Running head: MATHEMATICS CONTENT KNOWLEDGE 1

Significance of Mathematical Content Knowledge in the Classroom

Elizabeth Tilton

University of Maine at Farmington

October 14, 2017

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Abstract

The purpose of this research is to delve deeper into the significance and meaning of

Mathematics Content Knowledge (MCK), both common and specialized, and the role it plays in

the classroom. MCK is composed of many different factors including pedagogy, specific content

knowledge, etc all of which are needed for effectively teaching mathematics to children in

Kindergarten through 12th grade. A close relationship exists between the characteristics of

MCK and the 8 Standards for Mathematical Practice of the Common Core State Standards

(CCSS) and five Process Standards as put forth by the National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics (NCTM). The future impact of MCK on the researchers own educational practices

is notably positive and thoroughly articulated.

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Introduction

It is a strong belief by those in the education field, that a connection exists between

teachers mathematical knowledge and the gains or lack thereof in student achievement. Over

the past decade, educators have come to an agreement that improvement in mathematics

education in the United States is needed. It has been made clear through research that teachers

knowledge of mathematics is crucial for improving the quality of instruction (Hill, H. C., &

Ball, D. L., 2004). Highly qualified teachers that have the mathematical knowledge needed for

successfully teaching math to students are able to clearly explain terms and concepts; understand

and follow appropriate sequences and progression of content; and ask students probing questions

to further their understanding of given concepts (Chapin, na). University and/or college degrees

that demonstrate a major in mathematics, are not sufficient enough to successfully teach students

mathematics (Goos, 2013). Mathematical knowledge for teaching (MKT), includes several

types of content knowledge (common, specialized, and pedagogical) (Chapin, na).

Common content knowledge (CCK), can be described as mathematical knowledge that

any well-educated adult should know. As for teachers, it includes knowing when students have

answers wrong, recognizing when the textbook gives an inaccurate definition, and being able to

use terms and notation correctly (Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H. & Phelps, G., 2008). More simply

put the knowledge teachers need in order to be able to do the work that they are assigning their

students. Specific content knowledge (SCK) more obviously refers to having an understanding

of the specific content area and material being taught. We often think of this as being upper

level high school classes such as Algebra, Calculus, Geometry, etc

MCK is indeed crucial for effective teaching and learning of mathematics in the

classroom. Connections between MCK and the 8 Standards for Mathematical Practice of the
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CCSS, as well as NCTMs five process standards are evident. These connections play a role in

students' success in and out of the classroom, and help to lay the foundation for students gains

and achievements at a very young age.

MCK Needed for Effective Teaching

According to Merrilyn Goos (2013), prior to recent studies, teachers mathematical

knowledge was measured by university degrees teachers had obtained, the number of

professional development courses in which they had participated or the results of mathematical

skills tests they had taken for certification purposes. Recent studies completed at the

elementary level, indicate that there is a connection between students learning and teachers

level of content knowledge. Teachers mathematical knowledge, however, should be measured

differently then it once was. It is composed of much more than the number of courses, degrees,

or professional development a teacher has in his or her file. Lee Shulman (1986), a former

Professor of Education at Stanford University who specialized in teacher education and the

psychology of instruction, has helped to determine what defines a successful teacher of

mathematics. He proposed seven categories of knowledge for teaching: content knowledge,

pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, curriculum knowledge, and knowledge

of students, educational contexts and the purposes of education (Goos, 2013). In the 1980s,

Schulman (1986) found that content had taken a backseat to pedagogical practices. He further

developed and defined the three categories of content knowledge, pedagogical content

knowledge, and curricular knowledge. According to Deborah L. Ball, Mark H. Thames, and

Geoffrey Phelps (2008), these are the categories that Shulman believed to be the missing

paradigm in research on teaching.

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Content knowledge, specifically, refers to the structure of subject matter both

substantive, as the organization of facts and ideas, and syntactic, as the set of rules and norms

that support the content (Shulman, 1986). In order to successfully teach mathematics content to

students, it is important that teachers not only understand the material and content they are

teaching, but also understand how and why it works the way it does. A good teacher can answer

the questions: What came before this skill? What will proceed this skill? Why do particular

solutions work for given problems? Why does this make sense? Having a solid understanding

of the progression of content is key in teacher instruction. A teacher must know what comes

before and will come after the content currently being taught. Connecting students to prior

knowledge and future skills will help to provide them with consistency and smooth transitions

from one topic or grade to the next.

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), has a much greater influence on the overall

quality of instruction and gains made in student learning. Shulman (1986) developed PCK to

help teachers connect the content they must know and understand, with the knowledge they must

possess of the appropriate tools to use, and the various ways in which content can and should be

presented and taught to students. Pedagogical content knowledge is the content knowledge

beyond subject matter that Shulman describes as the content knowledge for teaching (Shulman,

1986). This goes along with knowing ones students, having a solid understanding of how

students learn best, and what common misconceptions they may have regarding specific content

and skills. A teacher must have a solid understanding of individual students strengths,

weaknesses, preconceptions of specific skills, and ability levels, in an effort to help all students

make gains and find success. Teachers knowledge of content and students, also referred to as
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KCS, is defined as content knowledge intertwined with knowledge of how students think about,

know, or learn particular content (Hill, H. C., & Ball, D. L. & Schilling, S. G., 2008).

Curricular knowledge refers to a knowledge of the curricular materials available and

variety of programs and resources for teaching a certain subject area (Shulman, 1986). Glenda

Anthony and Margaret Walshaw (2009) of Massey University in New Zealand, discuss how

highly effective teachers plan lessons and activities that not only follow the correct progression

of the curriculum, but that are engaging and touch upon students interests. They go on to

suggest that in order to get the most of their education, students must be given the opportunity to

work independently as well as collaboratively, and in multiple arrangements and with different

tools. This is in an effort to meet the needs of all learners in an inclusive setting. Depending on

students needs and the skill currently being taught, different group sizes and/or resources may

be needed. Some students might need to work individually at first, to organize their thoughts and

process new material, while others may benefit from small group work with support from the

teacher. Once again, this emphasizes the importance for teachers to not only know the material

they are teaching, but what engages their students and how they learn best.

CCSS 8 Standards for Mathematical Practice

The CCSS 8 Mathematical Practices include standards that should be referenced and used

by all teachers from Kindergarten to 8th grade. The 8 Mathematical Practices include NCTMs

process standards of problem solving, reasoning and proof, communication, representation, and

connections. These standards are also composed of mathematical proficiency specified in the

National Research Councils report Adding It Up: adaptive reasoning, strategic competence,

conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, and productive disposition (Preparing, 2017).

The mathematical practice standards are as follows:

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CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP1 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

The first standard emphasizes the importance of students being able to tackle a given

problem or problems, analyzing their meaning to make sense of what exactly is being asked of

them. Students are encouraged to find multiple ways to solve problems, eventually choosing the

most effective method that makes sense to them, on an individual basis. Once a method for

solving has been identified, proficient students will be able to explain why the method works in

the given problem situation, and determine whether or not their solution makes sense. Concrete

objects, pictures, expressions and equations, as well as many other ways to represent problems

are used to aid students in the evaluation process. When problems become challenging, students

persevere in solving them, working through the challenges and obstacles encountered (Preparing,

2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP2 Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

The second standard discusses students abilities to both decontextualize and contextualize

given problem situations. To decontextualize a problem means to identify the heart of the

problem by abstracting a given situation and represent it symbolically and manipulate the

representing symbols as if they have a life of their own, without necessarily attending to their

referents. A students ability to contextualize means to pause as needed during the

manipulation process in order to probe into the referents for the symbols involved (Preparing,

2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP3 Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning

of others.

The third standard discusses how proficient math students are able to construct viable

arguments by utilizing various definitions, prior knowledge, etc to help formulate their
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arguments, and justify and explain their conclusions to others in a way that makes sense.

Students are also able to to respectively critique the reasoning of others using the same factors,

as well as counterexamples when appropriate (Preparing, 2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP4 Model with mathematics.

The fourth standard discusses how students that are considered to be proficient in

mathematics, are able to use what they know about math to solve real world problems they may

encounter. They are able to assess the problem and apply the best methods to model and

evaluate solutions that make sense (Preparing, 2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP5 Use appropriate tools strategically.

The fifth standard requires that students consider and then choose the appropriate tools to

solve given problems. These tools might include pencil and paper, concrete models, a ruler, a

protractor, a calculator, a spreadsheet, a computer algebra system, a statistical package, or

dynamic geometry software. Due to amount of tools to choose from, students must have a solid

understanding of what each tool does and at what point one more of the tools should be applied

(Preparing, 2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP6 Attend to precision.

The sixth standard states that when students attempt to communicate their math reasoning

with others, they are most successful when they focus on specific definitions, and explain the

meaning behind the symbols they used to evaluate problems (Preparing, 2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP7 Look for and make use of structure.

The 7th standard discusses how students proficient in mathematics are able to dissect and

evaluate the meaning of various problems. They can view the same problem in more than one

way, making connections between different concepts and number properties. Younger students
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may demonstrate this by sorting concrete manipulatives by their characteristics, while older

students may take an algebraic expression or equation and give meaning to the symbols and

numbers involved (Preparing, 2017).

CCSS.MATH.PRACTICE.MP8 Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

The 8th standard

NCTM Process Standards

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has identified five process

standards, which are also evident in the 8 Mathematical Practice Standards from the CCSS. The

following are the five process standards (Standards, 2017):

Problem Solving

- Build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving

- Solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts

- Apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems

- Monitor and reflect on the process of mathematical problem solving

Reasoning and Proof

- Recognize reasoning and proof as fundamental aspects of mathematics

- Make and investigate mathematical conjectures

- Develop and evaluate mathematical arguments and proofs

- Select and use various types of reasoning and methods of proof

Communication

- Organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking through communication

- Communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others
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- Analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others;

- Use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely.

Connections

- Recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas

- Understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a

coherent whole

- Recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics

Representation

- Create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas

- Select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems

- Use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena

MCK Connection to 8 Mathematical Practices and NCTMs Process Standards

Mark H. Thames and Deborah L. Ball (2010) along with their colleagues at the

University of Michigan, have determined through their studies that teachers must better

understand the mathematical questions and situations that will arise in their teaching, in order to

be successful. Through their observations of videotaped lessons in varying classrooms, Thames

and Ball (2010) were able to see the need for math understanding involved in posing questions,

interpreting students answers, providing explanations, and using representations. There is a

strong association between those understandings and the mathematical practices and five process

standards presented by NCTM. The questions that teachers pose to students can aide them in

making necessary connections amongst different mathematical ideas, and how to better and more

precisely communicate their thinking. When providing explanations to students, teachers are

modeling how to use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely and
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communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others

(Standards, 2017).

Teachers must have the necessary MCK, including its curricular and pedagogical

components, to be able to effectively guide students in problem solving, reasoning and proof,

communication, making connections, and representing their ideas. Meeting the diverse needs of

individual students requires teachers to delve deep into what students already know, their

struggles, misconceptions, and how to engage them in the learning process. Mathematical

Practices 4 and 5 focus on choosing appropriate tools strategically to model with mathematics.

Teachers of mathematics not only need to represent mathematics concepts and procedures to

students, provide students with explanations for common rules and mathematical procedures, and

analyze students solutions and explanations (Hill, H. C., Rowan, B., & Ball, D. L., 2005). This

closely relates to the curricular knowledge teachers should have of the multiple resources that

can be used in the classroom when teaching different skills and presenting new material.

Practices 1, 2, 3, and 8 focus a lot on analyzing and communicating ideas. Understanding

students ability levels ways that they communicate best, can help teachers to guide them through

these standards but providing multiple outlets for demonstrating their understanding.

Connections between all mathematical practices and process standards can really be found in all

research surrounding MCK.

Future Impact on Educational Practices

The future impact of MCK on my own own educational practices is notably positive and

significant. Teaching mathematics requires an appreciation of mathematical reasoning,

understanding the meaning of mathematical ideas and procedures, and knowing how ideas and

procedures connect (Hill & Ball, 2004). Although I knew the importance of understanding the
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meaning behind ideas and procedures and conveying that to students, I had not know about the

various components of MCK mentioned by Shulman (1986). Its like small pieces of a much

larger and more complex puzzle being that of teaching mathematics education.

Currently I am working with a math leadership coach during professional development

opportunities at my school. He has emphasized the importance of pulling from many different

resources, programs, etc to help build a curriculum that is rich in engaging resources, much

like Shulman (1986) suggests in his definition of curricular knowledge. I plan to share the

characteristics of MCK with my colleagues, in an effort to bring awareness to them regarding the

pedagogical, content, and curricular knowledge required to successfully teach mathematics. I

will also include this research in my student learning outcomes (SLOs) to show students

progress and gains made throughout specific units.

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References

Anthony, G., & Walshaw, M. (2009). Characteristics of Effective Teaching of Mathematics: A

View from the West. Journal of Mathematics Education, 2(2), 147-164.

Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H. & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What

makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59, 389-407.

Chapin, S. (na). Elementary Pre-Service Teachers Mathematics Project: Teachers

Specialized Content Knowledge: Preparing Elementary Teachers. Boston

University: Harvard, MA.

Hill, H. C., & Ball, D. L. (2004). Learning mathematics for teaching: results from

Californias mathematics professional development initiative. Journal for

Research in Mathematics Education, 35 (5), 330-351.

Hill, H. C., Rowan, B., & Ball, D. L. (2005). Effects of teachers mathematical

knowledge for teaching on student achievement. American Educational Research

Journal, 42(2), 371-406.

Hill, H. C., & Ball, D. L. & Schilling, S. G. (2008). Unpacking pedagogical content

knowledge: Conceptualizing and measuring teachers topic-specific knowledge of

students. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39, (4), 372-400.

Preparing America's students for success. (2017). Retrieved October 8, 2017, from http://

www.corestandards.org/

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational

Researcher, 15(2), 4-14.

Standards and Positions: Process. (2017). Retrieved October 8, 2017, from http://www.nctm.org/

Standards-and-Positions/Principles-and-Standards/Process/
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Thames, M. & Ball, D.L. (2010). What math knowledge does teaching require? Teaching

Children Mathematics, Nov. 2010, 221-229.