The Soundless Music Classroom 1

The Soundless Music Classroom:

Listening Practices in the Hearing Impaired Classroom
Summer Davis
Introduction
The inclusive classroom is expanding to cover an ever growing population of exceptional
abilities and differences. The general music classroom has become a stomping ground for mixing
abilities amongst students. Over the past few decades, one community of students have started to
branch out from specialized education and move into public spheres. The hearing impaired
community has seen a growth in recognition in and out of the classroom, and has started to
become a normal practice. (Schraer-Joiner, 2014). However, with the introduction of specific
needs, many teachers are accidentally turning the blind eye to hearing-impaired education.
Specifically, the music classroom, has transformed to the most progressive or most oppressive
course for these students. By tuning into the needs of deaf and hard-of hearing students,
educators can create a group of self-identified musicians who dont need to hear the words to feel
something.

Rational and Research Question

Mainstream general music classrooms have prevailed in holding the auditory sense as the
hierarchical ruler. This practice runs rampant within the education and involvement of the
hearing-impaired community. This community has a demand for a-typical communication styles,
thus they often participate in the act of musiking differently than their peers. The inclusive K-12
general music classroom has progressed to an age of using music to teach communication skills
to young students with hearing disabilities. In many cases, individuals will learn their spoken (or
signed language) completely through a musical context. This practice also involves breaking
down the barrier between music context listening and music communication skills. By fostering
a creative, artistic space that allots for lexicon improvement, the general music educator can aid
students in a physical, emotional, and psychological realm. It is pivotal that the scope of the
music classroom increases beyond musical listening and its artistic function to aid hearing
impaired individuals in the act of musiking. By examining the modalities within the classroom,
The Soundless Music Classroom 2

the acoustical setting of the space, and the mainstreaming of hearing impaired education, the
sounds of the music classroom can further be examined. The following articles will be
investigated to try and answer the ever-pressing question of what are the listening practices in the
hearing-impaired classroom that promote multimodal communication?

Literature Review
Paul Duncum describes the need for multi-literacy and multi-modality education within
public school art departments in his 2004 article on visual culture and multimodality. Focusing
on art as a contemporary social practice, the author discusses how cultural forms inform life
beyond their perception. He narrows in on the idea of visual art breaking past the barrier of
visual modes to place it as an intrinsic communication. Duncum relays that multiliteracy and
multimodality coincide to foster an artistic pallet that cannot be inferred by purely visual stimuli.
Through the process of anchoring, he also discusses the practice of creating links between visual,
physical, and aural stimulation. Thus, a movie without sound effects can never reach true
conceptualization. A picture book without words can contain multiple interpretations. Duncum
focused on the introduction of these multilevel ideas, and then he pushed us towards
understanding their relevance in the classroom. He states that there is a current drive to
reconceptualize the focus of art education as visual culture rather than art. He reiterates that
cultural forms are integrated into our lives and that without recognizing them in their multiple
forms, there is no way to recreate them in the classroom in an authentic form. Finally, he
discusses that even though cultural forms are present in day-to-day life, it does not require
transmission to move between them. The movement from one cultural form to another requires
translation in the creative process. (Duncum, 2004)
Even though this article discusses the multiliteracy and multimodality in the visual art
classroom, it is very applicable to the hearing-impaired and deaf classroom. A student with
hearing impairments can translate artistic and cultural works through the many modalities
present in them. By understanding that these students are still surrounded by many cultural
forms, the educators and learners around them can work to help identify and utilize the pathways
that translate the culture around them. By exposing hearing-impaired students to visual, physical,
The Soundless Music Classroom 3

and mental stimulation, they can create the most authentic representation of the forms
surrounding them without sound. Rather than teaching reading strictly through sign music
strictly through vibrations, the educator can enforce literacy skills through the many modalities
present within hearing-impaired children and use sign to further a musical discussion. Although
Duncum discussed many versions of multiliteracy and multimodality in reference to artistic
expression and recognition of cultural forms, it is important to note that he touched very little on
the implications a classroom of very contrasting modalities. It would also prove interesting for
him to dive into understanding these theories in older subjects.
Ana Jaramillo and Michael Ermann narrow in on the specifics of auditory recognition
within acoustical parameters for students in in their 2010 research on Noise in the classroom.
They discuss that the learning process requires a mental process, concentration, [and] attention
in various details. Although all students are complex, perceptive individuals, the acoustic
setting of a classroom can damage their learning environment. They follow this by specifically
stating that the United States public school systems have a standard for acoustics within the
classroom. These standards set the maximum background noise level of 35 decibels and the
minimum sound transmission class values for noise isolation between spaces. They selected an
open plan elementary school that had partial walls installed to turn one classroom into two. The
classrooms had ventilation systems in place as well as an abundance of fluorescent lighting. The
classrooms require quiet activities at all times due to the fact that none of the classrooms are
completely walled off. The study selected to measure noise isolation class between two adjacent
spaces that were separated by a partial wall. They selected six measurement locations within
each room using pink and white noise. There were no students present in the rooms, however the
lights and mechanical systems were left running. Within their results, Jaramillo and Ermann
indicate that the classrooms were far short of the recommended classroom acoustics noise
isolation standards. The more apparent problem was that the teachers and administration did not
recognize this as an issue. (Jaramillo & Ermann, 2010).
I found this to be an incredibly frightening read considering that a large amount of
American classrooms use similar architecture, mechanical, and classroom design. The authors
suggested multiple ways that the teachers play to these disadvantages and noted that there are
The Soundless Music Classroom 4

corrective practices. Many teachers tend to raise their vocal levels in a louder classroom,
however this not only causes strain on the teachers vocal chords but it adds to the overproduced
sound present in the classroom. The authors suggest closing the gap between students and
teachers and having them physically closer to stop the poor transition of sound. This is especially
relevant to hearing-impaired students in that they should be closer to the teacher in order to pick
out vocal differences and to read lips. They also stressed correcting mechanical systems to ones
that produce less obstructive sound. This is exceptionally important for the community in
question in that there should be as few background noises as possible so as to focus in on the
main sounds. The next step for this research would be to recognize these problems in a large
subject sample of classrooms as well as introducing student background noise into the classroom.
This 2003 article by Philip Hash outlines specific practices used in the classroom to
engage hearing-impaired students. Hash posits that the interest interest in hearing-impaired
education has existed for the last 100 years, however only in the past decade have educators
started to question the actual responses of the students. He starts by discussing maintenance of
beat and pitch with these students, stating that often they can keep a steadier beat than hearing
students. In pitch, however, they can usually only consciously discriminate pitches that are lower
frequencies. Hash promotes the inclusion of hearing-impaired students in an accepting,
immersive classroom. The physical act of movement and body coordination and the social act of
working with hearing peers can further develop a hearing-impaired students personal identity.
Hash also touches on many of the acoustical ideas discussed by Jaramillo and Ermann. He adds
to this discussion by mentioning adequate lighting to improve lip reading as well as facial cues.
Also the placement of the hearing-impaired student(s) in the first or second row of an ensemble
with a hearing buddy. Teaching these students in small like-instrument groups can also prove to
be very effective as long as the student is able to see everyones face while not being the center
of attention. Teachers should speak in a slow, low frequency voice when addressing a
hard-of-hearing student or an student with a hearing aid or cochlear implant. Hash also discusses
the instrumentation that has prospered with this group of students in recent year. Harp, guitar,
electric bass, clarinet, saxophone, bass clarinet, tenor sax, and percussion (sustaining sounds)
(Hash, 2003).
The Soundless Music Classroom 5

In order to connect with these students, it is pivotal that we understand the multiple ways
to communicate with them in the classroom. Using the environment to the students advantage
while also adjusting your physical and vocal representation, the teacher can further work to meet
hearing-impaired students where they are rather than below their achievement level. By
accepting these students into an immersive classroom, the teacher is concretizing their role as
music makers. What they do once inside the classroom is a communication dance between the
student, the teacher, and their peers. Acknowledging the environmental needs of the student and
working with them in and out of musical contexts, the educator is giving them the option to be
engaged and partake in a musical experience. For many of these students that means the use of
instruments that create low, tactile sounds - for others it could mean sitting back and working
with a partner to help dissect an idea. It would be interesting to see the author delve more into
musiking experiences that do not stress the standard ensemble practice, but rather individual or
group sound exploration.
Lyn Schraer-Joiner wrote on a grouping of concert series studies focused on the way that
deaf and hard of hearing students react to a live sound in 2014). These studies all focused on the
different modalities used by hearing impaired and deaf students when listening to a live musical
performance. The concert series studied was the King University concert series for the deaf.
Over 150 students of varying ages were exposed to multiple performances ranging from vocal to
percussive to electronic genres. During the percussion ensemble performance, the students were
urged to feel the vibrations through the floor as well as through their chairs. Many students found
this is a very new and enlightening experience, while others saw it as frightening and
overpowering. Next, for the musical stories concert, different instrumentation was picked to
represent characters and scenery from children's stories depicted on a mural in front of the
students. This performance became very participatory and allowed the students to initiate many
of the sounds themselves. As we move out of the concert setting and into the classroom, the
Radio Baton was used to engage in music making by controlling dynamics in one hand and beat
placement in the other. This device allowed the children to match up beats at a frequency they
enjoyed to different imagery on a digital screen. After looking at overall student participation
and engagement, they found that the hearing-impaired students enjoyed activities that allowed
The Soundless Music Classroom 6

them to initiate sound themselves rather than have performances thrust upon them without
control. Specifically, students were most engaged with improvatory elements of each activity.
This study also goes on to discuss aesthetic qualities presented in multiple listening examples as
Recognition of repeated melodic figures (Schraer-Joiner, 2014).
I found this study to be incredibly insightful into how Hearing impaired students show
interest in engaging with musical activities. The fact that students showed more interest in
self-initiated music making signals that the music classroom should allow for more exploration
in dealing with hearing impaired students. The use of vibrotactile instruments in learning and
performance has outwardly been pushed as the most relevant way to educate hearing-impaired
students in the music classroom. However, this study proves that students have the ability to
make aesthetic choices about sound worlds even when the aural aspect is not present. The use of
the radio baton and other technologies that encourage experimentation could prove to be the
most effective educational practice for involvement of hearing-impaired students in the music
classroom. It would be intriguing to see where this type of research could take us in
understanding aesthetic recognition amongst hearing-impaired individuals.
This Article by Lauri Nelson in 2016 stresses the importance of creating pathways that
are linguistically meaningful for students through sound and music. Nelson focuses on the idea
of learning sign and literacy skills through musical atmospheres. By combining percussive
elements, vibrotactile instruments, and pitch recognition, educators are able to connect certain
linguistic skills with other devices as well as understanding and memorizing different English
lexicons. She stresses the importance of noticing hearing deficiencies in a timely and appropriate
manner in and out of the classroom. By recognizing these differences, parents and the teachers
can adjust their teaching styles to fit the modalities present within the student. New bring up very
young ages pacifically require this kind of education, because they are developing verbal and
written skills. Specifically, for students that are not completely deaf, these kinds of practices are
incredibly valid and important to their educational future. Nelson also goes on to discuss vocal
play and experimentation in understanding how actual words take form in spoken or written
dialogue (Nelson, 2016).
The Soundless Music Classroom 7

By expanding listening practices outside instrumental ensembles, the hearing impaired

musical classroom has many opportunities to work with sound in defining language. Provides
specific practices to work with young children to experiment with sound to develop literacy
skills. Often, the hearing impaired classroom is assumed to involve the severely deaf, however
the reality is that there are a large handful of students facing a broad range of slight to moderate
hearing impairments. It is pivotal to recognize their presence and academic needs in the
classroom.By taking time to use music making as a language and communication skill, the
teacher is able to further present listening and sound making activities in classrooms. This study
focused a large portion on the speech development of young students, however it is very
important to also question the language skills of older students who lose hearing later in life.
This dissertation by Jaclyn Paul in 2017 focused on the the use of music in defining self
concept for students who are deaf or hard of hearing in varying atmospheres. Paul surveyed three
groups of students: Deaf students at a school for the deaf, hearing students at an inclusive school,
and hearing students in a public school. Each group was administered two surveys, the first being
one about self definition and the second being about music definition. There were significant
correlations between positive self evaluation and neutral music evaluation. Although all groups
made musical statements, the deaf students gave far more neutral or uninterested answers. The
hearing students at the inclusive school were recorded as using very concrete definitions of
music, while the deaf students gave very abstract definitions. It was also found that hearing
students at the inclusive school made references to deaf self-identity (Paul, 2017).
This research is important because it helps to understand how the hearing and
hearing-impaired communities see themselves within music. Without an interest in music or its
aesthetic qualities, how can one sanctify the educational possibilities within it. The fact that the
deaf population surveyed had neutral and generalized views of music could be an indicator that
they have not been introduced to music in a manner that connects with them or that they even
notice. What shape(and sound for that matter) does the music education classroom take at a
school completely for the deaf? Another interesting idea that came up during this study was the
fact the deaf students had very abstract opinions on music compared to the hearing students. This
could again align with the principle that they are generalizing others opinions of music as their
The Soundless Music Classroom 8

own. Without creating a self identity in music, these students run the risk of never perceiving
music as an artistic phenomenon or understanding its aesthetic qualities. The testing of a larger
population of deaf, hard-of-hearing, and hearing students is necessary to be able to recognize this
as a trend in self-identity and the music classroom.
This article, similar to Jarmillo and Ermunns, was written by Valente and associates in
2012 focus on the acoustic learning space that is the public school classroom. This research study
pertains mainly to speech recognition in the public classroom instead of background acoustical
noise. Valente writes that children have been performing far worse than adults when comparing
speech recognition. He accredits this to the onslaught of background noise experienced in public
schools as well as the technological trends popular with todays youth. Valente simulated a
classroom experience to test the effects of background noise on students. He designed a small
space with specific padding, microphones, and media players to amit the same sounds as a
classroom. A student was then placed inside with a variety of tasks. They were given a Readers
Theatre play to remember and write about, as well as a sentence memorization task. A small
movement tracking device was placed in the classroom to note the students attention to various
contributing sounds. There was also a control group that was placed with the same tasks in a
mock-classroom conducive to learning. The results showed a significant correlation between lack
of sentence recognition in the less than ideal atmosphere. The students in the learning friendly
classroom scored significantly higher on the assessments given (Valente, 2012).
Much like the earlier article discussing acoustic principles of the classroom, it is
recognizably apparent that students function better in a classroom without distractions. We can
apply this to the hearing impaired community the same way as we previously did. By not
obstructing the teachers voice or the voice of the participating students, we allow for broad
communication in the classroom. The same techniques as previously discussed should be
applied in this situation. An interesting area of study would be to place a hard of hearing student
in the same situation under the same assessment. Better yet, how would this student react in an
over-stimulated music classroom when trying to interpret the teacher's directions? Further, farm
music classrooms properly acoustically sound?
The Soundless Music Classroom 9

Pauline Tranchant and associates examined the synchronization of student beat

production with vibrotactile electronic dance music among hearing and deaf individuals in their
2017 research study. A small group of 14 hearing and 7 deaf individuals were selected based on
limited dancing backgrounds and ease of mobility. The researches composed a drum track to be
played at varying tempos and volumes. The track was then presented in three different
conditions: auditory, vibrotactile and mask, and vibrotactile and earmuffs. The audio condition
was played over speakers, while the vibrotactile condition was played through a vibrating dance
floor. Under the muff condition, the participants wore industrial grade earmuffs to ensure no
transmission of sound into the ears. Under the mas condition, the participants listened to brown
noise to block the sound of the platform vibrations. The participants were instructed to bounce to
the beat played over the dance floor or speakers. The participants were tested under all three
conditions. For the hearing community, the most accurate performance was for the audio track
where the worst was for the mask. The deaf group showed no difference in synchronization for
any of the conditions. The deaf group performed at the same level as the hearing group did for
the mask condition. Therefore deafness did not impede synchronization to a beat through non
auditory sensory modalities (Tranchant, 2017).
As previously discussed vibrotactile elements are often used to work with the deaf
community. This study shows that deaf individuals are able participate in movement
synchronization the same way as a hearing population. When considering the inclusive
classroom, it's important to utilize movement activities that allow hearing impaired students to
express themselves and experiment in a way similar to their hearing pears. Moving to a
pre-existing beat is useful, however as a for mentioned, it's also pertinent for students to
synthesize their own beats and rhythms. This gives them a creative roll while still allowing them
to complete a movement activity similar to hearing students. I find it imperative to research how
this study would differ or remain constant with the use of children instead of adults. this study
also did not have the death participants go through the purely auditory dance soundtrack.
Therefore, I do not think it is equally comparing the two groups.
In 1991, Alice-Ann Darrow wrote. on the ever pressing issue of mainstreaming hearing
impaired students in Public School classrooms. Although this is an older study, I find it
The Soundless Music Classroom 10

necessary to understand the recent interest in inclusive practices concerning hearing impaired
students. In the early 90s, Hearing impaired students were first being introduced to the
normative classroom. This resulted in a lot of Educators denying them exceptional education
plans in that they had no experience working with this group of students. This study was the first
of its kind to ask teachers who had hearing impaired students in their classroom about their
methods for teaching. 300 surveys were sent to Educators who qualified across the United
States. the respondents indicated the amount of hearing impaired students in their classrooms
between the numbers of 1 to 91. the majority of the schools responded to having no specialized
education in place for hearing impaired students. A small percentage replied saying that a
self-contained or specialized program for hearing impaired students in music was unnecessary
considering their characteristics. 19% of the teachers stated they knew sign language while
68% of the students noted that sign language was necessary for their education. The
overwhelming majority of teachers noted that their failure as hearing impaired educators
stemmed from lack of appropriate materials, equipment, and specialized curriculum. 32% of
teachers reported that they had the same expectations for hearing impaired students as hearing
students (Darrow, 1991).
All though we're looking at a 30-year difference, there are many similarities between our
educational philosophies surrounding hearing impaired students. The study went on to describe
the positive practices in place to help include this community in their school. As previously
discussed vibrotactile practices were well underway to being the most used musical method in
the music classroom. pictures also reported using instruments of low-frequency and working
with ideas of movement and touch. An outstanding factor in this research the idea that multiple
teachers stated that their administrators did not care as to how the students were integrated. when
we think about sound in the music classroom, it is pivotal to notate it as an individual and
communal act. By creating a welcoming space that encourages experimentation, exploration,
and individual artistry, today's inclusive teachers can work their practices away from
mainstreamed music education. It is incredibly important to recognize this study when trying to
frame your inclusive classroom towards aiding the hearing impaired community. The teachers in
this study referenced using Orff, Kodaly, and a few other large names within music pedagogy. It
The Soundless Music Classroom 11

would be interesting to note what methodologies and practices are current inclusive Educators
using when it comes to the hearing impaired student.
In 2014, Joseph Abramo Discussed the Aesthetics of sound for individuals with hearing
abilities and disabilities he discussed the qualities of listening and how they have been defined
throughout time. Much like earlier studies abramo discusses the linking of visual and aural
concepts. Abramo discusses the idea that sound is omnipresent while still disassociating itself.
the author goes on to discuss sound as ever changing in comparison to a visual artifact that is
revealed on one layer at one point in time. He states that Vision happens instantly and creates a
permanent image within our conscious mind. While sound continuously changes and seems
unfixed and impermanent. The visual experience seems to happen in an instant, but has the
appearance of unbounded time; The aural experience takes time, continually anticipating the next
moment, but occurs within a bounded time. Abramo states to listen to music with the idea of
instability constantly in mind. When we listen to music we search for unalterable meanings.
Most importantly, he states that music can never have a definite definition. Because, as
individuals we place contextual ideas that are completely individualized the music as we are
perceiving it. Further, he states through meaning and sense we are able to create definition that is
innately our own (Abramo, 2014)
Abramo's work is important because it reiterates the idea that the hearing impaired
community, specifically the students, must self-identify with music to be able to fully associate
with it. For a student who is hearing impaired, a visual image will often hold a strong presence
in their mind. A scent can bring about emotion, and a texture can remind them of a taste. These
traits, as Abramo puts them, are all perceived as static - even when they minutely change. The
auditory sense is one that allows for consistent evolution and creation. If music never has a
definite definition, how does one determine its aesthetic quality? If you are not readily able to
listen to music, how does this change your perception of its evolution? by exposing students to
music in the ways aforementioned, can a student create an ever-changing aesthetic and personal
identity through and with music? If so, what is the responsibility of the educator introducing
hearing impaired students to sound?
The Soundless Music Classroom 12

Themes
Although not always apparent, students do who wish to show an interest in their
classroom setting. The acoustical setting of the classroom is pivotal in allowing students to fully
focus on the material at hand. Within the music classroom, architecture, mechanical systems,
student chatter, and many other factors play into how well a hearing impaired student can focus.
Even with the correct teaching practices in place, it is nearly impossible for a hard of hearing
student to constructively engage in a classroom that contains an unhealthy amount of noise
production. By understanding your options as an educator that pertain to physical placement,
mechanical changes, classroom management, and classroom set-up, you truly hold the key to
whether a hearing impaired student has any chance at participating fully in your classroom.
(Jaramillo & Ermann, 2010; Valente, 2012)
The teaching practices of the inclusive music educator have the largest impact on how a
hearing-impaired student will respond to the music classroom. The use of vibrotactile
instruments and practices has proven to spur participation among students and to create an
interest in Rhythm and pitch. However, it is important to note that this method is not the
end-all-be-all for hearing impaired students. When it comes to communicating with your student
in the classroom, it is important to place them in the first or second row in the middle with a
clear view of the teacher. Proper lighting and placement of the podium is important so that the
student can read the facial cues and the lips of the teacher if necessary. it is also often useful to
partner the student with a hearing peer to work with them on similar concepts. The use of lower
frequency instruments is often prosperous, and homogeneous groupings can be very productive.
As discussed, there are many modern technologies that allow for intrinsic development of music
creating and performing. Most importantly, is vital to understand the students personal interest in
communicating with you and their classmates through music. Create sounds in your classroom
that vary in pitch but focus on lower ones when you really want the student to recognize them.
Do not place a lot of emphasis on pitch accuracy, rather work on deciphering melodies and
rhythmic repetitions. Note that some students will respond confidently in the form of
vocalization of sound while others would rather partake in the music experience through rhythm
or electronic synchronization. However your student decides to use music, recognize that there
The Soundless Music Classroom 13

participation shows that they have created musical definition. (Darrow, 1991; Duncam, 2004;
Hash, 2003; Schraer-Joiner, 2014)
Once your student is participating in the musical experience and they have started to
define music for themselves, it's safe to infer that they have created an identity within music. By
structuring a classroom that allows them to be expressive with their hearing peers, you have
given individual and group leadership to a student who may not always feel adequately
represented. If the student is at a young age, help to identify music as a vivid part of their life.
However if you have the opportunity to work with the student as they grow up or an older
hearing impaired student new to music, it is vital to display music as an evolving aesthetic
quality within art. No matter the situation, it is the educators responsibility to display music as an
active contribution to their life; hearing or not. (Abramo, 2014; Paul, 2017)

Future Implications and Pressing Questions

Music education is currently in the golden age of inclusive education. The hearing
impaired, specifically the severely deaf, historically have been sent to specialized schooling. It is
only recently that they have been included in the everyday classroom through the use of
paraprofessionals. There is not much literature discussing the hearing impaired classroom
however there is a lot discussing the musical tactics in place to include them. While inclusive
education is the goal for many school systems, it is also important to consider what kind of
technology is available to us to further improve the hearing impaired communitys relationship
with music. As mentioned by Schraer-Joiner,, there are current technological applications in
place to help initiate music-making in the hearing impaired community. Next, we need further
our understanding of music as an evolving aesthetic quality to all students. what research is being
done on the fully deaf music classroom? Does a classroom exist that is soundless by musical
terminology? As music educators, empathizing with hearing impairment is often far out of our
comfort zone. However, it is imperative if we are ever to truly service this community.

Conclusion
The Soundless Music Classroom 14

Through an examination of varied literature, the inclusivity of hearing impaired students

has been further stressed in public schools. Discovery of acoustic levels, teaching practices,
self-identity, and multimodalities have unified to foster an atmosphere of growth for the deaf and
hard of hearing community. As discussed, educators fear working with these students because of
their lack of experience. However, it is imperative that music teachers come to terms with the the
Cage-esc topic of silence. Through modern innovations and self-awareness, the general music
classroom can be a thriving environment for a hearing impaired student. By pushing for
communication between student and teacher, involvement with peers, and sound exploration, the
music educator will hopefully notice less students tuning out what they cant hear.
The Soundless Music Classroom 15

REFERENCES

Abramo, J. (2014). Music education that resonates: An epistemology and pedagogy of sound.

Philosophy of Music Education, 22(1), 78-95.

Darrow, A. A. (1991). A Study of public school music programs mainstreaming hearing

impaired students. The Journal of music therapy, 28(1), 23-39.

Duncum, P. (2004). Visual culture isnt just visual: multiliteracy, multimodality and meaning.

Studies in Art Education, 45(3), 252264.

Hash, P. M. (2003). Teaching instrumental music to deaf and hard of hearing students. Research

and Issues in Music Education; Saint Paul, 1(1), np.

Jaramillo, A., & Ermann, M. (2012). Noise in the classroom (p. 015005). Presented at the 160th

Meeting Acoustical Society of America, Cancun, Mexico: Acoustical Society of America.

Nelson, L. H., Wright, W., & Parker, E. W. (2015). Embedding music into language and literacy

instruction for young children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Young Exceptional Children,

19(1), 2738.

Paul, J. F. (2017). The Impact of music on self-concept: an investigation with deaf and hearing

children using the twenty statements test. Retrieved from

https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/ttu-ir/handle/2346/73214

Schraer-Joiner, L. (2014). The Concert series for the deaf and radio baton project. The

International Society for Music Education, 20(1).

Tranchant, P. & Shiell M. M. (2017). Feeling the beat: bouncing synchronization to vibrotactile

music in hearing and early deaf people. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 11(507).

Valente, D. L., Plevinsky, H. M., Franco, J. M., Heinrichs-Graham, E. C., & Lewis, D. E. (2012).
The Soundless Music Classroom 16

Experimental investigation of the effects of the acoustical conditions in a simulated

classroom on speech recognition and learning in children. The Journal of the Acoustical

Society of America, 131(1), 232246.