Motivation in Video Games - Literature Review

The Computer Games Journal 1(2) Martinmas 2012 (special edition)
Motivation in video games: a literature review
Gavin Reid
School of Computing, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Renfrewshire, United Kingdom PA1 2BE
Abstract
Video gaming is a firmly established leisure pursuit, which continues to grow in popularity. This paper is an
examination of what motivates people to play computer games, and the relevance of such factors to the positive
and negative aspects of computer gaming. When all of an individuals motivations to play video games are for
the pursuit of fun, it is said that an intrinsic motivation is the most prevalent motivation. However, the primary
motivation for playing video games among periodic gamers is different from the primary motivation of regular
gamers: periodic gamers are driven by extrinsic motivation, whereas regular gamers are driven by intrinsic
motivation. The pursuit of a challenge is the prevalent motivation reported by regular gamers of both genders.
The Theory of Flow Experience, and the Attribution Theory have contributed to the understanding of why games
may provide a safe medium, in which to learn about the consequences of actions through experience.
Computer games may facilitate the development of self-monitoring and coping mechanisms. If the avoidance or
escape from other activities is the primary motivation for playing video games, there tends to be an increased
risk of engaging in addiction-related behaviours.
This paper reports on the findings of previous research (into the motivations for playing computer games), and
on industry reports containing data relating to gamer motivations. The aim is to build a picture of what motivates
people to play computer games, and how motivation is associated with the main positive and negative aspects
of computer gaming.
Article Information
Received: July 2012

Accepted: September 2012
Available: online November 2012
Copyright of the author 2012 Reproduction rights owned by The Computer Games Journal Ltd 2012-13
1: Introduction
According to Boyle et al, since their introduction in the 1970s, computer games have had a
transformational impact on how we spend our leisure time. Extensive research has been conducted
into the factors, which motivate people to play computer games and which sustain their engagement.
This paper explores the different theories of motivation and their application to video gaming.1
According to the Entertainment Software Association (ESA), 72% of American households play
computer or video games. This popularity is similar within the European Union (EU): the Interactive
Software Federation of Europe (ISFE) recently estimated that there were 95.2 million adult video
gamers across the EU. The ESA also identified a relatively balanced gender profile, with 58% of
gamers being men, and 42% being women. Although the pan-European demographics are slightly
different, the UK market mirrors this gender balance. It was reported in both surveys that video
Copyright of the author 2012 70

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www.computergamesjournal.com
gaming was not just something for the young, with 29% of American gamers being over 50 years old
(ESA, 2011), and almost 30% of 30-49 year olds playing video games in the EU. As a consequence,
the video games market is profitable: earlier this year, Price Waterhouse Coopers has recently
predicted that the global video games market may be worth $83.0 billion by 2016.2-4
Despite their popularity, or perhaps because of it (given Griffiths and Davies assertion that video
games are designed to compel the gamer to play), video games are not universally viewed as a
positive influence, with the promotion of violence, gender stereotyping and addiction the most
commonly cited concerns among the general public. Rosa et al highlighted these problems, and also
mentioned an immersion effect causing alienation as the most commonly studied negative effects of
video games. One example of the public perception (that video games are violent) was contained in
the results of the ISFE (2010) survey, where 17% of the non-gamers surveyed cited computer games
being too violent as their primary reason or secondary reason for not playing video games.1,3,5,6
Perhaps unsurprisingly, the negative aspects of computer games have been the subject of prolonged
initial research in the field. In more recent years, some research (such as the work of Durkin and
Barber; and Van Deventer and White) has focused on the positive impacts of video games, and their
potential application to learning and development. There is also one specific area of research, which
is relevant to both the positive and negative aspects of computer gaming: what motivates people to
play computer games, and what sustains their engagement in them once they have started to play the
game? 1, 7-9
2: Theories of Motivation
Motivation is a psychological construct. According to Ryan and Deci, To be motivated means to be

moved to do something. 10 They further argued that this motivation is individual and temporal, varying
in intensity and orientation, orientation being the underlying attitudes and goals that give rise to the
action. These different orientations give rise to the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. 10,11
Intrinsic motivation is the idea that people engage in doing an activity for its inherent enjoyment or
satisfaction, rather than because of external factors, including its consequences or products. The
source of an individuals intrinsic motivation is therefore very individual, which is why not everyone will
enjoy similar tasks. There are specific individual and interpersonal factors, which enhance intrinsic
motivation - namely challenge, fantasy, curiosity and control (in terms of individual factors) and
cooperation, competition and recognition (in terms of interpersonal factors). 10,12,13
According to Ryan and Deci, intrinsic motivation is also quite easily altered by environmental factors.
It tends to be stronger in a safe and relatable environment. Positive feedback also tends to increase
the level of intrinsic motivation in a task, whereas negative feedback often has the opposite effect.
Ryan and Deci also noted that intrinsic motivation could be undermined by the introduction of a
desirable level of external reward. They further hypothesised that this was because extrinsic
motivation is activated, causing the individual to become less involved in the task for enjoyment and
more for the proposed reward. This indicates that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation cannot be
maximized simultaneously, and that an optimum balance needs to be found. 20, 33, 40
Extrinsic motivation is the idea that people are motivated to perform a task purely to obtain the
potential reward for completion, or in order to avoid the potential sanction for non-completion.
However, they also argued that this is an overly simplistic view of the construct, since extrinsic

motivation can also vary in the degree to which it is autonomous and to which the individual chooses
to engage. This embeds extrinsic motivation in the Theory of Self-Determination. 10,13
The Self-Determination Theory is the idea that humans inherently want to grow and develop, and
hence exert effort, agency and commitment to activities, which potentially fulfil these aims. The
theory also purports that the amount of effort, agency (etc) that an individual chooses to exert at a
given time and in a given situation is highly variable. The theory also theorises that people have
psychological needs that also mediate this engagement. There are three needs that must be
satisfied, in order to allow optimal function and growth to occur:
competence: the desire to control the outcome and experience mastery;

relatedness: the desire to interact and engage with other human beings and to experience
positive emotional reciprocity; and,
autonomy: the desire to be in control of ones own life and destiny and to act in a way that is
cognisant with ones own values and beliefs. 10
In relation to extrinsic motivation, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) provides a sub-theory -

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) - to explain how extrinsically motivated behaviour is regulated.
OIT describes four types of extrinsic motivations:
external regulation, which is completely external;

introjection, which is somewhat external but has some ego involvement in terms of a focus
on approval from oneself and others;
identification, which is somewhat internal, the person both recognising the value of the
activity and its goals; and,
integration, which is fully internal since the activity and goals are fully congruent with the
individuals own values and beliefs. 4,10
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) also provides another sub-theory that relates to intrinsic motivation,
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), which focuses on the need for competence and autonomy to be
present, in order for intrinsic motivation to be activated. 10
Csikszentmihalyis Theory of Flow Experience is also linked to intrinsic motivation, but is based
around the concept of flow. Flow is a state of mind whereby a person is fully immersed in a task.
This goes beyond putting ones full attention towards a said task: emotions are not merely contained
and channelled, but are positively energised and aligned with the task. All of the persons focus goes
towards the task and to nothing else. 14
There are nine elements to a flow experience, although not all individuals require all elements to be
present to experience flow. These elements are:
clear goals and a good grasp of what to do next;

direct and immediate feedback;
a good balance between the skill required and challenge provided;
focused concentration on the task alone allowing actions and awareness to merge;
a lack of awareness of bodily needs and ones environment;
a loss of self- consciousness;
absence of the fear of failure;
a distorted sense of time; and,

engagement in the task for its own sake. This last element appears to describe complete
intrinsic motivation, which is perhaps why Csikszentmihalyi referred to a person in a flow
experience as fully motivated. 14,15
Csikszentmihalyi also hypothesised that specific personality traits enhanced an individuals ability to
achieve flow, and defined these traits as an autotelic personality. These personality traits were (i)
curiosity, (ii) persistence, (iii) low self-centredness, and (iv) a high rate of performing activities for
intrinsic reasons. 14,16
The rewarding nature of the flow experience motivates individuals to try and replicate it, and this
fosters individual growth as - while their skills progress - they seek out more complex challenges.
Furthermore, researchers have found that achieving flow is positively correlated with optimal
performance in various fields. 16,17
Another theory of motivation, which links to gamer motivation, is Weiners Attribution Theory. This is
an idea of people forming causal explanations for events and behaviours, in that they make
judgements about the cause of events or reason for particular behaviours based on their perceptions,
whether those are accurate or not. To understand how these attributions impact on motivation, one
must consider the causal properties. According to Weiner, there are three underlying causal
properties:
locus: whether the cause is external or internal to the person;

stability: whether the cause is unstable and temporary or stable and constant; and,
controllability: whether the outcome can be impacted on by ones volition. 18
According to Harvey and Martinko, an individuals bias to assign specific causal properties to either
negative or positive situations can create specific attribution styles:
optimistic: where negative situations are viewed as external and positive as internal;
pessimistic: for the reverse bias; and,
hostile: where negative situations are viewed as external but stable and constant. 19
These researchers further stated that these attribution styles have associated motivational states.
They suggested the following:
learned helplessness (the belief that failure is inevitable) is associated with a pessimistic
attribution style;
aggression - either instrumental or hostile - is associated with both a pessimistic attribution
style and hostile attribution style (but with hostile aggression being more closely associated
with a hostile attribution style); and,
empowerment is associated with an optimistic attribution style. 19
Interestingly, according to Weiner, the significance of the causal properties is that they map into what
are considered the two main determinants of motivationnamely, expectancy and value. 18 Having
considered the different motivational theories that are relevant to gaming, it is now appropriate to
consider how these theories link to the positive and negative aspects of playing video games. 18
3: Positive aspects of gaming

As previously discussed, gaming is an incredibly popular pastime, which continues to grow in

popularity year on year, and is also a significant and growing segment of the entertainment and media
market. As a result, gathering data about gamers motivations to play games has become common
for both sociological and commercial reasons.
In 2010, the ISFE gathered such information from just over 4,000 gamers across Europe as part of
their market analysis. They found that the main motivations for playing games were (i) to pass time
(26%); (ii) have fun (25%); and (iii) to relax and de-stress (23%). 3
These results do not support the views of Sweetser and Wyeth that player enjoyment is the single
most important goal for computer games. Nor do they support the assertion by Sherry et al that the
expectation of enjoyment is the most prevalent (although not the only) motivator of video game usage.
However, they do mirror the findings of a survey conducted by Phillips et al, who reported that the
challenge of the game, using my imagination and learning new things (all intrinsic motivations)
were cited as the main motivation for playing games by 6%, 1% and 1% of gamers respectively. 20-22
Given that fun is the only intrinsic motivation that is highly reported, this appears to evidence that
extrinsic motivation is a more common primary motivator for gamers than intrinsic motivation. It also
potentially indicates that the Self-Determination Theory and the Flow Theory are less important in
games design than is suggested by Sherry et al. 21
That said, the ISFE survey sample included only adults aged over 16 years of age, and included in
the subset of gamers all gamers, including the 31% of gamers who engage in gaming intermittently
rather than regularly, which may account for this finding. Indeed when the results of the committed
gamers (who made up less than 7% of all gamers) were examined, they were more likely to quote
fun and excitement as motivations evidencing intrinsic motivation, whilst less committed gamers were
more likely to report filling time and playing with friends (extrinsic motivators). Furthermore, when
main and secondary motivations were taken together, the vast majority of gamers (86%) reported fun
as a motivator, and 38% reported the challenge of the game as a motivator. However, passing time
and relaxing and de-stressing remained significant factors (at 79% and 76% respectively), whilst
using ones imagination and learning new things were less common factors (at 13% and 10%
respectively). 3
Sherry et al reported a number of studies targeted at adolescent and young adult gamers with more
than 1,000 participants. These studies recorded very different motivation profiles from the ISFE
survey, with competition, challenge, social interaction, passing time or de-stressing, fantasy and
arousal frequently reported. The factor of challenge was reported most frequently, followed by
arousal. 3, 21
Sherry et al also found that video games were enjoyed most when the level and speed of the game
matched the players optimal mental and motor capacity, a view supported by Vorderer et al. It
appeared that this synergy is closely linked with flow; and enjoyment was reported frequently in their
research. These findings supported their earlier assertion that video games possess ideal
characteristics to create and maintain flow. 14,15,21,23
Interestingly, Hainey et al recently suggested that the findings by Sherry et al indicated that Flow has
a strong influence on other motivations. Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi found that the rewarding
nature of the flow experience motivates individuals to try and replicate it. These findings would
appear to indicate that the likelihood of games to induce a flow experience may be part of the reason

they are so compelling, and for the motivational reasons for playing given by the gamers in three of
the aforementioned studies. 5,8,17
Hainey et al conducted an analysis of higher education (HE) students conducted over four years and
involving 2226 participants with an average age of 26.54 years. Of those who reported playing
games, their average time spent playing games per week was 7.46 hours, making them committed
users according to the ISFE 2010 survey classifications. Hainey et al also found challenge to be the
most common motivation for playing video games. However, they did not find the element of Fantasy
to be a common motivator, finding it to be ranked lowest by participants. 3,5
Interestingly, although the study by Hainey et al identified gender differences in playing time and in
ranking the importance of different motivations, there appeared to be no gender difference in the
motivational reasons for playing games. Nevertheless, the researchers did find that participants who
preferred multi-player games rated challenge, cooperation, recognition and control as more important
motivations than their single player game playing contemporaries. Online players also reported
experiencing more challenge from playing games than their offline counterparts. Interestingly, online
players also played longer than offline players, which may be explained by the link between challenge
and experiencing flow, as cited by Csikszentmihalyi. 14
The studies of Sherry et al and Hainey et al would appear to evidence that younger gamers play
games because of an intrinsic motivation to do so. This argument links well to the finding by
Przybylski et al, that playing games helped to fulfil the players need for competence and autonomy.
According to Deci and Ryan, competency and autonomy enhance intrinsic motivation. Interestingly,
Shernoff et al argued that an individuals skill level closely matching the challenge is a key factor in
experiencing flow - further suggesting that this balance is difficult to achieve. By contrast, if the
players understanding and abilities are not up to the task, apathy, anxiety or relaxation may be
experienced rather than flow. This would indicate that achieving this balance is important for
sustained engagement. 8, 17, 21, 24, 25
Given that aptitudes in general terms vary between the different genders and many video games use
aptitudes that are more prevalent in the male population, this could potentially explain the different
lengths of time the different genders play games. Despite this, it is generally desirable for learning to
be driven by intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation. Since both genders report intrinsic motivations,
there is a temptation to propose that gaming may be a useful medium for skills development among
younger people, although Hainey et al purported that educational games may be more suitable for
male learners than for female ones. 8, 26
Although Malone and Lepper suggested that computer games are an effective learning tool for
learners, and argued that there is therefore a potential for their application to the educational context,
Hainey et al argued that the weight of research evidence suggests that skills enhancements mediated
by games play is more likely to be to lower level attentional and visual perceptual activities than
higher level skills. 12
There may be exceptions to this assertion: in particular, Van Deventer and White found that gaming
enabled gamers to acquire expert skills; and Steinkuehler and Duncan observed online players
evidencing higher order scientific reasoning skills in their discussions. Cordova and Lepper also
observed that students learning using games outperformed students using more traditional methods,
and that their control, context, curiosity and challenge increased. Other researchers such as Becker
argued that games can be adapted to support a more diverse range of learning styles, in contrast with

traditional teaching methods. Serious games* also provide evidence of the application of gaming to
learning. 1, 9, 27-30
* Games which have been designed to facilitate learning, skills acquisition, provide training or support attitudinal and hence
behavioural change. 8
4: Negatives aspects of gaming
Violence in video games has been the subject of extensive research. Anderson and Bushman
researched the analysis from 33 independent tests involving 3,033 participants, and concluded that
playing violent video games increased aggression. In more recent research, Bijvank et al concluded
that violent video games were a risk factor for aggression in young men of below-average academic
ability. 31, 32
However, Emes concluded that although some research indicated that gaming or watching games
preceded violent or aggressive behaviour, the researchers concerned had only examined behaviours
shortly after exposure. Furthermore, Emes stated that the reliability and validity of the procedures
used to measure aggression were questionable. Ferguson also contested the conclusions drawn by
researchers such as Anderson and Bushman, arguing that their correlation was created by publication
biasand that when the results were corrected for this, such research did not support the hypothesis
that video games increased aggression. 33, 34
Furthermore, Jansz hypothesised that violent video games may actually support positive emotional
development by providing the gamer with an emotional laboratory to learn safely from experiencing
positive and negative emotions and acting on them. Interestingly, Przybylski et al found that graphic
violence did not necessarily produce feelings of enjoyment (once competence and autonomy were
taken into account). This - along with the finding that the motivation to play games is intrinsic; along
with the Theory of Flow Experience - would appear to support this hypothesis, as does the work of
Emes, and of Fontana and Beckerman. The context proposed by Jansz would also appear to support
the development of an optimistic attribution style and hence empowerment. This style of learning
would appear to foster the development of an internal locus of control: the belief that negative
outcomes can be unstable and temporary, and a belief that ones will can impact on the outcome.
8,14,19, 25, 28, 33, 35
Addiction is probably the other most commonly perceived negative aspect of gaming that is closely
linked to motivation. Indeed, Bozarth defined addiction in terms of motivational toxicity, and describes
it as a motivation for one thing that is so strong that it prevents the individual reacting to other
motivational stimuli. Interestingly, it was reported in the ISFE 2010 survey that committed gamers
also engage in a range of other leisure pursuits, suggesting that addiction is not common in the
sample of committed gamers who participated in the survey. Addiction has been the subject of
research, although often in conjunction with other addictions or addictive behaviours or in relation to
specific types of video games. 3, 36
Parker et al explored addiction-related behaviour (internet use and gambling as well as video gaming)
in adolescents in the context of emotional intelligence (EI). They found that EI scores could be used
to predict addiction-related behaviours, including excessive gaming. They also found that a poor

score on the interpersonal dimension of EI was the strongest indicator, although they were unable to
predict if this was an antecedent or consequence of the addiction-related behaviour. 37
Hainey et al stated that online gamers experienced significant levels of competition and cooperation
and rated these as important motivations. Sherry et al observed that competition and social
interaction were among the most frequently reported motivations for playing video games. Both
studies indicated that the gamers surveyed had at least a reasonable degree of EI on the
interpersonal dimension. It may be suggested that they were less predisposed to addiction than
others. 8, 21
However in relation to online gamers specifically, the exploration by Kim et al of addiction to online
games was concluded with the assumption that, certain psychological characteristics such as
aggression, self-control, and narcissistic personality traits may predispose some individuals to
become addicted to online games. This is an indication that a proportion of the population may be
susceptible to addiction. 38
Lee and LaRose (who explored gaming in the context of Banduras social cognitive theory of self-
regulation, and Csikszentmihalyis theory of flow experience) concluded, Concern about video game
addiction may be exaggerated and that excessive video game play should be self-correctable for
most people. The fact that Bozarths description of addiction frames it as an extreme extrinsic
motivation - whilst most committed gamers are motivated intrinsically - may explain this finding.
However,Ryan and Decis assertion that intrinsic motivation can be switched off by a powerful
extrinsic motivator would appear to contradict this. 10, 14, 36, 39-41
Interestingly, Phillips et al found that the individuals who had high scores on their addiction rating
scale were more likely to use video gaming to avoid other activities than any other reason, indicating
that they were extrinsically motivated. That said, they further argued that their profile (of results)
evidenced secondary addiction rather than primary addiction, and they reported that there was
insufficient data to classify this group as having a home video game addiction. (So it is possible that
their sample of participants did not include anyone who was actually addicted to computer games.)
The above findings (in relation to the primary motivation for playing), are mirrored by those of Billieux
et al, and of Hellstrom et al. Altogether, these findings may therefore provide a potential mechanism
for identifying at-risk individuals. 20, 42, 43
5: Conclusions
Video gaming is an extremely popular leisure. When all of an individuals motivations to play video
games are considered, it has been found that Fun - an intrinsic motivation - is the most prevalent
motivation among the gamers who have participated in surveys conducted by researchers cited in this
literature review.
The profile of gamers is in a state of flux: although the demographic is widening, nowadays, more
people who are described as gamers engage in gaming on a periodic rather than regular basis.
Furthermore, the primary motivation for playing video games of these periodic gamers is different
from the primary motivations reported by regular and in particular committed gamers. Periodic
gamers report extrinsic factors as their primary motivation; whilst regular and committed gamers
report that they are primarily motivated intrinsically. Competency and autonomy enhance intrinsic
motivation, hence why the fact that games fulfil players need for competency and autonomy may
explain why motivations are most commonly intrinsic for regular gamers.

The flow experience may explain in part why games are so compelling. The concept of a challenge
is closely linked to the flow experience, and it is also the most prevalent motivation reported by
committed gamers. Online players also experience more challenge than their offline counterparts,
which may explain why they play games for longer as they are more likely to experience flow.
Challenge, cooperation, recognition and control are also more important to players of multi-player
games, than to their single player game-playing contemporaries.
Achieving a synergy between the level and speed of the game and the mental and motor capacity of
the player is the important aspect of challenge, in order for enjoyment and persistence to be realised.
This synergy links closely to the concept of experiencing flow, but it is difficult to achieve and if the
wrong balance is struck players may experience apathy, anxiety or relaxation rather than flow. In
these circumstances engagement with the game is often not sustained.
General aptitudes vary between genders, and many video games require the use of aptitudes that are
more prevalent in the male population. This may explain why males generally play games for longer
periods of time than females. The intrinsic motivation to play games makes them a potentially fertile
medium for learning, but this potential has not been fully explored or tapped to date.
Although there is research that links playing or watching violent video games to the negative
expression of aggression and violence, the validity of this research has been called into question.
There is also research evidence to suggest that violent games provide a safe medium for gamers to
learn about the consequences of violent actions through experience, and may help gamers to develop
self-monitoring and coping mechanisms (a hypothesis supported by the Theory of Flow Experience
and Attribution Theory).
Although true addiction is a major concern, evidence suggests that it does not affect a large
proportion of the video gaming population. The modern gaming experience would also appear to
provide opportunities for gamers to develop their interpersonal emotional intelligence, which should in
turn reduce their risk of engaging in addiction-related behaviours. However, given that addiction is
also related to specific personality traits, gamers with these personality traits are still at higher risk of
developing an addiction to video games. If avoiding or escaping from other activities is the primary
motivation for playing video games, there may be an increased risk of engaging in addiction-related
behaviours, and this assertion may be used for identifying at-risk individuals.
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Motivation in Video Games - Literature Review

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The Computer Games Journal 1(2) Martinmas 2012 (special edition)

Motivation in video games: a literature review

Received: July 2012

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Motivation is a psychological construct. According to Ryan and Deci, To be motivated means to be

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competence: the desire to control the outcome and experience mastery;

In relation to extrinsic motivation, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) provides a sub-theory -

external regulation, which is completely external;

clear goals and a good grasp of what to do next;

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locus: whether the cause is external or internal to the person;

3: Positive aspects of gaming

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As previously discussed, gaming is an incredibly popular pastime, which continues to grow in

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4: Negatives aspects of gaming

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16 Finnerman, C.M.; Zhang, P. A personartefacttask (PAT) model of flow antecedents in computer-

18 Weiner, B. Intrapersonal and interpersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective.

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