e a s y
, ,

ma n ife s t s h o uld n ot h a v e b een ma d e Befo r e t er mi n a t i n g t hi s

,

s ubj e ct I ma y me n t i on th a t thi s for m of syll og i s m h a s b e e n some

.
,

.
,

ti mes styl e d by l og ici a n s n ot on ly S or i tes b ut al so coa cer va ti o con , ,

1 G o cle mi I s a g og e in O rg a n um A r i st otelis , cl en ia n S or ite s b e for e G ocl en iu s , see P a cius ,

F r an cof , . 1598, p 255 E D

.
[ F or the G O
. . C ommen t in A na l P r ion
. .
, i 25, p
. .
2 74 L O G Ic L E C T XI X

d d
d i dd d
. . .

g or i ce, g r a a ti o, cli ma te ,
an epr i mo a ulti murn . T he ol na me ,
b e fo r e V
O
a ll whi h
a,

f t he L o we r E mpi r e , w a s t he v a g ue a n
c

g
t he p
e n er a l a
ppe ll a

d
t i d
r o ce s s ob t a n e

on O f
a mo n g t h e G r e ek l i i
o
g c an s

comp lex s y llog i s m, M a y t o n s o ur/ 9 6 7 69 }

S O much fo r t h e t w o fo r ms o f r e a s o n i n g which ma y b e r eg a r d e d

E p wh el r ema d as co mposi t e or co mpl e x , an ddhi hd l

w c o
g i ci a n s

s
an )
h n e r a lly c o n sid e r e d a s r e un a n t
.

a ve
g e B ut
p l y y ll
. .
t
r i es , as o s o

h r o e r t o r e ma r k t h a t if in o n e i
dt pl
m m e re It IS t
g i s s, p cot i l y ar a ve p p p o n , ,

d
th a t is a s i n di v id ua l syll ogi sms the E pi ch ei r ema
s impl e. a n no e on '
, ,
as m '
an S or it es ma y b e v i e w e d a s co mpa r a t i v ely
c ompl ex in a n oth er th a t is a s poly syll og i sms th e y ma y b e vi e w e d
, , , ,

a s c o mpa r a ti v e ly s i mpl e F o r r e so l v e a S or it e s i n t o t he v a r i ous

s yll og i s ms a ffo r d e d b y it s middl e t e r ms a n
.
,

co m a r e t h e mul t it ud e
p , d
O f pr o po s i t i o n s t h r o ug h w hi ch t h e c o n cl u si o n

d is t h us t e di o usly

d
e v ol ve d w i t h t he sh o r t a n r a pid r o c es s o f t h e ch a i n s yll o i s m -
, p g
i t self; a n i n st e a d of co mpl ex i t y w e sh o uld r a th er b e di spo se d t o
, ,

r e di c a t e o f it e x t r e me s i mpli ci t y I
d
n p oi n t of fa ct w e mi h t
? '

p g ,

a r r a n g e t h e E pi ch e i r e ma a n

u n d e r t h e pl e o n a s t i c
S o r i t e s wi t h fa r g r e a t e r pr o pr i e ty
un d er e lli pt i ca l s yll og i sms t h a n a s is co mmo n ly , on e b y l og i ci a n s
,

T hi s l a st cl a ss i ca t i o n is i n d e e d a l t o g e t h er
d ,

.
, ,

e r r o n e o us fo r it is a r e a t mi s t a ke t o s u th t i i t h r of th e s e
, g pp o s e a n e e

for ms th er e is a ug ht r e d un d an t .

l [ Bl emmi d
as, E p it ome L og ica , c .

x vii
2 [ S ee L eib n itz , N
. 4 , pp 445, 446, 448 ,
.
ouvea ux

e dE
.
s sa is ,

RaS pe ] .
L . iv. o.
 L EC T URE XX .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y .

S E C T I O N II .
- O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

111 D O C T RI N E
. O F RE A S O N I N G S .

S YL L O G I S M S T H E I R D I V I S I O N S A C C O RD I N G T O E XT E RN A L
F O RM .

B . D E FE C T I V E ,
ENT H YM EME .

C . RE G U L A R A N D I RRE G U L A R, F I G U RE AND MOOD .

I P RO C E E D n ow t o t he S econ d C l a ss of S yll og i s ms,

di t h o se , to

d w it, w h ose E x t er n a l F o r m is
d e fe ct ve hi s
. T
B S y ll og is ms e fe c
l I g i v e in mi t y i
.

c a ss c o n fo r t o the oct r n e of
tive in E x t er n a l F o r m .

mod e r n l og i ci a n s, w h o s e un a n mo us op i i i n on on

the s ub e c j t I s h a ll co m r e h e n d in t h e fo ll o w i n g p a r a g r a ph
p .

il L XX I I di n g t o l og i ci a n s in g en er a l a d e fe ct i ve
. A ccor , ,

sy ll o g i s m is a e a s on i g in whi ch o e o n ly r n n
P XX
ar . L II
o f t he
.

r e mi s es is a ct ua lly e n oun ce d
T he
I t
E n m m
thy e e. p .

is t h er efo r e t h e y sa y ca ll e d a n E n thy meme

d
, , ,

b e c a us e t h e r e is a s it w e r e s o me t hi n g h eld b a ck in , ,

t h e mi n d ( S n ) But a s it is po s sib l e t o r e t a i n e i t h e t h e

cv e .
,
r

kin s z d
s umpt i on or t h e s ub su mpt i o n t h e E n t hy me me is t h u s o f t w o

a n E n t hy me me o f t h e F i r s t a n
a n E n t hy me me o f
,

, d
t h e S e co nd O r d e r
o us in
p r i n ci pl e a n
,
.

d
T he w h o l e di st i n ct i on is h o w e v e e r r o n e
e v e n if n o t e r r o n e o u s it is i co m l e t e ;
, ,

for a T hi r d O r d e r of E n thy meme s is c ompe t en t b y t h e s uppr es

p
,

,
n
r,

s i o n o f t he c o n cl us i on .

S uch ,
d oct r i n e y ou
as

mod e r n l og i ci a n s ;
it is t
will
s at e

n d
d

d
in t h e for mer pa r t of th e pa r a g r a ph is t he
ma i n t a i e d w i t h si n g u l a r un a i mi t y b y
n , n
,

an , wi t h h a r dly a n ex cept i on thi s cl ass i c a t i on ,

276 L O G IC . L E C T . XX .

of s yll og isms is t t d
ly w i t h o ut a s uspi ci on of it s o wn cor
s a e n ot on

r e ct n e ss b ut a s a di vi s i o n e s t a b li s h e d o t h e , n
E pl tx Th
i ca i on . e

c o on aw n i g f
mm a u t h o i t y of t h e
n o g e a t fa t h er o f l o
g c h
r m s e l f r i i .

d
I n b o t h a s s e r t i o n s t h e y a r e h o we v e
de ne u t for the cl a ssica t ion i tself is fut ile a n A r ist ot l e
t h E t h y m m f t il
e n e e u e, w o g , r, r n ,

t ib t d
an rro o s a

,
r t A i t tl
u e o r s o e.
a ffo r d s i t n o co un t e n a n ce wh l a t t h e s a me
; i e ,

t i me if a di sti n cti on o f S yll og i sms is t o b e t a ke n fr o m t h e e lli ps i s

,
-

of t h e i r p o po s i t i o n s t he s ub di v i s i o n o f e n t hy me me s is n ot co m
r ,

p
p
l
r ess e d a n
,

t h d
e t e i n a s mu ch a s a s yll o i s m ma
g y
e co n cl us i o n un d e r s t o o d
,
e x i s t wi t h b ot h
p r e m i s es e x

I sh a ll t h e r e fo r e in t h e r s t pl a ce S h o w t h a t t he E n thy me me a s
, , , ,

a s yll og i s m O f a d e fe ct i v e e n o u ce me n t c o n st i t ut es n o s e ci a l fo r m n
p ,

d
of r e a s on i n g ; in t h e s e co n d t h a t A r i s t o tl e d oe s n o t co n s id e r a s l ,y
l og is m o f s uch a ch a r a ct e r a s s uch a spe ci a l for m ; a n in t h e thi d ,
r ,

th a t a d mi tt i n g t he va lidi t y of t he di st i n ct i on t he r e st i ct i on of t h e
, ,
r

E n t hy me me t o a syll og i s m of o n e s uppr e s se d pr e mi se c a n n o t b e
c ompet e n t ly ma i n t a i n e d
1
I I n r eg a . r d
t h e n t o t h e v a lidi t y o f t h e di s t i cti o n
, ,

di sp o v e d o n t he fo ll o w i n g g o un d s : F i s t of
.

r
T hi s is
r
n .

r
I T h E hy m m
a ll t h e di s c i mi a t i o t hy me me a s a
e nt e e
of t he E
.

,
r n n n ,
p i l f m f

d
no t a s ec a or o
s yll o i s m o f o e s u es s e d m i f m t h
r ea son ni g . g pp p r e se o e n r ,
r

o r di a r y syll o i s m w o uld i l i im i
g n v o v e an s cr ,

n a t i on o f t he r e a s on i g of L og i c f o m t he easo i n
g i n c o mmo n r r n n

u s e ; fo r in g e n e r a l r e a s o n i n g w e r a e ly e x p e s s a ll t h e p o p s i

d ,
r r r o
,

t i o n s o f a s yll og i s m a n
st r a ct L og i c t h a t w e n
it is a l most o n ly in t h e t r e a t i s e s o n A b
ex a m l es of r e a s o i n
p g
,

i d
n w hi ch a ll t h e n

me mb er s a r e e pli ci t ly e n o un ce d But L og i c d o es n ot c e a t e n e w
x . r

d
for ms of s yll og i sm it me r e ly e x po un d s t h os e w hi ch a e a l e a dy
,
r r

g i ven ; a n w hil e it S h o w s t h a t ih a ll r e a so n i g t h e e a r e i t h e - n r ,
n

me n t a l pr o ce ss n e ce s sa r ily th r e e j ud gmen t s t he me e n o e pr e s
, ,
r n- x

s i on o f a n y o f t h ese in l a n g u a g e n o mo r e co n s t i t ut e s i L og i c a ,
n

a t i cu l a k i n d o f s yll og i s m t h a n d o es t h e e lli ps i s o f a t e r m co s t i n
p r r ,

t ut e in G a mma r a pa r t i cul a r ki n d o f co n co r d o r g o v e r n me n t
dd
r But .
,

s ec o dly S yll o i s m a n
n E n t hy me me a r e n o t di s t i n ui s h e d a s r e
g
g ,

sp e ct iv e l a n i n t a l o i ca l a n a n e x t r a l o i ca l fo m ; b o t h a r e s up r
y g gr

ose d e u a lly l o i ca l T h o s e wh o d e fe n d t h e di s t i n ct i o n a e t h e r e r
p q g .
,

for e n e cess a ily co mpe ll e d t o ma i n t a i n t h a t L og i c r eg a d s t he

d
r r
, ,

a ccid e n t o f t h e e x t e r a l e x p e ss i o n an n o t t h e e s se ce o f t h e
n r ,
n

i n t er n a l t h o ug h t in h oldi n g t h a t t he E n thy meme is r ea lly a d efeo

,

ti ve r ea s on i g n .
2

d
mpa r e
d
-
1 C o D is cussion s , p 1 .53 cl seq
ED . . B or o ou , L og ica Restitut a , P ar s V tr a ct i . . . c.

d
[T h a t S y ll og is m a n E n t h y me me a r e n ot l p 602 ]
2 .
,
.

pr ope r ly isti n ct S pecies of r eas on i n g , see

 '

L E C T . XX . L o G 10 . 2 77

I t t h us ath a t t o c on s t i t ut e t h e E n thy me me a s a s e ci es
pp e a r s,
p

p e r fe ct a n

d
d
o f r e a s o n i g di s t i n ct fr o m S yll og i s ms P r o pe r b y t h e di ffe r e ce o f

i m p e
n

fe c t i s o f a l l arb s u r di t i e s t h e
, g r e a t e st B u t i s t hi s

d
,

.
n

a b su i t y t he w o r k of A ri st ot l e ? a n t hi s l e a d s us t o t he s e con d
r

h ead .

I I Wi t h ou t en t e r i n g upon a r eg ul ar e x a mi n a ti o n o f t h e v a r i o us
.

a s s a e s o f t h e A i s t o t e li c t r e a t i s es r e l a t i v e t o
Th d
p g r

im
H i tt
e S
t h i s poi n t I ma y ob s e ve in t h e r s t pl a ce t h a t

'
r
f t h E mh y m m
, , ,
O e e e as
A i st o t l e e pr e s s ly d e cl a r e s i n
r
g en e l
x t h at a ra

t m d
m
.

a s p l
eC I a f f or o r ea

s yll og i sm is c on s id e r e d b t h e l o i ci a n n o t in r e
i g
so n n no by a e y g ,

A i t tl
r s o eo l a t i on t o it s e pr e ssi o n pb w w A i-
y )u x b u t r s r c

r o ,

e cl us i ve ly a s a me t a l

dd ( m b b

x
p o ce s s h h r n r ol c
r o s v ev

T i st i n ct i o n t h e r e fo r e of a cl a s s of s yll o i sms

d
1
r
rl y ) A h eov .
g , , ,

a s fo un d e d o n a v e b a l a cci e n t h e t h u s o f c o u s e i mpli ci t ly a n
r , by r ,

T h E th y m m
e

A i t tl
n

wh t
f
a n t i ci pa t i o n
e
S e co d pla ce
e o
co n d e mn s

oe s i
But A r i st ot l e in t he
,

s t i n g ui sh t h e E n t hy me me
n ,
dd .
,

dd
r s o e, a .

a s a c e t a i n ki d of s yll o g i s m a s a s yll og i sm r n ,

o f a peculi ar ma tt e r a s a s yll og i s m fr om s i g n s a n likelih o od s 2

, .

N o w if h a v i g d o n e t hi s it w e r e h e ld th a t A r i st o t l e o v e r a
,
n ,
a b ove n

di st i n g ui sh e d t he E n t hy me me a l s o a s a syll og i s m wi t h o n e sup
p r e s se d
p e mi s e A i s t o t l e must b e s u
r

mut u a l a n a l o g y ; for a syll og i sm fr o m s i g s a

d
,
r
pp
me me b y t w o i er e ce s a n b y t w o di ffe r e n ce s whi ch h a v e n o
'
o

n
s e d t o d e n e t h e E

,
d
likelih o o s d oes n ot
t h y

n n d d
n

mor e n a t u r a lly fa ll i n t o a e lli pt i ca l fo r m th a n a syll og i s m of a y

o t h e r ma t t e r Y e t thi s a b sur di t y h a s b e e n a n is a l mos t u i v e r s a lly
.

b e li e ve d of t he a cu t est o f h uma n i n t e ll e ct s a n o n g r o u n d s whi ch

n

d
d n
n

, ,

wh e n e x a mi e d a ffo d n ot t he sli g h t est w a r r a n t for su ch a con cl u

n ,
r

s i on . O r t he cr iti ci s m of t h e s e g o u d s it w o uld b e o u t o f pl a ce
r

h e r e t o e n t e r S ufce it t o s a y t h a t t he t ex t s i t h e O r g a n on a
.

R he tor i c w hi ch ma y b e a dd u ce d in s uppor t o f t he v ulg a r opi n i on

,
r n

n n d
, ,

w ill b e a r n o s u ch in t e pr ht a t io n 3 t h a t in o n e pa s s a g e wh e e t he
r r
,

d
w or d i h i) ( p f
( i c
-
i m er ; ec t ) is a pp li e d t o t h e E n t hy m e m e t hi s w o d ,
r ,

if g e ui n e n ee d s ig i fy only t h a t t h e r e a son i n g f om S i g s a n
n ,
n r n

d
r ob a b ili t i e s a ffor d s n ot a e r fe ct or n e ce ss a r y i n fe r e n ce ; b ut th a t
p p ,

in poi n t of fa ct t he w o d ,
hiy is t h e e a ma n i fes t i n t e po l a t i on
r r e s r r ,

ma d e t o a cco mmo d a t e t h e A i st ot eli c t o t he co mmo n d o ct r i n e of t he

d
r

E n t hy me me fo r i t i s n o t e t a n t in t he o ld es t ma n u s cr i pt s a n
,
'
x ha s , ,

a cco di n ly w i t h o ut a y r e fe r e n ce t o t h e pr e se n t
r
g ,

ej e ct e d fr o m t h e b e s t r e ce s i o n s a n a mon
g
n
q u e st i o

o t h e r s fr o m t h e r ece n t
n ,
b ee

d n

, ,
n,

e di t i o o f t h e w o r ks o f A i s t ot l e b
n
y t h e A c a d e m i c i r
a n s o f B e r li n ,

ah e di t i on fo un d e d o n a coll a t i on of t h e pr i n cipa l ma n uscr ipt s

1 A nal . P ost .
,
i 10 E
. . D . 2 A n a l. P r ion , ii 27 . . Rhet .
,
i 2 E
. . D .
 278 L O G I C L E C T . XX .

th r oug h o ut E ur ope d en i e d t h a t t h e t e r m
.
1
I t is n ot , h o we v er , to be
E n thy meme w a s a ppli e d t o a syll og i s m o f so me
A pp l i t i f thca u n e pr e s s e d p a t
on s o in v e r y a n ci e n t t i me s ; b ut
e x r , ,

d
t mE h m m
a l o g w it h t hi s me a n i n g it w a s a l so e mpl o y e d b y
er nt y e e
n ,
By D i y i f on s us o
t h e G e e k a R o m a n r h e t o r i ci a n s for a t h o u h t r n
H l m
a l ca A a s s us u g

d
,

d
.

in g e e r a l a s b y D i o n y s i us t h e H a li ca r a ssi a n 2

d
th fR
or O i Al /z et or c to ex n ,
n ,

? e a ut h o R
d
s g t A
n
i
ef o
a h
a e
t o f t h e h e
u
t o r i c t o A lex a n er a t n r ,
( mw Q
$ 22
d
18 e ui n
t r i b ut e d t o A r i st o t l e ctu m a s

for a n a cu te i ,
3
,

b y S opa t e r a n A ul us G elliusf for a r e a s o n i n g 4

fr o m co n t r a i e s or co t r a di ct or i e s a s b y C i ce r o
r Q ui n t ili a g i v e s n , .
6
n

t h e e me a i n g s o f t h e t e r m ; in o n e s e n s e s ig n ifyi n g
r n omn i a men te ,

i n a n ot h e r s en ten ti a cu m r a ti on e i n a t hi d

con cep ta , a r gu , ,
r ,

men ti mcon s equ en ti bu s , c el ea: r ep u g n a n ti bu s

co n clu s i o, vel e .

A mo n g t h e a n ci e n t s , w h o e mpl o y e d t he t e r m fo r a syll og i sm w ith

D en ot e d
w ith s o me
s o me euppr es ee d P a r t

h
,
ld w h m d
a co n s id e r a b l e n u mb er

l h i t wa s a
,

of th e a n ci en ts a e ,
i t o ur o e r n
,
o
g i ci a n s , t a t
s yll og i s m d e ci e n t o f o n e o r o t h e r pr e mi se , a s
d
s y l l o g is m w i t h s ome

d A l e x a n d e r t h e A ph r o di s i a n , A mmon iu s H e r miae,
s uppr esse pa r t T he
A p h r o is i a n A m
o me , h o w e v e r , a s P a chy
.
8
mon ius _ P hil opon us P h i l o o n u s,
p et c S .
.

P a ch y mer es Q u i n t il m e r
. e s
9
o n ly r e cog n iz e d t he ab se n ce of t h e ,

im U lpi a n S ch O I i maj o r pr e mi s e S o me , on t h e con t r a r y, t h ough t ,

'
.

a on H mog en es
er

like Q ui t ili a n th a t t he suppr e sse d pr oposi t i o

n ,
10
n

ou
g ht t o b e the c on cl usi on n a y U lpi a n t he G r eek c ommen ta tor , ,

d d d d
1 F or a full er h ist or y of t h is in ter p ol a ti on , 4 S op a tr i A pa meen sis P r oleg omen a i n A r is t i
J
d
see D iscus s ion s , p 154 ED [ F or t he cor r ect . . . e m . A r is t i is O p . O mn .
, e . e b b , v ol . i f
. . .

d
oct r in e o f t h e A r ist ot e lic E n t h y me me , see

d
Kai
i
3 . 7 7 3 7 65V y up npo f wu T wo / 67 1) 877

dd d
P r oleg omen a t his
d
M a r i o t te , E L og i q ue , P ii isc iii p In C a n t er s

d
s sa y e . . . . . ex

1 63 , P a r is ,

2 E p is t ola a
1 6 78
d
.

Cn
E D .

P omp eium d e p r ce cip uis H is t h e w or d

p r ession is r en e r e sen t en t w r um en s it a s , a n
eu vunp wr m s in t h e s a me p a ss a g e

d d
.

T iis us m o ;

K a h luh o y ia s mpa r e

t ori cis , c . 5 .
'
gK G t I/ O U by a rg ut us in a rg u men tis . Bu t co D is
ica l 7 08 A o rr 63V u vp eu r wu har cussion s , p 1 57 ED

d
n ov 7 . . .

dd dd
n oh r i f lor e
p i e . T he ex p r ess i o n 1 e r7'r o s 1! 5 N oct es A t tica , v i
~
. 13 .
Q uaer eb a n t ur

J
d d d
S vneh r wx/ is r en er e by . C . T . E r n est i , a ut e m n on g r a vi a n ec r e v e r e n a , se v v
'
G e a n ken F u lle se e h is L ex iko n T h
e c n ol og es i ,
mw a ra
'
q ua a m l epi a e t mi n ut a .

E D .

d d
G r ee cor u m Rhet or icce , T he me
v. sa 6 T op i ca , c 1 3 . .
- E D .

d n e a r ly me w or s
th e 10, 1 E
d
s e n t en ce is r e pe a te in sa 7 I nst . O ra t .
, v . . D .

d
V eter um S cr ip t or um C en

b y D i on y s ius , i n his 8 S ee A l ex an er , In T op z ca , pp 6 , 7 , e . .

d d dd mmon ius ,
s ur a , iii 2
. . E D . A l . 1 513 . A I n Q uin qu e V oces P or

d d p kg/r m, f 5 a , e
3 T he a uth o r of t h e Rhetor ica a A lex a n . . A i . 1 546 . P h ilop o n us , I n

d d d meme mon g
ru m, 0 . 8, cl a sse s the en th y a A n a l. P os t . , f 4 . a, e . A i . 1534 . T h e se a ut h o r

d dd
h s n ot e , D is cus s i on s ,

p r oofs an in e n es it as a i ties a r e ci t e in t h e a ut or

p r o o f, r a wn f r om kin o f opp osit i o n ED

d
an y p 1 56

d
. . . .

m i A b'y cp

8 o r iu oi)
"

9 E p itome L og ices A r is t ot elis , O x on , 1 6 66 , p

ra

d
l/ oz! r p . .

m
ica l r

dd d dd S ee a l so h is E p i t ome i n U n iv er sa m A r is to

g i et i/ a ur lo y ei/ a , lxh ot ica l r oi s 1 13 .

tih h ol s mo w
i
'
. T his w or k is a tt r ib ut e by t elis D isser en i A r te m, a pp en e t o Ra s a r ius
s

dd d d
V ict o r ius t o A n ax imen es of L a mpsa cus , an t r a n sl a t i on of A mmon i us on P or p h y r y

j
t h is con e ct u r e is a opte b y t h e l a test e it or , L ug .
,
1 547 , p 244 . ED . .

S p en g el . ED . 10I ns t . O ra t .
, v 14 , 1 E
. . D .
L E C T XX L O G IC 279

d
.
. .

ly d
of D e mo sth en e s, h li an the sc o a st o n H ermog e n e s t he Rhet or icia n l
,

a b so ut e l hy e n e a n E nt me me a syll og i s m in whi ch t h e con ,

cl us ion is d u n e x pr ess e .
2

III . T hi s l e a d s us t o thi r d h e a d ; for on n o pr i n cipl e ca n it b e

th e

d sh o w n t h a t o ur mo d e r n l og i ci a n s a r e co r r e ct in
,

d d
III A mitt in g th e
.

m
d e n yi n g or n ot con t e mpl a t i n g t he possibilit v of
v a li i ty o f t h e i s cr i

in a ti o n of t h e EM U
t he r e t i cen ce of t h e co n cl us1 0n T he o n ly pr I n .

meme it c a n n ot be ci l e on w hi ch a syll og i s m is c o mpe t e n t wi t h

,
p ,

ar m a BY
o n e o r o th er o f it s pr opos i t i on s un e x pr e s se d is
?m
t
fs e s upp r ess e : ,

i izf e i e
t hi s t h a t t he pa r t s uppr e sse d is t o o ma n ifes t
to re
,

ulr e e n o un ce me n t O n t h1 s pr i n p
.

le, a
q .

of t he
p e mi se s u n e s t o o d ; a n
r in
p o i n t of fa ct o c cu s
, q u d
yll og i s m is n ot l ess po ssib l e wi t h t h e con cl usi on th a n wi t h e i t h er
i t e r

fr e quen t ly a s a n y ot h e r T he l og i ci a n s t h e r e for e t o co mpl et e t h e i r

a s

.
d ,
,

,
r

, ,

d oct i n e o ug ht t o h a v e s ub di v id e d t he E n t hy r ,

me me n ot me r e ly i n t o E thy me me s o f t h e r s t
d
E mplx a fE hy es o nt n

d
m em e f th F t
d dT h d t hI r or d er a ccor I n a s t he sum t i on the sub
s e co n d b ut a l s o i n t o E n thy me mes o f t h e
d
e
f
s O S
an ,
S e con ,
an ir ,

O rd e r . g p , ,

s umpti o n o r t h e c o n cl us i o n is s u r ess e d
3
pp A s , .

e x a m l e s of th es e v a r i o us E n thy me me s t h e foll owi n m u f c

p g a
y s e : ,

T H E E X P LI C IT SY L L O G I SM .

E ver y lia r is a cowa r d ;

d
C a ius is a lia r ;

T her ef or e, C a ius is a cowa r .

I . EN T H YM E M E on T H E F I R S T O RD E R ( the S umption un dder stoo .

)

d
C a ius is a lia r

T her ef or e, C a ius is a cowa r .

SE O ( th e S ub sumption dd
d
II . ENT H YM E M E O F T H E C O N D RD E R un er stoo .
)

d
E ver y lia r is a cowa r ;

T her efor e, C a ins is a cowa r .

I II EN T O RD E R ( th e C on clusion dd )
d
. T H YM E M E O F T H E H I RD un er st oo .

d
E ver y li a r i s a cowa r ;
A n C a ius is a lia r .

d
d
d
d
1 U l p ia n , A D e mos th O ly n th . .
,
n . f 7 b,
. e . it ies on this q uest ion is g iven b y t he a uth o r ,

y mi mog en em,
d D is cuss ions , p 1 57 E D
d
A l .
, 1 527 . A n on a H er D e . . .

d
I n ven t z on e , l i b . iv . S ee Rhet or es e ci , e .

d
[ T h a t t he E n t hy meme is
dof t h r ee or er s is
I n t he s a me w or k ,
d d
A l . 1 509 , vol ii p 3 7 1
. . . . h el b y V ict o r in us ( in C a s si o or u s O p er a , vo l .

sch o lia s t a llo w s t h a t e it h er p r e mise

d d
p 3 65 , t h e
. i i p 53 6 ,
. . e . 1 729 . Rhetor es P ithce i, p 341 , . e .

o r c on clusi on ma y be omit t e . E D . o r r athe r of four or er s , for t her e ma y

dd d d
be an E n t hy me me with o n l y on e p r oposition
2 A n en la r ge an co r r ecte list o f a uth or en oun ce . S ee V ict or in us, as a b ove ]
2 80 L O G I C . LEC T . XX .

In thi s l a st , y o u see , the suppr es s o n of i

c on cl usi on is n ot on ly t he

n ot v i ol e n t b ut it s e pr e s s i on is e v e n mo e s u
,
x r
E pig r a mma tic
e uo u s t h a t h a t o f e i t h er of t h e pr e mi ses
ex
n
p r

d
.

a mples of E n thy meme

w it h s upp r ess e com
T heI e o ccuI s to me a c1e v er
pg e i ra m of th e

cl usi on . h ol og y I n w h i ch a s yll o i s m
G gr e ek A nt , t h e r e is

q
wi t h t he con cl usi on s uppr e s se d I sh a ll n ot
uot e t h e o r i g i n a l b u t g i v e y o u a L a t i n a n E n li s h i mi t a t i on whi ch
g ,
d .

d
will s e v e e q ua lly w e ll t o ill ust r a t e t he poi n t in q ue st i on T he
r -
.
1

L a t i n i mi t a t i on is b y t h e l e a r n e d pr i n t e r H e n r i cus S t e ph a n us a n ,

h e a ppli e s his e pi g r a m t o a ce r t a i n P e t r us w h o I ma ke n o d o ub t , , ,

Ra b e l a i s a n
th us :
d
w a s t he F r a n ci s ca n P e t r us a C o r n ib us wh o m Buch a n a n Be z a
ot h e r s h a v e a l so s a t i r iz e d
,
,

I t r un s a s I r e c oll ect
,

.
2
,
, ,

d
S un t mon a ch i n eq ua m n eq ua m n on un us et a lt er

P r aeter P etr um mn es : mon a ch a s

o est s e et h ic

d
.

T he E g li s h i mit a t i on wa s w r it t e n b
n
y P o r s on u on G ottfr i e
p
H er ma n ( w h e n t hi s w a s w i t t e n co n fe sse dly t h e p i n ce of G r e ek
n

s ch o l a s ) w h o w h e n h a r dly t w e t y h a
r ,
a t t a cke d P o r s o n s fa mo u s
r

n
,

d r

c a on s in his w or k D e JlI tr i s G r eecor um ci R oma n or u m T he

n , , .

mer i t of t he e pi g r a m d o e s n o t ce t a i n ly lie in it s t r ut h r .

d
T h e G er ma n s in G r eek,
A r e sa ly to seek ;

N ot ve in ve s core ,

But n in ety - ve mor e ;

d
A ll, sa v e o n ly H er ma n n ,

ma n n G er ma n

An H er s a .

th ese epigr a ms t he con cl us i on of t he syll og i sm is s uppr essed

In , ,

y e t it s ill a ti v e fo r ce is f e lt e v en i n s
p it e o f t h e e x r e s s e x ce pt i o n ;
p

d
na in r e a lly con u e r i n b i m li t i t h a r e n t di scl a i me r
y , q g y p ca o n e a
pp ,

con si s t s t h e w h o l e oin t a n e l e a n ce of t h e e pi g r a m T o
p ut t h e
p g .

for me r i n t o a syll og i st i c sh a pe ,

1 T he
d or ig in a l is a n epig r a m of
d d
P h ocy l i es, a n o, a l u s qu e c a

min a d
ms i ns zgmbu s p oet is
'
ex cer p ta ca r

m
p r es er ve b y S t r a b o , B x p 4 8 7, e C asa u . . . . . E x cu eba t S t ep ha n us ,
H . ex cu us et ia
j

d
b o n , 1 620 C ompa r e A n t holog ia G r zeca , i p
d
E p ig r a mma t is
. . . G reecis et L a t in is a liquot ccetcr is

54 , e
G r a ci , d d
Br un ck L ips , 1 794
.

e . G
P oetaz M in or es
.

a is fo r ,
.

i p 444
. .
.

.
a j 1 569 , p 21 7
ect a s un t ,

d
T he p a r o y b y P o r s o n is g i ven in A S t ar t
.

d
K
dm
'
A ccou n t of t he la te M Richa r P a r son , M A ,
Ka i 7 66 6 0v 8 6 00 A ept ot i 06
. . .

( ako
x
14 , L on on 1 808 T he o r ig i n a l G r e ek ,
6 p y 6s 8

a )t
p .
,
.

wit h P i it a t io n , is g iven in D r
a l so

m
o r son s .
r
H a l/ " 53 "
'
M 7V I I poe ovs ) 11 ,00
K
W e l l es l e y s A n tholog r a
P olyg lo tt a , p 4 33 E D . . .

d
A E'
Pl O S 2 S ee Buch a n a n , F r a n cis ca n us, l 764 . . Bez a ,

d
F o r t he L a t in i mita t ion b y S teph a n us , see P oema ta , p 85 , . e . 1 569 . Ra bel a is , L . iii . ch .

T heo Bez el: P oema t a , it em ea: G eorg ia Bucka n

. 14 - E D. .
L E C T . XX . L O G I C 2 81

S ump tion T he mon ks, on e a n d a l l, a r e goo d f or -rwthin g va r lets, ex cep tin g P eter ;

S ub s u mpt ion B ut P et er is a mon k .

N o w, w h at is, wh a t must b e, un d e r s t oo d to co mpl e t e the s en se ?

Why , t he c o n cl us i o n ,

T her ef or e, P eter is a goo d f

-
or -nothin g va r let like the r est.

he
T re d e d likew i se a dyi n g d e li v e r a n ce o f t h e phil o soph er
is r e co r , ,

H e g el t h e w it of whi c h d e pe n d s up o n t he s a me a mb i g u o u s r e a son
,

O f a ll my di sci pl e s
d
h e s a id o e o n ly un d e r s t a d s my

d
in g .

,

,

n n

p hil o s o phy ; a n h e d o es ot B u t w e m a
y t a k e t hi s
n for a n a .
1

m1ss 1 0n b y t he phil os o ph er hi ms el f; t h a t t h e d o ct r i n e of t h e A b s ol ut e
t r a n s ce d s h uma n c o mpr e h e n si o n
n .

Wh a t ha s n o w b e en s a id ma y suf ce t o sh ow n ot o n ly t h a t w e , ,

d
ma y h a v e e n t hy meme s w i t h a n y of t h e t h e e pr o posi t i o n s u d e r r n

st o o b ut t h a t t h e di st i n ct i o n i t s e lf o f t h e e n t hy me me a s a s pe ci e s
, ,

o f syll og i m is i n e t
p s ,
.

I n o w g o on t o t he T hi r d D i v i s i on of S y ll og i sms u d e r t he h e a d ,
n

g l
C .

d
S y ll g i m R
I g l
o
of t h e i r E
s s,
t h e di v i s i o
t e r n a l or A c cid e n t a l fo m I me a n
e
o f s yll og i s ms i t o Re g ul a r a
x

n n
r ,

n d
d
u ar an r re u ar .

I r eg ul a a di s t i n ct i on d e t e r mi e d b
r r,
y t h e or n

in a r y o r e x t r a or di n a r y a r r a n g e me n t of th e i r co s t i t ue t pa r t s I n n .

c o mme c e t hi s s ubj e ct w i t h t he fo ll o wi n a a a h
n
g p g p r r .

X X I I I A sy llog s m is I eg ul a r b y r e l a t i on
if L . l T o rr ,

nd t h e t a s p s e d o d er o f it s P r op o s i t i o s ;
d
r n o r n
P a rXX . L III . Ki s

of I r r e g ul a r T o t h e t a sp os e d o r d e r o f it s T e ms ; a
sy n c r n r n

d
T o t h e t a n spo se d o r d e r of b o t h it s
g ism s
r

P r opo si t i on s a n T e r ms O f t h e s e in t h e i r o d e r . r .

d
A s yll og i sm in e x t e s i o n is Re g ul a in t he o r d e r o f it s n r,

P opo s i t i on s wh e t h e s ub s umpt i o n fo ll o w s t h e s umpt i o

r ,

d
n a

d n ,
n

t he co cl u s i on fo ll o w s t h e s ub s umpt i on
d
n I n t hi s r e s pe ct ( is .

'
c ou t i n g t he i e r e n ce of t h e qu a t i t i e s o f d ept h a n b r e a d t h )
n n
,

it t h e r e for e a d mi t s of a v e fo ld i e g ul a r i t y un d e r t h r e e h e a d s
, ,
rr
,

d
fo e i t h er r T he t w o p e mi s e s ma y b e t r a spos e d ; o r r n
, ,

T h e co n cl us i o n ma y pr ece d e t h e pr e mi s es a h e r e e i t h e r t he ,
n ,

s u mpt i o n o r t h e s ub s umpt i o n ma y s t a n d r s t ; o r

e l u s i o n ma
y b e
p l a c e d b e t w ee n t h e
p e mi se s a n h
T h e co
er e e i t h e r r ,
d ,
n

t h e s u mpt i on or t h e s ub s u mpt i on ma y st a n d s t
se ti n
g t h e snum pt i o n s ub s um t i on a
p
A B C we h a v e b es id e s t h e r eg ul a o d er
co n c l u
, s i o n b
T h us r e p e

y t h e l e t t e s ,
n d r .
,
r

, , , , B A C O r r , , , , ,

1 S ee D is cus sion s , p 788 . . ED .

28 L O G I C .
LEC T . XX .

A , B,
of t he
C , B, A
,
,

l og i ci a n s is h o w e v er o e s id e d a n e r o e o us )
A
,
, C , B,
n - d
B, C , A
r n
.
( T h is d o ctr i n e
.

d A syll o g i s m is R g ul a o r I r e g ul a in r e spe ct t o t he O re r r r,

e r of it s T e r ms a cco r di g t o t h e pl a c e w hi ch t h e middl e t e r m
,
n

d
h old s i t h e p e mi ses I t is r eg ul a r i C o mpr e h e n s i ve Q ua n
d
n r .
,
n

t i t y w h e t h e mi dl e t e m is t h e p e di ca t e of t h e s umpt i o n a
,
n r r n

d
t he s u bj t o f t h e s u b s u m t i o n in E t e n s i v e Q ua n t i t y w h e n
e c p x ,

t h e middl e t e r m is t h e s ubj e ct o f t h e s u mpt i o n a n t h e pr e di

ca t e o f t h e s ub s u m t i o n F r o m t he r eg u l a r or d e r o f t h e t e r ms
"

p .

t h e e a e t h r e e pos s ib l e d e v i a t i o n s in e i t h er q u a n ti t y
r r F or the , .

middl e t e m ma y o ccur
d T wi ce a s p e di ca t e ; T wi ce a s
r ,
r

s ubj e c t an ,

d
I n C o mpr e h e n si v e Q ua n t i t y it ma y in t he ,

s u m t i o n b e s ubj e ct a in t h e s ub s um t i o n
p p r e di ca t e ; in E x

d d
n
p ,

t en s i v e Q u a n t i t y it ma y in t he s umpt i o n b e pr e i ca t e a n
, in ,

t he s ub s u mpt i o n s ubj e ct

a d
middl e t e r m a n t he l e t t e s S a
,
d
T a ki n g t h e l e t t e r M t o d es i g n a t e t h e

r e di ca t e o f t h e co cl u s i o n t h e fo ll o w i
.

P t o d es ig n a t e t he s ubj e ct
h
r

m w ill
n d
n
p g ns c e e r e
p
,
n

r es e n t a l l t h e

r e ul a r a n
g i t
p
s i g d
o s s i b l e p o s i t i o s O f t h e middl e t e m b o t h in it s

e ul a r a a rr
g e m e t T h e R e
g u l ar
rr c o n s tit
n
n

u t e s n .
r ,

t h e F i r s t F i g ur e t he I e ul a r o d e
g t h e o th e r T hr ee
rr r r
1
.

A . IN C O M P RE H E N S I O N .

I I

B . IN E XT E N SIO N .

11

Th es e r e l a t i ve pos it i v e s of t h e mid l e t er m in t he p emi ses d r ,

c o n s t i t ut e I r e e a t w h a t a r e c a ll e d t h e F o ur S y llog i s ti c F ig

u r es
( Xl m -
o
g
p
u r es
,

)
ua a n , t h e s e
p os i t i o
,

n s I h a v e co m
p i se d
d in r

t h e t wo fo ll o wi n g mn e mo n i c li n e s .

d
IN C O M P RE H E N S I O N .

P e s ub
rc tump r tc p r ce tum s ub sub ; en i q ue sub p r az .

d
I N E XT EN SIO N .

S ub p r ce tump r ce p r ce t um s ub sub ; e n i u
q p
e r ce s ub.
2

1 Cf
. Krug
L og ilc, 1 04, ED . . P ur ch ot , I ns t . P hil , L og ica , t i
. . iii p 1 99
0. . . .

2 T h is for mul a fo r E x t en s io n is t a k en fr om T he ot h er li n e is t h e A ut h o r

s o wn E D . .
L E C T . XX . L O G I C . 2 83

O f t h es e t wo ki n d s i r r eg ul a r ity in th e ex t er n a l for m of sy llo

of

g i s ms t h e fo r m e r ,
th a t o f p po o s i t i o n s is r

I ffil f g d
t
jz i l i h l h
n

i g h
o f fa r e s s m p o t an c e t a n t h e a t t er
r t a t of
t n e

ex t er n a m f yl or t e ms ; a
o s l og i ci a n s h a ve e v en th r o wn it a l t o
r n

l gi m
o s i i g f m
ar s n e t h e r o ut o f a cco un t in t h e i r co n s id e r a t i o n o f
ro
.
g ,

gffgi:
f th
S yll og i s t i c F i g ur e T h e y a r e h o w e v e r e q u a lly
O e
.
, ,

w r on g in pa ssi g o v er t he i r r eg ul a r con se cut i on

n

of t h e
p p
me t ; a
g
d
r o o s iti on s o f a s yll o i s m a s a ma t t e r o f a b so l ut e ly n o mo
,

in a t t i b ut i n g a n e x a g g e a t e d im
n n r r

1:2 1:55n2? i p o r t a n ce t o e v e y v a r i e t y in t h e a r r a n g e me n t
( n
r

d
3

p b
r ess e
y y f t han
o f I
o
t s t e re
m s T h e y o ug h t a t .l ea s t t o h a v e m a d e

i
ve g l rre t h e s t ud e n t o f L og i c a w a r e t h a t a s yll og i s m ca n
u a r con secu
,
f it
b e pe r s pi c uo usly e x p es se d n o t o n ly b y t he n o
222:
s
r r

ma l b ut b y a n y of t h e v e c on s e cut i o n s o f it s
,

r o os iti o n s which d e v i a t e fr om t h e r e ul ar or d er F r ex am l e
p p g o p .
,

t ake t he foll owi n g syll og i s m

A ll vir tue is p r a isewor thy

B ut sobr i ety is a vir t ue ;

T her efor e, sobr iety is p r a is ewor thy .

his is t he r eg ul a r su ccessi o n of sumpt i on s ub sumpti on a n con

T
d , ,
d
cl us io n in a s yll og i sm o f e x t e n s i o n ; a n
,
a s a ll t h a t ca n b e s a id o n ,

d
t h e pr e s e n t q ue st i o of t he o n e u a n t i t y is a li b l m u t t i
n a
q , pp ca e s , ,

mu ta n is t o t he o t h er it w ill b e n e e dl e ss t o s h o w a t i cu l a t ely t h a t
, , r

a s yll o g i s m in c o mpr e h e s i o n is e u a lly s u s c e t i b l e o f a t r a n s osi

q n
p p
ti o n O f it s pr opos i t i o s a s a s yll og i sm in e x t e n s i on K e epi g t he
n . n

s a me q ua n t i t y t o w it e x t e n si o n l e t u s s t r e v e r s e t h e r e mi ses
, , , p r ,

l ea v i n g t he c on cl usi on in t h e l a st pl a ce ( B A O ) , ,
.

S obr iety is a vir tue ;

B ut a ll vir tue is p r a is ewor thy ;

T her ef or e, sobr iety is p r a isewor thy .

hi s it w ill b e a ll o we d is s uf ci e n t ly pe r spi cuous L et us n o w

T ,

e n o un ce t h e c o n cl us i o n b e fo r e t h e pr e mi s e s ; a n
,

u n d e r t hi s h e a d d ,
.

l e t t h e pr e mi ses b e r s t t a ke n in t h e i r n a t ur a l or d er ( C A B) , , .

S obr iety is p r a isewor thy

d
F or a ll vir tue is p r a isewor thy ;

A n sobr iety is a vir tue .

N ow let t he pr emi s es b e t r a n spose d ( O ,

B,
A ) .
 L O G I C . L E C T . XX

S obr iety is p r a isewor thy ;

d
F or s obr iety is a vir tue ;

An a ll vir tue is p r a isewor thy .

T he i
r e s s v e r ea son n g c a ses is n ot l e ss man ifes t
i in b o th t h e se
g re

t h a n t h e pr o g r e s si v e r e a so n i n g of t h e r eg u l a r or d er .

I n t h e l a st pl a ce le t u s i t e r po l a t e t h e co n cl us i on b e tw een t he
,
n

r e mi s e s in t h e i r n or ma l co n se cut i o n ( A O B
p ) , , .

A ll vir tue is p r a i sewor thy

T her ef or e, sobr iety is p r a isewor thy

F or s obr iety is a vir tue.

S e c on dly, b etw e en t h e pr emi s es in th eir r e v er s e d or d er (B , C , A) .

S obr iety is a vir tue ;

T her ef or e, s obr iety is p r a isewor thy

F or a ll vir tue is p r a isewor thy .

1

In th es e t wo ca ses the r e a s on n i th oug h per h aps

g is n ot ob scur e,

e l usi o n h a
r

p d
t h e e x p e ss i o b e i n e l eg a t ; fo t h e j ud g me n t pl a ce d a ft e r the con

c ia t io n O f t h e c o n cl u s i o n
n

r ob a b ly b e e n a l r e a dy s u

a
pp
n

li e d i
d
r

n t h o u h t on t h e e n un

n
g
th er efo e w h e n sub s e que n t ly e x r
, , ,

r e s s e d it is fe lt a s su e r u o u s B ut thi s is a ci r cums t a n ce of n o
p , p .

l og i ca l i mpo t a n ce r .

I t is t h u s ma n i fe s t th a t th o ug h w or thy of n o ti ce in a s y st e m o f
, ,

L o g i c t he t r a n spo s i t i o n o f t h e pr opo si t i o n s of a syll og i s m a ffo r d s

,

n o mo di ca t i o n s o f fo r m yi e ldi n m o r e t h a n a s u e r c i a l ch a r a ct e r
g p .

L og i ci a s t h er e fo r e w e r e n o t w r o n g in e x cl udi n g t h e o r d e r o f t h e
n , ,

r o o si t i o n s a s a d whi h t t i t u t di ff f l
p p g r o u n o n c o c o n s e a e r e n c e o s y
l og i st i c f r m : b ut w e s h a ll s e e th a t t h e y h a v e n ot b e en con si st en t
o ,

or n o t s u f ci e t ly s h a r n si h t ed i n t hi s e x cl u si o n ; for s e v e a l o f
- r
p g ,

t h e i r r e co g n iz e d v a r i et i e s o f fo m s e v e r a l o f t he mo o d s of sy ll o
r

g is t ic g u e c r
o n s i s t in n o t hi g b u t a r e v e s a ln o f t h e p e m i s e s r r .

I n r e a li t y h o w e v e r t h e r e is n o i r r eg ul a r o r d e r of t h e s yll og i s ti c
, ,

r o os i t i o n s e x ce t in t he s i l e c a s e wh e r e t h e
dt i f p p g n
p ,

con cl u s i on is l a ce d b e t w e e n t h e pr e mi s e s
Tr ue oc r n e o con
p F or .

d
t
se cu I on
a s yll o s m ma e i t h e r c a ll e d S y n theti c I n
.

S y l l g i m eithe r g y m
o s g y b e i ,

th m
e orA ly ti na c c a se t h e
,
p r e mi s e s co me r s t a t h e co n cl us i on ,
n

is l a st ( t h e c a s e a l o e c o n t e mpl a t e d b y t h e n

l og i ci a n s ) o r it ma y b e ca ll e d A n a ly ti c t he pr opos i t i o n st yl e d t h e ,

co cl us i o e c e di n t h i t i ll d t h m i f ll wi
n
p n r
g e
p p o o s, o n s c a e r e p r e s e s o o n
g ,

a s it s r e a s on s a ca se n ot co n t e m l a t e d b l ici
( p y t h e o
g a n s
) T h e .

1 Cf . K r ug , L og ik, 1 04 , A n mer k, i .
ED .
L E C T XX L C G I C 85

diyy h ti
. .
.

A na ly t i c an yll og i sms ma y a g a i n b e e a ch c on sid e r e d

S nt e c s

a s in t he u an t t f E x t en s i on o r a s in t he q u a n t i t y o f C o mpr e
q o ,

h e n s io n ; in whi ch c a s es we s h a ll h a v e a co un t e r o r d e r o f t h e pr e m ,
-

is e s b ut o f whi ch o r d er s a s i n d e e d o f s uch q ua n t i t i e s o e a l on e
, , ,
n

h a s b e e n co n s id e r e d b y t h e l og i ci a n s .

d d
I n o w t h e r e fo r e g o on t o t h e s e con d a n mo r e i mpor t a n t g r o un d
,

o f r eg u l a r i t y a n
,

i r r eg ul a r i t y t he n a t u a l a n
d tr a n spo se d or d er of t he S yll og i sti c T e r ms T he
d r

dd f for ms d et er mi n e d b t he d i ffer en t os1ti o n of

Th t l n a ur a an
.

d
tr an sp ose or er o

t h S y ll g i ti T erms
e o s c .
y p
t h e middl e t e m b y r e l a t i on t o t h e maj or a n . r

mi n or t er ms in the pr e mi s e s of a s yll og i sm a r e c a ll e d F ig u r es ( x i e t

a n a me i h m i
F ig f S y ll g i m
ur es o
p o
g u c
s
e
) g v e n t o
aT a, t e b y A s r r

O f t h e se t h e st is o n t h e pr e v a l e n t
.
1
t ot l e . r ,

d d
d oct r i n e n ot pr ope r ly a g ur e a t a ll if b y g ur e b e me a t in L og ic
, , n ,

a s in G r a mma r a n Rh e t or i c a d e v i a t i on f o m t h e n a t ur a l a n r eg ,
r

d u l a r fo r m o f e x pr e s s i o n O f t h ese g ur es t h e .

g i h d
Th g
r ee i ti ur es s n
r st th r e e w e r e di st i n g ui sh e d b y A r i s t ot l e wh o ,
u by A i t tl

d
s e r s o e.

d ev e l o pe d th e i r r ul e s w i t h a t edi ous mi n ut e n e ss
some t i me s O b s cur e a n n o t a l w a y s in t h e b e s t o r d e
,
b ut a lt og e t h er r,

wi t h a a cut e n e ss whi ch if e v e r e q ua ll e d h a s cer t a i n ly n ev e r b e en

n ,
.
,

s ur a s s e d T h e fo ur t h whi c h Wh a t e ly at
p .
,

t d
l e a st in t h e for mer e di t i on s o f his E letn en ts
d
F o urt h F ig t t ib ur e a r

d th ity
u o t G l o b t a en u on
o t h e r r e ce n t O x fo r d l o i ci a n s se e m t o s u
,

l
s en er a u
an
or . g p
o s e t o b e li ke t h e o t h e r s o f A r i st o t e lic or i g i n
p , , ,

w e ow e e r h a s t o t h e i n e n u i t y of G a l e n I s a er h a s f r
p p g y p p o .
,

th oug h in l og i ca l t ea t i s e s a tt r ib ut e d w it h o ut h es i t a t i on t o t h e g e a t
r r

p hy si c a n a s if a d o ct r i n e t o b e fo un d i
i ,
h is w or ks t hi s is a l t og e t h er n ,

e r r on e o u s T h e r e is I a m ce t a i n o me n t i on o f t h e fo ur t h u e

d
r
.
, g r n ,

in a n y w i t i ng o f G a l e n o w e t a n t a n n o me n t i on o f G a l e n s

r n x
,

a ddi t i o n o f t h a t g ur e b y a n y G r e e k o r L a t i n a ut h o r i t y o f a n a g e

a ppr o x i ma ti g t o his o w n n T he r s t n o t i c e of t hi s G a l e n i c F ig ur e .

ib d
is b y t he S pa n i s h A r a b i a n A v er r o e s o f C o r d ov a , ,
Fi t t G
in h is co mme n t a r y o n t h e O r g a n on
rs as c r e o a
2
A v er r oe s .

l by A

d
en ve r r oe s .

o u i sh e d a b ov e a t h o usa n d y e a r s po st e r i or t o
r

G a l en ; a n fr o m his r e po r t a l on e ( a s I h a v e a l s o a s cer t a i n e d ) d oe s
t h e p e v a l e t o pi n i o n t a ke it s r i se t h a t w e o w e t o G a l e n t hi s a mpli
r n ,

ca t io ( or cor r upt i o n a s it ma y b e ) o f t he A r i s t o t e li c d o ct i n e s o f
n , r

l og i ca l g ur e T h e r e h a s b e en l a t ely pub li sh e d f o m ma n us cr i pt
. r ,

b y D id o t o f P a i s a n e w l og i ca l t r e a t i s e of G a l e n
r , I n thi s w o r k 3
.
,

in w hi c h t h e s yll og i st i c g ur e s a r e d et a il e d th e r e is n o me n ti o n of ,

men t .
pp 1 1 8
,
.
, H a at mcawub
'
ED .

2 P r i or A n a ly t i cs [ B i ch 8 E
,
. . . . D .
]
2 86 L O G IC . L E C T . XX .

a four th g ur e G a l en th er efor e a s fa r a s w e kn ow a ffor d s n o

.
, , ,

e x ce t i o n t o t h e o t h e a ut h o r s u on L o i c I n t h e s e c ir cu ms t a n c es
p p g r .
,

d
it is n e e dl es s t o o b s e r ve ho w s l e d e r is t he t e s t i mo y in fa v o r of t h e n n

r e o t ; an
p r t hi
ds is o n e o f ma n
y o t h e r s in whi ch a n idl e s t o r y o n ce

t old a n e t a il e d ob t a i n s u i ve s a l cr e di t a s a n e st a b li sh e d fa ct in
r ,
n

co n s e u e n ce o f t h e pr e v a l e n t i g n o r a n ce o f t h e fut ili t y o f it s fou n

r
,

q
d a t i on O f t he l eg i t i ma cy of t he F o u t h F i g ur e I sh a ll spe a k a ft er
. r
,

h a v i n g s h o w n y o u t h e n a t ur e o f it s r e a so n i g n .

Be for e pr o ce e di n g fur t h er in t he con sid e r a

C mP
o di
eX
t i o n o f t h e F i g u r e o f S yll og i s m it is h o we v e r
Q O ca '
, , ,

d
.

ti on f th F
o ef i g ur e o
n e c e ssa r y t o s t a t e a co m l e x m o d i ca t i on t
S y ll g i m
o s .
p o

whi ch it is s ubj e ct a n whi ch is c on t a i n e d in ,

t h e foll ow i n g pa r a g r a ph .

1T L

XX
XX I V . T he F i gur e
Q ua n t ity
of

an d
S yll og i s m is mo di e d b y t he
Q ua li t y o f t he pr opo si t i o n s
d
dQ li y
P L IV S y llo
w hi ch i i
ar
t ut e t he A t he
. .

co n s t r e a son n
g . s
g istic M oo s.

co mb i n a t i o n of Q ua n t i t y an ua t af

fo d s fo ur ki n d s of pr oposi t i on s U n i v e r s a l A f r ma t i v e ( A )
r ,

N eg a t i v e ( O ) an a s t h er e a e t h r e e d
U i v e s a l N eg a t i v e ( E ) P a r t i cul a r A fr ma t i ve (I ) P a r t i c ul a r
r ,

r o o s i t i o n s in e a ch s l
p p r
y
,

d
l og ism t h e e a r e co n se q ue n t ly in a ll s i x t y fo ur a r r a n g e me n t s
,
r -

o s s i b l e o f t h r e e pr o po s i t i o n s di ffe r i n g in q ua n t i t y a n u a li t y ;
p ,q
ar an em t

dd d
s w hi ch co n s t i t ut e wh a t a r e c a ll e d t he S ll i
r en o s
g y g
ti c M oo s ( p m mo i) TI ma y i n t e r po l a t e t h e o b s e r v a t i on

'

, .

T h e G e e k l og i ci a n s a ft e r A r i st o t l e l oo ki n g me r e ly t o t h e t wo
r ,

r e mi se s in c o mb i n a t i o n c a ll e d t h e s e S m
(

p y z g i es
y , l
g y j gu a i v r a r,

d
t i on es covy ug a ti on es combi n a ti on es ) A r i s t o t l e hi ms e l f n e v er

.
, ,

uses p T fo r e i t h e r mo o d o r mo d a li t y s pe ci a lly ; n o r d o e s he
'
og
'
y in a n y d e n it e s e n s e H is o n ly w or d for mo o d is
'
u se ov v ra .

t he v a g u e e pr ess i o n sy llog i s m x .

T he g e a t e r n umb er o f t h es e mo o d s a r e h o w e v er in co mpe
r

t en t a s con t r a di ct or y of t h e g en e r a l r ul e s of syll og i s m ; a n
,

t h e e a r e in a ll o n ly e l e v en whi ch ca n po s s i b ly e n t e r a l eg it i
r
, ,

d
ma t e s yll og i s m T h es e e l e v e n mo o d s a g a i n a r e fo r t h e s a me
.
,

n o t a ll a d mi s s i b l e in e v e r y u e b ut s i

d
r ea so o n ly in e a ch x
n,
g r , ,

d
t h a t is i a ll t w e t y fo ur ; a n
,
n a a i n o f t h es e t w e n t y fo u
g n - ve - r,

a e u s e l e ss a
r t h e r e for e u s ua lly n e g l e ct e d a s h a v i n g a pa r
,
n , , ,

t icul a r co cl us i on w h e r e a un i v e r s a l is c o mpe t e n t
n T he n i n e .

t e e n u s e ful moo d s a d mi t t e d b y l og i ci a n s ma y h o w e v e r b y t he , ,

q
d
u a n t i ca t i o n o f t h e
p r e di ca t e

s upe r s e in g t h e s i g n i ca n ce of F i g ur e
b e s t ill fur th er sim li e d
p , b y
.
,
L E C T . XX: L O G I C . 2 87

In en te in gc on s id er a ti on of the v a i o us M o od s o f t h e
r on th e r

S yll og i s t i c F i g ur es it is n ece s s a r y t h a t y o u r e ,

d
E p l i ti x ca on
c a l l t o me mo r y t he th r e e l a w s I g a v e y o u o f t h e
.

on dd
C a t eg o r i ca l S yll og i s m a n in pa r t i cul a r t h e t wo cl a us e s o f t he s ec
la w T h a t t h e s umpt i o n mu st b e e n i t e (g e n e r a l o r s i n g u
,
,

cl a us e s w hi ch a e mo r e
d
la r ) a n , t he s ub s umpt i o n a i r ma t iv e ,
r

v a g u e ly e x d b h w l w f h l i i h a t n o co n

d
t t t e o c a n s t
p esse
y e o a rs o g
e l u s i o n ca n b e d a w n f o m t w o a r t i cul a r r e mi s es an t h at n o
p p r r

co n cl us i on c a n b e d r a w n f o m t w o n e a t i v e

p r e mi s e d
y
g p r e mi s e s T hi
o u r e co ll e ct t h a t t h e fo ur co mb i n a t i o s o f Q ua n t i t y a n
,
s b ein g r

n
.

d
Q ua li t y co mpe t e n t t o a pr o po si t i on w e r e d e si g n a t e d b y t h e fo ur
, ,

l et t e r s A E I O A d e n ot i n g a un i v e r s a l a ir ma t iv e ; E a
, , , , ,

u n i v e s a l n e a t i ve I a a r t ic ul a r a fr ma t i v e O a a r ti cul a r
r
g p p , ,

n e a ti ve
g .

m un iver s a liter a mb er
d
A s s er it A ; n eg a t E ; v er u .

A s s er it I; n ega t O ; se pa r t icula r it er a mb 0 1 .

d
A ,
it a f r ms o f th is , t h es e, a ll ;

d
A s E en ies o f a n y

I , it a ir ms ,
as O en ies ,

d
Of so me ,
or few , or ma n y .

ms
d
d
T h us A a f r wha t E en ies,

d
A n e n it ely e it h er ;

d
T h us I a f r ms wh a t 0 en ies ,

Bu t e n it ely n e it h er . 2

N o w, h syll og i sm h a s t wo pr e mi s es
as ea c ,
T h e p oss ib l e mb i
t h e r e a r e co n s e q u e n t ly s i t e e n di ffer e n t co m
co
, ,
x
n a t i on s o f p r e mises

dli y
.

b in a t ion s p oss i b l e of pr e mi s e s differ i n g in qua n

tity an q u a t viz

N ow t h e qu e s t i on
th es e s i x t e en po ssi b l e com a r se s i a r e a ll o f

bin a t io n s o f di ffe r e n t p e mi s es v a lid t o w a r d s a l eg i t i ma t e co cl u r n

s i on ? I n a n s w er t o t hi s it is e v id e n t t h a t a co n s id e r a b l e n u mb e r ,

1 S ee p 1 80
a b o ve , ED Wil son Rule of Rea s on , p 2 7 a, 1 551

dd
. . .
. .
,

2 [T h e fo ll o wi n a e e v i ous E n g lish met

dd
g r p r ~

A sa y s a n E e n ie s ; both t ot a lly .

dd
r ica l v e r s i o n s o f t h ese lin es

d
I sa y s a n O e n i es ; b o th p a r t ia lly .

me E en ig h , wh ich b oth e
Wa ll s
A oe th a i r , oe th ar e

d dd
i
u n v e r s al l:
i , I n st z t utw L ogz cce , 1 686 , L . 11 . c. 4 , p.
1 oe th a i r me, o oeth en ig h , whi ch w e p a r ticri 105 ]
"
la r ca n.
28 8 L O G I C . L E C T . XX .

of th e se ar e at on c e i n v a lid a t e d
- b y the r s t l
c a u se o f the s e co n d
la w i l syll og i sm i s o fa r a s
of

t he c a t e g or ca , n
H W
o n iz e d b l o i ci an s b whi ch a ll mo o d s w i t h
l

? f th
i
O n ese
r e c y g y
g ,

id
ar e s y ll g t l ly
o is i ca l va
t w o p a r t cul a r pr e mi se s a e e x cl u d e d a s m t h e s e
i r ,

d d
.

t h e e i s n o g e e r a l r ul e r O f t hi s cl a s s a r e t he n .

fo ur moo d s I I I O O I a n O O A n t h e s e con d cl a use of

, , , , .

t h e s a me l a w in so fa r a s r e c og n iz e d b y l og i ci a n s i n v a lid a t e s t he
, ,

mo o d s o f t w o n e g a t iv e pr e mis e s a s in t h e s e t h er e is n o s ub o r di n a
t i on . O f t hi s cl a s s a r e t h e fo ur mo o d s E E E O O E a
F i n a lly b y t h e t w o cl a u ses o f t h e s e co d r ul e in conj un ct i on t h e
,

O O
n
, , ,
n d .

, ,

moo d I E is s a id t o b e e x cl u d e d b eca use t he pa r t i cul a r s umpt i on

con t a i n s n o

n at i o n T
g
hi
e n e r a l r ul e a n t h
s I thi n k is i n cor r e ct )
e g
T h
, p d
n e a t i v e s ub su m t i on n o s ub or i

e se e x cl us i on s h a v e b e en
,

d
.
( , , .

a d mi t t e d t o b e v a lid fo r e v e y F i ur e ; t h e r e co n s e u e n t ly r e ma i n
g q r , ,

e l o i ci a n s i l m d l i i m yll i m
( ysa t h g ) a s t h e
p oss b e o e s of a n
y g e t a t e s o
g s ,

t h e e i g ht fo ll o w i n g A A A E A I A O E A E I I A O A ; , , , , , , ,
I

b ut s o me of th e se a s a ppa r e n tly co n t a di ct o y o f t he seco n d r ul e in

,
r r

an d
it s mor e d en i t e a sse r t i o n s th a t t h e s umpt i o n mu st b e g e n e a l
t h e s ub sumpti o n a i r ma t iv e
,

I s h a ll a ft er st a ti n g t o y o u t he
co mmo n d o ct r i n e of t he l o i ci a n s s h o w t o b e r ea lly n o ex ce t i on s
, ,
r

g p ,
.

But wh et h e r e a ch o f t he mo o d s t h o ug h a p r i or i poss i b l e a ffo r d s

Wh tb e
a pr o pe r s yll og i s m i a l l t h e g ur es thi s

h m d e n d s o n t h e d e n it e r e l a ti on s of t he middl e
er ea c OO
e
,

n
,

d
p
mm p ib l
ff dp p
th t i
t er m t o t h e t w o o th er s in t h e se v e r a l g ur e s
a s a O SS e
.

a or s a ro y ll
er s o

g i m
s i l
n a l t h g e T h es e th e r e fo r e r e q u i r e a cl o s e r i n v e s t l g a t i on
ur e s . , ,
.

p a lly in t he
q u a n
I sh a ll co n sid e r th e m wi t h t h e l og i ci a n s pr i n ci
tity o f e x t e n si on b ut mu ta ti s mu ta n i s a ll th a t , ,
,

d ,
,

is t r ue in t h e o n e q u a n t i t y is e q ua lly t r ue in t h e o t h e r .

N o w if in t he r s t g ur e w e c o n sid er t h es e e i g ht mo o d s w i t h
, ,

d
d
r e fe r e n ce t o t he g e n e r a l r ul es w e s h a ll n that ,
F i t F igrs ur e .
a ll o n o t in t hi s g ur e a ffo d cor r e ct s yll og i s ms r

b ut o n ly th o se w hich a e co n st uct e d in co n fo r mi t y t o t he fo ll o w
r r

in g pa rt ic ul a r r ul e s whi ch a r e h o w e v e r in t hi s g ur e id e t i ca l wi t h
,

th o se w e h a v e a l r ea dy g i v en a s g en er a l l a w s of e ve r y per fe ct a n
r eg ul a r c a t e or i c a l s yll o i s m
, , ,
n

d
g g .

T he s y mb o l of t he F i r st F i g ur e is ,

for E x ten s ion ; for C o mpr eh en sion .

W
pa r
T h e r st
tic ul ar ,
an
ru e

d
l
,
is,
c on se
q
T he
ue n t ly
su

,
mpt i on mu st b e
t h e s ub s umpt i o n
i
u n v er s a

un i v e r s a l
l .

,
as :
er e it

1 C f Ba ch man n , L og ik,
. 129 . E D .
L EC T . XX . L O G I C .

d
we co u ld n ot kn o w
wh e th er S w e r e pr e ci sely t he pa r t of M whi ch
li e s in P a n it mig ht b e a l t og e t h er o ut of P I n th a t ca se a un i
,
.
,

a lly
d
v er s a l n eg a t i v e co n cl us i o n w o uld b e t he c or r e ct ; b u t t hi s c a n n o t

b e r a wn a s t h e r e is n o n e g a t i v e pr e mi se a n
r h a s t r ue till i t i
,
th o ug h a ccid en t
n o t a n e c ess a r y co n s e u e n ce o f t h e
,
d
p e p s s q ,

r e mi se s
1
p .

T h a s e con d r ul e is T he s ub s umpti on must b e a fr ma ti v e

d

.
,

We r e it eg a t i v e a n con se q ue n t ly t he sumpti on a fr ma t i v e in
n

t h a t ca se S w o uld b e wh o lly e x cl ud e d f om t h e sph er e of M ; a n

,

r
,

d ,

co n se u e n t ly t he g e n er a l r ul e u n d e r whi ch M s t a n d s w o uld ot b e
q , n

a ppli ca bl e t o S T h us .

A ll M are P ;
N o S is M ;
N o S is P .

d
A ll color s a r e p hy s ica l p hcenomen a ;

d
N o soun is a color ,

T her ef or e, n o soun is a p hy s ica l p h enomenon .

H
w ould b e t r ue
i n fe r e d f o m t h e
er e

,
the ne

,
g
a
i
a t v e con c u s o n

ll s ou n

i
d dh
l i
s are

i
h
p y
is fa l s e
s i ca l p li ce n omen a
,
b ut t h e a f r ma ti ve, w hi ch
,
ca n n o t be
r r
p m re
se s, an , t e r e fo r e , n o f
n e r e n ce is co mpet en t
2
a t a ll .

L eg it
h us ,

ma t e m
in thi s g u
d f
r e, o

an d i ht
f the
O A
d
l d d
d l
e

ar e
g moo
ex c u
s

e
g e n er a lly a d mi ssibl e
b y t he r s t ; A E a n
,
I A
d
i A O b y t h e se co n T h e r e r e ma i n , t he r e
8 O
ru e .

d lw d
.

Fir s t F i g ur e
ly l t ma t e moo d s, A
.

T he i r sy mb ol s .
fo r e , o n fo ur eg i i A ,
E A ,

A I, an E I . T he o er G r eek l og i ci a n s e

no e t d th em b y t h e t e r ms,

P pciuy a
ra,

E a/pa w s, Fpa f& , T ex uuc d s 3

the L a ti n sc h ool men b y t he t e r ms

B a r ba r a , C ela r en t, D a m , an d F er io .

d
1 Ba ch ma n n , L og ik, 5 1 30, p 203 E D . . . 2 Ba chma n n , as a b ove . ED .
[C f D . er o

d
[S O H o l l ma n n , P hil Ra t ion a lis , q uce L og i ca . L og ica Res t i tuta , P i v p 61 8
on , U l r ich , as
. . . .

v ulg o icit ur , 461 , G o tt in g ae , 1 74 6 L o va n i . a b o ve L o va n ien ses , as a b o ve

. H oll ma n n , .

d
cu ses , C o mmen t a r ia in I s a g P orp hy r ii a t i n . L og ica ,
omn es L ibr os A r is t e D ia l ect ica A n a l P r ior , L
,
. . .

dd mn emon ics ,
i p 2 1 5 , L ov a n ii, 1 54 7
. .
U l r ich , I n s tit L og . . . 3 F or an a ccoun t of t hese
at M et , 191 , I e n ae , 1 785
.
F on seca , I n s t it . . see D iscuss i on s , p 6 71 , . secon e iti on . ED .

D ia l , L vi 0 2 1 , p
. . . . .
2 90 L 0G I c L E C T XX

d
. . .

d
I n t he L ti n sy mb ol s whi ch a r e far mor e in g en i ous a n compl e t e
a , ,

d
a n in e g a r d t o t he hi s t o r y o f w hi c h I s h a ll s a y so me t hi n
r in t he
g
s e q u e l t he v o w e l s a r e a l o n e a t pr e s e n t t o b e con s id e r e d
, an of ,

an d
t h ese t he r s t e x pr e s se s t h e s umpt i o n t h e s e con d t h e s ub s umpt i o n
t h e t hi d t h e co n cl us i on
r

d
,

T h e co r r e ct n e s s of th ese is sh ow n
.

b y t he fo ll o wi n g e x a mpl e s a n d e li n e a ti on s .
,

T he r s t mood of thi s g ur e

1 . Ba r b a r a . I . BA RB A RA .

A ll M are P ;
A ll S are M ;

T her ef or e, a ll S a re P .

A ll tha t is co mp osite is is soluble d

d
A ll ma t er ia l thin gs a r e co mp os ite
T her ef or e, a ll ma ter ia l thin gs a r e issoluble .

II . C el a r en t . II . CE L A BE N T .

N o M is P ;

A ll S are M ;

T her ef or e, no S is P .

N o n ite bein g is ex e mp t f r om er r or ;
A ll men are n ite bein gs ;
T her ef or e, n o ma n is ex em p t f r omer r or .

III . D A RI I .

A ll M a re P

S ome S a re M ;

T her efor e, so me S a re P .

A ll vir tues a r e la u a ble ; d

d
S ome ha bits a r e vir tues

T her efor e, so me ha bits a r e la u a ble .

T d
hi s i agr am ma ke s it ma n ife st t o th e e y e why t he con cl usi on
ca n o n ly b e pa t i cu l a r A s o n ly a pa r t o f t h e s ph e r e S li e s i t h e
r .
n

s ph e r e M t hi s pa r t mu s t lie in t he sph e r e P a s t h e w h o l e o f M li e s
, ,

t h e r e i n ; b ut it is of thi s pa r t on ly t h a t a n y t hi n g ca n b e a f r me d in
t h e co n cl us i o n T he ot h e r pa r t o f S ca e i t h e r lie wh olly o ut o f
. n

P o r pa r t ly in P b ut o ut of M ; b ut a s t he p e mi se s a fr m n ot hi n g
,
r

of thi s a r t t he c on cl us i on ca n n o t th e r e for e i n cl ud e it
p , , ,
.
 L O G I C . 2 91

F er io . IV . FE RI O .

N o M is P ;

S ome S a re M ;

T her efor e, so me S a r e n ot P .

N o vir tue is r ep r ehen si ble

S ome ha bi ts a r e vi r tues

T her efor e, so me ha bits a r e not r ep r ehensible.

T he c on cl usi on in thi s c a se can on ly b e par ticul a r a s on ly a par t ,

of S is pl a c e d in t he sph e r e o f M T he o th e r pa r t o f S ma y lie o ut .

of P or m P But of t hi s t he pr e mi ses d e t er mi n e n o thi n g 1

d
. .

S econ F ig ur e T he s y mb ol of t he S e c on d F i g ur e is
,

for E x ten sion ; for C ompr eh en sion .

T hi s g ur e is g o ver n e d b y t he t wo fo ll owi n g
I ts r ul es
l O f t h ese t he r s t is O n e pr e mi se mus t
.

r u es .

be ti ve F or w er e t h e r e t wo a fr ma t i v e pr e mi se s a s :
2
n eg a .
,

A ll meta ls are miner a ls ;

A ll p ebbles a re miner a ls ;

the con cl us i o n w o uld b e A ll p ebbles are meta ls which w ould b e

,

fa l se .

T he secon d ru e l is T he su mpti on must b e i

un ve r sa l .
8
W er e

d
Ba ch ma n n , L og ik, p 204 206 E D
l . . . S cotus ] [ Q ua s i ion es in A na l P r ior . .
, L . i q
. .

L og ica Res t it ut a , P i v p 20, f 268 E D ]

d d
2 [ S ee D e r o on . . . . . .
,

63 7 . H oll ma n n , L og ica , 4 63 , 4 64 L ov a n i . 3 S ee H o ll ma n n , an L ova n ien ses , as cite

e n ses , C a m in A r is t A n a l
. P r ion , L i p 21 8
. . . . . . a b ove. E D .
29 2 L 0G 1c . L E C T . XX .

t he su mpti on pa r ti cul ar , t h e s ub s u mpt i o n b e h oov e d t o b e un i v er s a l ;

for h e r wi s e n o con cl us i on w o uld b e po ss ib l e But
ot . in t h a t ca s e t he
s u mpt i o wh et h er afr ma ti ve or n eg at i ve w ould
n, , a ffor d on ly
a b s ur d c o cl us i o n
l
n .

I f af r ma ti ve as ,

S ome P are M
N o S is M ;
T her ef or e, so me S a r e not P .

S ome a nima ls la y eggs, i . e . a r e egg-la y i n g things ;

N o hor se la y s eggs , i . e. is a n y egg-la y ing thing ;

T her ef or e, me hor ses ma ls

0

so a r e n ot a n i .

I f n eg a ti ve, as

S ome P a r e n ot M ;
A ll S are M ;

T her ef or e, so me S a r e n ot P .

S ome miner a ls a r e not p r eci ous s ton es

A ll top a z es a r e p r ecious s ton es ;

T her efor e, so me top a z es a r e n ot min er a ls ;

in b oth c a ses t he c on cl usi on is a b sur d .

T h e r e t h us r e ma i n s a y t h e l o ici a n s
g ,

,

on ly the mood s C esa r e,
C a mes tr es , F es tin o, B a r oco .

I . C esa r e. I . CE S A RE .

N o P is M ;
A ll S are M ;

T her ef or e, no S is P .

N othin g ma ter ia l ha s f r ee will ;

A ll sp ir its ha ve f r ee will ;

II . C mestres
a . II . CAM E S T RE S .

A ll P are M
N o S is M ;
T her efor e, no S is P .

d
A ll color s a r e vi si ble ;

d
N o soun is vi sible ;

T her ef or e, n o s oun is a color .

1 [ C f F on seca , I ns tit D ia l
. . .
, L . vi . 0. 21 , p .
a r . XX . L O G I C .

III . F estin o . I II . FE ST IN O .

N o P is M ; N o vice is p r a isewor thy

S ome S are M; S ome a ctions a r e p r a isewor thy

T her efor e, so me S a r e not P . Zh er ef or e, so me a ctions a r e n ot vices .

T he di ag r a m h er e is a lt er n a ti ve for a s t he co n cl usi on can on ly ,

compr i se a pa r t of S a s it is o n ly t h e c on seq uen c e of a pa r ti a l s ub

,

o r di n a t i on o f S t o M t he o th e r pa r t s of S which a r e o ut of M ma y
,

e ith e r lie wi t hi n or with ou t P T he c on cl usi on ca n th er e for e on ly

.
, ,

b e pa r tic ul ar .

IV . Bar oco . IV . BA RO CO .

A ll P a re M;
S ome S a r e n ot M ;

T her efor e, so me S a r e n ot P .

A ll bir d s a r e ovip a r ous ;

d
S ome a ni ma ls a r e n ot ovip a r ous

Zh er e or e, s o
f me a n ima ls a r e not bir s.
1

1 Bachman n , L og ik, as ab ove. En .

 LECT URE XXI .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y

S E C T I O N II O F
. T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

III .
-D O C T RI N E O F RE A S O N I N G S .

S YL L O G I S M S T H E IR D IV IS IO N S A C C O RD I N G T O E XT E RN A L
F O RM .

F I G U RE T H I RD AND F O U RT H .

IN

R p it l t i
ou r l a st L e ct ur e,
t er mi n a ti n g the g en er a l c on sid er a ti on
o f t he n a t ur e o f F i g ur e a n
a ft er

M o o d in C a t eg o r i ca l d
d
eca u a on .

S yll og i sms w e w e r e e n g a g e d in a r a pid s ur v e y ,

.

o f t h e n i n e t e e n l e i t i ma t e a n
g u se fu l m oo d s b e l on i n
g g t o t h e fo u r

d d
d
g ur e s a c cor di n g t o t h e r e c e i v e d
, o ct r i n e o f l og i ci a n s ( c ouse
q
t he l a w s a n
,

d
ue n tly e x cl us i v e ly in E x t e n s i o n ; a n
) I h a di s
p l aye d t o

mo od s of t he F i r s t a n S e co n d F i g ur e s Be fo r e t h er e
y o u

d .
,

for e pr ocee di n g t o a n y cr i t i ci s m o f t hi s d o ct r i n e it b eh oo v e s us t o
, ,

t er mi n a t e t he v i e w of t he t wo r e ma i i g g ur e s n n .

T hi d
T o e a ch o f t he r s t t wo g ur es l og ici a n s a t ,

d
F igr ur e .
t r i but e fo ur moo d s ; t o t he t hi r d t h e y con ce d e
s ix ; a n t o t he four t h v e T he s ch e me of t he T hir d F i g ur e in .
,

E x t en s i on is ,

T hi s gur e ( a l wa y s in "

ext en si on ) is g ov er n e d foll ow
b y t he t w o
in g laws t h e r s t is ,
T he s ub sumpt i on
W
I ts r ul e s .
mus t be a fr ma t iv e 1
. er e t he mi n or pr e mi s e a
ne
g a ti ve ,
as in t h e s yll og i sm ,

d
d in str umen ts ;

d
d
A ll les are musica l
B ut no l e is a ute ;

1 [ S ee A r i st otl e , A n a l P r ion , i 6 , . . 8, 1 6 . H oll ma n n , L og ica , 5 466 . L ova n ien ses, In A n .

P r ion ,
L . i p . .
LE C T . XXI . L O G 10 295

h er e the con c us on l i w o uld be r idi cul o us , T her efor e,

d
no S is P ,

d mus i ca l i n s tr u men t
T her efor e, no
ute is a . F or M an S ca n b ot h
ex c u l de eac h
h er a n y e t b oth lie w i t hi n t he sph er e of P
ot ,

T h e s e co n d l a w is T he con cl us i on must b e pa r t i cul a r a n

,
.

, d
d
a r ti cul a r l h h h r emi s es a r e un i v e r s a l hi s ma y b e
l
p a t o ug b o t p T .

s h o wn b o t h in a f r ma t i v e a n n e a ti v e syll o i s ms I n t he c a s e of
g g .

a f r ma ti ve s yll o i s ms a s :
g ,

A ll M are P ;

d
B ut al l M are S ;

h er e
an

or
d h
di i
,

t
y

n a t on .
o u

e se
will
mus t in t h e
But S
ob ser v e,

an d
li es in
M
co n cl us i o n
differ en t sph er es P a n S
t wo
b e co n n ect e d in a r e l a t i on o f s ub
P ma y b e di sp a r a t e n o t i o s a n n
2
d
,

co n , ,

s e q ue n t ly , n ot to be so con n e ct e d ; a n a b s ur d c on cl usi on w o uld ,

th er e fo r e , b e t he r e su lt . F o r e x a mpl e ,

d
d
A ll bir s a r e a ni ma ls with f ea ther s ;
B ut a ll bir s a r e a ni ma ls with a hea r t ;
T her ef or e, a ll a n i ma ls with a hea r t a r e a ni ma ls with f ea ther s .

A g a i n , s a y t h e l og i ci a n s, i n r eg a r d t o n eg a t iv e s z I h t h e s e

on ly t h e s u mpt i o n c a n b e n eg a t i v e , a s t h e s ub su mpt i on e r s t
( y
b t h
r ul e ) mus t b e a f r ma t i v e T h us : .

N o silver is ir on

B ut a l l s ilver is a min er a l .

H er e t he c on c us o n l i N o S is P ,
N o mi n er a l is i r on , w ould
b e fa l se .

T e st n i g t h e e ight p oss ib l e mo o d s in E x t e n s i on b y h e s e speci a l

t
r u es,

h
F
av e

er
l

i s on
t he
b e en
.
re ma i n fo r t hi s g u r e , s ix w hi ch b y t h e
re

n a me d , D a r a
p t i F e la p t
T he r s t moo d of t hi s g ur e is
o n D i sa mi s , D a t
,
i s i, B oca r
,

,
L a ti n l og i ci a n s
d o,

I . D a r apti . I . D A RA P T I .
3

A ll M a re P ;
B ut a ll M are S ;

T her ef or e so me S are P ;

d
A ll gil in g is meta llic ;
d
A ll gil in g shin es
T her ef or e, so me things tha t shin e a r e meta llic .

1 [ But see H ol l ma n n , L o g i ca , N 332 , 458 . t h e compr e hen sion of t h ei r co mmon j

su b ect

d
L o v a n ie n ses , In A n . P r i on , L i p . . . M . S ee a b ov e , p 1 58
. ED
. .

2 D isp a r a t e n ot ion s , i . e . , coor in a t e pa r t s of 3 [ S ome of t he a n cien t l o gicia n s , a mon g

 96 L O G I C . LE C T . XXI .

H er e it is man i fe s t
h a t M ca n n o t a t o ce lie i t w o differ e n t
.
t n n

s ph e e s u n l es s t h es e pa t i a lly i v o l v e pa r t i a lly i t e s e c t e a ch o t h e r

d
r r n ,
n r .
,

d
But o n ly pa t i a lly ; fo a s b o t h P a n S a r e mor e e x t e s i v e t h a M
r r n n ,

an a e b ot h o n ly c on n ect e d t h r o ug h M
r
( i e t hro u h a
g p t of
a . . r

th emsel v e s) th e y ca n n ot ex ce pt pa r t i a lly b e id en ti e d wi t h ea ch
, , ,

o th e r.

T he s e c o n d mo o d o f thi s g ur e is

,

II . F el apt on . II . FE LAP T O N .
1

N o M is P ;

B ut a ll M are S
T her ef or e, so me S a r e not P ;

dd
N o ma ter i a l s ubsta nc e is a mor a l s ub ect ;j

d
d
B ut a ll tha t is ma ter ia l is ex ten e

T her efo r e, so methin g ex ten e is n ot a mor a l subj ect .

Y ou will ob s er v e , thi s di ag r a m t he c on cl usi o n

th a t a cc or di n g to ,

ht
d
N o S is P b eca u s e t h e wh o l e o f S li e s o ut o f t h e
d
d
o gu t o b e
,

S ph e r e o f P ; a n as i t h e co n c e t e e x a mpl e t h e n o t i o n ex ten e
n r ,

N othi n g ex ten e i s a mor a l s u bj ect d

d
i s v i e w e d a s o ut of t h e n o t i o mor a l s u bj ect w e mi g h t co n cl u d e
B ut thi s c o n cl us i o n th o ug h
ma t er i a lly c or r e ct ca n n ot h o w e v e r b e for ma lly i n fe r e d f o m t he
n

.
,

r
,

r
,

, , ,

r e mi s e s I n t he s umpt i on i n d ee d t h e wh ol e of M i s e x cl ud e d
p .
, ,

fr om t he sph e r e o f P ; b ut in t he s ub s umpt i on M is i cl ud e d i t h e n n

s ph e r e S t h a t is w e t hi n k t h a t t he n o t i o n M is a pa r t o f t h e n o t i o n

S .
, ,

N o w in t h e con cl us i o n S is br o ug ht u n d e r P a n t he co n cl us i o n
o f a c a t e o r i ca l s yll o i s m in r e fe r e ce t o it s u
,

n t i t y is a s o u
,
d
g g q a , y n , ,

r e me mb e r b t h e t hi r d e l l w u l t d b t h e q u a li t y o f t h e
y , g n e a a r e
g a e y r

s ub s um t i o n B ut i t h t t h u b u m t i o n n ot w it h
p a s n e
pr
. e s e n c a se e s s p ,

s t a n di n g t h e u n i ve r s a lity of t he e x r e ss i o n o n ly j u d e s o f a pa r t of
p g ,

ot h e r s P ma e
o r ph y r y , h ave dd d tw o moo s of 23 , 24 , A i d . 1 53 1 . P h il O p on u s , I n A n a l P r i on
d
.
,

d d d
D a r a pt i, as A r is t o t l e h imself oe s in C esa r e L i . . c . 5, f 1 8 b. A pul e i us , D
. e H a bit u . D oct .

an C a mes t r e s , in D is a mis a n D a tisi . S ee P la t .

,
L . iii . O p er a , p 3 7 , 3 8 , e
. . E lme n h o r st ] .

Boet h ius , D e S y ll og is mo C a t eg or ico , L . i i ., Op

d
[ A r ist ot le g ives P a pe mo , A n a l P r ior i 7
er a , p 594 a libi .C f Z a b a r e l l a , O p er a L ogi ca ,
. 1 . . . .

d
D e Q ua r ta F ig ur a S y ll og , pp 1 1 9 , 1 20 et s eq
. . .
( Bu r g e r s y ck , I n s t it . L og icee , L . 11 . c. 7, p .

'
A l ex A p hr o isien s is , I n A n a l
. . P r i on , i 5,
. . 169 , C a n t ab.,
L EC T . XXI . L O G I C . 2 97

S ; t he
'

co n c us on l i ca n , in like ma n n er , on l y
j ud g e of a pa t o f S r .

d
t h e r e is n o thi n g e n o un ce d in t h e pr e mi se s
O f t he h e r pa r t s o f
ot S .

T h e r e l a ti o n b e t we en S an P c o uld li ke wi se b e a s fo ll o w s

d
N op igeo n is a ha wk ;

B ut a ll p igeons are bir s ;

f
S
H
or e, n o
er e

d
t he
S is P ,
l i
co n c us on cou

T h er ef or e,
s g r e a t er t h a n t h a t o f e t e r M
ld
no
n ot

bi r
ih
d be
is a
i
a un v e r s a

h a wk
l i
n eg a t v e ,

for t he s
ph
T her e
er e of

(bi r
) i (p g
i eo n
) or P ( h )
a wk ; it

ma y
P ( th er
,

ef or e
h
,
o w e v er , b e a
p
so

dd
a r t i c ul a r n e g a t i v e

me bir
d s a r e n ot
T her ef or e,
h a w/es ) , b e c a use t h e
s ome S a r e n o t

su mpt i o n

d
ha s ex c u l ded M an P (p gi e on a n h a wk) o m e a ch o t h e r
'
s sp h er e ,

an , con s e q u e n t ly ,hi h t he p a r t of S w c is e ua l t o M
q is diffe r e n t
fr o m t he pa r t o f S whi ch is e
q ua l to P .
But if t hi s b e t he ca s e

wh en t he s ub sumpt i o n h a s a i
u n ve r s a l e x pr ess o n ,i t he sa me, a f or

t i or i, tr ue wh e n it is pa r t i cul a r
is .

T h e t hi r d mod e o f t hi s g ur e is

I II . D isa mis . III . D ISAM IS .

S o me M are P ;

B ut a ll M are S ;
T her ef or e, S ome S are P ;

d d
d
S me a cts of homici e a r e la u a ble ;
o

d
B ut a ll a cts of homici e a r e cr uel ;
T her ef or e, so me cr uel a cts a r e la u a ble.

T he four th mood of thi s g ur e is

IV . D a tisi. IV . D A T I SI .

A ll M a re P ;

B ut so me M a re S ;

T her efor e, so me S are P ;

d
or ,

homici

d d
A ll a cts o f e a r e cr uel

d
S ome a cts of homici e are la u a ble ;

T her efor e, so me la u a ble a cts a r e cr uel .

2 98 L 0G I c . L EC T . XXI .

Thi s di ag r a m make s it ma n ifes t t h a t mor e th a n a s i g l e ca s e is n

p o s s i b l e in t hi s mo o d A s t h e s u b s umpt i
. o n i s pa r t i cul a r t h e co n ,

cl us io n c a n o n ly b i
g t h at
p a t o f S whi ch is M
r n i n t o id e n t i t y w i t h

P ; o f t he o t h e r pa t s o f P t h e e c a n b e n o t hi n g d e t er mi n e d a n
r

t h es e o t h e r p a t s it is e v id en t ma y e i t h er lie wh o lly o ut of o r
r
r

r ,
d
, , ;

a t ly w i t hi n P
p r , .

T h e ft h mo o d o f thi s g ur e is

V . Bo ca r do. V . BO C A RD O .

S ome M a r e n ot P ;

B ut a ll M are S;

T her efor e, so me S a r e n ot P ;

S me sy llogisms
o a r e n ot r egula r ;
B ut a ll s y llogis ms a re thi n gs i mp or ta n t ;

T her ef or e, so me imp ort a nt things a r e not thin gs r egula r .

T he s x i th mood of thi s g ur e is

VI . F er ison . VI . FE RI SO N .

N o M is P ;

B ut so me M ar e S
T her ef or e, so me S a r e n ot P ;

dd
N o tr uth is wi thout r esult ;

dd
S ome tr uths are mi sun er s too ;

T her efor e, so me thin gs misun er stoo a r e n ot without r esult.

H er e , as in t h e pr e mi se s, on ly th a t pa r t of S whi ch is M is
ex c ul ded fr o m P , con se q u e n t ly t h e o t h e r p a r t s of S ma y e ith er like
w i s e lie wh o lly o ut o f P o r pa t i lly i P , r a n .
I

S o mu ch for t h e moo d s of t he t hi r d g ur e .

1 Ba ch ma n n , L ogi k, 1 32 , p 2 1 1 21 8 E D
. . .
LEC T . XX I . L 0G I c . 2 99

F our t h F ig ur e ,
T he for mul a of t he F o ur th F igur e is

I ts L a wS T hi s g ur e is re
g u l t d b y th r ee l a w s
a e .

I . O f t h ese t he r s t is , I f t he s u mpt i on b e a f r ma ti v e t he ,

s ub s u

s ee n .
mpt i on must b e
F or if w e ha d i
u n ve r s a

t h e pr e m
l .

i s es :
T he n e c essity of thi s l a w is e a sily

A ll P are M

B ut me M
so are S;

in thi s ca se M ma y , or i
ma y n ot ,i to P
O n t h e fo r me r a lt e r n a t i v e if M b e hi g h er t h a n P a n
,

hi g h e r t h a n S t h e n t h e wh ol e of S mi g h t b e co n t a i n e d u n d e r P
be a n o t o n s u e r or

likewi se
p
, d
.

.
,

I n t hi s ca s e t he pr ope r co n cl us i on w o uld b e a u n i ve r s a l a f r ma t i ve ;
,

w hi ch h o w e v e r c a n n o t fo ll o w fr o m t h e pr e mi ses a s t h e s ub s u mp
, , ,

t i o n ea: hyp othes i is pa r t i cul a r

, , O n t he l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e e v e n if M
.
,

w er e n ot s upe r i or t o S s t ill s i n ce P is o n ly a pa r t o f M w e co u ld
, , ,

n o t kn o w wh e t h er a ar t o f S w e r e con t a i n e d u n d e r P o r n ot F
p o r .

ex a m l e
p
A ll men a r e a ni ma ls ;
B ut so me a n ima ls are a mp hibious .

F r om th ese p m
rei
c on cl usi on co uld b e r a w n
s es no

I I T h e se co n d r ul e b y w hi ch t hi s g u e is g o v er n e d
. r
d .

S uppos e we ha t he pr e mi s e s d
e i t h e r pr e mi se b e n eg a t i v e t h e s u mpt i o n mus t b e un i v e r s a l
,
.

S ome P a r e n ot M ;
B ut a ll M are S ;
T her efor e, so me S a r e n ot P ;

d
d d
S ome a ni ma ls a r e not f ea ther e

d
B ut a ll f ea ther e a n ima ls a r e bi r s

T her efor e, so me bi r s a r e n ot a n i ma ls .

Inthi s c a se t he w h ol e of S li es withi n t he sph er e of P ; th er e

d

ca n o t
n t h e r e for e
,
fo ll o w a pa r t i cul a r n eg a t i v e
,
co n cl us i o n an if ,

d
n o t t h a t n o c o n cl us i o n a t a ll
,
T he sa me w o uld h a ppe n w er e t h e
.

s um t i o t i ul a r a f r ma t i v e a n t h e s u b s u m t i u i a l
p a
p a rn c p on a , n v e r s

n e a t i ve
g .

I I I T he t hi r d r ul e of t he four th gur e is I f t h e sub sumpti on

.
300 L O G I C . L EC T . XXI .

d
be a fr ma t ive, th e c on cl usi on mus t
-
b e p a r t i cul a r T hi s ( t h e . l og i
cia n s s a y ) is ma n i fes t F o r in t hi s . g ur e S is hi g h e r t h a n M ,
an

hig h er t h a n P , co n s e q u e n t ly on ly a
p a r t of S ca n be P .

I f w e t e st b y t h es e r ul e s t h e eig h t possib l e mo o d s t h e r e a r e in ,

thi s g ur e v e foun d co mpe t en t , whi ch a mo g s un d r y o t h e r n ames

,
n
,

h ave i d
ob t a n e t he foll owi n g : B r a ma n tip , C a men es , D ima r i s ,
F es ap o, F r es i s on .

Of th e se mo od s t he r st is

I . BRA M AN T IP , oth er wis e BA M AL IP , etc.

A ll P are M ;

A ll M a re S;
T her efor e, me S
so a re P ;

dd
d dd
A ll gr ey houn s a re ogs ;

dd d
B ut a ll ogs a r e q ua r up e s ;

T her efor e, some q ua r up e s a r e gr ey houn s.

T he c
s e on d moo d is ca ll e d
II . C a men es II . CAM E N E S , CALE M E S , or C A L E N I E S , et c.

A ll P are M
B ut no M is S ;

T her efor e, no S is P ;

A ll ru mina tin g a nima ls ha ve f our ma chs

s to

B ut no a ni ma l with f our s to ma chs is ca r n ivor ous ;

T her ef or e, n o ca r n ivor ous a n i ma l r umin a tes .

T he thi r d mo o d in t he four th g ur e is v a r ou si ly d en omi n a t e d

I II . D ima r is . III . D I M A RI S , or D IM AT IS , or D I B A T I S , etc.

S o me P ar e M;

B ut a ll M are S ;
T her ef or e, so me S are P ;

d d
S ome p r a ctica lly virt uous men a r e n eces sita r ia ns

A ll neces s i ta r ia ns Sp ecula t i vely s ubver t the is tinction f vice a n

o

d
vir tue

the istin ction f vice

d
T her efor e, so me who sp ecula ti vely s ubver t o

an vir tue a r e p r a ctica lly vir tuous men :

T he four th mo o d of thi s g ur e _ is
L E C T . XXI . L O G I C . 3 01

IV . F esa p o. IV . FE S AP O .

N o P is M ;
A ll M are S;
T he r efor e, some S a r e not P ;

d
or ,

d
N o negr o is a H in oo ;

B ut a ll H in oos a r e bla cks ;

T her efor , so me bla cks a r e not negr oes ;

P an
P
,

.
A
d ccor di n g t o t he r s th ese di a gr ams a ll S is ex cl ud e d fr om
t of

t h u s t h e c o n cl usi on w o uld s ee m w a r r a n t e d t h a t N o S i s
T hi s con cl us i on ca n n o t h o w e v e r b e i n fe r r e d ; fo r it w ould v io
,

, ,

l a t e t he t hi r d r ul e of t his g ur e F or whil e w e in t he s umpt i on

, ,
.

h a ve on ly e x cl u d e d M t h a t is a pa r t of S fr om P a n a s t he o t h e r
a r t s o f S a r e n o t t a ke n i t o a cco u n t w e a r e c o n se u e n t ly n ot
,
,

,
d ,

p n q , , ,

e n t i t l e d t o d e n y th e s e o f P T h e r s t di a g r a m th e r efor e w
. hi ch , ,

d
fo mul a a n it is n e ce s s a r y t o a
r ,
q ,

d
d
s e n s u a liz e s o n ly a s i n l e c a s e is n o t co ad e u a t e wi t h t h e l o i ca l
g g
t h e s e con d in o r d er t o e x h a u s t

t a t ion o f F e s a po ; a n d
it T he s e con d di ag r a m is th er e for e like w i se a s en sib l e r epr ese n
.
,

th a t di ag r a m make s it e vid en t th a t t he con

,

el us i o n ca n o n ly b e a
p
d
a r t i cul a r n e a ti v e

T he ft h a n l a st mo o d is :
g .

V . F r esison . V . F RE SISO N .

N o P is M ;
B ut some M a re S;
T her ef or e, so me S a r e not P;
or ,

N o mor a l p r in cip le is a n a ni ma l imp ulse ;

B ut some a n ima l i mp ulses a r e p r incip les o f a ction

T her efor e, some p r in cip les of a ction a r e n ot mor a l p r incip les .

3 02 L O G I C . L E C T . XXI .

T he d e mon str a t i on is h er e t he s a me a s in t he for mer mo o d .

S i n ce t h e s ub s umpt i o n on ly pl a ce s a pa r t o f M in t he s ph e r e o f S ,

d
t h e con cl us i on w h o s e q u a n t i t y is d e t e r mi e d b y t h e s ub s umpt i o n
,
n
,

c a n o ly e n y P o f t h a t p a r t o f S w hi ch is li ke w i s e a

d
1
a r t of M

n
p .

H a vi g t h us con cl ud e d t h e e po s i t i o n o f t h e v a r i o us F i g ur es a
n x n

M dd
oo F ig
an i
M o o d s o f S yll og i s ms a s r e cog n iz e d b y l og i ci a n s
ure n
in r e fe r e n ce t o E x t e n s i ve Q ua n t ity it will n o t
, ,

C mp h i ,

dd
o re e n s on .

b e n e ce s s a r y t o s a y mo e t h a n a w o r d in g e n e r a l r
,

t o u chi n g t h es e g u r e s a n

o n e is v a lid a
.

e ul a r i t h
moo d s in r e fe r e n ce t o C omp e h e n s i v e
Q ua n t i t y Wh a t e v er mo o d a n g ur e is v a lid a n r eg ul a r in t he
d
e ot h er ; a n e v e r y a n o ma ly i s e u a lly d d r

, g n r n
q
a n a n o ma ly in b o t h T he r ul es o f t h e v a r i o us g ur e s whi ch w e
.

h a v e co n s id er e d I n r eg a r d t o syll ogi s ms i n E x t en si on a r e a ll with , ,

o ut e x ce t i on o r u a li ca t i o n a li c a b l e t o s yll o i s ms in C o m r e
p q pp g, p
h en sio n wi t h t hi s s i n g l e pr o vi s o t h a t a s t he s a me pr opos i t i o n for ms
, , ,

a di ffe r e n t r e mi s e in t h e se v e r a l u a n t i t i es a ll th a t is s a id o f t he
p q ,

co m r e h e n s i o n a n
p a ll t h a t i,
s s a id d
s umpt i o n in e x t e n s i o n s h o uld b e u n d e r s t o o d o f t he s ub s um t i on in

o
,

f t he s um t i o n in co m r e h e n
p
p
p
si o s h o u ld b e u n d e r s t oo d of t h e s ub s u m t i o n in e x t e n s i on
n,
p W h at .
,

d
t h e fo e h a s hi t h e r t o b e e n o r ma y h e r e a ft e r b e s t a t e d o f t he mo o d
re r , ,
,

an

d g ur e o f o n e q u a n t i t y is t o b e v i e w e d a s a ppli ca b l e mu ta t is
r nu ta n i s t o t h e o t h e r ,
,

T hi s b e i n g u n d e r s t oo d I pr o ce e
.

r s t pl a ce t o s h o w y o u th a t t he co mpl e x s e i e s
in t he ,
,

d ,

r
,

zizzi tgi i ; b e co n sid e r a b ly dw

o f l o i ca l fo r ms hi ch I h a v e e n u me r a t e d ma

d
i i f

z
s

for e
g y
c ne
i mi n i sh e d a n t he d o ct i n e o f
l g i l fo rm s ,
r
o ca

d
.

s yll og i s m co n s e ue n t ly r e d u ce d t o a hi h e r
q , g ,

s i mpli ci t y I n d oi n g t hi s I s h a ll c on sid e r r s t t he F i g u e s a
.
,
r n
, , ,

s e co dly t h e i r M o o d s
n ,
.

N o w a s r e g a r d s t he n umb e r o f t h e F i g ur es y o u a r e a wa r e fr o m
, , ,

wh
d
a t I fo r me r ly s t a t e d t h a t A r i s t o tl e o ly co n

d
,
n
I T h F ig

d
. e ur es .

t e mpl a t e t he t h r e e r s t a n t h a t t h e fo ur t h , ,
Th F th our
e
whi ch is b y t h o s e who o n o t mi st a ke it for a n
.

d
A r i s t o t e li c fo r m r e fe r r e d w i t h li t t l e pr ob a b ili t y t o G a l e w a s w h olly
,
n,

un n o t i ce d u n t il t h e e n of t he t w e l ft h o r t he b eg i n n i g o f t h e t hi r n

t ee n t h ce n t u r y w h e n it w a s i n cid e n t a lly c o mmun i ca t e d a s a n i n n o

, ,

v a t i o n o f t he hy i i a n of P e r a mus b y t h e ce l eb r a t e d A v e o es in rr
p s c g , ,

his c o mmen t a r y o n t h e P r i or A n a ly ti cs o f A r i s t o t l e b ut b y A v e r ,

r o es hi ms e l f r ej e ct e d a s a n ill e i t i ma t e n o v e l t y T h e n o t i ce o f t hi s

d
2
g .

dd
g ur e b y t he co mme n t a t or w a s h o w e v e r e n o ug h ; a n ,
t ho ug h r e ,

p u ia t e b y t h e
g r ea t m a j or i t y o f t h e r i g id A r i s t o t e li a n s t h e a ut h or ,

1 Ba chma n n , L og ilc, 5 1 93 , p . 2 1 8- 223 . 2 I n A na l P r ion i 8 , O p er a A r ist ot eli c, t i

. . . .
,

ED . f 78 , V
. e n e t ii s , 1 560 E D . .
L EC T . XXI .
L 0G I c . 3 03

ity of S co t us, b y w h o m it w a s d efe n d e d se cur e d for it a t l a st if n ot 1

, ,

a u i v e r s a l a ppr o v a l a t l e a s t a v e r y g e n e r a l t o l e r a t i o n a s a leg it i
n , ,

ma t e t h o ug h a n a w kw a r d fo r m T he a r g ume n t s i n d e e d b y whi ch .

it wa s a t t e mpt e d t o e v i n c e t he i n co mpet e n cy of t hi s g ur e w e r e ,

n o t of a ch a r a ct er ca l c ul a t e d t o e n for ce a s se n t ; fo r it s i n fer e n ce is

n o t l e s s v a lid t h a n th a t o f a n y o t h e r h ow e ver t or t uous a n per ,

- d
v e r s e it ma y b e fe l t t o b e I n fa ct t he l og i ci a n s in con se q ue n ce of
.
, ,

th ei r e x cl us i ve r e cog n i t i o n of t he r e a so n i n g in e x t e n si on w e r e n o t in ,

d
p os s e s s i o n of t h e me a n s o f s h o w i n g t h a t t hi s g ur e is a mon s t e r u n

e se vi n r
g o f t o l e r a t i o n fa r l e ss o f co un t e n a n ce a n

th e e for e t r oub l e y ou with t he i n con cl us i ve r ea s on i n g on t he pa r t

,
fa v or I s h a ll n o t
,

d .
,

r ,

e i t h e r o f t h o s e wh o h a v e a ss a il e d o r o f t h ose w ho h a v e d e fe n d e d

thi s g ur e b ut sh a ll a t on ce put y o u in po ssess i o n of t he g o un d on

,
r

w hi ch a l o n e I t hi n k it s cl a i m t o r e c og n i t i o n o ug h t t o b e di s a ll o w e d
, , .

I n t h e r s t pl a ce t h e n y o u a r e a w a r e t h a t a ll r e a s o i n g is e i t h er
, ,
n

in t h e q ua n tity o f co mpr e h e n si o n o r in t h e
G d Whi h q uan t it y of e x ten si on Y ou a r e a war e in t he
r oun s on
.
,

d
th e F th F ig
ou r ur e
s e c o n d th a t th es e u a n t i t i e s a r e n ot o n ly d i ffe r
ou g h t t b d ios a l l
e o w .
q ,

e n t b ut a s e x i s ti n in a n i n v e r s e r a ti o o f e a ch
g , ,

o t h e r oppos e d ,
F i n a lly in t h e t hi r d pl a ce y o u a r e a w a r e th a t
.
, , ,

t h o ug h o ppo s e d s o t h a t t h e ma x i mu m of t h e o n e is t h e m
, i n i mum
o f t h e o t h e r y e t t he e i s t e n ce o f e a c h s u p ose s t h e e x i s t e n ce o f t h e
, p x

o th e r ; a cco r di n g ly t h e r e ca n b e n o e x t en s i o n w i t h o ut s o me co mpr e

h e sio n o co m r e h e n s i on w i t h o ut s o me e x t e n s i o n
n ,
n
p .

T hi s b e i n g t he ca s e it is e v id e n t t h a t b e s id e s t h e d e n i t e r e a s on
,

in g fr o m w h ol e t o pa r t a n fr o m pa r t s t o w h o l e
,

, dd ,

d
wi t hi n t he s e v e r a l q ua n t i t i e s a n in t h e i r per
A i f
05 8 n e r en ce

ib l f om E
p O SS e r
i p
x en '
e n icul a r li n e s t h e e is a l s o co mpe t e n t a n ih r

i on mad
C mp h
.
,
8 1 0 11 t o o re en

s w m e d e n i t e i n fe r e n ce a cr oss fr om t h e o n e qua n t i t y t o
a .

t h e ot h er F o r if t he e x i st e n ce of t he o n e q u a n.

t ity b e o n ly po s si b l e u d er t he co n di t i on of t h e ot h e r w e ma y n ,

a l wa y s it is s e l f e v id e n t in t h e r s t pl a ce fr o m t h e a fr ma t i o n o f
,
-
, ,

a y t hi n i x t e n si o n i n d e n i t e ly a fr m it in com r e h e n s i on
n
g n e , p a s , ,

r e ci
p o c a lly f o m t h e a f r ma t i o n of a n y t hi n g in c o m r eh e n s i o n w e
r ,
r

ma y i n d e n i t e ly a ir m it in e x t e n s i on ; a n
p
in t h e s e co n d pl a c e d ,
,

fr o m t he n eg a t i on of a n y t hi n g in e t en si on we ma y a b s ol ut e ly d e n y x ,

1 T his st a te me n t is ma r ke dd as oub t ful in con clusi on is : per con seq uen s n e c d iver sita s
mmo n -p la ce Book
d
t h e A uth o r s C o . S co t us g u r es .

d
( Q uee st in A n a l P r ion , i q 34 ) ex p r ess ly t e
. . . . T h e F our th F igu r e is , h o weve r , s a i by

d
j ects t h e F ou r t h F ig ur e H e sa y s : S ol um .

d d dd
Ri ig er ( D e S en s u Ver i ci F a lsi , p 33 7 ) t o h a ve
d .

d
t r ib us mo is p o te st er i e b it a or in a t i o re b een in t r o uce by G a l en an S cot us . H os

d mor um secun um subj ect ion em p in ia n us ( D e C on tr ov er s iis D ia lect icis , c x ix )

spe ctu ex t r e . .

d
et p r ae ica tion em ; ig it u r t r es g ur ae e t n on a t t r ib ut e s ( e r r on e ous l y ) t h e i n ve n t ion o f t his

p l ur es
n on d
pe r ven it
q uia pe r s o l a m t r a n sp os it i on e m
iver sitas a l icu us j p r aemissae n ec
g ur e t o S co tus
L og ica Recog n it a ,
. C
c. x ii i .
o mp a r e
5 4 , p 2 77
.
a ls o

.
N
E
ol

D .
ius,
3 04 L O G I C L E C T . XXI .

it in c ompr eh en si on a s r e ci pr oca lly fr om t he n eg a ti on of a n ythi n g

, , ,

in co mpr e h e s i o n w e ma y a b s o l ut e ly d e n y it in e t e n s i on
n ,
x .

N o w w h a t h a s n o t b e e n ob s e v e d s u c h is e x cl us i v e ly t h e i fer
,
r , n

e n ce in t h e F o ur th F i g ur e ; it s t w o l a s t ul e s r
T hi th f
a r e in fa ct n o t hi n g b ut a n e n un ci a t i o n of t h e s e
s t e n a ur e o

d
th i f
e n i th
e r e n ce n e
t w o c o n di t i o n s of a c r o s s i fe r e n c e fr o m t he o n e n
F o urt h F ig ur e .

u a n t i t y t o t he o t h er ; a n t h e r s t r ul e w ill b e
q
h er e a ft er sh ow n t o b e on ly a n e r r or t h e r e s ul t o f n o t ob s e vi n g t h a t ,
r

c e t a i n mo o d s a e o n ly fo un d e d o n t h e a ccid e n t o f a t r a n s os e d

d
r r
p
o d e r o f t he r e mi s e s a n t h f r e con s tit ut e n o s ubj ect for a l o i
r
p e r e o , , g ,

ca l l e i s l a t i o n
g .

T o pr o ve thi s st a t e men t of t h e n a t ur e of t h e i n fer e n ce in t he

dd m tm f h u i i ly y o l o o k a t it s

t d
p r ove an o u r t us g r e . t s o n n e ce ss a r t ,

e a b s t r a ct for mul a I n e x t en s i on thi s is .

H in t h e pr e mi s e s P is con t a i n e d un d e r M , a n M is con t a i n e
er e

u n d e r S ; t h a t is, in t h e r e mi s e s S is t h e r e at e st w h ol e a n P h
d dd
p g t e

s ma ll e s t ar t S o fa r , t hi s s yll og i s m in e x t e n s i on is pr o pe r ly a s l
p .
y

d
l o g is m in co mpr e h e n s i on , in w hi ch t h e s ub ect j of t h e c o n c us l io n is
t he g h
r e a t e st ol e a n it s w
p r e di c a t e t h e s ma ll es t
, p a t F r o m s u ch r .

r e mi s e s w e t h e r e fo r e e x e ct t h a t t he co n cl u s i o n c a r yi n o ut w h a t
p p
, , g ,
r

w a s e s t a b li s h e d in t h e a n t e ce d e n t sh o uld a f r m P a s t h e p a t o f S , r .

I n t hi s h o w e v e r o ur e x pe ct a t i o n is di s a ppo i t e d ; fo r t h e r e a s on i n g
d
,
n
,

d
s udd e n ly t u s r ou d i t h e c on cl us i o n a n a f r ms S a s a pa t o f P
rn n n ,
r .

dd
A n h o w it ma y b e a ske d is t hi s e v o l ut i o n in t h e co n cl us i o n co m
, ,

p e t e t see i t h a t it w a s n o t re a e
p a n o war r a t i v n f it
d
e r
n , g n
p g ,
n n or

in t h e p e m i s es T o t hi s t he a n s w e r is pr o mpt a n e a s y T he con
r . .

e l us i on in t hi s ur e is s ol e ly l e i t i ma t e d b t h e ci r cums t a n ce t h a t
g g y ,

d
f o m a n id e n t i t y b e t w e en th e t w o t er ms in o n e q ua n t i t y w e ma y
r ,

a l w a y s i fe r s o me id e n t i t y b e t w ee n t h e m in t h e o t h e r a n
n fr o m a ,

id e n t i t y b e t we en t h e m in o n e q ua n t i t y w e ca n a l wa y s i n fe r a
d
no n-
,

n o n id e n t i t y in t h e o t h e r
-
An t h a t in t hi s g u r e t h e r e is a l w a y s
.

a t a si t i o n in t he co cl us i on fr o m t h e o n e
r n u a n t i t y is e v id e n t ; for
n
q .
,

d
t h a t n o t i o n w hi ch i t h e pr e mi s e s w a s t h e g e a t e s t w h o l e b e co me s
n r ,

in t he co cl u s i o n t h e s ma ll e s t pa r t ; a n
n t h a t n o t i o n whi ch in t he
r emi s e s w a s t h e s ma ll es t b m i h l i n t he

p p a t e co e s n t e co c u s o r
g r ea t
,
n

e st w h o l e N o w h o w is t hi s ma oeuv r e po ss i b l e ? h o w a r e w e
.
, n

e t i t l e d t o s a y t h a t b e ca u s e A co n t a i n s a ll B t h e r e fo e B c on t a i n s
n ,
r

d
s o me A ?
O n ly it is cl e a r b e ca u s e t h e r e is h e r e a ch a n g e fr om t he
, ,

co n t a i n i n f t h u n t i t y t o t h e co n t a i n i n o f t h e oth er
g o e on e
q a
g ; a n
L E C T . XXI . L 0G I C 3 05

b eca use, eac h q uan tity

ily i mplyi n g t h e i n d en it e e x i st e n ce
n ece ss a r

of t h e o t h e w e a r e co se q ue n t ly pe r mi t t e d t o r e n d er thi s n e ces s a r y
r, n

d
i mpli ca t i o t he g r o u d o f a l og i ca l i fe e n ce
n n n r .

I t is ma n i fes t h o we ve r in t he r s t pl a ce th a t s uch a cr o ss a n

h y b id
,

hy b id a n i n di r e ct r e a s o n i n g fr om t he o e
r
,

d ,

d
T hi i f
ua n t i t y t o t h e o th er n t h e fo ur t h ur e
s r n er
q i g is , ,
e n ce i 1 U s, t l n n a ur a

wh olly of a di ffer e n t ch a r a ct e r a n a cco u t f o m

. .

n r

d d
t he r ea s o n i n g in t h e o t h e r t h e e g ur es in whi c h a ll i n fe r e ce r ,
n ,

wh et h e r upwa r d s or d own w a r d s is e q uab l e a n h omog e n e o us ,

wi t hi n t he s a me qua n t i t y T h e l a tt er in s h or t is n a t ur a l a n e a sy ;
t he fo r me r u n a t u r a l a n , p e n
r v er se d
I n t h e se co n d pl a ce t he ki n d o f r e a son i n g c o mpe t e n t in t h e fo ur t h
.

g u e is wh o lly u se l es s T he ch a g e f o m t he
r . n r
2 U l se ess .
o n e q ua t i t y t o t he o t h e r i n t h e c o u s e o f a s l
.

n
y r

l og is m is w a r r a n t e d b y n o n ecess i t y b y n o e x pe di e n c y
i n g in e a ch q u a t i t y is a b s o l ut e a n
T he e a s o
co mpl e t e w i t hi n i t s e l f a a ll n d , .

,
r

n d
n

t h a t ca n b e a cco mpli s h e d in t he o n e pr o ce s s ca n e q u a lly w e ll b e a o

compli s h e d i t he o t h e r T h e j umpi n g t h er e fo r e f o m e x t e n s i on t o
n .
, ,
r

co m r e h e n s i o n o r fr o m co mpr e h e s i on t o e x t e n s i o n in t h e c o n cl u

d
n
p , ,

s i o n o f t he fo ur t h g ur e is a fe a t a b o u t a s r e a s on a b l e a n , use ful in

d
L og i c a s t h e j umpi n g fr o m o n e h o s e t o a n oth e r w o uld b e e a so n
,
r r

a bl e a u se ful in t h e r a ce co u se
n Bot h a r e a chi e v e me n t s pos s i b l e - r .

b ut b e ca us e poss i b l e n e i t h e r is t h er e for e a l eg iti ma t e e x e r ci s e of

, , , ,

skill .

We ma y t h er efor e on t he g r oun d t h at t he four th g ur e i n v ol v es

, ,

d
a us e l e s s t r a n s i t i o n f o m o n e q u a n t i t y t o a n ot h e r r ej e ct it a s a l og i
r ,

ca l g ur e a d eg r a d e it t o a me e l og i ca l ca p i ce
,
n r r .

But in t h e t hi r d pl a ce t h e r e is a b e t t er g o un d ; t he i n fer en c e
, , r ,

l id
t h o ug h v a lid in i t s e l f; is l og i ca lly is s cie n t i ,
3 L g i l ly i
o ca n va
c a lly i n v a lid F o r t he i n fe r en ce is on ly l eg it i
. .

, .

ma t e d b y t he o ccult con v er si on of t he o n e q u a n t i t y i n t o t he o t h er ,

whi ch t akes pl a ce i t h e me n t a l pr o ce ss T h e r e is t h us a s t e p t a ken

n .

in t h e r e a s o n i n g whi ch is n o t o v e r t ly e x pr e ss e d We r e t he wh ol e .

r o cess s t a t e d i l a n g ua g e a s s t a t e d it l og i ca lly o ug h t t o b e i n s t e a d
p n , ,

o f a s i mpl e s yll og i s m wi t h o n e di r e ct co cl us i o n w e s h o uld h a v e a

d
n ,

c o mpl ex r ea so n i n g wi t h t wo con cl usi o n s ; on e con cl usi on di r e ct a n

i mme di a t e (t he i n fe en ce t o w it o f con v e r s i o n ) a n fr o m t h a t im
r , ,

d d ,

me di a t e co n cl usi on a n ot h er me di a t e a n i n di r ect b ut w hi ch a s it
s t a n d s a ppe a r s a s t h e o n e s o l e a n

r e mi ses
,
e x cl us i v e co n cl usi o n f o m t he d ,

r
,

p T hi s .
g o u n d o n w hi ch I thi n k t h e fo ur th ur e o u h t t o
r ,g g
b e s pe ci a lly a b oli sh e d is s t a t e d w ith t he r e q ui s it e d e t a il s in t h e L og i
,

ca l A
pp e n di co n t a i n e d in t h e s e co n d e di t i on of m
x
y D i s cu s s i on s o n
1
P hi los op hy .

1 P 0 663 E D 0 .
 LECT URE XXI I .

S T O I C H E I O L O G Y .

S E C T I O N I I .
O F T H E P RO D U C T S O F T H O U G H T .

III .
= -D O C T RI N E O F RE A S O N I N G S .

S YL L O G I S M S T H E I R D I V I S I O N S A C C O RD I N G T O E XT E RN A L
F O RM .

C . RE G U L A R A N D I RRE G U L A R .

F I G U RE RE D U C T ION .

I N my l a st L t
ft er t er mi n a ti n g t he v i e w o f t he n i n et e en
e c ur e , a

M oo d s o f t h e F o ur S yll og i s t i c F i g u es a cco d r ,
r

d
R p i t l ti
eca u a on
in g t o t h e d o ct r i e o f l og i ci a n s I e n t e r e d o n t h e
.

n ,

c on s id e r a t i o n ho w fa r t h e i r d o ct i e c on ce i g t he n umb e r a n
,

l eg i t i ma cy of th e s e v a i o us g ur e s a n mood s w a s cor r e ct I n the

r
r n

d rn n

d
c on d uct of thi s di scus s i on I p opos e d r s t t o t r e a t of t he F i g ur es
,
r , , ,

an ,
s e co n dly t o t r e a t o f t he M o o d s
, C o mme n ci n g t h e n w i t h t h e
.
, ,

F i g u e s it is ma n ife s t th a t n o e x ce pt i o n ca n p o s s i b ly b e t a k e n t o
r ,

t h e r s t w hi ch is in po i n t o f fa ct n o g ur e a t a l l b ut t h e o n e r eg
, , , ,

ul a r t h e o n e n a t ur a l for m o f r a t i o ci n a t i o n
, T he o t h e r th r e e g .

d
u r e s di v id e th e ms e l v es i n t o t w o cl a s s es T he o n e o f t h es e cl a s s e s .

co m e h e n d s t h e fo ur t h t h t h t h d thi r d u es
p r
; e o e r e s e c o a n , g n r .

d
T h e four t h g ur e s t a n d s on t h e c ommon d o ct i n e of t h e l og i ci n s
,
r a ,

in a mo e un fa v o r a b l e s it u a t i on th a n t h e s e co n d a n
r t hi r d I t wa s .

n o t r e co n iz e d b A i t t l i t b t i d d m i i i n t o t h e s ci en ce
g y r s o e o a n e a s s o n

d
a t a co m a r a t i v e ly r ece n t i d i t h i fa ct b e e n u n i v e r
p p e r o ; a s n e v e n r

d m
s a lly r e co n iz e d i t i m if t ly e e r v e r s e cir
g ; a n s
p g
r o r ess s a es