Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Powder metallurgy (PM) is the production ferrous PM structural parts are used). Powder and screw machining. The industry comprises
and utilization of metal powders. Powders are metallurgy parts are used in engine, transmis- powder suppliers and parts makers, plus the
defined as particles that are usually less than sion, and chassis applications. Sometimes it is a companies that supply the mixing equipment,
1000 nm (1 mm) in size. Most of the metal unique microstructure or property that leads powder handling equipment, compacting
particles used in PM are in the range of 5 to to the use of PM processing: for example, porous presses, sintering furnaces, and so forth.
200 mm (0.2 to 7.9 mils). To put this in context, filters, self-lubricating bearings, dispersion- Powder metallurgy processing offers many
a human hair is typically in the 100 mm (3.9 mils) strengthened alloys, functionally graded materi- advantages. The PM process is material and
range. als (e.g., titanium-hydroxyapatite), and cutting energy efficient compared with other metal
The history of PM has already been outlined tools from tungsten carbide or diamond com- forming technologies. Powder metallurgy is
in the article History of Powder Metallurgy in posites. Captive applications of PM include cost effective for making complex-shaped parts
this Volume. This article reviews the various materials that are difficult to process by other and minimizes the need for machining. A wide
segments of the PM process from powder pro- techniques, such as refractory metals and reac- range of engineered materials is available, and
duction and powder processing through to the tive metals. Other examples in this category are through appropriate material and process selec-
characterization of the materials and their prop- special compounds such as molybdenum disili- tion the required microstructure may be devel-
erties. It will cover processing methods for con- cide and titanium aluminide, or amorphous oped in the material. Powder metallurgy parts
solidating metal powders including options for metals. have good surface finish and they may be heat
processing to full density. The metal powder industry is a recognized treated to increase strength or wear resistance.
Powders have a high ratio of surface area to metal forming technology that competes dir- The PM process provides part-to-part reproduc-
volume and this is taken advantage of in the ectly with other metalworking practices such ibility and is suited to moderate-to-high volume
use of metal powders as catalysts or in various as casting, forging, stamping (fine blanking), production. Where necessary, controlled micro-
chemical and metallurgical reactions. While porosity can be provided for self-lubrication or
this article focuses on the use of powders to filtration. While dimensional precision is good,
make functional engineering components, many it typically does not match that of machined
metal powders are used in their particulate parts.
form. This aspect of PM is covered in the arti- In the case of ferrous PM parts, they have
cle Specialty Applications of Metal Powders lower ductility and reduced impact resistance
in this Volume. compared with wrought steels.
Powder technologies are exciting to engi- The majority of PM parts are porous and con-
neers because processing options permit the sideration must be given to this when performing
selective placement of phases or pores to tailor finishing operations.
the component for the application. The capabil-
ity of press and sinter processing or metal injec-
tion molding (MIM) processing to replicate Metal Powders
parts in high volumes is very attractive to design
engineers. The ability to fabricate complex Metal powders come in many different shapes
shapes to final size and shape or to near-net and sizes (Fig. 2). Their shape, size, and size dis-
shape is particularly valuable. Powder metal- tribution depend on the manner in which they
lurgy offers the potential to do this in high were produced. Metal powder production is cov-
volumes and also for applications where the ered in depth in various articles in the Section,
volumes are not so large. Metal Powder Production in this Volume.
The three main reasons for using PM are eco- There are three main methods of powder
nomic, uniqueness, and captive applications, as production:
shown in Fig. 1 (Ref 1). For some applications
that require high volumes of parts with high Mechanical, including machining, milling,
precision, cost is the overarching factor. A good Fig. 1 Three main reasons for choosing powder
and mechanical alloying
metallurgy shown in the form of a Venn Chemical, including electrolytic deposition,
example of this segment is parts for the auto- diagram. The intersection of the three circles represents
motive industry (where approximately 70% of an ideal area for applying PM techniques. Source: Ref 1 decomposition of a solid by a gas, thermal
10 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy
the thermal conductivity was calculated from Poissons ratio is a weak function of density, to develop strength in the compacts. Rigid die
these parameters and the density in accordance and for ferrous PM structural steels it can be compaction falls into this category and is the
with: taken as 0.27 0.02. most cost-effective method for the high-volume
The mechanical properties of PM materials production of PM structural parts. In order for
a l rCp (Eq 1) are a function of density: this method to be viable, the metal powders
need an irregular shape and good flow character-
where a is thermal diffusivity, l is thermal P=P0 r=r0 m (Eq 4) istics, they must be compressible, and they must
conductivity, r is density, and Cp is specific have good green strength. (Green is the term
heat at constant pressure. where, P is the property of interest, P0 the value used to describe an as-pressed compact.)
Thermal conductivity was shown to depend for the pore-free material, r is the density of Extremely hard particles with a spherical shape
on density. The effect of porosity in the tech- the material, r0 is the density of the pore-free are not appropriate for use in rigid die compac-
nically relevant density range was, however, material, and m is an exponent the value of tion. Compaction takes place at high pressure
slightly less pronounced than the effect exerted which depends on a given property (Fig. 4) in confined dies (the dies are generally made
by the alloying elements; specifically, the vari- (Ref 67). While tensile strength increases in from cold work tool steel or cemented carbide).
ation observed between different standard PM a linear fashion as density increases, tensile Compacting pressures for ferrous powders are
steel grades in the low-to-medium temperature ductility is more dependent on reducing the generally in the range from 400 to 700 MPa
range. Both thermophysical properties are, level of porosity. Fatigue performance is even (60 to 100 ksi), from 100 to 400 MPa (14.5 to
therefore, significantly less influenced by poros- more influenced by density with an exponent 60 ksi) for aluminum and aluminum alloy pow-
ity than by chemical composition. Powder met- m of between 3.5 and 4.5. Impact energy is ders, and approximately 400 MPa (60 ksi) for
allurgy steels are more similar to wrought steels the most dependent on density, with an expo- copper and copper-alloy powders.
than was generally assumed. nent m of approximately 12. The green density increases as the compact-
The elastic constants are also of interest to Magnetic properties of ferrous PM materials ing pressure is increased and levels out at
the design engineer. Youngs modulus, Pois- are affected by density. Induction and per- higher compacting pressures. Powder particles
sons ratio, and the shear modulus are related meability increase as the density is increased. work harden as the result of plastic deformation
according to: Permeability and coercive field strength are and it requires higher pressures to cause further
structure-sensitive properties that are degraded plastic flow. In addition, the lubricant that is
by the presence of impurities. The sintering con-
E 2G1 n (Eq 2) typically admixed to aid particle rearrangement
ditions are extremely important to keep carbon, and to reduce the fictional forces between the
where E is Youngs modulus, G is shear nitrogen, and oxygen contents to low levels powder and the compacting tools eventually
modulus, and n is Poissons ratio. E and n are (C = 0.03 wt% max; N = 0.01 wt% max; and has no place to go because all the voids
determined by resonant frequency and G is O = 0.10 wt% max). Residual stresses from between particles have been closedeither by
calculated from Eq 2. operations such as sizing, machining, or shot metal flow or by the presence of lubricant.
Beiss (Ref 4) has shown that: peening degrade the magnetic properties. The More lubricant is beneficial at lower compact-
properties can be restored through an annealing ing pressures, but there is a transition point at
E E0 r=r0 m (Eq 3)
treatment. which the additional lubricant impedes further
densification (Fig. 6) (Ref 9).
where E0 is the Youngs modulus of the pore- Warm compaction processing was developed
free material, r is the density of the material, Processing Options to Consolidate
to overcome the compressibility constraints of
r0 is the density of the pore-free material, and Metal Powders rigid-die compaction (Ref 10). The powder
the exponent m depends on the pore morphology mixture and the compacting tools are heated
and varies between 2.5 and 4.5. Nevertheless, There are three basic approaches to the con-
over the density range of interest for ferrous solidation of metal powders, as shown in Fig. 5
PM structural materials, 6.4 to 7.4 g/cm3, (Ref 8).
Youngs modulus is essentially a linear function Pressure-based compaction establishes
of density (Fig. 3) (Ref 5). density via the compaction process then sinters
52 7.5
51 7.4
50 7.3
Youngs modulus, 106psi
Youngs modulus, GPa
49 7.1
48 7.0
47 6.8
46 6.7
45 6.5
44 6.4
6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6
Sintered density, g/cm3
Fig. 4 Effect of density on mechanical and physical
Fig. 3 Youngs modulus as a function of sintered density. Data from Ref 5 properties of PM materials. Source: Ref 6
12 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy
7.3
7.2
7.0
6.9
Fig. 5 Three basic approaches to the consolidation of
Atomized iron
metal powders. Source: Ref 8
6.8
Full-density processing requires the simulta- rely on diffusional creep processes (e.g., hot Hot pressing is performed in a rigid die using
neous application of pressure and temperature. pressing or HIP) uniaxially applied pressure: it is a low-strain-rate
The approach works because most materials High-stress routes that operate at high strain process. Graphite dies may be used, in which
soften as temperature is increased. They also rates and lower temperatures (powder forging case induction heating may be employed. Hot
become more ductile and deform with less or extrusion) pressing cycle times are slow compared with
work hardening. Routes that achieve high density via the rigid-die compaction. Vacuum is sometimes
The processing options fall into the following application of ultrahigh-stress at ambient used to minimize contamination of the compact.
categories: temperature (explosive compaction) Diamond-metal-composite cutting tools are
often hot pressed. Spark sintering is a process
Low-stress processes that operate at high Liquid-phase sintering results in a composite related to hot pressing. In spark sintering, direct
temperatures and are dominated by diffusion microstructure that consists of a skeleton of a resistance heating is applied to the punches,
processes (e.g., liquid-phase sintering) high-melting-temperature phase in a matrix of a die, and powder mass during consolidation.
Processes that apply intermediate stress levels solidified liquidfor example, W-Ni-Fe heavy Hot isostatic pressing applies pressure from
and operate at intermediate temperatures and alloys, WC-Co cemented carbides. all directions simultaneously. In order to estab-
lish a pressure differential, powders must be
processed to the point where they have no
surface-connected, interconnected porosity, or
they need to be encapsulated prior to the HIP
process. Prior to HIP, a container is filled with
powder and heated under vacuum to remove
volatile contaminants. After evacuation and
degassing, the container is sealed. The con-
tainer may be fabricated from any material that
is soft and deformable at the consolidation tem-
perature, for example, glass, steel or stainless
steel (the choice depends on compatibility with
the powder that is being compacted). A HIP
vessel is illustrated in Fig. 9 and the sequence
used to make a HIPed part is shown in Fig. 10
(Ref 13).
Vacuum sintering then backfilling the sin-
tering furnace with pressurized gas to assist
final densification is employed in sinter-HIP
processing (a pressure-assisted sintering pro-
cess). A typical cycle is shown schematically
Fig. 8 Options for processing metal powders to full density. Source: Ref 12 in Fig. 11 (Ref 14).
Fig. 9 (a) Typical hot isostatic pressing (HIP) vessel. (b) Schematic of the wire-wound unit. Courtesy of Avure Technologies. Source: Ref 13
14 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy
Powder forging bridges the gap between con- Freeform Fabrication operations. Sometimes parts need closer
ventional pressing and sintering and wrought tolerances than can be held during the pressing
steel technology. The process is illustrated Thermal spraying of nickel-base and cobalt- and sintering operation; they can be sized to
schematically in Fig. 12 (Ref 15). A PM pre- base alloy powders to form wear-resistant coat- reduce their dimensional variability.
form is typically compacted, sintered, and then ings has been practiced for many years. Spray The surface-connected, interconnected poros-
reheated before being forged in a single stroke forming is a consolidation process that captures ity in PM parts can be impregnated with oil,
in confined dies. A detailed review of the pow- a spray of molten metal or alloy droplets on a and this is the basis for self-lubricating bearings
der forging of ferrous materials is given in the moving substrate (Ref 17). Figure 14 illustrates (Ref 20). Conventional bearings can absorb
Section Powder Metallurgy Carbon and Low- billet formation in a vertical mode by spray from 10 to 30% by volume of oil.
Alloy Steels in this Volume. forming. The process can be used to form bil- Pressure tightness can be achieved in PM
Extrusion is used to make some PM tool lets, strip, and thick-walled tubing. parts by sealing the surface-connected porosity
steels. These materials have better properties The term additive manufacturing of metals is by resin impregnation. Vacuum processing is
than similar wrought tool steels because they used to describe freeform processes that offer generally used to impregnate the PM parts. In
contain a finer and more uniform dispersion of the possibility to produce complex-shaped PM addition to developing pressure tightness, resin
carbides compared with the wrought tool steels. parts without the design constraints of tradi- impregnation of PM parts permits plating (oth-
In the latter, the carbides are often banded and tional manufacturing routes (Ref 18). The pro- erwise, plating solutions would be trapped in
in the form of stringers due to the rolling pro- cess relies on the transfer of a digital file to a the surface-connected pores). Resin impregna-
cess used to make them, as shown in Fig. 13 machine that then builds the three-dimensional tion significantly improves the drillability of
(Ref 16). component layer by layer from a metal powder PM parts, as shown in Fig. 16 (Ref 21).
using a laser or an electron beam to fuse the Machining parameters for PM parts are dif-
particles together. Schematic illustrations of ferent from those used for castings or wrought
powder-bed and powder-fed systems are shown components. The PM materials contain pores.
in Fig. 15 (Ref 19). Depending on the hardness of the material,
the material in the vicinity of the cutting tool
will densify to a greater or lesser extent. As
Finishing Operations the amount of porosity decreases, PM parts
machine more like cast or wrought parts with
While PM is considered a net or near-net a similar microstructure. Machinability aids
shaping process, many PM parts require finishing such as manganese sulfide (MnS) may be added
to the PM material prior to compaction to
enhance the machinability of the PM parts.
Powder metallurgy parts may be turned,
milled, drilled, tapped, and ground. Machinabil-
ity depends on the density and the microstructure
of the material. For a PM material of a given
density and microstructure, the machinability
will depend on the type of cutting operation
being performed, the cutting tool material, and
the feeds and speeds being used.
Examination of the cutting tool is one of the
keys to understanding what is happening during
the machining process. Moving to a condition
of abrasive wear will lead to greater consis-
Fig. 11 Schematic of pressure-assisted sintering process tency and predictability in the machining oper-
cycle. Source: Ref 14 ation. A statistical approach to evaluating the
To preheat
furnace
Eject fully
dense part
Round,
spray-deposited
billet
Spray chamber
Exhaust
Fig. 13 Extruded T15 tool steel. (a) Wrought. (b) PM. Notice the bands of carbides in the wrought tool steel Fig. 14 Billet formation in a vertical mode by spray
compared with the uniform dispersion of fine carbides in the PM tool steel. Source: Ref 16 forming. Source: Ref 17
Sweet spot
Robust process,
able to accept
variation
s
es Safe zone
p roc
in ing Noncatastrophic,
ch consistent tool
Ma
performance
Fig. 15 Schematic illustrations of (a) powder-bed and (b) powder-fed additive manufacturing. Source: Ref 18
for neutral hardening. Induction hardening of
PM parts is also possible. Gaseous carburizing,
nitriding, carbonitriding, and nitrocarburizing
processes are applicable. Care is required with
ferrous parts at densities below 7.1 g/cm3
(0.26 lb/in.3), because gas penetration to the core
of the part can lead to loss of toughness. The use
of salt baths is to be avoided because the salt
would penetrate the surface-connected pores and
lead to subsequent corrosion problems. Microin-
dentation hardness testing is used to determine
the effective case depth of surface-hardened PM
parts (Ref 23). Where there is a clear difference
between the hardened layer and the rest of the
part, such as with an induction-hardened part, a
metallographic estimate may be made of the case
depth (Ref 24).
Powder metallurgy parts are often tumbled
Fig. 16 Relative drillability of various PM materials. Source: Ref 21 in an abrasive medium in rotating barrels or
agitated in vibrating tubs to clean them and
remove burrs. They are generally resin or oil
impregnated before tumbling to minimize water
data is extremely beneficial. Abrasive wear is without the tool failing in a catastrophic man- absorption. Rust inhibitors should be added
the common and natural mechanism of wear ner. This is the safe zone for machining, to the water. Parts may be spun dry or heated
during machiningit is the desired mechanism. Fig. 17 (Ref 22). to dry.
There are combinations of machining para- Ferrous PM parts may be heat treated to Ferrous PM parts may be furnace blackened
meters (cutting tool, feeds, speeds, etc.) that improve their hardness, strength, and wear resis- (steam oxide treated) for indoor corrosion resis-
result in consistent machining performance tance. Oil quenching and tempering may be used tance. Afterward, they may be oil dipped for
16 / Introduction to Powder Metallurgy
color as well as slightly greater corrosion resis- using PM processes. They are taken from parts been used in an earlier transfer case design and
tance (a dry film oil is particularly suitable). that have won awards at the MPIF Design provided 35% cost savings over the forgings.
Steam treating forms a coating of magnetite Excellence Competition, which is held annually The variable valve timing (VVT) rotor
(Fe3O4) in the surface-connected pores. Parts to highlight the advances made in PM part pro- shown in Fig. 21 consists of an assembly of a
are heated to 480 to 570 C (896 to 1060 F) duction (Ref 29). PM steel rotor and an adapter. The parts are
and exposed to superheated steam under pres- The carrier and one-way rocker clutch joined by an adhesive, which joins them during
sure. This improves the wear resistance of fer- assembly shown in Fig. 19 are used in the Ford the machining of cross-holes and other features
rous PM parts and improves their compressive Super Duty TorqShift six-speed automatic on the inside diameter, and seals the joint bet-
strength. It does, however, degrade tensile prop- transmission. The hybrid assembly contains ween them. The assembly, used in a Chrysler
erties (Ref 25). five PM steel parts weighing a total of 7.7 kg
All types of plating processes may be applied (17 lb). The sinter-brazed subassembly consists
to PM parts, but the parts should have surface- of four multilevel PM parts, of which three
connected porosity sealed by resin impregna- parts (cage, spider, and carrier plate) are made
tion prior to plating. Electroless nickel plating to a density of 6.8 g/cm3. In addition, there
is applicable to nonimpregnated PM parts. are 17 compacted brazing pellets. The rocker
Most conventional welding methods are plate is sinter hardened during the sinter-
applicable to PM parts (Ref 26). Care must be brazing phase and has a density of 7.0 g/cm3.
taken to avoid residual lubricants, quench oils, The assembly also has a doubled-pressed and
machining coolants, plating solutions, impregnat- double-sintered cam plate made to 7.3 g/cm3
ing materials, cleaning or tumbling agents, and density with an ultimate tensile strength of
free graphite or residual ash. An example of a 1170 MPa (170 ksi) and a mean tempered hard-
PM weldment is shown in Fig. 18 (Ref 27). Care ness exceeding 40 HRC. To form the parts and
must be taken with lower-density PM parts, maintain precision tolerances, innovative tooling
particularly during fusion welding. Subsequent was developed and used in conjunction with
solidification causes high stresses that often result unconventional press motions. Ford subjected
in cracks. the assembly to stringent durability testing: ulti- Fig. 19 Carrier and one-way rocker clutch assembly.
GKN Sinter Metals LLC, courtesy of MPIF
Furnace brazing can be used to join PM mate torsional torque loading at a minimum of
parts. When choosing a brazing alloy, the capil- 10.8 kN m (7970 lbf.ft) and fatigue testing at
larity of the pores imposes a special condition. a minimum of 299,000 cycles at 2.3 kN m
Standard brazing compounds will infiltrate the (1700 lbf.ft). The application provided an esti-
adjacent pores, leaving insufficient material to mated 20% cost savings over competing pro-
form a sound brazed joint. A special brazing sys- cesses and represents a new era in the scope
tem has been developed for PM materials that and size of PM parts.
restricts brazing alloy penetration to the imme- A ball-ramp actuator consisting of a sector gear
diately adjacent areas of the part (Ref 28). An and a fixed ring is illustrated in Fig. 20. The actu-
example of a brazed carrier and one-way rocker ator applies torque to the front wheels in the
clutch assembly is provided in Fig. 19. BMW high-performance X-Drive transfer case
that goes into various BMW platforms. Warm
compacted from a hybrid low-alloy steel, the parts
have a density of 7.2 g/cm3 in the ball ramps and
Applications of Powder 7.0 g/cm3 between ramps and on teeth, a typical
Metallurgy Parts tensile strength of 1330 MPa (190 ksi), typical
yield strength of 1144 MPa (166 ksi), and a sur-
The following examples have been selected face hardness of 50 HRC on the ball ramp surface. Fig. 20 Sector gear and fixed ring. Cloyes Gear &
to illustrate the wide diversity of the parts made The parts replaced forged components that had Products Inc., courtesy of MPIF
409 Cb
PM flange 409 Cb
PM flange
TIG weld - no filler
Fig. 18 Example of a PM weldment. Source: Ref 27. Reprinted with permission from SAE Technical Paper 930490, Fig. 21 Variable valve timing (VVT) rotor adaptor
copyright SAE International assembly. GKN Sinter Metals, courtesy of MPIF
Powder Metallurgy Methods and Applications / 17
V-6 engine, is mounted to the engine camshaft. made of 17-4 PH. The extremely complex strength of 565 MPa (82 ksi), yield strength of
Formed to a density of 6.8 g/cm3, the rotor has geometry of the blank discharge check, with 450 MPa (65 ksi), and a hardness of 80 HRB
an ultimate tensile strength of 415 MPa (60 ksi), the intercrossing of holes, required tooling with before steam oxide treatment. The part is an
yield strength of 380 MPa (55 ksi), and a six side cores, three of which move at different original design for PM, because its shape makes
160 MPa (23 ksi) fatigue limit. The adapter is timings. The parts have a minimum density of it impractical for traditional metal cutting meth-
formed to a density of 6.9 g/cm3, has a minimum 7.65 g/cm3, an ultimate tensile strength of ods. It is pressed and sintered to net shape,
ultimate tensile strength of 400 MPa (58 ksi), 480 MPa (70 ksi), yield strength of 150 MPa requiring no postsintering machining operations.
and has a yield strength of 365 MPa (53 ksi). After (22 ksi), an elongation of 45%, and a 100 An example of small, intricate PM parts is
sizing and grinding, there is no other machining HRB maximum hardness. This design was provided in Fig. 26. The three partsbracket,
performed on the rotor. The adapter is not judged by the fabricator to be perhaps slide, and removable drop-in hookused in the
machined prior to assembly and is made to net the most complex high-volume part ever made Damon 3MX self-ligation orthodontic tooth-
shape with vertical slots for oil feeding. The cus- by MIM. The customer realized cost savings positioning system are made via MIM proces-
tomer, however, machines the cross-holes for the of close to 35%, while the pump performance sing. One bracket and one slide go on each
oil feed. was improved by modifying the geometry of tooth, with the hook an option for approximately
Figure 22 shows a complex PM steel two- the holes to enhance flow dynamics, with the 5% of the teeth. The very tiny, intricate parts are
stage helical gear and spur pinion used in a result being a 10 to 20% fuel economy boost. made by MIM from 17-4 PH stainless steel pow-
power lift-gate actuator. Made to a nominal Another automotive application is shown in der to a density of 7.5 g/cm3. They have impres-
density of 6.85 g/cm3, the combined helical Fig. 24. It is a PM aluminum camshaft-bearing sive physical properties: a tensile strength of
gear-and-pinion design features precision jour- cap used in GMs high-feature V6 engine. 1190 MPa (173 ksi) and yield strength of
nals for precise orientation in the actuator Designed originally for PM, the capstwo of 1090 MPa (158 ksi). All of the parts are made
assembly. The part has a tensile strength of which go into each engineoperate in engines to a net shape. The customer tumble polishes
450 MPa (65 ksi) and yield strength of that go into various GM brands, including the them and performs a brazing operation before
380 MPa (55 ksi). The precise elemental gear Cadillac CTS, SRX, and CTX; Buick LaCrosse assembly.
data tolerances enable quiet gear performance, and Rendezvous; and Saab 9-3. It is the first
decreasing noise, vibration, and harshness. dual overhead cam engine using a single cap
Four metal injection molded (MIM) parts across both camshafts. The cap maintains the
(a blank discharge check, stop discharge check camshaft position, radially and axially, while
valve, valve discharge check, and CRV spring providing integral oil channels for cam lubrica-
seat) that go into a device that controls fuel tion and hydraulic control of the variable cam
flow in gasoline direct-injection pumps are timing (VCT) system. Made to a net shape,
shown in Fig. 23. Three of the parts are made the multiple-level part has a tensile strength
of 440C stainless steel, while the fourth is of 117 MPa (17 ksi) and a hardness range of
85 to 90 HRH. Choosing PM over an alterna-
tive manufacturing process, such as die casting,
provided an estimated 50% cost saving by elim-
inating preassembly machining steps. The PM
caps require only one line-boring step during
installation.
In addition to being used in automotive appli-
cations, PM parts are also chosen for lawn and
garden use. The parking/emergency brake piston
shown in Fig. 25 is used in hydraulic transmis-
sions in zero-turn-radius lawn maintenance
equipment. Made from an FC-0208 iron-copper
steel, the piston is compacted with three features Fig. 25 Brake piston for hydraulic transmission used in
on top and six on the bottom, using two upper zero-turn-radius lawn maintenance equipment.
and three lower punches plus a die shelf. The Lovejoy Powder Metal Group, courtesy of MPIF
piston has a density of 6.9 g/cm3, a tensile
sections are produced to an average length Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 2005, 19. W.E. Frazier, Metal Additive Manufacturing:
of 2.5 m (98 in.). The manifold collects oil or p 155 A Review, J. Materials Eng. Perform.,
gas from wellheads and is also used for water 9. R.H. Hershberger and P.J. McGeehan, Vol 23 (No. 6), 2014, p 19171928
injection. A New Higher Compressibility Iron Pow- 20. E. Mosca, Powder Metallurgy, Criteria
der, Progress in Powder Metallurgy, Vol for Design and Inspection, Associazione
REFERENCES 42, 1986, compiled by E.A. Carlson and Industriali Metallurgici Meccanici Affini,
G. Gaines, Metal Powder Industries Feder- Turin, 1984
1. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy & ation, Princeton, NJ, p 305320 21. MPIF Standard 35, Materials Standards for
Particulate Materials Processing, Metal 10. H.G. Rutz and F.G. Hanejko, High Density PM Structural Parts2012 Edition, Metal
Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, Processing of High Performance Ferrous Powder Industries Federation, Princeton,
NJ, 2005, p 8 Materials, Advances in Powder Metallurgy NJ, 2012, p 71
2. Sample Preparation for the Chemical & Particulate Materials1994, Vol 5, 22. D. Christopherson, Jr., Characterization of
Analysis of the Metallic Elements in PM C. Lall and A. Neupaver, Ed., Metal Pow- PM Machinability: Practical Approach
Materials, MPIF Standard 67, Standard der Industries Federation, 1994, p 117133 and Analysis, Int. J. Powder Metall.,
Test Methods for Metal Powders and Pow- 11. W.B. James and K.S. Narasimhan, Warm Vol 44 (No. 2), 2008, p 1520
der Metallurgy Products, Metal Powder Compaction and Warm-Die Compaction 23. Standard Test Method for Effective Case
Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 2012 of Ferrous PM Materials, presented at PM Depth of Ferrous Powder Metallurgy
3. H. Danninger et al., Thermal Expansion Association of India Conference, Pune, (PM) Parts Using Microindentation Hard-
and Thermal Conductivity of Sintered 2013 ness Measurements, ASTM B934, Annual
SteelsThe Real Effect of the Porosity, 12. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy & Par- Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM
Advances in Powder Metallurgy & Particu- ticulate Materials Processing, Metal Pow- 24. Standard Test Method for Metallographi-
late Materials2010, Part 10, compiled by der Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, cally Estimating the Case Depth of Ferrous
M. Bulger and B. Stebick, Metal Powder 2005, p 286 Powder Metallurgy (PM) Parts, ASTM
Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, 2010, 13. B. Williams, Recent Trends in Hot Isostatic B931, Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
p 1001 Pressing (HIP): Processing and Applica- ASTM
4. P. Beiss and C. Sander, Elastic Properties tions, Powder Metall. Rev., Vol 1 (No. 1), 25. L.F. Pease III et al., Mechanical Properties
of Sintered Iron and Steel, Proceedings of 2012, p 2329 of Steam Blackened P/M Materials, Mod-
the 1998 Powder Metallurgy World Con- 14. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy & Par- ern Developments in Powder Metallurgy,
gress, Vol 2, European Powder Metallurgy ticulate Materials Processing, Metal Pow- Vol 21, 1988, compiled by P.U. Gumme-
Association, Shrewsbury, UK, p 552561 der Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ, son and D.A. Gustafson, Metal Powder
5. MPIF Standard 35, Materials Standards for 2005, p 302 Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ,
PM Structural Parts2012 Edition, Metal 15. G.T. Brown, Development of Alloy Sys- p 275299
Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, tems for Powder Forging, Met. Technol., 26. J.A. Hamill, Jr., Welding and Joining Pro-
NJ, 2012 MayJune, 1976, p 229236 cesses, Powder Metal Technologies and
6. P. Beiss, Principles of Metal Powder Com- 16. P. Beiss, K. Dalal, and R. Peters, Inter- Applications, Vol 7, ASM Handbook,
paction, European Powder Metallurgy Asso- national Atlas of Powder Metallurgical ASM International, 1998, p 656662
ciation Training Course, Aachen, Germany, Microstructures, Metal Powder Industries 27. J.A. Hamill, Jr. et al., Fusion Welding
Sept 2005, p 109134 Federation, Princeton, NJ, 2002, p 106 P/M Components for Automotive Applica-
7. P. Beiss, Structural Mass Production Parts, 17. A.G. Leatham and A. Lawley, The Osprey tions, Technical Paper 930490, Society
Landolt-Bornstein: Numerical Data and Process: Principles and Applications, Int. of Automotive Engineers, 1993
Functional Relationships in Science and J. Powder Metall., Vol 29 (No. 4), 1993, 28. J.A. Hamill, Jr., P/M Joining Proces-
Technology, Group VIII Advanced Materi- p 321329 ses, Materials and Techniques, Int. J.
als and Technologies, Vol 2, Materials, 18. J.F. Isaza P. and C. Aumund-Kopp, Addi- Powder Metall., Vol 27 (No. 4), 1991,
Sub-volume A, Powder Metallurgy Data, tive Manufacturing with Metal Powders: p 363372
Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, Chapter 5 Design for Manufacture Evolves into 29. MPIF, Award-Winning Parts, www.mpif.
8. R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy & Partic- Design for Function, Powder Metall. Rev., org/DesignCenter/awardparts.asp?linkid =66
ulate Materials Processing, Metal Powder Vol 3 (No. 2), 2014, p 4151 (accessed Dec 1, 2014)