Knowledge Test: Solar Radiation

Knowledge test: Solar radiation Page 1 of 2
Knowledge test: Solar radiation
Please answer the following questions:
Would an area of 200,000 m2 on the sun's surface radiate enough energy to

cover global demand for primary energy?
Yes.
No.
What determines the irradiance which ultimately reaches the earth's surface?
Reflection.
Absorption.
Scattering.
Beam focusing.
Which parameters are needed for exact calculation of the sun's position?
The angles comprising elevation and azimuth.

The sun's width and height.
The distance between the sun and the observer.
At which angle must an irradiated plane be aligned to the sun's rays to maximize
utilization of the incident radiation power?
180
90
270
Perpendicular with respect to the rays.
What are shading losses?
Losses resulting from shadows being cast on the solar

cell.
Losses arising when the surroundings cool down.
file://suas-mt-lab01/LN/LabSoft/BooksENU/1N14/PHO/Pho_23469.htm 3/15/2017
Knowledge test: Solar radiation Page 2 of 2
Losses arising when the distance between the sun and a

reference point increases.
Checkanswer
Photovoltaics in automotive applications Page 1 of 2
Photovoltaics in automotive applications
Present developments suggest that electric drives will replace internal combustion
engines in the not too distant future. Because electric motors require electrical
energy, an obvious option is to acquire this energy from the sun. Today's electric cars
which exclusively use renewable forms of energy receive their electric power from the
electricity grid or fuel cells. Though photovoltaic systems are also used, their
efficiency by today's standards is still too low for powering motor vehicles in a viable
manner.
Automotive applications
For this reason, automotive
solar cells - usually integrated
into the automobile's roof - are
used to power secondary
components, e.g. a fan which
prevents the interior from
heating up too much when the
vehicle is parked in the sun. In
more advanced concepts,
even the air conditioning can
be supplied exclusively with
photovoltaic energy during the
daytime. This has the added
benefit of minimizing fuel
consumption. Some studies
go so far as to envision solar
energy as a full or partial
source of drive power.
However, these studies do not
yet serve as an alternative to
currently employed concepts.
The problem
The main problem of solar cells used in motor vehicles is their maximum efficiency of
40%, attributable to severe design constraints. For instance, it is not possible to
compensate this efficiency level by giving the cell a larger surface area, because the
vehicle not only provides a limited amount of space, but an increase in weight would
also affect the driving characteristics. Another problem is the fluctuation in solar
radiation as soon as the vehicle starts moving. This again underscores the
importance of high efficiency. Moreover, the costs of manufacturing solar cells are not
yet in proportion to their benefit in the automotive sector.
Outlook
The industry is currently engaged in developing the third generation of solar cells.
This generation will be an advancement over the second generation which
Photovoltaics in automotive applications Page 2 of 2
incorporates thin film technology. Thin-film solar cells are highly suitable for use in
cars, thanks to an extremely flexible and light structure which improves utilization of
the car body's surface area. Though a disadvantage of these cells is their very low
efficiency, various studies offer bright prospects. It is expected that future cell
concepts will meet the automotive industry's demands in terms of efficiency and
production costs.
Knowledge test: Automotive applications Page 1 of 1
Knowledge test: Automotive applications
For which purposes are photovoltaic sources used in motor vehicles?

For powering secondary components such as the
ventilation unit.
For powering the motor vehicle itself.
For the lighting system.
Which parameter is a solar cell's weak point, especially in automotive applications?
Efficiency.
Durability.
Inherent hazard.
Why is efficiency of special importance in automotive applications?

Because automotive applications greatly constrain the
cell's design.
Because the cell must not be allowed to overheat.
Because the higher the efficiency, the lower the production
costs.
What can be said about the third generation of solar cells?
They incorporate thin-film technology.

Their efficiency is much higher than that of the second
generation.
They permit a better utilization of the car body's surface
area.
They can independently meet the motor vehicle's energy
requirements.
Checkanswer
Characteristic parameters of PV cells Page 1 of 1
Characteristic parameters of PV cells
Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell Page 1 of 2
Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell
As the largest voltage occurring across the terminals of a PV cell, the open-circuit
voltage UOC is important in dimensioning subsequent circuits (e.g. inverters). This
voltage is measured without any load being connected to the PV cell.
The semiconductor material making up the PV cell decisively determines the voltage
produced by the cell.
The factors mentioned next influence the open-circuit voltage.
l Irradiance
l Angle of incidence
l Temperature
Irradiance
The next diagram illustrates the dependency of open-circuit voltage on irradiance.
Obviously, the open-circuit voltage is not a linear function of the irradiance. The
voltage approaches its maximum level already at low irradiances. When installing PV
cells on roofs, you should therefore bear in mind the cells ability to produce
substantial voltages even under overcast skies.
Angle of incidence
Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell Page 2 of 2
Measurements of the dependency of open-circuit voltage on angle of light incidence

show that this voltage is maximized when the light shines perpendicularly.
Temperature
A PV cells open-circuit voltage has a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. as a PV
cell or module warms up (e.g. on exposure to light), its open-circuit voltage drops. As
an outcome of this temperature dependency, the PV cells open-circuit voltage is at its
highest at low (winter) temperatures.
Accordingly, PV modules destined for use in warm regions require a higher

number of cells than usual (e.g. 40 instead of 36).
Experiment: Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell Page 1 of 4
Experiment: Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell
In this experiment, we will examine the dependencies of a polycrystalline photovoltaic

cell's open-circuit voltage UOC with the help of the virtual voltmeter and X/Y recorder.
The next animation shows the experiment setup.
Align the radiator so that its light shines perpendicular to the PV cell.
Open the virtual instrument X/Y recorder via the menu path Instruments | X/Y recorder or by
clicking on the icon below, and perform the settings indicated in the adjacent table.
X/Y recorder settings

Axis Parameter Maximum Division
X E 1300 W/m2 100 W/m2
Y U 4.0 V 0.5 V
Use the procedure described next to record the open-circuit voltage's characteristic.
1. Set the radiator's irradiance to its maximum value.

2. Start the X/Y recorder by actuating the button.
3. Slowly decrease the irradiance using the dimmer.
4. Once the minimum irradiance has been attained, stop recording by actuating the button.
Copy the result to the placeholder provided below. For this purpose, position the mouse pointer
over the diagram and click on the right-hand mouse button (copy function).
Does the recorded characteristic exhibit the typical relationship between the open-circuit
voltage UOC and irradiance?
Yes
No
The characteristic indicates that the open-circuit voltage UOC...br>
... remains constant.

... does not have a linear relationship with the irradiance.
Several answers
... rises linearly with the irradiance. may be correct.
... approaches its maximum value already at low irradiances
(approximately 100W/m2).
What is the PV cells maximum open-circuit voltage at maximum irradiance?

UOC = V
Check answers
Dependence of the open-circuit voltage on the radiation's angle of

incidence
Examine the influence of the lights angle of incidence on the open-circuit voltage. For this
purpose, measure the open-circuit voltage at various angles of incidence.
Open the Voltmeter A virtual instrument via the menu path Instruments | Measuring devices |
Voltmeter A or by clicking on the icon below, and perform the settings shown in the adjacent table.
Voltmeter A settings
Range: 5V
Mode: DC
What is the dependency between the open-circuit voltage UOC and the angle of incidence?
When light impinges perpendicularly on the PV cell, its open-circuit

voltage is maximized.
The angle of incidence has no effect on the open-circuit voltage.
Several answers
As the angle of incidence increases, so does the open-circuit may be correct.
voltage.
The open circuit voltage changes slightly as a function of the
irradiation angle.
Check answers
Short-circuit current of a PV cell Page 1 of 2
Short-circuit current of a PV cell
The short-circuit current IK is the largest possible current a PV cell can supply. This
current is measured using an ammeter with a very low internal resistance connected
directly to the PV cells terminals.
PV cells are short circuit proof, i.e. they do not get damaged if their terminals are
short circuited.
Because the short-circuit current is only slightly higher than the rated current, the
module lines need not be protected by fuses against short circuit. However, the lines
must be dimensioned to handle short-circuit current.
A short circuit resulting from a fault (e.g. defective insulation) can result in
hazardous arcs.
The short-circuit current depends on:
l irradiance
l angle of light incidence
l temperature
Irradiance
Precise measurements of short-circuit current as a function of irradiance yield the
following typical characteristic:
Short-circuit current of a PV cell Page 2 of 2
The linear dependence of short-circuit current on irradiance can be utilized for the
following application:
A short-circuited PV cell serves as a sensor for an irradiance meter.
Angle of light incidence

Measurements of short-circuit current as a function of the angle of light incidence
show that the short-circuit current attains its maximum value when the light impinges
perpendicularly on the PV cell.
Temperature
Precise measurements of the temperature-dependency of short-circuit current reveal
a positive temperature coefficient, i.e. as the PV cell warms up, its short-circuit current
rises.
Experiment: Short-circuit current of a PV cell Page 1 of 4
Experiment: Short-circuit current of a PV cell
In this experiment, we will use the Ammeter virtual instrument to measure the short-
circuit current ISC of a polycrystalline PV cell.
The next animation shows the experiment setup:
Align the radiator so that its light shines perpendicularly on the PV cell.
Open the virtual instrument X/Y recorder via the menu path Instruments | X/Y recorder or by
clicking on the icon below, and perform the settings indicated in the adjacent table.

X E 1100 W/m2 100 W/m2
Y I 50 mA 5 mA
Use the procedure described next to record the short-circuit current's characteristic.
1. Set the radiator's irradiance to its maximum value.

2. Start the X/Y recorder by actuating the button.
3. Slowly decrease the irradiance using the dimmer.
4. Once the minimum irradiance has been attained, stop recording by actuating the button.
Copy the result to the placeholder provided below. For this purpose, position the mouse pointer
over the diagram and click on the right-hand mouse button (copy function).
Is the recorded characteristic typical of a short-circuit current?
Yes
No
How does the short-circuit current respond to changes in irradiance?br>

The short-circuit current ISC...
... has a nearly linear relationship with the irradiance.

Several answers
... is not influenced by the irradiance.
may be correct.
... decreases as the irradiance increases.
Measure the PV cell's short-circuit current ISC at the maximum irradiance.

ISC = mA
Check Answer
Dependence of the short-circuit current on the radiation's angle of

incidence
Examine the influence of the lights angle of incidence on the short-circuit current. For this
purpose, measure the short-circuit current at various angles of incidence.
Open the Ammeter B virtual instrument via the menu path Instruments | Measuring devices |
Ammeter B or by clicking on the icon below, and perform the settings shown in the adjacent table.
Ammeter B settings
Range: 100 mA
Mode: DC
Shunt: 1 Ohm
What can be said about this relationship?
The short-circuit current does not depend in any way on the angle
of incidence.
Changes of the irradiation angle affect strongly on the short-circuit
current. Several answers
may be correct.
At a irradiation angle of 90 , the short circuit current is greatest.
As the angle of incidence decreases, the short-circuit current
increases.
Check answer
Characteristic of a PV cell Page 1 of 1
Characteristic of a PV cell
Between the two operating points representing no-load and short-circuit respectively,
it is possible to measure further operating points at different currents. All
measurement points together result in the cells characteristic. This characteristic is
determined by the various currents and their corresponding voltages.
The characteristic of a cell / module serves as an important assessment criterion in

solar technology.
The diagram below shows the typical U/I characteristic of a PV cell at various
irradiance levels.
Recording characteristics Page 1 of 2
Recording characteristics
In this experiment, we will use a X/Y recorder to capture the U/I characteristics of a 3V PV module at
various irradiances.
Between the two operating points representing no-load and short-circuit respectively, it is possible to
measure further operating points at different currents. All measurement points together result in the
modules characteristic. This characteristic is determined by the different currents and their
corresponding voltages. A variable load resistor (potentiometer) is connected to obtain various
measurement points.
Open the virtual instrument X/Y recorder via the menu path Instruments | X/Y recorder or by clicking
on the icon below, and perform the settings shown in the adjacent table.

X U 4.0 V 0.5 V
Y I 50 mA 5 mA
Use the procedure described next to record the characteristic.
1. Using the virtual solar meter, set the irradiance to 200 W/m2.
2. Set the potentiometer to 0 (short circuit).
3. Start recording the U/I characteristic by actuating the button.
Recording characteristics Page 2 of 2
4. Slowly turn the potentiometer to its maximum resistance value.

5. Finish recording the characteristic by actuating the button.
Use this procedure to record the U/I characteristic at various irradiances. Start with an irradiance of
200 W/m2 and increase it in steps of 200 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2.
Copy the result to the placeholder provided below. For this purpose, position the mouse pointer over
the diagram and click on the right-hand mouse button (copy function).
In contrast to theory, the characteristics do not make contact with the diagram's axes. This is due to
the employed measurement equipment as well as the simultaneous voltage and current
measurements. When current is measured via a shunt, short circuit causes a small voltage drop
across the shunt; this voltage drop is accounted for during the voltage measurement. When the solar
cell / module is short-circuited, the voltage is therefore not exactly zero.
The potentiometer's finite resistance does not fulfil the open-circuit condition that R. As a result,
the characteristics end just short of the voltage axis without actually touching it.
Power curve of a PV cell Page 1 of 2
Power curve of a PV cell
The power which can be supplied by a PV cell or module depends not only on the
irradiance, but also how well the loads are matched. The no-load operating point with I = 0
mA and the short-circuit operating point with U = 0 V, yield the output power P = 0 W in
accordance with the formula P = U I. Between these two operating points, the product P =
U I must therefore attain a maximum value. This operating point is termed the Maximum
Power Point (MPP).
The maximum power PMax a PV cell can deliver to a connected load is always smaller than
the product of the short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage.
The fill factor

The fill factor is a quality criterium of a solar cell and states to what extent the I-U
characteristic approaches the rectangle made up of the no-load voltage (UL) and short-
circuit current (IK) shown below. The fill factor is calculated using the following equation:
Power curve of a PV cell Page 2 of 2
The efficiency
To determine the efficiency of a solar cell you need to know the maximum power
point (MPP), the irradiance E and the surface area A of the solar cell. The efficiency is then
computed from the following expression:
Temperature dependency of the Maximum Power Point

If a cell or module is operated under exposure to strong irradiance, the temperature of the
cell / module rises beyond the value of 25C corresponding to Standard Test Conditions.
More precise measurement results regarding the temperature dependency of the MPP are
shown in the next diagram.
These measurement results indicate that PV modules should always be well ventilated to
maximize their cooling.
Determining a solar cell's efficiency Page 1 of 4
Determining a solar cell's efficiency
In the following experiment we shall first record the U-I characteristic of a

solar module. The parameters are then taken from the recorded
characteristic to compute the fill factor and the efficiency.
Set up the experiment in accordance with the following animation:
The irradiator is aligned so that the light falls perpendicularly onto the PV cell and the
maximum illuminance is set.
Measure the irradiance on the solar module using the virtuelle instrument Solar
Meter.
E= W/m2
Check Answer
Open the virtual instrument X/Y recorder via the menu path Instruments | X/Y recorder
or by clicking on the icon below, and perform the settings shown in the adjacent table.

X U 4.0 V 0.5 V
Y I 50 mA 5 mA
Y P 0.15 W 0.03 W
Use the procedure described next to record the characteristic.
1. Leave the irradiance at its maximum setting.

Copy the result to the placeholder provided below. For this purpose, position the
mouse pointer over the diagram and click on the right-hand mouse button (copy
function).
In contrast to theory, the characteristics do not make contact with the diagram's
axes. This is due to the employed measurement equipment as well as the
simultaneous voltage and current measurements. When current is measured via a
shunt, short circuit causes a small voltage drop across the shunt; this voltage drop
is accounted for during the voltage measurement. When the solar cell / module is
short-circuited, the voltage is therefore not exactly zero.
The potentiometer's finite resistance does not fulfil the open-circuit condition that
R. As a result, the characteristics end just short of the voltage axis without
actually touching it.
Determine from the diagram the following parameters:

UL = V
UMPP = V
IK = mA
IMPP = mA
PMPP = mW
Compute the fill factor of the solar module.
FF =
Compute the efficiency of the solar module. The surface of the cell is 7.20 cm2.
(1W/m2 ? 0.1mW/cm2)
= %
Check Answer
Knowledge test: Photovoltaic cell's characteristic parameters Page 1 of 2
Knowledge test: Photovoltaic cell's characteristic

parameters
What is the open-circuit voltage?
It is the voltage drop across a load in the idle state.

It is the voltage measured across a photovoltaic cell's
open terminals.
It is the lowest voltage output by the battery in the event
of fluctuations caused by switching operations.
Is there a potential hazard in working on a solar cell under a heavily overcast sky?
No, the irradiance is far too low then.

Yes, the maximum open-circuit voltage is present
already at low irradiances.
The output voltage does not depend on the irradiance.
Which of the following statements about a solar cell's short-circuit current are
correct?
The short circuit current is the maximum current and
limited only by the source's internal resistance.
Certain components can get damaged if exposed to the
short circuit current for too long. The solar cell, however,
is short-circuit-proof.
An increase in temperature has effects typical for
semiconductors.
There is an exponential relationship between the short
circuit current and irradiance.
The angle of incidence is optimal if the cell is aligned
perpendicularly with respect to the rays.
Does a photovoltaic cell have a linear characteristic?
Yes.
Knowledge test: Photovoltaic cell's characteristic parameters Page 2 of 2
No.
Which consequences does the performance curve have?

The load must be matched so that the solar cell operates
at its maximum power point.
The solar cell outputs a constant power over the entire
voltage spectrum.
The maximum power point is the product of the short-
circuit current and open-circuit voltage.
Checkanswer
Wiring variants for PV cells Page 1 of 2
Wiring variants for PV cells
Different voltages and amperages can be achieved by wiring PV cells in

correspondingly different ways, e.g.
l series connections
l parallel connections
Series connection of PV cells

Because individual cells fail to produce a sufficiently high voltage for most
applications, several cells can be connected in series so that their individual voltages
are added to form the required voltage.
Our training system includes two 6-volt modules each comprising 18 series-
connected cells mounted on the module carrier.
Standard commercial 12V modules typically comprise a series-connection of 36 cells,

though arrays of 33, 40 and even 44 cells are also available.
Series-connected modules are often termed string. Because cells / modules are not
perfectly identical, the total current flowing through a string depends on the lowest-
quality cell / module. This effect is known as mismatching.
Needless to say, a modules no-load and short-circuit points are also interspersed by
further operating points forming the modules characteristic.
Parallel connection of PV cells

Connecting cells / modules in parallel adds their individual currents to result in a
higher total current.
Wiring variants for PV cells Page 2 of 2
Only cells / modules of the same type must be connected in parallel, as differences in
type would cause compensation currents to flow, thus invalidating the addition of the
individual currents.
Series connection Page 1 of 2
Series connection
Open the virtual instrument X/Y recorder via the menu path Instruments | X/Y recorder or by clicking on
the icon below, and perform the settings shown in the adjacent table.

X U 16 V 2V
Y I 50 mA 5 mA
First record the U/I characteristic of a single solar module using the procedure described next.

5. Label the characteristic with the number of solar modules employed.
Repeat the recording with a series connection of two, three and four solar modules respectively. Once
you have recorded all the characteristics, copy them to the diagram below.
Series connection Page 2 of 2
Which of the following statements are correct?br>

In the case of series-connected solar modules ...
... the currents of the individual solar modules are added together.
... the solar module with the lowest current determines the amperage
of the series connection. Several answers
... the voltages of the individual solar modules are added together. may be correct.
... the voltage is irrespective of the number of solar modules connected
in series.
Check Answer

Knowledge Test: Solar Radiation

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Knowledge test: Solar radiation Page 1 of 2

Knowledge test: Solar radiation

Please answer the following questions:

Would an area of 200,000 m2 on the sun's surface radiate enough energy to

The angles comprising elevation and azimuth.

What are shading losses?

Losses resulting from shadows being cast on the solar

Losses arising when the distance between the sun and a

Photovoltaics in automotive applications

Knowledge test: Automotive applications

Please answer the following questions:

For which purposes are photovoltaic sources used in motor vehicles?

Which parameter is a solar cell's weak point, especially in automotive applications?

Why is efficiency of special importance in automotive applications?

What can be said about the third generation of solar cells?

They incorporate thin-film technology.

Characteristic parameters of PV cells

Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell

The factors mentioned next influence the open-circuit voltage.

Measurements of the dependency of open-circuit voltage on angle of light incidence

Accordingly, PV modules destined for use in warm regions require a higher

Experiment: Open-circuit voltage of a PV cell

In this experiment, we will examine the dependencies of a polycrystalline photovoltaic

The next animation shows the experiment setup.

X/Y recorder settings

1. Set the radiator's irradiance to its maximum value.

The characteristic indicates that the open-circuit voltage UOC...br>

... remains constant.

What is the PV cells maximum open-circuit voltage at maximum irradiance?

Dependence of the open-circuit voltage on the radiation's angle of

When light impinges perpendicularly on the PV cell, its open-circuit

Short-circuit current of a PV cell

The short-circuit current depends on:

A short-circuited PV cell serves as a sensor for an irradiance meter.

Angle of light incidence

Experiment: Short-circuit current of a PV cell

The next animation shows the experiment setup:

X/Y recorder settings

1. Set the radiator's irradiance to its maximum value.

Is the recorded characteristic typical of a short-circuit current?

How does the short-circuit current respond to changes in irradiance?br>

... has a nearly linear relationship with the irradiance.

Measure the PV cell's short-circuit current ISC at the maximum irradiance.

Dependence of the short-circuit current on the radiation's angle of

What can be said about this relationship?

The characteristic of a cell / module serves as an important assessment criterion in

The next animation shows the experiment setup.

X/Y recorder settings

Use the procedure described next to record the characteristic.

4. Slowly turn the potentiometer to its maximum resistance value.

Power curve of a PV cell

The fill factor

Temperature dependency of the Maximum Power Point

Determining a solar cell's efficiency

In the following experiment we shall first record the U-I characteristic of a

Set up the experiment in accordance with the following animation:

X/Y recorder settings

Use the procedure described next to record the characteristic.

1. Leave the irradiance at its maximum setting.

Determine from the diagram the following parameters:

Compute the fill factor of the solar module.

Knowledge test: Photovoltaic cell's characteristic

Please answer the following questions: