Urban and Peri- Urban

Horticulture -A Perspective
H P Sumangla
S K Malhotra
P Chowdappa

Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
 Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India
New Delhi

Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India, (CHAI) New Delhi is the consortium of agricultural professional
committed for the development of agriculture/horticulture by providing solution to the problem utilising the services of
talented experts in the field of agriculture/horticulture and disseminate the knowledge for the development. In the
scenario of increasing hunger, malnutrition and challenges of climate change, technology-led agriculture has assumed
greatest significance for food, nutrition, healthcare and environmental services, and above all, the economic
development. In this context, a forum, which brings scientists, associations, corporate sectors, institutes and
organisations, farmers and various stakeholders together, to work in mission mode with set goals and objectives was felt
essential for addressing the challenges, the CHAI was established in the year, 2010. The CHAI is committed to the
furtherance of agriculture / horticulture research, education and technology-led development.
Goals and Objectives of the CHAI is to play a catalytic role, in addressing the concern of food and nutritional security,
through interventions of technology-led agriculture / horticulture development. The mission is to bring synergy among
different societies/associations, experts and entrepreneurs to encourage effective participation of all the stakeholders for
accelerating the economic growth through technological interventions and human resource development; Main
objectives of the CHAI are the furtherance of agriculture / horticulture through improved cooperation by integrating
scientific study, education and knowledge exchange of biological, ecological, environmental, sociological and economic
issues that affect agriculture / horticulture, to catalyse the efforts of development by creating associations for interaction
among all agriculture / horticulture societies/ associations, growers, entrepreneurs, policy planners and activists through
consultations, organisation of seminars, conferences, meetings, national dialogue and trainings. The CHAI also aims to
establish, promote, run, maintain and support the community for the promotion in advancement of
agriculture/horticulture and to serve as an apex organisation concerned with promotion of agriculture / horticulture,
having linkages with various commodies / input organisations, institutes and Governmental and Non-Governmental
organisations; the confederation is also committed to establish education and training institutions for human resource
development and skill up gradation; It recognises the services of people in horticulture through incentives, awards and
encourage the participation in national and international events; to establish educational and research institutions and
advise (consultancy institution) Government and other for building human resources; and to take up all the activities,
deemed to be fit for achieving economic growth through agriculture / horticulture development.
ACTIVITIES
l CHAI has successfully organised national and international conferences, workshops and national consultation and
has serviced in eduction and providing solutions to the problems
l Awards and fellowships is instituted to recognise the contribution of scientists and other stakeholders in the research
and development in the country and also abroad
l The Confederation has instituted various awards, which includes Lifetime Achievement Award; Dr. R.S. Paroda
Award for Excellence; B H Jain Award for technology-led development; Honorary Fellowship; CHAI Fellowship.
l CHAI has instituted overseas fellowship for training and participation in conference for meritorious members.
l CHAI publishes International Journal of Innovative Horticulture (IJIH) and also publish newsletters and books.
Strength of CHAI
l The CHAI has wide spectrum of experts, who are enrolled as fellow to support the technology led development.
l The Chairman, having held the position of DDG, ICAR; Vice-Chancellor, RAU, Pusa; Horticulture Commissioner,
is known nationally and internationally in the field of research, education, and development. He has skills in water
management, nutrient management, quality seed and planting material production and above all coordination,
planning and execution of projects of par excellence.
l Fellows of CHAI has expertise in various aspects of agriculture / horticulture. Besides, more than 100 experts in
different fields from India and abroad are enrolled.
l CHAI has offices in Delhi, Patna, Bangalore and also in Dubai to attend all types of consultancy for business solution
options.
l The CHAI is a non-profiting Company thus the organisation has the motto of service.
l The network of CHAI, expertise of skilled fellow and standing experts makes the Confederation to offer consultancy
for modernizing agriculture / horticulture and serve the nation
CHAI can be contacted on the following address to develop project, programmes and business solutions.
Chairman, Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India, 249, Sector 18 A, Dwarka, New Delhi 110075,
India E-mail : confedhorti@gmail.com
 Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective

H P Sumangla
S K Malhotra
P Chowdappa

Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India

New Delhi
Published by
Dr. H. P. Singh
The Founder and Chairman,
Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India
249, Sector 18 A, Dwarka, New Delhi 110075, India
Email : confedhorti@gmail.com
Website : www.chai.org.in

Compiled and Edited by

H P Sumangla
S K Malhotra
P Chowdappa

Correct citation
Sumangla, H.P., Malhotra S.K. and Chowdappa P, (2013) Urban and Peri-urban Horticulture-A
perspective. Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India, New Delhi. pp

Disclaimer
All rights are reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced by transmitting in any form, print, microfilm,
or any other means without prior permission of Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India (CHAI),
New Delhi.The opinion expressed in the book is of the authors, not of the publisher.

Photo courtesy : Dr H P Singh, The Founder and Chairman, CHAI, New Delhi

Print : Jwalamukhi Mudranalaya, Bangalore - 560 004. Ph: 080 - 2661 7243, 2660 8090
 Foreword

The urban population in the world will double in 30 years, leading to the challenges for the
mankind to meet food and nutritional security, besides the problems of environment. The urban population
will increase more in developing countries as a result of the immigration from rural areas, since people
flock to the cities with the expectation of better quality of life in the cities and towns. Looking to
accelerated growth in population of cities and small towns, it could be expected that, by 2050, more
than 60 percent population will live in urban area. Besides the growing demand for food, there is a
rapid increase of poverty, unemployment, hunger and malnutrition in the urban and peri-urban
environment around the world. This has been a cause of concern across the globe, and has attracted
attention for urban and peri-urban agriculture/ horticulture (UPA/UPH) .In this context,a key challenge
is to develop policy, strategies and technical support mechanisms for the sustainable management of
urban and peri-urban horticulture, addressing production issues within a broader framework of
environmental planning and management.In cities, environmental benefits and synergies can be achieved
when horticulture is planned as a part of the urban landscape, including safe recycling of solid waste
and water. Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations (FAO) has responded to the needs
for effective development and management of urban and peri-urban agriculture/horticulture systems,
to support the development of policy advice, strategies and technical guidelines within an integrated
approach to the sustainable management of agriculture/horticulture in urban and peri-urban area. Its
design includes an element of urban and peri-urban agriculture, aimed at improving access to food and
advancing the livelihoods of people living in and around cities. FAO is also pursuing opportunities for
joint cooperation with the Urban Harvest Initiative of the CG System, the International Society for
Horticultural Science (ISHS) and the Global Horticulture Initiative (GHI) in order to address emerging
researchable issue.

In India people living in urban area will be more than 40% by 2030 and shall be more than 65 %
by 2050. In this context, horticulture in urban and peri-urban area becomes vital to address the challenges
emerging owing to rapid urbanisation of cities and small towns.There have been initiatives by the
Governments and social organisations. The schemes launched by Government of India for peri-urban
vegetable production,which has enhanced vegetable supply and improved income of growers. Working
groups on horticulture for developing 12th plan proposal, constituted by Planning Commission, deliberated
the issues in sub-group on urban and peri-urban horticulture, and has advocated focused attention, not
only for fruits and vegetables, but for environmental services, and also for health care. A National
Dialogue organised jointly by National Horticulture Board (NHB) and Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research (IIHR) also discussed urban and peri-urban horticulture and advocated for zero land utilization,
interior and exterior landscaping, and vertical garden, terrace cultivation of fruits and vegetables and
mushroom culture. Considering the necessity for developing a policy framework to encourage all the
stakeholders for urban and peri-urban agriculture, national dialogue was organized by National Academy

iii
of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) on 14th April 2012 at NASC, New Delhi, involving which has led to
formation of a policy paper. These initiatives have to be translated into an action by involving all the
stakeholders of urban and peri-urban horticulture. Accordingly, Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India, a consortium of scientists, associations, corporate sectors, institutes and
organisations, farmers and various stakeholders committed for accelerating the economic growth through
technological interventions and human resource development, organising this National Workshop on
Urban and Peri-urban horticulture with theme - greening cities, meeting needs and servicing the
environment, on 2nd March 2013, at Windsor Manor,Bangalore with an objective to capitalise on
current knowledge and experiences of UPH and foster the initiatives through technological
interventions,human resource development and net working.

The national workshop had experts from diverse fields to discuss all the issues in interdisciplinary
mode to develop action plan and strategies for fostering and developing UPH,which include urban
planning,landscape gardening,terrace gardening city waste utilisation, vegetable growing in peri-urban
environment,and insect-pests and disease management.This publication,Urban and peri-Urban
Horticulture -a perspective is a compilation of the articles contributed by experts in the field. I
compliment Dr H P Sumangla,Dr S K Malhotra and Dr P Chowdappa for their efforts in compiling and
editing the information together on UPH.I am sure,reader will find it informative and useful for reference
on UPH.The CHAI is grateful to all those who contributed for the success of this National Workshop
on Urban and Peri-urban Horticulture.

Dr. H. P. Singh
The Founder and Chairman
Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India
New Delhi

iv
 Contents

1. Urban And Peri Urban Horticulture for Greening the cities utilizing waste, 1
meeting the needs and servicing the environment
Dr.H.P.Singh and Dr.S.K.Malhotra

2. Environmental challenges and emerging Landscape solutions 11

Mr.Robert Fernadis

3. Innovations in Roof top and Terrace Gardening 12

Dr. M. Jawaharlal and Dr. C. Subesh Ranjith Kumar

4. Innovations in Interior and Exterior Landscaping 16

Dr.Janakiram and Usha

5. Water recycling and management in Urban Area 21

Mr. Viswanath

6. Landscape gardening for environmental Services 23

Dr.H.P.Sumangala

7. Innovations in urban and Peri Urban Vegetable cultivation 27

Dr.A.S.Sidhu and M.Prabhakar

8. Disease management in Urban Horticulture 35

Dr.P.Chowdappa

9. Pest management in Urban Horticulture 43

Abraham Verghese, Rakshitha Mouly , T.N. Shivananda and M R Hegde

10. Pest management in Urabn and Peri Urban vegetables and ornamentals 51
P. N. Krishnamurthy, M. S. Rao and V. Sridhar

v
11. Waste management for urban horticulture 61
Dr.Neelima Garg

12. Environmental concerns of cities and Management in relation to Climate change 68

N.K.Srinivasa Rao

13. Theme Gradens for Bangalore 74

Dr.B.N.Satyanarayana.

14. Landscape Gardening Retrospect and Prospect 76

H.P.Singh and H.P.Sumangala

15. Green space in Cities importance and Scope 84

V.Ponnuswamy

16. Vertical garden A boon for limited space 89

S.I. Hanamashetti, Balaji S.Kulkarni and Geeta Venkatapur

17. Medicinal and Aromatic plants as key components in Urban 92

and Periurban Horticulture (UPH)-
T. Vasantha Kumar, K. Hima Bindu, D.H. Sukanya and M.A. Suryanarayana

vi

Urban and Peri-urban Horticulture for Greening the Cities, Utilising the
Waste, Meeting the Needs and Servicing the Environment
H.P. Singh and S.K. Malhotra
There has been a rapid stride in urbanisation with
the increase in world population, expected to double in
30 years. According to an estimate, Indias total
population will be more than 1.5 billion, the largest in
the world, with the urban population of around 600
million, by 2030. There is a shift of population from
rural to urban areas in search of jobs due to growth in
services and manufacturing sector. The spectrum of
various components in the urban and peri-urban
ecosystem is also changing continuously. Ensuring
adequate food supply, environmental pollution reduction,
employment and income generation are some of the
important facets of urban and peri-urban horticulture.
In the current scenario changing dietary habits with
increasing income and heath consciousness,there is a
rapid shifts from cereal based diet to nutritious diet
where horticultural products become important.
Resultantly, there is a growing demand for horticultural
produce with growing population. The urbanisation is
expected to continue to increase which is a challenge
not only to increased demand for fruits, vegetables and
flowers but also to various facets including the
environment. In this context, horticulture has to play a
pivotal role.
Horticulture as food and nutrition
Horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, potato, tuber
crops, mushroom, spices and plantation crops) are rich
source of vitamins, minerals, proteins, and
carbohydrates etc. are referred to as protective foods
and assume great importance as nutritional security of
the people. There are instances that the supply of these
produces has not commensurated with the demand
resulting in crisis which has been felt by the
government from time to time. This has attracted the
attention to promote peri-urban and urban horticulture
for food, nutrition and environmental services. A
spontaneous shift thus to urban horticulture including
landscape gardening is also taking place. Urban green
space comprised with natural, semi-natural and
artificial habitats,development of adequate green space
is essential to mitigate different environmental
1
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
challenges. Planned landscape and urban horticulture
will ensure better urban ecosystem and would help for
sustainable livelihood even of resource poor people.
Urban and Peri-Urban ecosystem accentuate the
head for the quality and nutritious food all thorough
the year. Parallel demand for the processed horticulture
products, flowers, off season vegetables and safe food
will increase. Purchasing power with large middle-class
will be a feature of urban landscape.There is crucial
need to formulate some programs to ensure sufficient
food supply (Fruits and Vegetables) and clean and green
environment to overcome the increasing urban food
insecurity, malnutrition and related environmental
concerns in order to safe guard the sustainability. UPH
includes all horticultural crops grown for human
consumption and ornamental use within and in the
peripheral regions of cities. The products of peri-urban
horticulture include a large variety of fruits, vegetables,
flowers, ornamental trees, aromatic plants and
mushrooms. These calls for selection of appropriate
crops/varieties particularly with short cycle. New
production techniques and their adoption are needed
in urban and peri-urban areas to tackle the land
restrictions. These include horticultural production on
built up areas by using various substrates, water saving
in highly populated areas, organic vegetable and fruit
production. Organic fruit and vegetable production is
gaining importance for the production of pesticide free
horticultural produce with no content of heavy metals
and harmful pathogens.
Internal diallogue for urban and
peri-urban horticulture
Urban and per-urban agriculture has been a
matter of international dialogue. FAO organized
workshop on Urban agriculture in 2002, which was
the first initiative, and identified a bunch of activities.
The workshop also stated that the scope of urban and
peri-urban food production varies from continent to
continent, which is derived from many factors, e.g.,
the economic status of the country and the households
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
(which determine their needs). The household itself is
determined by its size, labour force, assets etc. Cultural
aspects, which partly determine the kind of crops
grown, the infrastructure and availability of fossil
energy and inputs,which determine transportation
capacities, availability of seeds and fertilisers, climate,
soils and water. Urban agriculture is practiced on small
to medium size areas within the city for growing annual
and tree crops, raising small livestock and fish for home
consumption or sale. The peri-urban agriculture is
aimed to meet the demand of urban population by
profitable utilisation of land. Globally, urban and peri-
urban agriculture is gaining attention from governments,
and many international organisations like the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements (UNCHS), the FAO, and the Consultative
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
are bringing focus to urban and peri-urban agriculture.
Today, about 200 million people worldwide are
associated with urban and peri-urban agriculture
including horticulture, but there is no reliable statistics
about urban and peri-urban agriculture in India.
The Regional Office of FAO compiled a report
in state for urban and peri-urban agriculture in India
through consultations and discussion. Report in Indian
context states that practice of urban and peri-urban
farming is gaining prominence. The report also focuses
on solid waste management besides growing of fruits,
vegetables and flowers. At the same time, it is noted
that UPA has a number of advantages, such as
improving livelihoods, making available fresh fruits and
vegetables in urban areas, and helping to manage solid
wastes, but there are also a number of concerns related
to its promotion notably environmental and health
related-threats, highlighted by an absence of awareness
and systems to monitor . To underscore the problem,
members referred to Mumbai where 20% of the leafy
vegetables in the city come from fields, adjacent to
railway tracks where farmers use domestic sewage,
contaminated with heavy metals and nitrates for
irrigation. Consumption of these vegetables can lead
to amoebic dysentery and Methemoglobemia (linked
with breathing problems). Moreover, the Science and
Technology Policy Research along with several other
institutions recently conducted a study in Uttar Pradesh
that assessed the adverse impact of wastewater
2
irrigation on food safety in peri-urban areas. Final
suggestions which emerged are: Training, Motivation
and Use of technology, encouragement for terrace
garden in cooperative housing management, linkages
between cities and policy for UPH.
India initiatives for urban and peri-urban
horticulture
In India people living in urban area will be more
than 40% by 2030 and shall be more than 65 % by
2050. In this context, horticulture in urban and peri-
urban area becomes vital to address the need of fruits,
vegetable, flowers, tubers and medicinal and aromatic
plants. Recognising the needs for fresh fruits and
vegetables, a schemes of Government of India has
been launched for peri-urban vegetable production.
Working groups on horticulture for 12th Plan,
constituted by Planning Commission, deliberated the
issues in sub-group on urban and peri-urban
horticulture, and has advocated focused attention, not
only for fruits and vegetables production, but for
environmental services, and also for health care. A
National Dialogue organised jointly by National
Horticulture Board (NHB) and Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research (IIHR) also discussed urban
and peri-urban horticulture and advocated for zero land
utilization, interior and exterior landscaping, and vertical
garden, terrace cultivation of fruits and vegetables and
mushroom culture. Considering the necessity and
urgency, and developing a policy framework to
encourage all the stakeholders for urban and peri-urban
agriculture, national dialogue was organised by
National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS)
on 14th April 2012 at NASC Complex, under the
chairmanship of Dr Dr H P Singh,then the DDG
(Hort),ICAR,which has developed a policy paper
which identifies issues and provides recommendations.
Outcome recommendations of national
dialogue
The group recognised that there is a growing
urbanisation coupled with dietary change, which
demands more fresh fruits, vegetables and other
products such as milk, fish and poultry,and meeting
the requirement of urban population, which is growing
at accelerated rate, for fresh products and also create
a balance for the water needs, management of city
waste and taking care of environment are the questions
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

before all the growing countries.Urban and peri-urban There is a need to clearly establish the role and
agriculture needs integration between the various nature of government policy as it deals with urban
ministries dealing with various aspects like Ministry of agriculture. This requires political decisions and
Urban Development, Ministry of Environment and strategies to make best use of city space and water
Forests, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Food resources for local production and consumption. Urban
Processing. This should need definitely policy of the agriculture saves energy consumed in transporting food
governance for effective implementation of the from rural to urban areas and can help in price
programme. stabilisation for both producers and consumers. A
system of quality control for both inputs and produce
While horticultural crops appear quite compatible
would be essentially needed. Marketing hubs for
in densely populated urban set up but livestock farming
perishables and information for strengthening of
including aquaculture may have certain adverse effects.
marketing system needs to be created on priority by
The use of waste water for irrigation without careful
developmental agencies. Community centres and
treatment and monitoring can result in the spread of
gardens should educate the community to see
diseases among the population. Besides, cultivation
agriculture as an integral part of urban life. Since data
on contaminated land also represents a health hazard
base for various inputs of UPA is lacking, there is need
for the consumers. Therefore, public health safety
for baseline survey for information on space in the
is essential to ensure that any of the activities of UPA
urban and pre-urban areas which shall further help to
do not cause unacceptable risks to public health and
know that how much area of it shall be available for
negate its potential economic and nutritional benefits.
UPA. Since technological models for growing of fruits,
This needs to be kept in mind while framing policy
vegetables, flowers, plants, mushroom, birds, fish and
of technological models. Input production and supply
livestock will be different, there is a need for strong
mechanism for UPA is weak. Support for availability
research base for providing technological
of logistics at affordable cost to growers including
solutions.Technology to grow vegetables, ornamental
that of drip irrigation is not available. Professional
plants and herbs in pots, shade, tray and hydroponics
skills among urban youth for growing indoor plants,
is required to be developed and validated. A suitable
avenue plantation and landscape planning, for
small scale protected cultivation structures for roof top
environmental services are some of the issues.
gardening as well a peri-urban production of fruits,
Considering that urban and peri-urban agriculture shall
vegetables and flowers need to be developed.
be highly technology driven, integrated approach, skill
up-gradation, technology generation and application Livestock and poultry are major components of
shall be essential. peri-urban agriculture and face a number of constraints.
A weak infrastructural base and poor support services
Urban planning has so far addressed access to
have been repeatedly shown to adversely affect output
affordable housing, ease of public transportation,
and economic returns of urban livestock and poultry
employment, and health, but few urban planners
units. Therefore, technologies are required to be
adequately consider food security or acknowledge the
developed for livestock, poultry and aquaculture, which
importance of having a percentage of the citys
can suit to urban and peri-urban area and may not
population capable of growing food. Thus, there is a
have adverse effect on human health.Understanding
need of land use policy with context to UPA for
the dynamics of diseases spread from livestock to
effective implementation. Contract farming in peri-
humans in peri-urban areas would be essential before
urban needs encouragement with concept of
livestocks are allowed as a part of UPA in populated
technology- led development with policy, which allows
urban and peri-urban area.
the farmers and investors to adopt contract farming.
Enforcement of law and standards for safe utilisation Providing specialised guidance on food safety to
of sewage waters, sewage sludge and urban compost urban and peri-urban farmers, food handlers and food
in UPA is essential. Waste water of cities need to be processors would be essential. This would need
recycled after pre-treatment for use in urban & peri- development of safety standards for inputs like water,
urban horticulture. manures and pesticides and finally its monitoring. There

3
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
is a need to integrate this aspect with urban landscaping
to make the urban areas richer in biodiversity.
Aesthetically planned surroundings are not a luxury
anymore but form one of the basic necessities of life
due to its environmental benefits. Thus landscaping
deserves due importance in research priorities and
policy planning for providing better living conditions to
the urban people. Development of good agricultural
practices for UPA which can be scaled up for meeting
bio-safety and food safety concerns is essentially
needed. Technologies for use and reuse of waste water
for aquaculture and horticulture may require utmost
attention. Identification of bacterial strains for treatment
of water for reuse and cultivation of vegetables in
aquaponics for growing leafy vegetables, tomato etc
shall be needed for promotion of UPA. There is a need
to work out the various components related to
horticultural production and supplies to urban centres,
from planting material to marketing at retail level, which
shall give a holistic picture of entire supply chain.
Seed production of improved varieties and hybrids
of special traits including resistant / tolerant to diseases
and insect pests, suitable for urban and peri-urban
horticulture (UPH) needs to be strengthened with
support of National Seed Corporation and National
Horticulture Board (NHB) with close collaboration with
several public sector institutes. The provision of seeds/
planting material & availability of different horticultural
crops to the end users at affordable cost should be
made by opening public sector seed shops in rural peri-
urban areas. Emphasis needs to be given for increased
and quality production of horticultural produce under
protected cultivation for year round supply of fruits,
vegetables and flowers.Ensuring availability of logistics
for these produces at affordable cost to farmers
including hi-tech nursery production become essential.
For home scale production of horticultural crops, the
concept of nutrition gardening / terrace gardening /
container gardening / turf gardening / roof gardening
need to be popularised along with technical know-how.
Emphasis should be given in development of
professional skills among urban youth for growing
indoor plants especially those help in sequestrating
carbon dioxide or other gases, interior and exterior
landscape in the light of climate change. Avenue
plantation and landscape planning for turf grass
management is essential especially for corporates,
airports, railway stations, malls and golf course.
4
Respective State Agricultural Departments, Municipal
Corporations and Urban Development Agencies have
to play a significant role in UPA as agriculture is the
state subject.
Challenges in changing scenario and UPH
Climate change issue is posing the question, Will
it be possible to provide food and nutrition to growing
population having changing life style in scenario of
declining land and water? In spite of the fact, those
efforts to reverse the urbanisation trend of growth,
urban population continues to increase and is much
higher than expected. Prediction is there that more
than 65 per cent of people will live in urban area by
2050, which will not only demand more food and water,
but there could be associated problems including CO2
and methane enrichment, accumulation of waste and
employment opportunities. How to address these
problems have been discussed and debated on various
forum, and to mitigate the problem, intensive urban
and peri-urban horticulture is advocated, which should
address employment, availability of fresh produce,
utilisation of zero-land, solid waste utilisation, city water
treatment and its use, and above all, environmental
services. This will need science-led development
backed by policy environment. There is need to
understand the current status of UPH based on the
experiences and analyse its likely role in marketing
food, nutrition, livelihood and environmental services;
capitalise on current knowledge and experiences and
foster the UPH initiatives through technical
backstopping and trained human resources; analyze
UPH in context of climate change and initiative for
concept of green cities having harmony with nature
and provide foundation for developing policy
framework to promote UPH.
Urbanisation in India- a challenge
According to United Nations, India has the highest
rate of change of the urban population among the BRIC
nations, which will remain above 2% annually for the
next three decades. At this rate, an estimated 854
million people will live in Indian cities by 2050. Even
in the coming decade (2011-2020), India will add 95
million people to its already dense urban fabric, nearly
one-fourth of its current urban population. In last
decades 2,800 towns were added that have a municipal
administration of some sort, or as places that have a

population of at least 5,000, where the main occupation
for adult males is not farming. In terms of urban
population, the top three states are Maharashtra with
50.8 million, Uttar Pradesh with 44.4 million and Tamil
Nadu with 34.9 million. The expansions of cities are
driven by economic growth and or by migration from
rural to urban and peri-urban area as agriculture and
rural employment opportunities lag behind cities.
The cities in India are rapidly growing and the
manifestation of urban crisis in a variety of areas viz.,
environment, food, energy etc. can be directly traced
to the unbridled growth of cities. Urban and peri-urban
land use patterns are changing dramatically due to the
pressure of population and the role of urban fringe in
supplying food, fuel, forage and industrial forest
products, has declined considerably. The environmental
crisis of the urban region has become acute and
interlinked in complex ways to urban energy, land use
and the political economy of urban development.
Cities will continue to need resources such as food,
fibre, clean water, nature, biodiversity, and recreational
space, as well as the people and communities that
produce and provide these urban necessities and
desires. Hence, key questions for the next decades
are how, where and by whom these urban necessities
and desires will be produced and provided, and how
this can be done in manner that is considered to be
socially, economically and ecologically sustainable and
ethically sound.
Urban and peri-urban horticulture
(UPH)-a way forward
Urban and Peri urban horticulture opportunities
are emerging in urban area for horticulture as demand
for fresh fruits, vegetables are increasing resulting in
various activities. Roof and terrace gardening is finding
now place to get fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers,
and also for environmental services. Vegetable
production, has expanded in and around cities in many
developing countries as an informal activity practiced
by poor and landless city dwellers. The broad diversity
of horticultural crop species allows year-round
production,improved employment and income.
Growers have realised that intensive horticulture can
be practiced on small plots, making efficient use of
limited water and land resources. Horticultural crops,
as opposed to other food crops, have a considerable
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
yield potential and can provide up to 50 kg of fresh
produce per m per year depending upon the technology
applied. In addition, due to their short cycle they provide
a quick to emergency needs for food. Leafy vegetables
provide a quick return to meet a familys daily cash
requirements for purchasing food. Leafy vegetables
are particularly perishable and post-harvest losses can
be reduced significantly when production is located
close to consumers. Mushroom centres, which do not
need land can be a most promising activities in cities
and peri-urban area. Evidently,there is an accelerated
production of mushroom production around Delhi.There
are new practices to grow cucurbits on the arches
created on the pathways,utilising the zero-land for
additional production.
Cultivation of fruits, vegetables and
flowers
India is fortunate to be endowed with a variety
of agro-climatic zones and has a tradition of growing a
wide range of horticultural crops. Among the
horticulture produce, fruits and vegetables together
have the largest share of production (78 %). Fruits
and Vegetables not only contribute to the food basket
of the country but are also a highly remunerative crops
demanded more in urban area, where they form the
most important component of a balanced diet.
Production of crops and profitability of farmers can
be enhanced by encouraging off-season production
under protected cultivation in green houses, shade net
houses. etc for generating income round the year. Fruit
crops such as papaya, strawberry annual fruit crops
and aonla, pomegranate, bael etc. can be grown with
minimum available water conditions in peri-urban
areas. Availability of fruits and vegetables, particularly
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
to the urban population, presents many challenges.
Issues such as assured availability of safe and good
quality vegetables at affordable prices continue to be
a major challenge. Addressing this concern calls for
concerted action on several fronts viz. production,
logistics covering post-harvest handling, storage,
transportation, marketing, distribution and policy reform.
In this background, a special initiative for the
development of vegetables has been mooted with 100%
central assistance under the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana which is called as Vegetable Initiative for Urban
Clusters for implementation of a Vegetable Initiative
to set in motion a virtuous cycle of production and
income for the farmers and assured supply for
consumers. To begin with, this programme has been
launched around major cities.
Considering that mushrooms require no land, no
light and can utilize vertical space, and thus are
important option in UPH. Varieties of mushrooms are
available for different seasons and can fit in the UPH
very well to meet the nutritional demand. The
increasing trend towards consumption of fresh
mushrooms and the short shelf-life of mushrooms
which is a major bottleneck in marketing, justifies their
cultivation in and around cities. Several models have
been developed where production of compost and
spawn run bags based on the local agricultural waste
and their marketing through stores and other outlets
were proposed. There is need for popularizing the
nutraceutical value of mushrooms and preparing ready-
to-use kits for children for popularizing the mushrooms.
Roof garden in UPH
Roof garden is one of popular alternatives in urban
and peri-urban areas, because of the limited available
6
space in the grounds of a house. Particularly in the big
cities and towns, the only space left for garden
enthusiasts is the roof of the house and the balcony.
To ensure the success of a roof garden, there is a
need to assess the capability of the site. Competent
builders should be consulted in order to know about
the strength of the roof structure and waterproofing
of the flat roof. With hundreds of pots, boxes and tones
of soil, the roof becomes very heavy. Moreover, with
the constant need to water the growing plants,
untreated roofs get damaged in not time. If expense is
no object, and the structure of the building is strong
enough, the whole area may be paved with 30 cm
square tiles. These are easy to clean and handsome in
appearance. However, in roof gardening, the cost of
maintenance of the garden, depth of soil, watering
schedule, frequent replenishment of plant material and
selection of plants must get proper
consideration.Generally, roofs are utilized for growing
potted plants like cacti and succulents, chrysanthemums,
dahlias, orchids, bougainvillea, roses, seasonal flowers
and several kinds of shrubs and herbs. Besides, the
vegetable crops such as tomato, brinjal, chillies, beans,
leafy vegetables and gourds can also be grown. In a
strong roof structure with waterproofing system, the
area can be laid out with lawns and herbaceous borders
which require at least 30 to 45 cm soil depth. Such
planting can be done by placing the soil between the
outer wall or the parapet and the wall built on the inner
side of the roof. To prevent seepage of water, the roof
is to be treated with a bitumen compound or fitted with
moisture-proof wood shutters. Polythene sheets may
also be sued for this purpose. It is a good idea to have
some other colour of the roof than the traditional off-
black on the surface. Colours like green, brown or soft
Venetian red are suggested. If considered desirable,
the whole of the wall area can be treated with
Snowcem or any other durable exterior paint. Some
framework or screening devices will enhance the
beauty of the garden. Hence, free-standing trellis or
wall-attached trellis may be introduced for supporting
plants. While fixing the trellis to the walls, it is better to
leave a gap to minimize the seepage of water to a
vulnerable patch.
According to the availability of sunlight during
different periods of the day, sheltered sports, shady
locations and depth of soil, there may be a wide choice
of plant material. The roof garden needs a few large

permanent shrubs and climbers. Tubs and boxes of
different sizes and shapes will be helpful in growing
such plants. Along the main tubs and boxes, smaller
pots and boxes can be arranged comfortably along with
hanging basket. Ornamental stones, sculptures and
other decorative pieces may be suitably arranged in
the roof garden as it is easier to protect these materials
from theft. As it is laborious to carry soil to the roof
garden, extra care must be taken to prepare a rich
compost comprising loamy soil, well rotted cowdung
manure, sharp sand and leaf mould mixed with
bonemeal.
Terrace gardening in UPH
Terrace gardening usually refer to the area in the
immediate vicinity of a building. This is a raised ground
space constructed around a dwelling house or on the
sides of a hill. The terrace forms a link between the
house and the rest of the outdoor living space and must,
therefore, be designed in harmony with the plan of the
house. Gardening in terraces provide privacy and leisure
time pursuits. If the house is built on sloping ground, it
will appear to slide downhill; hence, a flat area around
the building has an immediate stabilising effect. Planting
on the terrace adds to this effect. The size of the
terrace is important, but shape and treatment also need
careful consideration. Terrace gardening is highly
specialised job for landscape gardeners and civil
engineers. It involves land raising and construction of
steps, ramps, walls and paved paths as well as planting
of lawn grasses and other plants. It is desirable to have
plants on the terrace but it should be restricted to the
edges so that the middle is left open for circulation.
Since such gardens are mainly for relaxation, they
should provide both sunny and shady areas. Sheltered,
paved terraces invite dining outdoors, lounging,
entertaining and childrens activities. It must offer a
fine year-round view of the entire garden. Addition of
sculptured rocs, a small lily pond with a fountain and
water plants will lend visual enrichment.
Landscape gardening for environmental
services
Plants offer environmental and ecological
services along with aesthetic values. Trees and other
ornamental plants are crucial to the sequestration of
carbon form atmosphere and play an important role in
reducing carbon foot print. As such, trees and other
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
landscape plants serve as an important tool in improving
air quality in cities and mitigating potential health effects
on human inhabitants. In recent days landscaping
concepts have gained popularity into different
perspective by introducing ideas like green buildings,
greenbelt, green roofs and energy conserving landscape
and using ideal plants for air, sound and water, soil
pollution mitigation. Parks and urban green spaces
impact peoples health by providing them with an
inexpensive setting for recreation. Urbanisation is
believed to imply environmental degradation in the
present scenario. Action is needed now to steer urban
development towards green cities that contribute to
environmental security, and clean environment for urban
dwellers.
Landscape gardening -a potential
industry in UPH
Landscape gardening which includes growing and
utilisation of garden flowers, turf grass, bedding plants,
potted plants, hedges, edges, water garden, rock garden
etc. has made appreciable growth in the last two
decades as commercial venture. The use of floricultural
produce is no longer confined to religious purposes
alone, but floriculture has become a part of modern
lifestyle and floral products are being utilised in floral
decorations, floral craft, interior-scaping and
beautifying commercial premises. Thus, the lifestyle
floriculture represents business and activities involving
production of ornamental plants, cut flowers, turf,
foliage and delivers a range of services for such
projects. The business has transformed to landscape
design, contracting and maintenance services, whole
sale and retail sales, development of parks and leisure
places, gardens, besides providing technical advices.
Resultantly, development of landscape gardening has
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
provided not only opportunities for floriculture farming
but also for improving livelihood compared to other
crops. The development of landscape gardening also
provides very good business opportunities in other allied
sectors like specialised transport services and supply
of allied products, nursery bags, pots, potting media,
tools, plant protection and other equipments. This has
happened due to the vision of policy planners who were
involved with various stakeholders in floriculture
sector and provided the required direction that has
resulted in appropriate growth in ornamental horticulture
sector.
According to use and requirement of people,
landscaping is in demand for public offices like courts,
private offices, government offices, corporate houses,
cinemas, hotels; educational institutes like school,
colleges, university campus; factories; places of
historical importance; places of worship like temple,
mosque, church; cemeteries and burial grounds etc.
Besides this, landscaping of public places like highways
(either national or state), railway stations, railway lines,
bus terminus, airports, etc. is also very important.
Commercial outdoor landscaping includes the golf
industry, lawns for cricket grounds and pitches etc.
The intelligent landscape management can reduce
water and air pollution, mitigate health risks for people
and wildlife, and threats to the environment and species
diversity. By implementing sound landscaping principles
by accommodating plant diversity suitably, one can also
reduce landscape maintenance costs, reduce costs for
heating and cooling of buildings, decrease time spent
on chores such as mowing, and improve the health of
both humans and the planet.
Use of wastewater in UPH
Increasing competition for limited water
resources has resulted in a tendency for farming
communities in peri-urban areas to use untreated
wastewater for irrigation. Farmers often find it cheaper
to exploit wastewater than to incur capital and recurring
costs in pumping groundwater to irrigate crops. The
re-use of wastewater for irrigation is likely to be most
prevalent in areas where water from other sources is
scarce for part or all of the year. High content of
nutrients in wastewater, particularly nitrogen and
phosphorus, which can increase the productivity of
farming and thus contribute to the livelihoods of peri-
8
urban communities, provides another strong incentive
for agricultural re-use. There has also been an
increased emphasis on a more holistic approach to
waste disposal that stresses the benefits of reducing
the strength or quantity of waste at source and, where
possible, recycling or re-using it close to the point where
it is produced. To prevent potential negative impacts
on human health and the environment, the importance
of wastewater reuse in urban and peri-urban agriculture
has to be recognised and clear policy guidelines for
reuse need to be established. The most serious problem
of using partially treated wastewater, including human
and animal wastes, is transmission of gastrointestinal
disease. Another potential problem of urban
wastewater reuse is heavy metals and other toxic
constituents contained in the urban wastewater. This
is exacerbated if a workable countermeasure is not
taken against solid waste problems. Both water
quantity and nutrients contained in urban and peri-urban
wastewaters make them attractive alternative water
source for agriculture and aquaculture. Treated
wastewater from off-site treatment plants can be
reused for irrigation of parks and gardens, agriculture
and horticulture, tree plantation and aquaculture, if these
exist or can be established not far from the wastewater
treatment plants.
Post harvest processing industry and
UPH
Processing is a fast growing sector in the world
economy. Therefore to make UPH a viable enterprise,
processing and value addition are important components
in horticulture. Harvest indices, grading, packaging,
storage techniques have been developed/standardized
for major horticultural crops. The demand for some of
the processed fruits and vegetables has grown
enormously in country. Value addition through
dehydration of fruits and vegetables including freeze
drying, dried and processed fruits, vegetables and
spices and fermented products play an important role
in horticultural crops. Development of new products
like juice punches, banana chips and fingers, mango
nectar and fruit kernel derived cocoa substitute,
essential oils from citrus, fruit wines, dehydrated
products from grape, pomegranate, mango, apricot and
coconut, grape and fruit wines, value-added coconut

products like snowball tender coconut, coconut milk
powder and pouched tender coconut water (Cocojal)
etc. are getting popular day by day. Improved blending/
packaging of tea and coffee have opened new
markets.
As food consumption patterns are changing
towards more convenient foods, the demand for
products like pre-packed salads, frozen vegetables etc.
are increasing. Consumer friendly products like frozen
green peas, ready to use salad mixes, vegetable
sprouts, ready-to-cook fresh cut vegetables are major
retail items, which have already started peeping out of
retail windows. In order to reduce dependence on
refrigerated storage, low cost eco-friendly cool
chamber for on farm storage of fruits and vegetables
has been developed. For preventing the post harvest
losses proper storage, cold preservation, packaging and
transport methods with Hazard analysis Critical Control
Point (HACCP) norms have to be given more thrust.
The future research areas may be oriented towards
developing varieties with prolonged shelf life with better
processing qualities, standardization of Modified
Atmosphere Packaging and Storage systems with
greater emphasis on safety (pesticide free), nutrition
and quality (CODEX standards).
Isssues in urban and peri-urban
horticulture
When UPH is carried out properly under safe
conditions, it can contribute to increase in food and
nutritional security by providing direct access to home-
produced horticultural food to households and to the
informal market. Much UPH is for own consumption
with occasional surpluses sold into the local market.
Even for people who have little or no land part-time
farming of vegetables can provide food and income.
Simple, popular hydroponics or substrate culture in beds
can produce high value and nutritious vegetables on
surfaces as small as one metre. UPH also appears to
enhance food security during times of crisis and severe
scarcity.
UPH enhances the freshness of perishable fruits
and vegetables reaching urban consumers, increasing
overall variety and the nutritional value. An important
reason appears to be that food produced by consumers
or in close proximity to them is often fresher than food
that travels long distance to markets. Urban agriculture
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
is often carried out on a part-time basis by women,
who can combine food production activity with child
care and other household responsibilities. But on the
other side basic resources (water, soil) needed for
agricultural production are in competition with other
priority urban needs (drinking and industrial water use,
infrastructure construction, etc.). Therefore, optimal
management of urban and peri-urban resources
requires land use planning which views agriculture as
an integral component of the urban natural resources
system and balances the competitive and synergistic
interactions among the users of the natural resources
(water, land, air, wastes). The risks from agricultural
production systems in urban and peri-urban areas to
health and environment arise from the inappropriate
or excessive use of agricultural inputs (pesticides,
nitrogen, phosphorus, raw organic matter containing
undesireable residues such as heavy metals) which
may leach or runoff into drinking water sources;
microbial contamination of soil and water, including by
pathogens; air pollution (e.g. carbon dioxide and
methane from organic matter, ammonia, nitrous oxide
and nitrogen oxide from nitrates); and odour nuisance.
In particular, produce (especially leafy vegetables) can
be contaminated through overuse of chemical sprays.
Another major challenge to the viability of UPH
is availability of sufficient land. UPH is influenced by
rapidly changing land rights, uses, and values. High
population densities give rise to competition and
conflicts over land and natural resources through
conversion of land from agricultural to residential and
business uses, and agricultural intensification on the
scarce spaces available for cultivation. Urban and peri-
urban agriculture present complex interactions of social,
economic, and environmental phenomena in locations
that are undergoing extremely fast change, often with
inadequate financial means to respond. Officially the
choice of whether to allocate urban and peri-urban
lands to horticulture crops, parks, or other uses is
fundamentally a policy decision dependent upon
priorities and political interests. Unofficially it also
depends on where the citys immigrants and poor
residents choose to settle. The future habitability,
competitiveness, and viability of the cities in developing
nations will depend on whether decision makers and
urban planners develop and adhere to coherent policies
for managing their urban and peri-urban areas.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Conclusion
Ensuring adequate food supply, environmental
pollution reduction, employment and income generation
are some of the important facets of urban and peri-
urban horticulture(UPH). In the current scenario of
changing dietary habits with increasing income, there
is a growing demand for horticultural produce. At the
same time population pressure in urban and peri-urban
area is increasing at accelerated rate with estimate
that more than 65 percent people will live in cities and
towns by 2050. This is a great challenge and needs
attention for optimal management of urban and peri-
urban resources require land use which views
agriculture/horticulture as an integral component of the
urban natural resources system and balances the
competitive and synergistic interactions among the
users of the natural resources (water, land, air, wastes).
10
Benefits of appropriate management include improved
hydrological functioning through soil and water
conservation, micro-climate improvements, avoided
costs of disposal of the recycled urban wastes
(wastewater and solid waste), improved biodiversity,
and greater recreational and aesthetic values of green
space. When we look back, it is evident that urban
and peri-urban activities for gardening interior and
exterior landscaping, terrace garden by amateurs,
parks, landscapes in water body and growing of
vegetable and flowers adjacent to cities have been
practiced but need scientific approaches. Interest in
UPH is increasing not only to utilise the space but also
for social and economic reason and there is international
consultation for the promotion of UPH.With awareness
for UPH it could be a reality to address the challenges
which is posed by accelerated urbanisation which is
taking place globally especially in developing nations.

Environmental Changes and Emerging Landscape Solutions
Robert Fernandes
Urbanization is one of the key drivers of global
environmental change which directly impacts urban life.
The expansion of a city often leads to the relocations
and cutting of trees to create the space needed for urban
development. Proliferation of underground utilities, roads,
bridges, dams and new integrated townships have fuelled
the competiton for usable space and have precluded
planting in many places. Thus, cities are increasingly
developing into catalysts for the problems of global
warming, scarcity of resources, water shortage and
consequently the pollution affecting accelerated climate
change.
Ignoring urbanisation, however would be the wrong
approach to these problems. The influx of growth in the
cities have impacted the infrastructure and unless this is
addressed with great caution and in pace with growth
there will be a bottle neck affecting sustenance.
Worldwide, many examples show how the interests of
economy, society and environment can be brought
together to enable both urban growth and sustainability.
In many city and county, tree ordinances require
tree planting, most commonly to replace trees that have
been removed or damaged during site development and/
or construction. In some cases, tree planting may be
required to meet overall tree canopy cover or density
standards in areas that have little or no natural tree cover.
If it is not possible to plant all of the required trees on the
parcel,that triggers the planting requirement, some type
of off-site mitigation may be required.
This off site mitigation technique more commonly
called Tree Banks is one of the emerging Landscape
Solution for India.Trees to be transplanted can be
removed with a tree spade or in some other method,
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
stored in a nearby area ( banked) temporarily, and
subsequently replanted either at the same site or
elsewhere. This technique could be used to help
conserve locally-adapted native trees or locally rare
trees. This could a way to bring the native tree back
to its locality along with the ecosystem involved along
with it. K. Raheja Corp has been successful in tree
transplanting large trees with the help of a hydraulic
machine. This spade attachment is attached to any
system such as Hydra, JCB or any other hydraulic
mover.
The transplantation process is very simple.
Once the tree is identified for relocation, stones are
removed and the area near the root zone is irrigated
to soften the area near the root ball. The tree is
gently rocked back and forth with the spade
attachment , removing the tree with an intact root
ball. The tree is then lifted with the help of this
hydraulic machine along with its root ball, wrapped
and moistened with a jute bag /agro net and stored
in this area called as a tree bank where it settles
well before it is transported to its new location if it
nearby or Banked at another site for future use.
If this system can be introduced in every
Municipality, large townships, new mining areas and
with every Government body having large scale
development then with this tree spade is one of the
emerging landscape solutions to a new India where
the focus will be more on conservation of the
environment so that we as a nation can be a more
responsible nation on the economic, social, political
and environmental front for a sustainable future.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Innovation in Roof Top and Terrace Gardening
M. Jawaharlal and C. Subesh Ranjith Kumar
The race of 24 x 7 hours busy life style in metro
cities and emerging cities of India is an output of
globalization and revolution in information technology.
Everywhere new creative ideas are flooding in this
corporate and digital era. Yes, innovative ideas are the
basic mantra for any revolution, irrespective of the field
and the field landscape gardening, is not an exception.
The modern and contemporary generation have life
style, their living and ideas that are something
phenomenal where. a paradigm shift is observed in
every domain of their life when compare with earlier
decade. Inspite of that, one good thing which is never
changed and will not get changed is the love for plants,
birds, butterflies and nature. But as a horticulturist and
a landscapist we feel our duty to derive something
innovative with plants to meet out the needs of plant
lovers.
As an Indian, we all should agree that real India
is in villages,where the greenery and scenaric beauty
is a visual treat, which the present generation in urban
life are missing largely. Perhaps even now, the family
of man today is getting involved more and more in
religious and garden activities than even before. In the
modern trend of life, where the home garden is
restricted due to smaller places at homes as a result of
multistoried flats/ terraces. Thus an innovation is
required to make the people always with nature. Not
only that, the boom in real estate business, sky rise
corporate buildings, western look out malls, star hotels,
garden suburbs have paved the way to bring new
landscape solutions in recent times. Roof top and
terrace garden which are mushrooming in a gargantuan
manner matching the modern life trend, is one such
new initiations. Albeit the design phenomena is
challenging for a landscapist, the positive recipe is
aesthetics, utility, pollution control and global warming
control.
Urban roof top and terrace gardening
What is the new in roof top and terrace
gardening? Why it is innovative? Is it worth to have or
12
suggest a roof / terrace garden in India? Cost factor
involving in roof garden design? Obviously more and
more questions jiggle us. Roof gardens has its genesis
from Babylonian kings and it was in historic times.
Further, the invasions of Mughals, French, English
people had brought a better perspective in Indian
garden art. The spiritual Zen scripture also added a
poetic touch of Japanese garden style in modern India.
Yet now, the dominating garden styles and the concepts
of Singapore, western Europe and US are really
mesmerizing. A recent outreach about Singapore city
is city in the garden not the garden in the city. Such
a kind of systematic garden display and innovative
concepts in urban garden design are really a living
model for our country in meeting out the climatic
change pattern, and now slowly being introduced to
Indian landscape industry too.
Innovative roof top gardening
The strength of Indian roof / terrace garden is
the kitchen garden concept. And even now we could
witness aesthetic and unused containers for growing
vegetables, herbs, flowers and fruits in the name of
roof gardens. Most of the enthusiastic gardeners and
home makers in almost all the metros and cities have
now switched over to organic roof garden development.
But having an aesthetic garden with lush lawn, shrubs
and flowers to change the aerial view of black tar and
gravel balloted roof tops in the urban areas is still a big
dream for many. Issues in water stagnation, drainage,
structural load bearing, root penetration, water shortage,
space restriction, building architectural design, roof
gradient and high cost might be the reasons behind
that. The innovation developed in modern roof garden
is having answer for that. Interestingly the property
developers and real estate tycoons, corporate sectors,
star hotel owners have started adopting the modern
day roof top and terrace gardens to lure the people
to their respective target and as a result now the metros
of India are also crowned with skyline garden.

Essentials roof top gardening
Modern day roof / terrace gardens have totally
replaced the container garden and kitchen garden on
roof and posed the usage of new innovative concepts
and techniques as listed below.
Green roof :Green roof are functional aesthetically
appearing, energy efficient structures adding plant life
in populated areas. A green roof or living roof is a roof
of a building that is partially or completely covered
with vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a
water proofing membrane. It may also include proper
drainage, irrigation systems and a combination of
different components which are discussed below.
Green roofs are divided into extensive roofs, intensive
roofs and multifunctional use roofs depending on the
depth of planting and usage.
a. Extensive roofs :It covered a light layer of
vegetation with shallow rooted plants which requires
low maintenance. The international standard denoted
that upto 7-23 kg of weight could be increased per
square foot. Decorative grasses, edge plants, herbs
can be grown in extensive roofs.
b. Intensive roofs :It is almost an elevated park like
in the roof with easy access. It includes from lawn to
small trees, walk ways, benches with complex
structural support, irrigation, drainage and root
protection layers. The international standards denoted
upto 36-70 kg could be increased depends on the
structural strength of the building. The real estate value
is rocketing because of the inclusion of intensive roof
concept in apartments and villas.
c. Multifunctional use roof : Multifunctional use roof
comprised of foot paths, play facilities, gathering spot,
vehicle parking, etc. This is now widely adopted in
corporate buildings, IT parks and shopping malls. Here
the creative design, choice of plants and other
amenities are to be finalized at the designing stage of
the buildings itself and the provisions for greenery are
to be made accordingly.
Drainage cells : Non - biodegradable eco friendly
plastic drainage cells are laid beneath the growing
media to allow water retention and drainage.
Polystyrene core with a non-woven polypropylene filter
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
fabric on the top and the bottom sides of the drainage
cells prevent passage of particles in the drainage core
and with facilitate easy drainage. It is used in the roof
garden as an alternative to the drainage gravel.
Moisture retention mat:It is a punched, recycled
synthetic fiber designed material to retain moisture in
roof gardens and available in rolls. This is a very handy
innovative concept for high temperature location.
Water proof technique:Water proof with self
adhesive vapour screen and under layer is an useful
innovation to restrict the dampness of the excess water
and rain water in the roof.
Water retention technique and storm water
management: The excess water which is drained and
the excess rain water could be retained and used
meticulously. By that the storm water runoff can be
reduced with this technique. The excess water can
also be converted into an aesthetic shallow water pond
in the roof.
Hydrogel polymers: Hydrogels are cross linked poly
acrylamide polymers and it can be tried for the water
scarcity areas. The science behind the hydrogel is, it
absorbs water through the process of osmosis upto
500 times their weight in water. When the surroundings
begin to dry out because of lack of water or water
scarcity it gradually dispense upto 95% of their stored
water and when they expose to water again, it will
rehydrate and repeat the process of storing water.
Using of hydrogel in roof garden for water
conservation and moisture retention would be a useful
innovation especially for lawn maintenance where
sufficient water is mandatory.
Protection fabric: To restrict soil chemicals and soil
bacteria non-bio degradable polypropylene non-woven
needle punched fabric is used as a protection fabric in
the modern dayroof garden. Selection of containers
and placement of protection fabric should be compatible
enough for growing plants.
Root barrier:Non reinforced poly propylene sheets
which are used in treescape techniques had
applications in roof gardens for shallow rooted trees.
The root barrier restricts the spread and penetration
of root in the floor and wall.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Acoustic insulators: The vast green spread over the
roof can improve the building acoustic value and provide
a overall sound proofing of the building. Provision for
placement of lawn and garden plants in root top should
be designed along with the building design to have an
efficient acoustic system.
Recycle materials for decking :Waste wood pieces
and plastic can be effectively utilized as a deck on for
any arrangement along with plants as a hardscape
element.
Fire resistant graphite technology: By this
innovation, the supply of oxygen will cut off during
any fire and the spread will be arrested. Green roofs
and turf pavement establishment are now have this
fire resistant graphite technology as a mandatory safety
measure.
Renewable energy: For the effective maintenance
of roof garden, the power consumption can be met out
by using photo voltaic panels. Attachment of film photo
voltaic panels saves the energy consumption and the
renewable energy generated could be used for roof
top lighting, irrigation system and maintenance. Through
this year-round energy efficiency is assured in modern
day green house.
Soilless culture and hydroponics: Obviously the soil
substrate used for growing plants will create an extra
load in roof gardens. To overcome the issue, that
scientific soilless culture and hydroponics are now
adopted in roof / terrace gardens. Substrates like
cocopeat, perlite, sphagnum moss, compost etc., are
now being widely used in roof garden of India as it
also envisages apt water retention capacity. However
hydroponics is not widely adopted, yet it is also a best
innovation for modern day roof garden.
Vertical garden: Green facade (with flowering and
foliage climbers) and living walls are the new
innovations in vertical garden. Assessing the wind
velocity in roof top, a perfect vertical garden element
can be set up in roofs. Vertical garden is boon to
corporate, IT parks and shopping malls.
Skyrise gardening:Super tree a new innovative
vertical skyrise garden was created in Singapore where
different amenities like hotels, malls, amusement
14
theatre etc. were created inside. The lushy green patch
with micro climate control is a marvel with plants. The
idea of skyrise garden as a tourist destination can be
introduced to our country with a theme of global
warming control.
Biodiverse roofs: Bringing a greenery on roof with
colourful flowers, it is possible to bring the beneficial
insects and butterflies even in the urban heat island
and to develop natural eco system. The choice of
plants in the garden plays a major role in converting
the roof garden into biodiverse roof garden.
Therapeutic roof garden: Healing garden, meditation
garden, garden for physically challenged people, elders,
children as a stress relief medicine can be introduced
in roof garden concept. Taking the advantages of open
sun light lotus garden, cacti corner, turf chairs, flowering
array etc. can be introduced to develop a therapeutic
valued roof garden. Even further more innovation can
be blended in the roof garden both for functional and
aesthetic use.
Suggested plants for roof gardening
Adenium obesum (Desert Rose), Brunfelsia
americana (Lady of the Night), Cordyline terminalis,
Duranta repens (Golden Dewdrop), Codiaeum
variegatum, Galphimia glauca, Ixora species,
Jasminum nitidum, Lantana camara, Murraya
paniculata, Nelumbium sp., Tecoma stans (Yellow
Bells), Tecomaria capensis (Cape Honeysuckle),
Epipremnum aureum (Money Plant), Ficus pumila
(Creeping Fig), Rhoeo spathacea (Dwarf variety),
Tradescantia pallida Purpurea (Purple Heart),
Wedelia trilobata (Creeping Daisy), Agave
americana (Century Plant), Ananas comosus
Variegata (Variegated Pineapple), Epiphyllum
oxypetalum (Dutchmans Pipe Cactus), Euphorbia
milii (Crown of Thorns), Hylocereus undatus
(Dragons fruit), Kalanchoe pinnata (Life Plant),
Nolina recurvata (Pony Tail), Pedilanthus
tithymaloides, Sansevieria species (Devils Tongue),
Small ornamental and fruit trees, Zoysia grass species,
Ornamental bamboos and palms like Phoenix
sylvestris, P. roebelenii, Woedyia bifurcate, Rhapis
excels, Chrysalidocarpus lutescens, Cycas revolute
and Caryota mitis.
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

Conclusion easily sourced out to develop an instant roof garden is

an added advantage also. However the need of the
In general roof garden should meet the
hour is to have cost effective and sustainable roof
objectives of air quality improvement in cities, effective
garden using this latest innovations. For this a sound
control of global warming, energy saving, natural
scientific research program should be initiated at the
insulation, environmental safety and eco-friendly
Agricultural and Horticultural Universities of India so
garden designs. The CII-Sohrabji Godrej Green
that these innovative roof garden technologies could
Business Centre, Hyderabad and IIM, Guwahati are
be perpetuated in the length and breadth of our country.
the very good examples of green buildings in India
As a landscapists, it is our prime duty to start work in
having the modern roof garden innovation concepts.
this line at the earliest to make our country green.
Landscape architects in India are now keen in using
the innovation concepts of roof garden to increase the
property value. Grownup ornamental plants can be

15
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
New New Initiatives in Interior and Exterior Landscaping
T. Janakiram and Usha
The tranquility of nature can provide us peace in our caverns of concrete and steel.
Throughout our evolutionary history, humanity has
depended on vegetation for food, fuel and shelter. Our
very existence depends on being among plants. That
dependence is so ingrained in our make-up that
biologists now give the subconscious desire to be among
vegetation a name: biophilia. By using combinations of
plants and art (and even fragrances, sound and light
effects), we believe that we will be able to improve
the health and well-being of ourselves and improve
our productivity. We know from countless studies that
having plants in work places and other commercial
buildings brings many benefits, and we also know that
many of those benefits are psychological and
behavioral rather than physical.
People are looking for ways to add
significance, peace of mind, a quality experience, and
to escape from the rat-race in their lives. Stated
differently, people want to add depth and meaning to
their lives. One way to accomplish this, it is asserted,
is to surround you among plants. Landscaping can make
dull and solid areas pleasing to the eyes. It is responsible
for making ordinary homes into spectacular ones and
office buildings into warm, livable spaces. Landscaping
is both science and art, and requires good observation
and design skills. A good landscaper understands the
elements of nature and construction and blends them
accordingly.
Well-planned, healthy, and well-maintained
landscaping dramatically enhances the market value
of the property also. Irrespective of whether the
property has a commercial or a residential use, a room
that overlooks a beautiful, rich, green, landscape usually
gets the most takers and is quite conducive
commercially. Ornamentals planted indoors or outdoors,
they not only beautify the place but also gift you with
its endless benefits.
Interior landscaping- bringing greening
indoors
Interior landscaping is the practice of designing,
arranging, and caring for living plants in enclosed
16
environments. Interior landscaping is an appropriate
term because indoor environments contain plains,
angles, and horizons that are softened, accentuated or
altered by the addition of plants and planters-thus
landscaping the interior. Similar to outdoor landscapes,
interior landscapes provide spaces with ornament, color,
sculptural elements, focal points, and an overall pleasant
environment. In the trade, interior landscaping is also
known as plantscaping and interiorscaping. Interior
landscaping can be designed in a way to draw the eye
beyond the window into the outside world.
Benefits of Well-designed interior landscaping:
With tropical plants and greenery, it revitalize dark
corners, bring colour to empty walls, and provide
fresh sights, sounds and smells for your business
environment.
With high quality replica plants, it brightens dark
corners with plants that will always look their best,
however low the natural light levels are.
Specialization is needed in selecting
plants, containers and accessories to fit the space,
lighting and ambience of every office or home to
create stunning interior landscapes that will stand
the test of time.
Sick building syndromes
As far back as 1984, the World Health
Organization published a report which claimed that as
many as 30% of new or refurbished buildings caused
occupants to suffer symptoms that became known as
Sick Building Syndrome - a term used to describe
situations when people experience acute ailments and
discomfort, which seem to be linked to time spent in a
particular building. Plants have proven to be important
life supporters in that they remove carbon dioxide from
the air and release oxygen through the process of
photosynthesis. The NASA studies found that plants
also work in a symbiotic relationship to remove air
pollutants produced by other plants, people and industry.
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

Indoor plants have the proven ability to: area on the roof top for raising various plants so as to
bring the real magic of nature to your home with some
Plants enhance indoor environment quality previous planning and thoughts.
Improve workplace efficiency
A roof garden is any garden on the roof of
Improve visitor perceptions a building. Besides the decorative benefit, roof plantings
Reduce dust levels may provide food, temperature control, hydrological
Noise Reduction and Energy Conservation benefits, architectural enhancement, habitats or
Increase customer spend corridors for wildlife, and recreational opportunities. The
practice of cultivating food on the rooftop of buildings
Plants filter the air in the indoor environment
is sometimes referred to as rooftop farming. Rooftop
Plants can help to reduce absenteeism and make farming is usually done using green roof, hydroponics,
your workforce more productive aeroponics or air-dynaponics systems or container
Plants increase humidity in the workplace gardens. You need to make sure that the roof on which
The NASA studies generated the the gardening is to be done, should be strong enough
recommendation that you use 15 to 18 good-sized to carry the weight of the garden.
houseplants in 6 to 8-inch diameter containers to Green roofs range from extensive to intensive
improve air quality in an average 1,800 square foot design types. Extensive designs are mass plantings of
house. The more vigorously they grow the better job low profile/low maintenance plants. Intensive
theyll do for you. designs have a greater planting depth that allows for
Best plants listed by NASA for improving indoor air more plant variety and overall aesthetically
quality: pleasing environments. Both styles help counter the
negative environmental effects of typical impermeable,
Hedera helix English ivy asphalt roof surfaces by:
Chlorophytum comosum spider plant Absorbing rainfall water which helps reduce
Epipiremnum aureum golden pothos runoff into our sewer systems
Spathiphyllum Mauna Loa peace lily Cleaning water runoff of pollutants
Aglaonema modestum Chinese evergreen Filtering the air that circulates near your roof and
Chamaedorea sefritzii bamboo or reed enters your ventilation system
palm Cooling the air
Sansevieria trifasciata snake plant
Bonsai
Philodendron selloum selloum
Bonsai is a Japanese art form using miniature
philodendron
trees grown in containers. They are great for small
Philodendron domesticum elephant ear apartments or offices that need a bit of a green touch
philodendron but dont have much room for plants. Plants adopted
Dracaena marginata red-edged for extreme dwarfing are juniper, pine, elm, maple,
dracaena cypress are suitable for bonsai culture. In Tropical
Dracaena fragrans place like India the tree species like sapota, bassia,
Massangeana cornstalk dracaena tamarind and Ficus spp etc. are well suited. In order
Ficus benjamina weeping fig to create a good bonsai, horticultural aspects, should
be incorporated into the composition by using the
Roof gardens principles of design.
A garden always provides a space to relax but Window gardens
the limitation of space in big cities and towns has Picture the classic eye-catcher: a narrow box
already set the door for enjoying the beauty at home. painted perfectly to match the house trim, abundantly
It is therefore, the need of the hour to earmark some spilling forth ivy, geraniums, pansies, and petunias.

17
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective

Window boxes, of course, are just containers attached
to the house. Theyre easy to plant. Choosing a
container and a location is a fine start for window box
gardening, but picking the right plants really makes the
difference in your growing success. Generally, select
a mixture of trailers, compact upright plants that grow
tall enough to be seen without blocking the
window, filler plants, and bulbs. Some of the best suited
plants are seasonal annuals like petunias, pansies,
sweet alyssum etc., permanent plants like geraniums,
miniature roses, dwarf bulbous plants (cyclamen,
daffodils, hyacinth etc.), English ivy and list goes on.
Your landscaping should be an enhancement of
your exterior home. Choose plants that compliment or
contrast the colors in your home as well as the
architectural time period of your home.
Exterior landscaping
Exterior landscaping enhances the look of any
building whether it is acres of landscaped grounds or a
few exterior planters or window boxes. Areas
considered for exterior landscaping may include
corporate head offices, large private gardens,
residential complexes etc. There are many ways of
beautifying your outdoors; lawns, container planting,
vertical gardens, terrace gardens, kitchen gardens,
backyard gardens, hanging baskets etc. are going to
add into it.
Lawns
Lawns are truly known as heart of the garden;
they are truly the most attractive feature of any
landscape. A well tended, neatly trimmed, well planned
and preserved lawn can do wonders, and, has a
favorable effect on the economy, environment and our
lifestyles. A lawn is an area of aesthetic and
recreational land planted with grasses or other durable
plants. Lawns are a common feature of
private gardens, public landscapes and parks in many
parts of the world. They are created for aesthetic
pleasure, as well as for sports or other outdoor
recreational use. Lawns need not be, and have not
always been, made up of grasses alone. Other plants
for lawn-like usable garden areas are sedges,
low herbs and wildflowers, and ground covers that can
be walked upon.
A good landscaping with a lush lawn can have
economic, environmental and lifestyle
benefits. Environmentally, apart from being visually
appealing, a good landscaping turf controls soil erosion
and prevents nutrients from leaching into the water
supply. Along with other plants, turfs also help to
enhance the quality of air that we breathe by filtering
pollutants and making healthier air available to our
lungs.
Container plantings
Patios are ideal for landscaping with container
plantings. They are easy to maintain and you can
change out the plants for to extend the bloom time
from spring well into the fall. All thats required is that
you choose plants that are well suited to your area and
give them plenty of room in big pots to thrive.
Strategically placed containers can also be used to
delineate the different areas on your patio. A pair of
urns flanking the walkway leading to the patio marks
the entrance and guides visitors where to walk to
access the patio. Containers placed at the edges of
the living area or dining area visually separate these
spaces making them feel cozy and intimate. Annuals
are the perfect choice for patio containers. They are
long bloomers providing color throughout the growing
season. Perennials also work well in containers. They
if taken care of will return year after year to provide
seasonal blooms during the growing season.
Living walls
Vertical gardens not only look great but they are
extremely good for the environment, especially when
they are installed in built up urban areas. Vertical
gardens are also referred as Green wall, Living wall
or Bio walls. A green wall is a wall, either free-standing
or part of a building that is partially or completely
covered with vegetation and, in some cases, soil or an
inorganic growing medium. Extending the plants or
greenery onto the building faade has shown potential
in improving air quality and reducing surface
temperature in the built environment. The breathing
wall with vegetated faade tends to focus to develop
the building as an ecologically complex and stable plant,
microbial and human community that helps to improve
the air quality in an interface between natural processes
and the builds structure environmental system.

18

Hanging baskets
Hanging baskets with trailing or cascading plants
are suited for indoors as well as outdoors. These
baskets make a big difference to the look and feel of
your premises. These can be hanged at the entrance
of the house or can be placed in the hall or drawing
room beside a well-lit window or even they decorate
kitchen walls. Out of doors, hanging baskets can be
suspended from trees, electric poles, fences etc.
Hanging baskets are suitable for the all seasons.
Whether planted for summer or winter interest, hanging
baskets provide valuable colour at eye level. Choose
vibrant bedding plants for a short-term show or herbs,
shrubs and evergreens for a long-lasting display.
Ornamentals like petunias, pansies, ivy, salvia,
pelargonium, geraniums etc. look wonderful in hanging
baskets.
Standing baskets
Standing baskets are a new addition to exterior
planting range. They offer the perfect solution for areas
in your garden and grounds that are unable to support
wall hanging baskets. Standing baskets can be placed
almost anywhere, and can be used as an addition to
your external planting theme, give your premises extra
colour and bloom whilst complementing your existing
hanging basket arrangements.
Kitchen garden
The traditional kitchen garden, also known as
a potager, is a space separate from the rest of the
residential garden the ornamental
plants and lawn areas. The kitchen garden may serve
as the central feature of an ornamental, all-
season landscape, or it may be little more than a
humble vegetable plot. It is a source of herbs,
vegetables and fruits, but it is often also a structured
garden space with a design based on repetitive
geometric patterns. The kitchen garden has year-round
visual appeal and can incorporate
permanent perennials or woody shrub plantings around
(or among) the annuals. A well-designed potager can
provide food, as well as cut flowers and herbs for the
home with very little maintenance.
Kitchen gardening can inspire you to take an
interest in the origins of your food and make better
19
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
choices about what you put on your plate. When you
grow your own food, you savor it more because of the
effort it took to get to the table. Growing your own
food has many health benefits:
It helps you eat more fresh fruits and vegetables.
You decide what kinds of fertilizers and pesticides
come in contact with your food.
It lets you control when to harvest your food.
Vegetables that ripen in the garden have more
nutrients than some store-bought vegetables that
must be picked early.
Herb garden
The herb garden is often a separate space in the
garden, devoted to growing a specific group of plants
known as herbs. Herb gardens may be purely functional
or they may include a blend of functional and
ornamental plants. The herbs are usually used to flavour
food in cooking, though they may also be used in other
ways, such as discouraging pests, providing pleasant
scents, or serving medicinal purposes (such as a physic
garden), among others. Herbs often have multiple uses.
For example, mint may be used for cooking, tea, and
pest control. Examples of herbs and their uses (not
intended to be complete):
Annual culinary herbs: basil, dill, summer
savory
Perennial culinary herbs: mint, rosemary,
thyme, tarragon
Herbs used for potpourri: lavender, lemon
verbena
Herbs used for tea: mint, lemon verbena,
chamomile, bergamot, hibiscus
Herbs used for other purposes: stevia for
sweetening, feverfew for pest control in the
garden.
Meditation gardens
A meditation garden can be an escape from the
stress of real life, no matter if you are in the city or in
a pastoral setting. Meditation gardens can take many
different forms, but their primary purpose is to provide
a beautiful and therapeutic place for relaxation,
rejuvenation, and meditation. Designing a meditation
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
garden can also be a therapeutic process, as you
determine what aspects of a garden will be most
helpful for you. The plants you choose can be scented,
flowering, herbal, tropical, native or even desert style.
The most important thing is that the plants should evoke
calmness in you.
Ornamental water feature
Water features are a must-have for any perfect
garden. Flowing water injects the element of sound
into our design an element that we dont get much
of from plants, unless the wind is rustling their leaves.
The gurgling sound from a water feature will soothe
our frayed nerves when we pull into the driveway after
a hard day at work. Build a small waterfall is you desire
the natural look. For fountains, there are all sorts of
styles from which to choose. Although a water gardens
primary focus is on plants (eg. lotus), they will
sometimes also house ornamental fish, in which case
the feature will be a fish pond.
Privacy fencing
No surprise that one of the hallmarks of effective
backyard landscaping is the provision for adequate
privacy. Privacy screening is essential for any private
garden. Its a nice complement to a swimming pool or
outdoor dining area, as well. Privacy screens can
20
assume a number of different forms. Plants can also
be used for screening. Using bamboo plants is an idea
that would be especially appropriate for a meditation
garden with a tropical theme. But any tall hedge can
be just as effective. Homeowners often
choose evergreen shrubs for privacy, since they will
provide screening year-round.
Managing and maintaining a landscaping does
contribute to a healthier lifestyle. Apart from
innumerable environmental benefits, plants create
healthier homes and office environments. Managing
them involves physical activity and helps burn calories
often equivalent to those lost during jogging or aerobics.
Moreover, plants are therapeutic and provide a place
for people to relax, meditate, and unwind. Ornamentals
have immense psychological and physiological benefits
and provide a better environment for learning by
providing necessary privacy and tranquility.
Gardening offers many opportunities to improve
ones life by providing outdoor exercise, and excellent
nutrition with home-grown fruits and vegetables. You
will be amazed by how much fun gardening can be,
and the pride you take in sharing healthy food nurtured
by your own efforts. Be patient as you cultivate your
relationship with your garden and the earth. Before
long, youll reap the benefits. You may even see a little
tinge of green on those thumbs.

Enabling Urban Food Production and Linking to Productive Sanitation
S. Vishwanath
Urbanization is a phenomenon,which India like
many other developing nations is experiencing. Though
progressing at a slow pace the country is slowly but
surely urbanizing with the percentage of population in
urban areas as a ratio to rural population on the
increase. The Census of India 2011 identifies the
presence of more than 7000 census towns, areas
showing urban characters either in terms of density of
population, employment in non-agricultural sectors or
in terms of definition as urban areas.
Urban India as it expands converts its peripheral
land from agricultural and ecological uses to urban
uses. Often fertile lands are converted to industrial or
housing use. The urban value of land being of higher
economic value agriculture is a big loser. On the other
hand the fast growing cities need more and more food
grains and vegetables to feed the ever increasing
population. Vast streams of water are now to be
transported over great distance to slake the thirst of
the city. Groundwater from the city is pumped up from
great depths to supplement piped water. Both the
surface and groundwater so consumed now is let out
as waste-water. This waste-water full of nutrients and
pollutants flows in our sewage lines if they exist or
in storm water drains and null
The Census of India 2011 revealed some startling
data on the sanitation situation in India. Of the total
households numbering 246,692,667 a staggering 53.10
% had no toilets. While a large percentage was rural,
urban areas too reported open defecation.
Urban sanitation:
In urban areas underground water borne
sewerage systems are slowly making progress but if
all the towns in India are to be fully covered it will
take large investments and a long time not to mention
large volumes of water needed for flushing. In the
meantime people are building septic tanks and pit toilets
for themselves which will need to be emptied and the
septage managed in a hygienic way and if necessary
the nutrients recovered to aid the soil in the peri-urban
areas in becoming productive.
21
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
Honey-suckers Pit and septic tank emptying trucks equipped
with de-sludging pumps
Enter the Honeysucker, a truck or tractor based
pump, store and transport system developed in the
formal but mainly in the informal sector. These pit
emptying trucks are rapidly expanding and providing
service especially in the Southern and Western states.
In the city of Bangalore for example there may be 200
to 300 such trucks providing assistance to over 150,000
households for pit emptying.
When pit toilets or septic tanks are full, at the call
of a mobile number these honey-suckers will arrive
and do a pit emptying job in 15 to 20 minutes without
any human contact with the waste. They charge a
small fee of Rs 1200 to Rs 1500. They then take the
sludge to farms in some cases where farmers after
composting the sludge in turn sell it for Rs 2000 a tractor
load. The whole enterprise is financially sustainable
and has no subsidy component anywhere.
Rural sanitation:
While eco-sanitation systems (which is usually
Urine diverting toilets collecting urine and faeces
separately to be managed) are slowly increasing in
numbers they form a minuscule portion of the total
toilets being constructed. The overwhelming numbers
of toilets in the 10s of millions are single pit or double
pit toilets. These pit toilets, connected to our flush
latrines, are filling up fast and will need to be emptied.
With the Manual Scavenging Act being rigorously
enforced the only way to do it legally will be through a
process of mechanization which means a smaller
version of the Honeysucker.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
The Bangalore method of composting
faecal sludge:
This method of composting was developed at
Bangalore in India by Acharya (1939). The method is
basically recommended when night soil and refuse are
used for preparing the compost. The method
overcomes many of the disadvantages of the Indore
method such as problem of heap protection from
adverse weather, nutrient losses due to high winds /
strong sun rays, frequent turning requirements, fly
nuisance etc. but the time involved in production of
finished compost is much longer. The method is suitable
for areas with scanty rainfall.
Preparation of the pit Trenches or pits about one
metre deep are dug; the breadth and length of the
trenches can be made depending on the availability of
land and the type of material to be composted. The
selection of site for the pits is made as in the Indore
method. The trenches should preferably have sloping
walls and a floor of 90-cm slope to prevent water
logging.
Filling the pit: Organic residues and night soil are
put in alternate layers and, after filling, the pit is covered
with a 15-20 cm thick layer of refuse. The materials
are allowed to remain in the pit without turning and
watering for three months. During this period, the
material settles down due to reduction in volume of
the biomass and additional night soil and refuse are
placed on top in alternate layers and plastered or
covered with mud or earth to prevent loss of moisture
and breeding of flies. After the initial aerobic
composting which is for about eight to ten days, the
material undergoes anaerobic decomposition at a very
slow rate and it takes about six to eight months to obtain
the finished product.
Vijayapura: It is a small town about 60 kilometers
from Bangalore Asurrounded by rich agricultural land.
As water shortages increase and as groundwater tables
22
fall all around our cities and towns interesting behavior
patterns emerge and consolidate around waste-water.
Imagine a farmer cultivating his 5 acres of land. His
bore-well which has gone 1000 feet deep now runs
dry because there is no rain and therefore no recharge
of groundwater. He sees the citys sewage water
flowing nearby. What should he do? Overcoming his
own apprehension he starts to use it on his field. He
realizes that the water has nutrients too but they need
careful handling since they may burn his crop or
destroy his soil. He learns quickly and develops a palate
of plants that can tolerate the waste-water and still be
productive. He has also to manage the waste-water
that the farm labourers do not run away. He carefully
now husbands this resource and makes productive use
of it. He grows fodder, he grows maize and he finds a
market demand for it. Is he doing the right job?
Conclusion
Urban India is a repository of many crises. From
housing shortage, congestion, water shortage, waste-
water prevalence, transport problems, energy and food/
nutrition shortage. While in the long run better
urbanization and land-use policies will have to be done
in the short run there are some ameliorative steps that
can be taken. It is possible to link water, productive
sanitation, waste management and agriculture in a
cyclical consumption pattern where the output becomes
an input for the other sector. It is possible to find
solutions at the household level and also at the city
level with intermediate steps also part of the scale of
solution. One such example is presented in the paper
below.
Embedding food production as part of the vast
waste-water movement cycle of cities is happening at
an informal level. These systems need to be better
understood and tweaked to remove negative
externalities and public health issues if any.

Landscape Gardening And Environmental Services
H.P. Sumangla
In the Scenario of global climate change and rapid
urbanization, innovations on governance of urban
systems are critically required as 50% people are now
living in less than 3% of the earths urbanized terrestrial
surface. Without careful production of knowledge, and
large investments to link that knowledge to action, cities
will be overwhelmed with environmental challenges.
The deterioration of biosphere caused by environmental
pollution due to deforestation, urbanization, rapid
industrialization, emission from vehicular traffic and
thermal power stations has become an alarming
menace to human beings besides being a threat to flora
and fauna. India has the highest rate of change of the
urban population and will remain above 2% annually
for the next three decades (UN reports). At this rate,
an estimated 854 million people will live in Indian cities
by 2050. Indian cities are not only the most populous
but also among the densest urban agglomerations of
the world. In India, the percentages of population living
in both small and large cities are higher than those of
the world averages. For instance whereas the average
of the share of the population living in small cities in
whole Asia is around of 24%, in India it is 35 percent.
Cities are growing much faster and they are expected
to grow further in the coming years. And will pose
unique challenges like nutritional and environmental
security for the urban dwellers.
Urban habitats, a neglected ecosystem, are the
principal concern to the perspective that includes the
activities of humans in the provision and maintenance
of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The green-
space needs to be strategically planned. The priorities
for planners and green space managers is to ensure
that the functionality of green space . Action is needed
now to steer urban development towards green cities
that contribute to environmental security, and clean
environment for urban dwellers. At this juncture, cities
need to be designed with more green spaces in order
to provide clean and green environment.
Life style or amenity horticulture
Lifestyle horticulture, sometimes called
environmental, amenity or urban horticulture, largely
23
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
involves public and commercial entities involved in the
production, management and servicing of urban green
spaces for environmental, social, economic and health
benefits. The lifestyle horticulture sector includes
products, commodities and services that range from
ornamental plants, fruit and forestry plants to cut
flowers and the design and maintenance associated
with arboriculture, parks, gardens, golf courses, sports
grounds and indoor plantings. It includes turf grass
production, nursery and landscape establishment and
the services provided by those that supply technical
horticultural advice, information dissemination and
project management.Parks and open spaces, the pot
plants in your buildings and the turfed lawns may look
purely decorative but in reality they are lifestyle/
amenity horticultural economic powerhouses and
critical components of productive work environments
and healthy communities. Using a benchmark study as
the start point, and adjusting the relative economic value
of other regions of the world, a 2008 study estimated
that the economic impact of amenity/lifestyle
horticulture was close to US$290 billion. The study
used reference points such as the value of a property
beside or close to a park, versus a property that had no
connection to a park or reserve.
Benefits of lifestyle horticulture
The interactions between people and plants
intersect each of the six quality-of-life domains. Social
wellbeing, physical wellbeing, psychological wellbeing
,cognitive wellbeing , spiritual wellbeing and
environmental wellbeing. Life style horticulture benefits
economically, Nursery plant and turf growers,
Horticultural service firms providing landscape and
urban forestry,Wholesale distribution firms including
importers, Services such as landscape design,
installation, and maintenance Home improvement
centres and mass merchandisers or other chain stores
, Brokers, transporters and retail operations, Florists
and independent garden centres.
Environmental benefits from amenity horticulture
are; Improved air quality; Energy Savings; Reduced
noise pollution; Reduced urban glare;Reduced soil
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
erosion; Reduced storm,water runoff/improved water
quality; Reduction of heat islands in otherwise bare
spaces;Reduced heat and cold damage; Reduced
exposure to wind; Attraction of wildlife and Promotion
of biodiversity
Environmental benefits of plants
Plants do offer a great extent of environmental
and ecological services along with aesthetic values.
Research has shown that large trees can absorb
significant amounts of carbon dioxide, particulate
matter and other pollutants from the atmosphere each
year and release oxygen through photosynthesis. As
such, trees and other landscape plants serve as an
important tool in improving air quality in cities and
mitigating potential health effects on human inhabitants.
The intelligent landscape management can reduce
water, air and soil pollution. In recent days landscaping
concepts have gained popularity in to different
perspective by introducing ideas like green buildings,
greenbelt, green roofs, and energy conserving
landscape and using ideal plants for air, sound and
water, soil pollution mitigation. Parks and urban green
spaces impact peoples health by providing them with
an inexpensive setting for recreation.
Trees in urban systems provide a variety of
ecosystems services including biodiversity
conservation, removal of atmospheric pollutants, oxygen
generation, noise reduction, mitigation of urban heat
island effects, microclimate regulation, stabilization of
soil, ground water recharge, prevention of soil erosion,
and carbon sequestration.
Plants, which are essential for our survival,
provide food, fiber, building material, fuel, and
pharmaceuticals. Plants also produce intangible
benefits for people, such as improving our health. These
benefits occur with scenes of nature, individual plants
indoors, gardens outdoors, parks, and forests. The
understanding of the role of trees, in particular, in
promoting both human and ecological health is
increasing. Plants make our surroundings more
pleasant, and they help us feel calmer. They contribute
to cleaner, healthier air, thus improving our well-being
and comfort. Plants have been associated with reduced
stress, increased pain tolerance, and improved mental
functioning in people.
24
Various trees and plants have been grown to
check environmental pollution. Plants have modified
themselves morphologically to absorb the pollutants and
provide us clean environment. Some plants also develop
biochemical defense mechanisms which enable them
to detoxify the harmful chemicals. Trees with profuse
branching, large size and hairy leaves help in trapping
the dust. Similarly, small and medium sized shrubs,
seasonal flowers and low hedges are useful to check
the noise pollution as well as air pollutants emitted from
automobiles. However, dispersion of atmospheric
pollutants depends upon the nature and density of plants.
As such, trees and other landscape plants
serve as an important tool in improving air quality in
cities and mitigating potential health effects on human
inhabitants.Deciduous trees like Albizzia lebbeck,
Casia fistula Azardichcta indica, Ficus religiosa,
evergreen trees like Pithecolobium dulce, Ficus
bengalensis, Terminalia arjuna, Nyctanthes
arbotristis, shrubs such as Bougainvillea, Poinsettia,
Cassia Nerium , Ficus benjamina, herbs like
Cathjasranthus, Ocimum and Vettivar are now
widely used by the landscape horticulturists to mitigate
various kinds of pollution. Besides plants like Pongamia
glabra,Ficus religiosa, ployalthia, Bougainvillea,
Azarditca indica Cassia fistula, Delonix regia and
Terminalia arjuna which have the ability to retain
and filter dust aare widely used in roadsides and
highysAquatic plants like Eichornica crassipes, Pista
stratotoes, Salvinia rotundifolia, Lemna mina,
Hydrilla verticillata,Typha latifolia, and lotus that
are suitable for waterscaping designs have the potential
of mitigating water pollution and heavy metal
contamination. Indoor plants such as Spathyllum,
Dracena, Diffenbacia,Sanseveria and Aglonima are
known to mitigate the indoor air pollutants (toxic and
volatile gases) in indoor conditions. In studies,
vegetation has been shown to lower wall surface
temperatures by 17C, which led to a reduced air
conditioner use by an average of 50%. Planting trees
and other ornamental plants around a building can
significantly reduce the extreme temperatures in the
ambient environment, thus lowering the energy cost
of heating and cooling, and in turn, reducing its
environmental burde. Thus, planting trees around
buildings is not only a positive step towards reducing
energy consumption, but it also has a significant

financial benefit as well.The calming influence of
natural environments is conducive to human labor
productivity by increasing a persons ability to
concentrate on the task at hand. Work performed under
the natural influence of ornamental plants is normally
of higher quality and completed with a higher accuracy
rate than work done in environments devoid of nature.
The influence of plants can increase memory retention
up to twenty percent, stimulating the senses and
improving mental cognition and performance.
Carbon sequestration to reduce carbon
load in environment
Carbon dioxide has a long shelf life so the climate
change which will occur over the next 40 years is
already determined and, although the opinion about the
scale of the problem differs, many experts agree that
it is unstoppable. Adaptation concerns preparing for
inevitable climate change. Urban green spaces can
help to alleviate the consequences of climate change
through cooling. Urban green spaces can act as park
cool islands by cooling air. Even small spaces can have
a coolin effect parks only 1-2 hectares have been
found to be 2C cooler than surrounding areas. The
extent of the cooling effect is greatest when
temperatures beyond the park are the highest. As
climate change increases and temperatures rise the
cooling effect of urban green spaces will become
increasingly important. The spread of the benefits can
decrease with distance from the park. Research based
on Tel Aviv, Israel found that the cooling effect of green
space can be felt up to 100metres from the site and
the shape of green space can have an impact on cooling.
Green spaces that lie higher than surrounding land
achieve wider influence, as do those with greater tree
cover. For example, green corridors can be used to
channel air into a city from surrounding forested slopes.
Trees, especially when located close to buildings, can
act as natural air conditioners and provide shading
through evapo-transpiration, therefore reducing energy
consumption required to maintain comfortable
temperatures. Evapo-transpiration is the exchange of
water between plants, soil and the atmosphere.
The study estimates carbon sequestration potential
of trees for low carbon urban green space management
in Bhopal.A total of thirty two tree species (for fifteen
years) were selected on its suitability to the agro
25
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
climatic and edaphic conditions of Bhopal as well as
for the plan-in-progress (29 road construction and
widening projects) of Capital Project Administration
(CPA undertakes the construction, development &
maintenance of Roads, parks & buildings, besides
safeguarding and development of land under the
administrative province of Bhopal district, Madhya
Pradesh). The ten tree species were finally selected
based on their ranking on bio-sequestration potential
over a time period of fifteen years, looking to the
prospective change in landscape and expansion of road
communication system under urban planning (e.g. two
lanes to four lanes). The potential of consolidated carbon
dioxide sequestration by different tree species i.e.
Syziumcumini, Ficusbengalensis, Tamarindus
indica, Azardirachta indica, Eucalyptus spp,
Lagerstromia speciosa, Ficusreligiosa, Adina
cordifolia, Delonixregia, to be planted in the
upcoming avenue plantation in Bhopal for a time period
of fifteen years, was calculated to be 797.275 tonnes
(i.e. 53.152 tonnes per year) based on the application
of law of equi-marginal returns considering the overall
cost of cultivation
Very careful management and maintenance of
green spaces is required. Green spaces which are
permitted to dry out and lose soil moisture actually result
in a higher absorption of day time solar energy and
higher night time radiation adding to the urban heat
island effect. Similarly, inappropriately sited trees could
lead to increases in subsidence which can be affected
by tree roots and drier summers. Tree roots are cited
in at least 80 per cent of subsidence claims on
shrinkable clay soils, yet even on clay soils the risk of
a tree causing damage is less than 1 per cent which
suggests that trees are often incorrectly blamed for
subsidence
Green space for water management
Green space can help with water management
as it provides a permeable surface, reducing surface
run-off into drains and therefore lowers the risk of
flooding during peak flow. In addition green spaces
allow water to filter down and replenish groundwater.
Vegetation also intercepts more rain thereby reducing
the likelihood of flash flooding. The numerous leaves
of plants and trees provide a greater area for water to
evaporate from than flat surfaces.However, green
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
space alone will not be able to cope with the estimated
increases in rainfall and subsequent runoff so storage
provision for runoff also needs to be considered.
Specifically, ponds and other bodies of water can be
used for water storage and water surfaces stay cool
during droughts. In addition dry ponds and grassed
areas could be used to store flood water. Sustainable
urban drainage systems (SUDS) are designed to slow
the movement of rainwater between where it falls and
where it is discharged into a watercourse. Techniques
such as swales, permeable pavements, gravel or grass,
infiltration, detention and retention in ponds could be
employed. This water could then be used to irrigate
green spaces in order to maintain their cooling effects.
Conservation of biodiversity
Urban green spaces provide valuable habitats for
animals and plants but species can respond strongly to
environmental change.There is a need for wildlife
corridors within towns and cities to help plants and
animals move in response to climate change. Urban
areas need to be permeable to wildlife; private gardens
as well as parks and other urban green spaces including
verges can help with this. The existence of water areas
can also encourage biodiversity.
International norms for urban green
spaces
In 20th century, experts in Germany, Japan and
other countries proposed a standard of 40 m urban
green spaces in high quality or 140 m suburbforest
area per capita for reaching a balance between carbon
dioxide and oxygen, to meet the ecological balance of
humanwell-being. Currently, developed countries have
tended to adopt a general standard of green space of
20 mpark area per capita. International minimum
standard suggested by World Health Organization
(WHO) and adopted by the publications of United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is
a minimum availability of 9 m green open space per
26
city dweller. There is yet another yardstick, which
refers to London but has relevance to any city.
Abercrombie prepared a plan in 1943-1944 suggesting
that 1.62 ha (four acres) open space per 1000population
was a reasonable figure to adopt for London. The plan
also explains that all forms of open space need to be
considered as a whole, and to be co-ordinated into a
closely-linkedpark system, with parkways along existing
and new roads forming the links between the larger
parks. There are city-specific local guidelines tha tmay
provide us useful guidance.
For instance,Aarhus, with a population of 0.3
million is the second largest city in Denmark. The
Green Structure Plan was prepared as part of the
planning reforms of the 1970s. The political vision of
Aarhus surrounded by forest, had strong public
support. It is used to control urban growth and to set
standards: no dwelling should be more than 500 metres
from a green area of at least 6,000 m2). In terms of
structural diversity, green spaces in urban systems
should essentially be developed as networks. Three
main components of urban forest andgreen spaces are:
Patch (urban domesticgardens, public and private
parks, gardens, urban forest patches etc.), Corridor
(roadsideavenues, walkways and urban greenways
etc.), and Network structure (layout of all the patches
and the corridors connecting the patches)
Conclusion
Climate change is expected to place increasing
stress on urban areas. Minimizing its impacts through
adaptive measures is therefore unavoidable. Worldwide
studies concerning people needs in urban landscapes
have underlined the fundamental role carried out by
greening in the cities not only for social and aesthetical
reasons, but also for environmental aims. Problems
like soil erosion, river flooding, lack of biodiversity are
frequent in urban contexts. Both policy and science
now emphasize the critical necessity of green areas
within urban social-ecological systems.

Vegetable Cultivation in Urban and Peri-urban Region
A.S. Sidhu, M. Prabhakar , S.S. Hebbar and A.K. Nair
Environment concerns are growing rapidly in
direct proportion with industrialization and urbanization.
All over the world efforts are on the way and everybody
is keen to provide the world with - clean air, fresh
water, fertile healthy soil and safe farm produce.
Countries across the globe are fighting environmental
threats like deforestation , air, soil and water pollution.
Vegetables comprise a wide range of unique
crops which play a major and increasing role in basic
food as well as nutritional security and their
consumption is an essential part of a healthy diet. They
contribute vitamins, minerals, roughage, fiber and are
also rich in health related photochemical such as
antioxidants and also in lowering the risk of certain
diseases. The leguminous vegetable crops such as
vegetable soybeans, peas and French beans are high
in protein. They also play direct and indirect roles in
diversifying dietary patterns and providing employment,
especially to women, and income to purchase the
components of a balanced diet. The vegetable
production in periurban regions of developing countries
is highly intensive and multiple and successive cropping
are routinely practiced. Concomitant with the rapid
economic growth in many of these countries including
India, the demands for high-quality vegetables has been
sharply increasing in recent years. Currently, average
vegetable availability per capita per day is estimated
at about 100-110g in South Asia, Southeast Asia and
South America, while in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is far
below 100 g. These averages are only about half of
the recommended 200 g that is necessary to provide
adequate amounts of essential micronutrients and
vitamins. Since both food and nutritional security are
important requirements of every nation, all efforts to
boost production and supply of quality vegetables are
given utmost importance in most of the above
mentioned countries. In this context, the periurban
vegetable production assumes greater significance in
these countries. Increasing attention paid to these crops
is rather recent in India, in relation to their role in food
and nutritional security. Increasing presence of
supermarkets and new global opportunities for trading
27
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
are favouring these crops in periurban production
systems.
Vegetables yields are higher per unit area, most
of them are high value crops and substantially labour-
intensive; thus, they generate more income per unit of
labour or land occupied per day than cereal production.
Presently the general trend is a shift from small scale
production system (small holders) to commercial
oriented production and contract farming system,
especially in periurban areas, which generates new
needs for parameters like quality, competitiveness,
human health, environmentally friendly production
system etc.
The principal aim of this chapter is to review the
information available on possible pollution mitigation
strategies available through sustainable and eco-friendly
management of peri-urban vegetable production
systems in developing countries including India, where
growing urbanization is leading to pressures on
cultivable land and on natural resources such as air
and water. Production technologies that fit the socio-
economic and anthropological situation in the urban
communities need to be developed.
Urban and peri-urban vegetable cultivation
Peri-urban vegetable production system refers
vegetable cultivation located on the fringes (peri-urban)
of a town, an urban centre, a city or metropolis, which
grows or raises, processes and distributes a diversity
of vegetables and their products using mainly human
and material resources, inputs and services found in
and around that urban area, and in turn supplying
vegetable produce and products largely to that urban
area.
According to the latest estimate of the United
Nations, the Worlds urban population is expected to
increase up to 5.34 billion in the year 2025 and more
than half (2.72 billion) will reside in Asian cities. By
2015, the UN predicts that there will be 358 cities with
one million or more inhabitants; no less than 153 will
be in Asia. While cities are likely to become more
important to Asias economic growth, such growth is
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
being achieved in many countries at a high social and
environmental cost. Many cities are expected to boom
in the near future or are already booming besetting
them with nearly insurmountable problems such as
employment for often fairly uneducated migrants from
rural areas, proper disposal of an abundance of refuse
from households, commerce and industry by safe
means and sufficient supply of cheap but nutritious
food rich in vitamins and minerals to feed the population
of these expanding urban centers.
India is the second largest producer of vegetables
in the world with production estimated at 90.8 million
tonnes from 6.0 million hectares. Vegetable crops
occupy an important place in diversification of
agriculture and have played an important role in food
and nutritional security of ever growing population of
our country. Besides, vegetables have a high potential
for increasing farm income, generating employment
and ultimately promoting economic growth.
In India, vegetable production is of two types,
one which are grown on large commercial scale and
the other grown on small scale for livelihood. Majority
of the operational holders belong to small and marginal
category who often fail to realize the yield levels on
par with the yields of experimental fields. In order to
keep pace with the growing demand of vegetables for
ever increasing population, the production and
productivity have to be augmented from this vulnerable,
resource poor living under complex socio-economic
fabrics. The traditional small vegetable farming is
gradually being replaced by the large, technologically
sophisticated and agribusiness linked contract farming
in many peri-urban areas. Peri-urban farming
enterprises are increasingly more significant to the
business of producing food. A substantial share of
vegetables produced is marketed and consumed in
urban localities.
Growing vegetables is particularly suited for small
farming family enterprises because they can best meet
the special cultivation requirements. Vegetables have
a relatively short growing period, possess a high
productivity on the land, are highly labor intensive, and
fit well as rotation crops in traditional agricultural
production systems. Compared with the staple foods
of corn and rice, most of the vegetable varieties obtain
a higher market value. Farmers, however, need to be
encouraged to move to new and more profitable crops.
28
But careful management of the natural resources is
necessity or the usable land will continue to decrease.
City administrations are facing huge challenges:
to find and create employment, to provide social
services to dispose an abundance of wastes from
private households as well as to ensure year round
supply of vegetables for their inhabitants. The net effect
of projected rise in global population, more so in India
and other developing countries, is mounting agricultural
pressure on the ecosystem. Since vegetable cultivation
is an intensive farming system, it exerts pressure on
earths ecosystem through increased use of farm
chemicals such as hazardous biocidal materials,
fertilizers and water. It is evidenced that agriculture
more so in the peri-urban sectors is increasingly
becoming dependent on exploitation of ground water.
Thus the development of agriculture is gradually
permeating the thin shield of environmental protection.
In this context appropriate periurban vegetable
production system is very essential.
The periurban vegetable production system has
the major goal to supply the local urban and sub-urban
population with year-round healthy vegetable; provide
work and additional income to the people of these
areas; especially women; facilitate small- and medium
sized farm enterprise access to the market by
developing; economically viable, environmental benign
and socially accepted vegetable production systems.
And this agro-ecosystem will help to
strengthen the social and economic livelihood of
vegetable farmers, garbage pickers and their
families;
waste disposal-solid waste management
improve the management, structures and
functioning of urban and periurban agro-
ecosystems;
Know, when grown on individual scale, it is the
100% guarantee safe product for consumption
increase and insure the year-round supply of clean
and affordable vegetables;
improve quantity and quality of raw materials for
the local processing industry;
establish viable periurban input supply units such
as organic manure/fertilizer production and the
urban waste recycling industry etc.

to supply the local urban and sub-urban population
with year-round healthy vegetable;
to provide work, pleasure, exercise, passing
leisure time and additional income to the people
of these areas;
to facilitate small- and medium sized farm
enterprise access to the market by developing;
economically viable, environmental benign and
socially accepted vegetable production systems.
Ever increasing urban population poses a serious
threat, as it will cause the per capita vegetable
consumption to decline and this throws stiff challenge
to researchers, calling for proper strategies to boost
up the productivity of vegetable crops in and around
big towns, of course without any harm to the
environment. To boost up the productivity of vegetables
with good quality in the urban and periurban regions,
three thronged approaches viz. growing multiple stress
resistant varieties/hybrids, practicing sound and
environmentally friendly production packages and
protection technologies and planting quality seeds and
seedlings at right time are required. This will help in
minimizing chemical inputs that are not good for a
healthy environment and also these practices will help
in better utilization of applied inputs without causing
any damage to the environment.
The best possible means is to grow biotic and
abiotic stress resistant/tolerant vegetable varieties.
Many tactics, such as changing planting dates or
cultivars, require little change in the nature of farm
management and can be implemented rapidly but are
sometimes most effective in minimizing risks of pest
attack. This reduces the load of pesticides to be
sprayed on to the crops which in turn minimizes
pesticide residues on farm land. The technology which
encourages transition to cropping systems that are
better suited to the changed agro climatic conditions
will be more productive with less chemical inputs which
is a key factor in pollution mitigation. Certainty and
adequacies in the information available to farmers
about practices that minimize environmental changes
could speed up the rate of adaptation. The success of
these and other potential improvements in farm
management and productivity will be increasingly
sensitive to how well new knowledge is transmitted to
the farmer. The subsidies provided to farmers in India
29
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
tend to encourage farming in periurban regions where
agriculture is more intensive and expensive but
productive, and so minimize overall costs of vegetable
production.
Using urban liquid and solid wastes
Liquid waste from domestic sewage is widely
used for irrigation and fertilisation of vegetable crops.
Contamination of crops with pathogenic organisms due
to irrigation by water from polluted streams, or
inadequately treated urban waste water or organic solid
wastes can be serious threats from the human and
animal health point of view and hence water from
these sources has to be treated before used for
irrigation. The major sources of bacterial contamination
of fresh vegetables are from the distribution, handling
and marketing system rather than from production sites.
This is taken care in most of the urban regions and
then water is used for mainly for irrigation of vegetable
crops cultivated in the vicinity of these water treatment
plants.
Re-use of urban organic solid wastes in periurban
vegetable growing systems contributes for possible
mitigation of pollution from these wastes which
otherwise have not much other uses. Agro-industrial
wastes, household refuse and market wastes are also
used to produce feed for livestock , which in turn are
linked with periurban vegetable production as source
of draft for many farm operations and also cattle
manure. Composting is the most common form of
processing urban organic wastes.
Integrated nutrient management for
improving crop productivity in a eco-
friendly way
Modern agriculture largely depends on the use
of high cost inputs such as chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides, improved seeds, assured
irrigation, scientific management and labour saving but
energy intensive farm machinery. The application of
such high input technologies increased the production
but there is growing concern over the adverse effects
of the use of chemicals and soil productivity and
environment quality. When population pressure was
low, mono-cropping was a rule, with the increase in
population various multiple cropping system have
become popular.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
To sustain the productivity of different vegetable
crops and cropping systems, efficient nutrient
management is vital. There is a need to develop more
efficient, economic and integrated system of nutrient
management for realizing high crop productivity without
diminishing soil fertility. Use of integrated plant nutrient
system (IPNS) which involves cattle, poultry, animal
and plant resources in combination with chemical
fertilizer, supplemented with bio-fertilizer such as
Rhizobium culture, Azotobacter , Azospirillium,
mycorrhiza and phosphate solubilizing bacteria would
boost the yield of vegetable crops. These are low
volume, low cost and eco- friendly agricultural inputs
used as seed inoculation and also soil inoculation.
Inoculation of Rhizobium. Azotobactor and
Azospirillum substitute, 19,22 and 20 kg N/ha,
respectively.
A two-fold strategy may be useful in nutrient
management to over come any nutrient stress that
affects crop growth and yield. First, to continue to
encourage the use of fertilizer for a faster growth in
agriculture and second, to popularize the use of recycled
crop residues, green manures, use of city or urban
compost and biofertilizers as a supplementary source
of nutrients, in conjunction with chemical form of plant
nutrients. There is need to add plant nutrients to the
soil on the basis of soil fertility status. The application
of nutrients according to soil-test-based-fertility-
assessment ensures better efficiency and improved
profitability. Principle guide lines are: (a) basic soil
fertility and climate. (b) nature of crop in cropping
system. (c) at least 30% of the total nutrient levels
NPK in organic form.
Organic sources of nutrients are supplementary
to chemical fertilizers and use of biofertilizers
considered as environment friendly, in terms of
protecting the quality of underground waters, soil
property and environment in general.
Organic vegetable production
Organic farming has many definitions but can be
generally defined in terms of cultural practices and
pest and disease control measures which are allowed,
restricted, and prohibited. Organic farming is a
production system which avoids or excludes the use
of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, and
growth regulators. It relies upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal and green manures, legumes,
30
mechanical cultivation, and biological pest control to
maintain soil productivity, to supply nutrients, and to
control insects, diseases, and weeds. The principles of
organic agriculture include: replenishing and maintaining
long-term fertility by providing optimal conditions for
biological activity; producing viable quantities of high
quality, nutritious food and feed; reducing the use of
fossil fuels in agriculture and pollution.
Using healthy transplants and seed
A basic rule for controlling plant diseases is to
begin each growing season with healthy seed and
transplants. A crop established with infected or infested
plant material may contaminate an entire field and
remove it from production for many years. To ensure
good quality produce and also high yield, raising of good
seedlings through use of good seeds and appropriate
cultural practices is pre-requisite. Raising of seedlings
with nylon net covering on nursery beds or high-tech
mass production using portrays or flats in green house
(net or polyhouse) gives good quality and healthy
seedlings. Use of water soluble specialty fertilizers and
biofertilizers at nursery stage as good potential for
producing healthy seedlings. Use of micro irrigation
and fertigation helps in maintaining uniformity in growth
of seedling by maintaining good soil moisture and
nutrient regimes without crusting of soil surface.
Hardening of vegetable seedlings before
transplanting in the main field is very essential for
reducing transplant shock and also to have better crop
stand. Transplanting quality seedlings gives better crop
stand and also minimizes pest attack and disease
incidence. Thus use of insecticides and fungicides can
be reduced and help in mitigating pollution in periurban
vegetable production systems.
Crop, soil and variety selection
The ideal soils for growing vegetables are well
drained, fairly deep, and relatively high in organic
matter. Deep sands may be too well-drained and very
low in organic matter for vegetable production. Muck
soils, when the water can be controlled, are ideally
suited for growing celery, leafy vegetables, bulb and
root crops. The better job in matching crop and soil,
the greater chance of producing a successful crop.
Organic vegetable growers have fewer choices
with respect selection of vegetable crops and their
varieties. Disease and, if possible, insect resistance
must be considered when selecting the variety. Varietal

and trial results will provide information on adaptability
of varieties under a range of environmental conditions.
Disease resistance is the most economical and
effective means of pest management. Yield,
horticultural quality, and market acceptability also have
to be considered in making your variety selections.
The idea that new vegetable crops could help
stabilize and diversify the farm economy is hardly new
is being commercialized in many of the periurban areas
in India. Crops like, gherkin, baby corn, sweet corn,
vegetable soybean etc are gaining popularity because
of good farm income, less chemical application,
proximity to ready markets and export potential.
Inclusion of these in traditional vegetable cropping
system ensures stability and reduces possible pollution
prevalent in intensive monocropping zones identified
for commercial crops like tomato, capsicum etc.
During rainy or wet season the important
vegetables cultivated in periurban vegetable farming
(PUVF) systems are beans, chillies, eggplant, okra,
onion and potatoes. To prevent water logging and also
wetting of foliage and fruits it is better to adopt raised
bed system of planting. This will reduce the incidence
of foliar diseases and also fruit rots and thereby help
in minimizing pesticide usage. Dry spells of over one
week are very common during which time
supplementary irrigation are provided for better plant
growth and efficient use of applied mineral fertilizers.
In order to minimize leaching of applied plant nutrients
beyond crop root zone and cause ground water pollution
foliar nutrition is recommended. For better rain water
management or insitu soil moisture conservation ridges
and furrow system with mulching is better in low rainfall
regions.
In winter and summer seasons the best system
of irrigating vegetables is drip or micro-irrigation and
subsurface drip irrigation. Along with this mulching
using black polyethylene resulted in further increase
in yields. Adopting drip or micro irrigation system and
mulching in dry season also saves irrigation water and
reduces risk of soils becoming saline due to faulty
irrigation management which is common in flood
irrigation system. To ward off insect pest and disease
occurrence and for off season vegetable production
low cost naturally ventilated poly houses can be erected
and crops such as bell pepper, tomato and melons can
be grown.
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
Soil fertility and plant nutrition
To become a successful organic vegetable
grower, soil fertility must be enhanced. It takes three
or more years of adding mulch and compost to sandy
soils before good production results can be expected.
Helpful practices include crop rotation, use of cover
crops, green manure crops, use of mulch, animal
compost, plant material compost. Green manure crops
should be grown in the rainy summer and turned under
well in advance of crop planting. Cover crops can be
beneficial for intensive organic vegetable production
in a number of ways. Water penetration and infiltration
can be improved by root growth of a cover crop and
by returning organic matter to soils. Increased organic
matter may improve the soils ability to retain moisture.
If leguminous cover crops are grown, soil nitrogen can
be increased through nitrogen fixation. Grasses are
particularly helpful in promoting soil structure and soil
aggregate stability because of their fibrous root
systems. Microbial activity, often stimulated by cover
crop root exudates and organic matter additions to soils,
has also been shown to promote aggregate stability.
As microbes decompose organic matter, nutrients are
released. Weed suppression for subsequent crops may
be another benefit. Furthermore, cover crops can
provide a favorable environment to attract and sustain
beneficial arthropods.
In a nutshell, organic farming is based on
following approaches and production inputs:
strict avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and
synthetic pesticides crop rotations, crop residues,
mulches
Animal manures, composts and biogas slurry and
vermicomposts
Green manures, green leaf manure and cover
crops
Oil cakes and soil amendments
Bio stimulants, humates and seaweeds
Herbal and compost decoctions, liquid composts
Marine, animal and plant by-products
Bio-rational, microbial and other pest control
products
Pests and disease control by a combination of
cropping system, grafting, mechanical methods,
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
botanicals and biological pest control methods
Solarization and Trichoderma application to
control diseases
Plant based insecticides like neem can be suitably
but restrictedly used as decoction, oil, cake and
leaf decoction and seed kernel extracts. Nicotine
decoction or nicotine sulphate, annona, Lantana
camara, ocimum, garlic, chilli power, pyrethrum,
pongamia are identified as other useful plant
extracts.
Integrated weed management
Weeds are strong competitors for water and
mineral nutrients and reduce their use efficiency. IWM
is important for vegetable crops because of their high
value, intensive culture, and lack of competitiveness.
Combining different weed management approaches
reduces the dependence on chemical control and
increases the likelihood that control will be successful.
It encompasses scouting, preventative control
strategies, cultural management, mechanical control,
biological control and herbicide application.
Cultural weed control is the management of the
crop to make it more competitive against weeds.
Cultural control involves optimizing planting date,
seeding rate, row spacing, fertility, irrigation, and the
use of adapted varieties so that the crop will be
vigorously growing and more competitive with weeds.
Generally, the plant that emerges first, establishes
rapidly, and closes canopy first, is the most competitive.
This plant captures the majority of the environmental
resources (i.e. light, water, nutrients) necessary for
growth. The aim should be to make vegetable crops
as competitive as possible by modifying the appropriate
practices.
Cropping systems can be modified to improve
weed control. Keeping your land fallow between crop
cycles can prevent build-up of crop specific weeds.
Fallow periods may allow the use of nonselective
management practices to eliminate hard-to-control
weeds. A fallow period may restore the natural fertility
by returning organic matter to the soil and may reduce
some insect pests and pathogens. The increased
fertility and reduced pests could improve crop
competitiveness.
32
Planting schemes can also be adapted to make a
crop more competitive. Plant at a uniform depth for
even emergence and as straight as possible to allow
for close cultivation. Using higher plant densities or
narrower row spacing can ensure rapid canopy closure
in some vegetable crops. Plant crops when soil
temperatures favor their rapid germination and
emergence. Planting warm season crops in cold soils
will slow initial growth and reduce competitiveness.
Transplanted crops usually have a competitive
advantage over weeds germinating from seed. This
method can be particularly important when other weed
control tactics, such as herbicides, are limited.
Natural mulches used for weed management in
vegetable production modify the microenvironment, are
inexpensive, and environmentally friendly. But,
natural mulches are bulky and difficult to apply over
large areas. Often they must be applied each growing
season in order to maintain weed control. With recent
laws not allowing yard wastes to be disposed in
landfills, composted natural materials for mulches are
readily available.
Water management
Our demands for water are growing rapidly, while
water tables across India are dropping rapidly.
Agriculture accounts for about 90 % of the total water
actually consumed for human purposes and is not being
used efficiently. At this rate India will be facing severe
water shortages by 2025. In many intensive agriculture
regions due to unscientific irrigation practices being
followed by the farmers for the past several decades
as made the agriculture land unfit for cultivation due
to salinity problems. Adoption of proper irrigation
methods including micro irrigation is a must in the
coming years.
The irrigation delivery method, number of
applications, and total irrigation amount varies depending
on specific crop requirements, soil type, the amount of
water stored in the soil profile, and water availability.
Shallow rooted crops and crops grown over the
summer months generally require more frequent
irrigation than deeper rooted crops or crops grown in
the winter months. Soils with high levels of organic
matter may be better able to retain moisture and
therefore decrease the amount of applied water.

Furrow or sprinkler irrigation is most often used by
organic vegetable growers in Europe and North
America.
Eco-friendly pest management practices
Nematodes are best controlled by using resistant
varieties, but few are available. The use of cover crops
will reduce nematode build up. The use of mulch and
keeping adequate soil moisture will reduce nematode
populations. Solarization in heating the soil is done using
large plastic covers reduces nematodes, soil-borne
insects, some weeds, and some pathogens.
Summer flooding, where soil type permits, will
help control nematodes and other pests. Insects
become very difficult to control by natural means as
the growing season lengthens and temperatures
increase. However, the following practices will help
reduce losses.
Plant resistant varieties when available.
Plant early and keep the plants in a healthy
growing condition by reducing stress by supplying
adequate water and nutrients in a weed free
environment.
Plow early so vegetation (green manure crop)
has time to rot before planting.
Use mulch to keep vegetables from soil contact
and rots.
Keep out weeds which harbor insects and
diseases.
Irrigate early in the morning to reduce time plants
are wet.
Remove and dispose of diseased plants.
Use Bacillus thuringiensis, a natural preparation,
on certain insects such as cabbage worms.
Use sprays containing naturally occurring
materials such as pyrethrins, rotenone, ryania,
insecticidal oils and soaps.
Turn under crop refuse as soon as harvesting is
completed.
Disease management through resistant varieties
is the organic growers best choice. Crop and field
rotation, plowing under vegetation early, removal of
infected plants, using hot water treated seeds or
certified clean seed, clean transplants, allowing only
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
clean equipment in your fields, and plowing under crop
refuse after harvesting will help reduce certain diseases.
Keeping field borders free of weeds and insects will
reduce certain disease and virus transmissions.
Techniques to minimize the incidence of disease in
organic vegetable crops include:
Planting high quality disease-resistant cultivars.
Graft onto resistant rootstocks to avoid problems
with buildup of nematodes and soil diseases.
Avoid planting at certain times of the year because
of severe disease incidence.
Improving field drainage and/or modifying
irrigation methods. Moist and wet fields provide
a favorable environment for disease. Sprinkler
irrigation should be avoided on some crops such
as onions and garlic.
Mechanical and hand cultivations to remove
weeds that may harbor disease.
The control of disease-transmitting insects (aphids
and beetles) by such means as insecticidal soap
sprays and diversified plantings for biological
control.
Sanitation of equipment when moving from field
to field.
Crop rotations.
Improved insect resistance in plants has been
achieved by introducing genes that produce the toxin
from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (a natural
insecticide). Some success is also occurring in attempts
to develop crops that are resistant to the broad-
spectrum, environmentally safe herbicide glyphosate.
Soil microorganisms that can control weeds and soil-
borne nematodes and insects are also being developed.
All of these new ways to control pests biologically offer
hope for reduced use of herbicides and insecticides.
Protected cultivation
Environmental concerns, whether aggravated
by climate change or not, appear likely to constrain
future expansion of vegetable production unless
appropriate measures to prevent further increase in
pollution levels and to mitigate pollution caused by other
sources. The possibility that crop yields will be
threatened, particularly if climate becomes warmer and
drier, cannot be discounted. Protected or cultivation
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
green house of vegetables is one of the means for
clean vegetable production in periurban areas.
Green house cultivation facilitates year round
production of high quality produce with minimum labour
and irrigation water and almost wards off pest problem.
In periurban regions where climate prevents or does
not favour year-round production of crops in the open
field, vegetable production can be taken up in protected
environment. Use of protected structure for cultivation
of crops as a commercial venture is a recent
phenomenon, especially in the tropics. Protective
structure is a facility to protect crop from biotic and
abiotic constraints. Structures for protected cultivation
include green houses, plastic/net houses and tunnels.
Artificial materials such as glass, fibre glass,
polycarbonate, plastic and nets are used for the cover
on the structures. Design of the structures depends
on the availability of materials, purpose for crop
protection and the economics. Growing plants under
a cover protects the crop from damaging rains and
winds, scorching radiation and temperature and
dangerous pests and diseases. Greenhouse systems
heavily relay on environmental manipulation to achieve
high productivity but the costs are high. In most of
the developing countries plastic houses large enough
to grow crop under partial controlled environmental
conditions are ideal for the production of a crop as
they are comparatively more economical and feasible.
India being a vast country with large number of big
cities and urban areas, the protected cultivation
technology can be utilized for production of high value
low volume vegetable crops during off season thereby
ensuring round the year production of vegetables and
also for production of quality seedlings. Protected
cultivation is also an invention attempting to achieve
higher water and nutrient efficiencies, increasing
photosynthetic efficiency and reducing transpiration
thereby contributing for environmental protection
through better use of applied growth inputs and bare
minimum use of plant protection chemicals.
There are many high value and high yielding
vegetable crops such as bell pepper, fresh market
tomatoes, slicing cucumbers and melons suitable for
growing under cover. Their productivity is mainly
governed not only by their genetic makeup but also
by the microclimate or environment (soil, solar
radiation, temperature, RH and air) around them
34
including most essential growth inputs like water and
mineral nutrients. As compared to open filed cultivation,
under cover there will be better control over many of
the components of micro climates and growth inputs.
The closed boundaries of protected structure permit
design of system for raising or lowering to some extent
the green house micro climate and moisture and nutrient
content of the growing medium in the vicinity of crop
root zone. This results in better crop growth high yield
and superior quality.
Conclusion
Urban and periurban vegetable farming is an
intensively managed, market-based system.
Environmental pollution due to rapid urbanization and
industrialization of sub urban areas, the possibility of
unavoidable warming and drying in the major periurban
agricultural regions of India calls for examining the
potential for coping with climate change and for
considering what public action might be appropriately
taken in anticipation of an uncertain climate change.
Simple adjustments in farming practices or crop
selection may transform potential yield losses into gains.
In some cases available responses will not compensate
for the effects of harsher climates and water scarcity.
Without adequate moisture, farming becomes
economically impractical since the major aim of
periurban vegetable production system is to grow
vegetables round the year.. Increases in the intensity
of conflicts between agriculture and the natural
environment may also limit the extent to which
adaptation is possible. This necessitates appropriate
farming practices which minimize pollution of the
surrounding environment.
A wide variety of new approaches have been
developed that will combine well to produce the more
productive, sustainable agriculture of the future. The
main thrust areas are i) Safe vegetable production
technologies ii) terrace vegetable gardening practices
iii) effective and safe methods of urban waste
utilization in vegetable cultivation. and iv) adoption of
appropriate water management systems including use
of water from urban liquid wastes. What this UPUV
farming will look like will vary widely from region to
region, and its attainment will require a high degree of
imagination and a willingness to test many possible
directions.

Disease Management in Urban and Peri-urban Horticulture
P. Chowdappa
Urban horticulture implies cultivating plants within
a city using innovative practices for use in the local
community. The primary objective of the urban
horticulture is to improve quality of life by enhancing
the plant productivity within available space in urban
ecosystems. Small patches of land in the apartments,
home space, and vertical space form part of urban
horticulture. Urban horticulture creates a source of
food, flowers in addition to recreation. Urban
horticulture can be practised in indoors or outdoors,
using soil, hydroponics or aeroponics. Fruits, vegetables,
ornamental and medicinal plants can be a part of urban
horticulture. Hydroponics is technique of soilless
cultivation. The advantages of urban horticulture
include avoiding crop loss from adverse weather
conditions, improving family nutrition, enhancing family
income, generating employment opportunities, creating
microenterprises, creating opportunities for elderly
persons in the family participation and to serve the
society and promoting interest in the children for
productive activities. Urban horticulture can reduce
the impact of climate change, and pressure on land
and labour force. The major fungal diseases that affect
horticultural crops in urban and peri-urban areas and
their management is presented in this paper.
Damping off
Damping- off affected seedlings collapse and die,
or they may not emerge at all even adequate soil
moisture is available. Damping-off is caused by several
soil-borne fungi like Rhizoctonia solani, Thielaviopsis
basicola and Pythium spp. The seedlings infected with
Pythium spp., exhibit blackened rots while
Rhizoctonia solani produces reddish brown to black
lesions. Pythium damping- off is most active in cooler
soils in the winter. Rhizoctonia solani damping-off is
most frequently occur in cool and moist soils.
Thielaviopsis basicola is most active at cooler
temperatures in wet to moist soils. Seed beds should
be irrigated carefully to avoid excessive soil moisture.
In infested soils, seed treatment is the best option. Seeds
can be treated with fenamidone-mancozeb for control
of Pythium and Phytophthora and pre-packed mixture
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
of carbendazim-mancozeb for control of Rhizoctonia.
Seed treatments with myclobutanil are effective for
control of Thielaviopsis basicola.
Alternaria leaf blights
Alternaria leaf blights are responsible for major
crop losses in tomato and potato (A.alternata and
A.solani), broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, radish (A.
brassica; A. brassicicola) and carrot (A. dauci; A.
radicina). Alternaria blight produces symptoms on
foliage, stem and fruit of tomatoes and foliage, stem
and tubers of potatoes. Symptoms usually appear on
the older leaves as small dark, irregular, dark brown to
black spots. The spots enlarge into circular lesions
consisting of concentric rings, often surrounded by a
yellow halo. As disease advances, entire leaves may
turn chlorotic and dehisce. Stem infections can occur
at any age resulting in small, dark, slightly sunken areas
that enlarge to form circular or elongated or lens
shaped spots with a light-colored center and have
typical concentric rings. When lesions develop at the
ground line on stems of tomato transplants or seedlings,
the plants may become girdled, a condition known as
collar rot. Such plants may die when set in the field
or, if stems are weakened, may break over early in the
season. Early blight causes dark, leathery sunken spots
with characteristic concentric rings on both green and
ripe tomato fruits, usually at the point of stem
attachment through calyx. Affected fruits may be
covered with velvety black masses of spores, unfit for
consumption, drop prematurely. Sunken, irregular
lesions often surrounded by a raised purple border
appear on the potato tubers. The tuber tissue is leathery
or corky with a brown discoloration under the lesion.
Severely diseased tubers can become shriveled after
storage. On cole crops (broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower,
radish), the symptom appears as small dark-brown to
black or sooty-black spots on the leaves. The infection
becomes evident as the spot becomes bigger because
it has a darker center than the rest of the lesion.
Infected cauliflower and broccoli heads have brown
to black spots on florets, seed stalks, and seed pods
that makes them unmarketable. The infected leaf and
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
leafstalk of carrots have dark-brown to black spots
with yellow edges. As the spots get bigger and merge,
the whole leaf becomes blackish causing the whole
top to wilt. The loss of leaves causes poor growth and
small carrots. Infected carrot seeds will fail to
germinate and infected seedlings die after emergence,
having the damping-off symptom.
Warm (28-30C) and humid (> 85%)
environmental conditions are conducive to infection.
Alternaria spp.are seed borne. Use clean and fungicide
treated seed/tuber from disease-free plants, use
disease-free transplants and potato tubers, removal of
infected plant material and other debris from the field
during the crop and after harvest and burn them to
reduce the disease incidence. In addition to above
cultural practices, fungicide applications should usually
begun 2-3 weeks following emergence at nursery stage
or soon after transplanting. The preventative
fungicides, Bordeaux mixture or copper hydroxide or
mancozeb or chlorothalonil can be used at seven to
ten day intervals, alternating one after other fungicide
for effective management.
Anthracnose
Anthracnose can occur on leaves and fruits of
beans (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), cucurbits
(C.lagenarium), onion (C. circinans), peppers (C.
capsici and C.gloeosporioides) and tomatoes (C.
coccodes), causing sunken brownish spots.
Anthracnose generally appears on leaves as irregular
yellow, brown, dark-brown, or black sunken spots.
Infected fruit has small, water soaked, sunken, circular
spots. As it ages, the center of an older spot becomes
blackish with concentric rings of fungal gelatinous
fruiting bodies with salmon to pink coloured spore
masses. Moist and warm weather and wet periods of
about 12 hours or more favours the disease
development. Hot water treatment at 52 1C for
10 min either combined with carbendazim or
prochloraz was found very effective in controlling
anthracnose of mango fruits. Timely application of
individual fungicides of mancozeb, thiophanate methyl,
carbendazim, zineb, captafol, copper hydroxide ,
propiconazole , difenoconazole and pre-packed mixture
of carbendazim and mancozeb can effectively reduce
anthracnose on vegetable crops.
36
Botrytis blight or gray mold
Botrytis blight or gray mold, caused by Botrytis
cinerea affects most vegetable and fruit crops. Among
the vegetable crops, beans, carrot, celery, eggplant,
onion, pepper, squash, and tomato are susceptible to
gray mould. Damping-off of vegetable seedlings by
Botrytis cause seedlings collapse. The symptoms
include a soft, tan-to-brown, water soaked rot of the
stem at or near the soil line. The typical gray mold
soon develops on the decayed tissue. Leaf symptoms
first appear as small, soft, yellowish or tan spots. Later
the spots become whitish gray or tan, and may enlarge
and coalesce and damage leaves severely. On stems,
small soft lesions appear, which turns into typical gray
mould. Gray mold also causes considerable damage
on stored carrot, beet, turnip, rutabaga, onion and garlic.
Botrytis blights are the most common diseases of
greenhouse-grown crops. In the field, prolonged
periods of overcast skies, fogs, heavy dews, or light
drizzly rains are favourable for disease development.
The disease is favored by cool moist conditions. High
relative humidity and cool temperatures are favourable
for disease development. The fungus overwinters as
sclerotia or as mycelium in plant debris and may be
seed borne as spores or mycelium in a few crops.
Sclerotia are the main structures for field survival. In
greenhouse operations, effective control can be
achieved by preventing predisposing conditions by
adequate spacing and pruning to promote ventilation,
by careful handling to prevent wounding, and by
removing inoculum sources through adequate plant
sanitation. Fungicides such as benomyl, thiophanate-
methyl, thiabendazole and carbendazim can be used
for disease management alternating fungicides.
Cercospora leaf spots
Cercospora leaf spots occur on avocado
(Pseudocercospora purpurea), banana
(Mycosphaerlla musicola, M. fijiensis and M.
eumusae), bean (Cercospora canescens), beet rot
(C. beticola), chillies and capsicum (C. capsici),
carrot (C. carotae), custard apple
(Pseudocercospora sp), okra (C. malayensis and
C.ablemoschi), pomegrante (C. punicae), sugar beet
(C. beticola) and spinach (C. beticola). On carrot,
the symptoms first appear along the margins of the
leaves, often causing the leaves to curl. Spots inside

the leaf edges are small, roughly circular, and tan or
gray to brown with a dead center. As the lesions
increase in number and size, the entire leaflet withers
and dies. The lesions also appear on the petioles and
stems, characterized by dark brown borders and tan
to gray centers. The lesions may merge and girdle the
stems, causing the leaves to die. Cercospora infection
of the sugar beet leaf produces circular spots with ash
gray centers and dark brown to reddish purple brown
borders and in advanced stages, the spots may coalesce
and kill entire leaves. In capsicum, small, round water-
soaked lesions develop on leaves, petioles and stems.
The lesions enlarge and have light brown centres with
dark brown-red margins. As lesions expand, an outer
water-soaked area and dark ring may form beyond
the original lesion margin, so that the lesion centre
becomes surrounded by concentric rings, In advanced
stages, lesions exhibit a frog-eye appearance. With
age, the lesion centres dry out and crack. A sooty to
dark olivaceous mould develops on the lower leaf
surface of okra plants. As the disease progresses,
leaves roll, wilt and fall from the plant. On
pomegranate, leaf symptoms include small, circular to
angular, dark, reddish-brown to black areas while on
fruits, symptoms appears as small, conspicuous, dark
brown spots, initially circular, becoming irregular. In
avocado and custard apple, both leaves and fruit
develop dark brown lesions. On banana, sigatoka
disease appears on the upper leaf surface as pale
yellow streaks, which enlarge to form necrotic lesions
with yellow haloes and light grey centres. Lesions can
coalesce and destroy large areas of leaf tissue which
results in reduced yields and premature ripening of fruit.
The fungi survive on un decomposed plant residues in
the soil, on weed hosts and on seeds. Cercospora leaf
spots are favoured by warm, wet weather. Severe
outbreaks generally require a period of showery
weather. Spores spread in wind, rain, irrigation or via
mechanical means. Use of disease free seed from
disease-free areas, treating the seed with hot water at
52C for 30 minutes, disease free transplants, removal
of affected plants, .good air circulation and to avoid
extended periods of leaf wetness, destruction of
infected plant material by burning or deep-plowing, crop
rotation using a two-year rotation period and application
of fungicides can check the disease. Application of
thiophante methyl or Bordeaux mixture along with
linseed oil or captan can manage the sigatoka disease
37
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
of banana. Carbendazim or pre-packed mixture of
carbendazim and mancozeb can be used for
management of Cercospora leaf diseases on vegetable
crops.
Downy mildews
Vegetable crops including, cole crops broccoli,
cauliflower, radish and lettuce (Peronospora
parasitica), spinach (Peronospora farinose) and
onions (Peronospora destructor) and fruit crops like
grapes (Plasmopara viticola) can be affected by a
downy mildews. Downy mildew usually infects leaves
including cotyledons of susceptible crops but as the
leaves become older they also become tend to become
less susceptible. If infection occurs during the plant's
seedling stage, it may become systemic which
frequently results in severe stunting and premature plant
death. Often radish and turnip become systemically
infected with downy mildew resulting in internal brown
discolouration as well as russeting and cracking of the
roots. Infections begin as irregular yellow patches on
leaves; these chlorotic lesions later turn tan to light
brown. If conditions are favorable, white fluffy growth
of the fungus develops on the undersides of leaves. If
disease development is extensive, leaves may take on
a blighted effect as a result of numerous infection sites.
Systemic infections can cause internal black streaks
and patches to form in stems and floret branches of
broccoli and cauliflower. Early symptoms on transplants
may resemble bacterial leaf spot symptoms. Severely
diseased seedlings may be stunted or die. On the
grapes, the disease attacks the leaves, flowers, cluster
and young fruits. Initial symptom appear as light yellow
spots on the upper surface of young mature leaves
with corresponding white spots on the lower side. Crop
rotation for 3 years will reduce the over wintering
oospore populations in soil of most downy mildew
pathogens. Obtaining seed from regions with dry
conditions where the pathogen is unlikely to survive
will reduce the probability of introducing the disease
into a field. Controlling alternative weed hosts in and
around the field is also important to eliminate
overwintering inoculum. Using registered seed
treatments for damping-off control will also help control
seed borne and early downy mildew infection. Downy
mildew pathogens requires cool, moist weather for
infection and disease development to take place. The
pathogen survives between crops on weed hosts or as
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
resilient oospores in crop residue. Spores are airborne.
This disease is most serious on young seedlings; if
cotyledons and the first true leaves are severely
infected, the young plant may die. Broad-spectrum
contact protectant fungicides (chlorothalonil, mancozeb
and copper hydroxide) provide some downy mildew
control. Among these, chlorothalonil is better than
mancozeb and copper hydroxide. Cymoxanil has good
curative activity and it can be used first after downy
mildew is detected. Fungicides with metalaxyl or
mefenoxam are highly effective but more at-risk for
resistance. Dimethomorph, tank-mixed with protectant
fungicide, metiram or mancozeb on a 5-10 day schedule
for a maximum of 5 times with no more than 2
sequential applications has been highly effective.
Recently introduced fungicides such as azoxystrobin,
pyroclostrobin, kresoxim-methyl and pre-packed
mixtures of Fenamidone-mancozeb and iprovalicarb-
propineb can be used for effective management.
Powdery mildews
Powdery mildews are one of the most widespread
and easily recognized plant diseases and are common
on various vegetable crops such as okra, squash,
cucumbers, muskmelons, honeydews, pumpkins, and
watermelons (Podosphaera xanthii=Sphaerotheca
fulginea or, occasionally, Erysiphe cichoracearum),
eggplant, peppers, tomatoes (Leveillula taurica),
carrots, parsley, parsnips (Erysiphe heraclei), beets
(Erysiphe polygoni), broccoli, brussels sprout,
cauliflower, radicchio, radish, turnip (Erysiphe
cruciferarum), peas (Erysiphe pisi), grapes
(Uncinula necator) and mango (Oidium
mangiferae).Powdery mildew first appears as white,
powdery spots on surface of leaves, on shoots and
some times on flowers and fruits. The fungus is usually
first recorded as small, round, whitish or yellow spots.
The spots enlarge and coalesce rapidly and form a
white mass resembling talcum powder becomes evident
on the upper surface of older leaves or other plant
parts. An exception is one of the powdery mildews
that affects artichokes, onions, peppers, and tomatoes:
it produces yellow patches on leaves but little powdery
growth. Young leaves are almost immune. A large part
of the talc-like powder on the leaf surface is composed
of spores. These spores are easily blown by winds to
nearby susceptible plants. The powdery mildew
infected leaves may turn yellow, then become dry
38
and brown, die and fall off. Extensive premature
defoliation of the older leaves can ensue if the disease
is not controlled. Yield reduction from defoliation is
proportional to the severity and length of time plants
are infected. Severe economic losses can occur in
beans when pods are infected. The pods develop
purplish spots and become distorted. Characteristic
white powdery coating in patches appear on both sides
of the leaves, young shoots and immature berries of
grapes. On mango, powdery growth appears
inflorescence, leaves, stalk of inflorescence and young
fruits.
Disease is favored by warm temperatures,
moderate to high humidity, absence of overhead
watering, low light intensity and poor air flow. It is not
known for certain how the fungus survives between
crop seasons. Special resting spores are produced,
allowing overwinter survival of the species. The fungus
is thought to survive on wild and other weeds year
round. Plant in sunny areas as much as possible, provide
good air circulation, and avoid applying excess fertilizer.
Apply protectant fungicides to highly susceptible plants
before the disease appears. sulfur compounds give
good control but should be used carefully to avoid foliar
burn; potassium bicarbonate is an effective contact
treatment but both are only effective when applied
before disease symptoms appear. Plant-based oils such
as neem oil or jojoba oil are also effective. Apply
fungicides at seven to 14-day intervals to provide
continuous protection throughout the growing season.
Various oils such as mineral oil, neem oil, rapeseed oil
and olive oil have also found effective to reduce
powdery mildew incidence on squash plants. Foliar
application of sodium bicarbonate, phosphate and
potassium salts reduces the incidence of powdery
mildew. Other multi-site activity contact fungicides
include chlorothalonil and dinocap reduce the powdery
mildew. Qo inhibitors (azoxystrobin and kresoxim-
methyl),triazole (bitertanol, myclobutanil, penconazole
propiconazole and triadimefon), morpholine
(fenpropimorph and tridemorph) are highly effective
and curative.
Phytophthora diseases
Phytophthora diseases can affect many
vegetable crops such as brinjal (P.parasitica), pepper
P.capsici), potato (P.infestans), tomato (P.infestans)

and cucurbit crops such as melon, squash, pumpkin
and cucumber (P.capsici) and beans (P.capsici) and
fruit crops like guava (Phytophthora parasitica).
The pathogens can cause damping off, foot rot, root
rot, leaf blight, petiole and stem infection and fruit rot.
On peppers, Phytophthora infection appear initially on
leaves as small, circular to irregular dark green, water-
soaked spots. As the spots enlarge, affected areas
appear sun scalded, dried and bleached. Root and
stem infection can occur at or near the soil line as a
dark green, water-soaked, mushy area that eventually
turns brown and girdles the stem causing plant wilt
and death. Branch infection may extend to petioles,
leaves, blossoms or fruit that can become covered by
a white moldy growth during high moisture periods.
Infected fruits dry, remain attached to the plant and
become mummified. Infected seed turn dark and
shrivel.
Late blight affects all the plant parts especially
leaves, stems and tubers/fruits of potato and tomato.
Generally, late blight appears on lower most leaves of
the plant which goes unnoticed particularly if the disease
appears after development. On leaves, small pale
green water soaked spots appear mostly on the margin
and tips. In moist weather, spots may appear anywhere
on the leaves, enlarge rapidly and turn necrotic and
black killing the entire leaf instantly. On the
corresponding lower side, whitish cottony growth
containing millions of sporangia forms around the dead
area in a ring pattern. In dry weather, these lesions
turn necrotic brown. Light brown lesions develop which
elongates and encircles the stem and petioles breaking
them and killing the plant/leaves instantly. Stem infection
is more severe under optimal temperature and high
relative humidity conditions. On surface of potato
tubers, reddish brown, shallow to deep dry rot lesions
develop. Phytophthora infection of tomato fruits is called
buckeye rot. A green to brown water-soaked spot
develops near the blossom end of the fruit, especially
if it is in contact with moist soil. When the rot develops
slowly, definite zonations or dark concentric rings form
in the decayed area of the fruit, which is distinct from
dark brown leathery fruit rot caused by late blight. A
soft rot may develop from secondary bacterial invaders.
Phytophthora capsici causes pre- and post-
emergence damping-off, leaf blight, crown and fruit
rot in cucurbits. In seedlings, a watery rot develops
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
on the hypocotyl at or near the soil line, resulting in
plant death. Mature plants show symptoms of crown
rot. Water-soaked lesions develop on vines. The lesions
are dark olive and then become dark brown in a few
days. Lesions girdle the stem, resulting in rapid collapse
and death of foliage above the lesion. Dark brown,
water-soaked lesions develop on petioles, resulting in
rapid collapse of the petiole and leaf death. Fruit rot
generally starts on the site of the fruit that is in contact
with the ground. Fruit rot also can develop after
harvest, during transit or in storage. Fruit rot typically
begins as a water-soaked lesion. Lesions expand, and
become covered with white mold. Fruit infection
progresses rapidly, resulting in complete collapse of
the fruit. P. capsici produces large water soaked lesions
on the leaves of beans, and as the disease progresses
the infected leaves fall off the plant. Lesions on the
stems are brown with white powdery areas. White
lesions are produced on the pods, and infected areas
shrivel and desiccate. Phytophthora infection on guava
starts as circular brownish spots at styler end as well
as on the fruits. Whitish cottony growth develops very
fast as the fruits ripens and is able to cover almost the
entire surface with in a period of about 3-4 days during
humid weather.
Phytophthora is favored by wet and warm
temperatures for P.capsici and wet and cool
temperatures for P.infestans for disease development.
Phytophthora thrives in soil and spreads readily via
water. It has also been found in irrigation ponds and
surface water sources. The disease can also spread
by wind, and splashed onto plant parts during a storm
or irrigation. The fungus also can be transported on or
in seed, contaminating soil particles that adhere to roots
of transplants. Crop rotation of three or more years
with small grain crops, incorporation of crop debris
well into the soil by deep plowing, alleviate soil
compaction and poor drainage by chiseling, planting
in raised plant beds with plastic mulch, use of clean
cultivation equipment and other tools thoroughly before
moving to other fields. avoiding surface irrigation,
scouting the field regularly, use of high quality, disease-
free seed and transplants, treating the seeds with
fungicides to protect seed and seedlings and application
of fungicides at every seven to 14 days to protect
foliage, stems, branches and fruits from infection are
the recommended strategies for management of
Phytophthora diseases. Fungicides such as comprising
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Bordeaux mixture, combination of dimethomorph-
mancozeb/metiram, fenamidone-mancozeb, cymoxanil-
famoxadone, iprovalicarb-propineb, Fostyl-Al-propineb,
metiram - pyraclostrobin and kresoxim-methyl can be
highly effective for management of Phytophthora
diseases. Under heavy disease situations, spray at 5-7
days intervals is essential. A minimum of 4- 5 sprays
are required for effective management of
Phytophthora diseases alternating one fungicide after
another. Dont use same fungicide repeatedly.
Rusts:
Rust is a common disease that affects many vegetable
crops such as asparagus (Puccinia asparagi), bean
(Uromyces appendiculatus), beet root (Uromyces
betae), broad-bean (Uromyces fabae), leek
(Puccinia porri), lettuce (Puccinia opizii), pea
(Uromyces pisi-sativi) and grapes (Phakopsora
vitis). Rust symptoms initially appear as small yellow
or white slightly raised spots on the upper surface,
corresponding to small white pustules on the lower
surface. These spots enlarge and form reddish-brown
or rust-colored pustules and contain urediniospores.
Spores are readily released from the pustule and give
a rusty appearance to anything they contact. Rust can
be distinguished from other leaf spots in that these
spores rub off onto your fingers, while blights/leaf spots
do not. Pustules may be surrounded by a yellow
border. Severe infection may cause leaves to curl
upwards, dry up, turn brown and drop prematurely. A
severely damaged field often looks like it has been
scorched. Pod set, pod fill and seed size can be reduced
if early infection is severe. Green pods, and occasionally
stems and branches, also may become infected and
develop typical rust pustules. However, bean rust is
not seed-borne. On grapes, numerous orange coloured
pustules appear on the lower surface of the leaves.
Later, these pustules cover the entire leaf surface
leading to severe defoliation.
Rust development is favored by cool to moderate
temperatures with moist conditions that result in
prolonged periods of free water on the leaf surface
for more than 10 hours. Weather conditions during late
July and August usually are the most favorable because
of cooler nights. Repeating disease cycles may occur
at 10- to 14-day intervals under favorable conditions.
The two potential sources of rust inoculum (spores)
40
that initiate an epidemic are locally overwintered
teliospores and air-borne urediniospores blown in from
distant. Rust spores, especially teliospores, overwinter
in plant debris. Cultural practices such as crop rotation
for two to three years, soil incorporation of plant debris
and fungicide application. Protectant fungicides include
Bordeaux mixture, chlorothalonil and maneb
formulations; and systemic fungicides include
azoxystrobin, bitertanol, pyraclostrobin, tebuconazole,
propiconazole and triadimefon are effective in managing
rust diseases.
Sclerotium diseases :
Sclerotium rolfsii is a soil-borne fungus causing
diseases on a wide range of vegetable, ornamental and
field crops. Among the vegetable crops, the disease is
prevalent in bean, beetroot, capsicum, carrot, cucurbits,
sweet potato, potato and tomato. It causes rots of lower
stems, roots, crown and fruits. The symptoms normally
appears on the plant parts near the soil as a brown to
black rot . the lesions on the stem girdles and the plant
wilts and dies. A coarse, white, cottony fungal growth,
containing white, spherical sclerotia covers the
affected area. Later, the sclerotia turns into light brown,
resembling cabbage seed. It is most active during
warm, wet weather in tropical and subtropical regions.
The fungus survives in the soil as sclerotia in the soil
or in host plant debris for many years. Proper
decomposition of plant residues before planting, deep
ploughing to bury host, crop rotation with maize and
grain crops and drenching transplants with azoxystrobin
and triadimefon are effective in reducing the disease
intensity.
Wilts :
Fusarium wilt is the most common form of the fungal
disease, and is more prevalent in warm climates.
Verticillium wilt is more common in cooler regions.
Both fusarium wilt and Verticillium wilt can be spread
by cucumber beetles and squash vine borers. Fusarium
wilt in horticultural crops are caused by different types
of Fusarium. They are F. oxysporum f. sp.
lycopersici (tomato), F. oxysporum f. sp.
melongenae (eggplant) and F. oxysporum var.
vasinfectum (pepper), complex of four different
Fusarium spp (potato), Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
melonis (musk melon), Fusarium solani f.sp.

cucurbitae (squash and pumpkin), Fusarium
oxysporum fsp. niveum (watermelon) and Fusarium
oxysporum f.sp. cubense (banana). Fusarium wilt
may affect any stage of plant development. On melon,
a hypocotyl rot and damping-off occurs on young
seedlings and marginal yellowing to a general yellowing
of the older leaves, and wilting of one or more runners
in older seedlings are the symptoms of Fusarium wilt.
A linear, necrotic lesion may develop on stems near
the crown of the plant on the runners. One runner on
a plant may wilt and collapse, with the rest of the
runners remaining healthy. A gummy, red exudate may
ooze from these lesions, similar to that caused by
gummy stem blight and insect injury. Presence of
vascular discoloration in split stem is diagnostic
symptom. On pumpkin and squash, wilting of the leaves
is the first symptom and the entire plant may wilt and
die. A very distinct necrotic rot of the stem 2-4 cm
above the soil level and upper portion of the taproot
can be seen when the soil around the base of the stem
is removed. Plants showing symptoms on the stem near
the ground surface can show a white to pink color
mycelia. One-sided wilt is common symptom on water
melon plants three to four weeks after they have been
transplanted. Vascular discolouration is diagnostic
symptom. Fusarium wilt symptoms appear in tomato
and potato as slight vein clearing on outer leaflets and
drooping of leaf petioles. Later, the lower leaves wilt,
turn yellow and die and the entire plant may be killed,
often before the plant reaches maturity. In many cases
a single shoot wilts before the rest of the plant shows
symptoms or one side of the plant is affected first. If
the main stem is cut, dark, chocolate-brown streaks
may be seen running lengthwise through the stem. This
discoloration often extends upward for some distance
and is especially evident at the point where the petiole
joins the stem. Potato tubers may show browning of
the vascular ring as well as browning at the stem end
and decay where stolons are attached. In pepper, lower
leaves do not begin to wilt until roots and the base of
the stem have already started to decay. Wilting of the
entire plant soon follows. Dark brown, sunken, and
eventually girdling cankers may be seen at the base of
the pepper plant. In eggplant, wilting progresses from
lower to upper leaves, followed by collapse of the plant.
Fusarium also cause fruit rot in cucurbits. On banana,
older leaves become yellow progressing to younger
leaves. Brown lines appear inside the pseudostem in
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
vertical section which appear as rings in cross-section.
Smaller brown streaks or flecks appear in the corm, at
ground level. Splits may also appear in the pseudostem.
Fusarium survives in the soil as chlamydospores. It is
seed borne, both externally and internally. Low soil
moisture, high nitrogen, light, sandy, slightly acidic soils
(pH 5-5.5) favor disease development.
Verticillium wilt symptoms on tomato, potato, and
eggplant are similar to those of Fusarium wilt. The
bottom leaves become pale, then tips and edges die
and leaves finally die and drop off. V-shaped lesions
at leaf tips are typical of Verticillium. A light tan
discoloration in the stem similar to that caused by
Fusarium wilt may be found but is usually confined to
lower plant parts. The discoloration is typically lighter
in color than with Fusarium wilt. Symptoms on one
side of the plant only are sometimes seen. Verticillium
wilt is caused by Verticillium albo-atrum and V. dahliae.
These fungi attack a wide range of plant species,
including cultivated crops and weeds. They are soil
borne in field and greenhouse soils where they can
persist for many years. Crop rotation of 4 to 6 years
with cereals and grasses is necessary to reduce
populations because Fusarium and Verticillium fungi
persist several years in soil, maintenance of rotational
crops weed free, destruction of infected plant material
after harvest, maintenance of plant vigour with
appropriate fertilization and irrigation. Fungicides such
as carbendazim, benomyl, thiabendazole and
carbendazim-mancozeb combinations are generally
used as dip treatments for propagation material and
soil drenching for management in the field.
Efficacy of copper fungicides
Copper fungicides can be highly effective for
many fungal disease if applied before infection and
with complete coverage of all plant foliar surfaces.
The copper ion is absorbed by the germinating spore,
and the copper denatures spore proteins. Spore
exudates react with insoluble copper compounds and
form highly toxic copper complexes. Once infection
has occurred, copper has no effect on disease progress
in the plant. The size of the initial spray deposit from a
single application of Bordeaux mixture is greater than
that of a copper oxychloride suspension of equal copper
content.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
New approaches for plant disease
management in urban and peri-urban
horticultural systems
a) Biological fungicides: The biological fungicides
are broad spectrum and mechanisms include:
competition for food sources and infection sites,
stimulation of plant defenses, production of antibiotics,
and attack and consumption of fungal resting structures.
b) Hypovirulence: The reduction of the
aggressiveness caused by infection of the fungus by a
virus or virus like agent is termed hypovirulence.
c) Systemic acquired resistance: The induction of
plant defenses by artificial inoculation with microbes
or by treatment with chemicals is termed systemic
acquired resistance (SAR). These products, either
microbes or chemicals, do not have any toxicity to
fungal pathogens, rather they act on the plant to
produce toxic metabolites.
Fungicide resistance management
Multi-site toxicant fungicides such as
chlorothalonil, coppers and mancozeb act on many life
processes in the fungal cell, and it was very unlikely
that cells could exist with resistance to the many forms
of toxicity. However, with the advent of fungicides that
act primarily on one specific cellular function (single-
site activity), resistance was soon seen. This is possible
because within a population there may be individuals
that have the ability to tolerate the fungicide, because
of alternative metabolic pathways, or the ability to
metabolize the fungicide, or an altered receptor site to
which the fungicide cannot attach. Several strategies
exist to cope with the risk of fungicide resistance. One
42
strategy is to rotate the chemicals. Another strategy is
to use a mixture of two fungicides, one component of
the mixture is a single-site and the other is a multi-
site fungicide.
Pesticide residues
The application of pesticides in urban and
periurban horticulture is more critical due to the
proximity of producer and consumer. Thus,
development of bio-intensive integrated disease
management can help in reducing pesticide residues
in horticultural produce derived from urban and
periurban horticultural systems.
Biological contaminants
In urban and peri-urban areas, tap water and
wastewater are used for irrigating crops and for
cleaning vegetables.The common micro-organisms
such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp.,Salmonella
arizonae, helminths and protozoans have been found
to be associated with vegetable crops.
Heavy metals residues
The location of vegetable production close to the
roads and polluting industry, should be looked at
carefully due to contamination of heavy metals like
arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium and antimony. The
presence of theses contaminants may reduce the plant
growth and yield and also affect human health.
Techniques like bioremediation of the soil by plants,
and application of mycorrhizae that restrict heavy metal
uptake are to be used to resolve issues of heavy metals
urban horticulture.

Pest Management in Fruit Crops in Urban and Peri Urban Situations
Abraham Verghese, Rakshitha Mouly, T.N. Shivananda and M R Hegde
India is the second largest producer of fruits (first
China), contributing 10.9% of the total world
production. The present area under fruit crops is
estimated to be about 5.510 million hectares with an
estimated production of 58.740 million tonnes. India is
the largest producer of mango, banana and papaya
contributing 40.1% of the worlds mangoes, 24.5% of
bananas, and 28.8% of world papaya. In grapes, India
has recorded the highest productivity per unit area (25.4
tonnes/ha) in the world. The per capita consumption
of fruits has increased from 40 to 85 g/day within the
last one decade (Reddy, 2010). However, there are
several constraints for higher productivity and one of
them is losses incurred by pests and diseases. One of
the trends seen in India and world over is the small to
medium scale cultivation of fruit crops in peri urban
moffusils. These can be a few trees in kitchen garden
to a few acres beyond urban limits.
Although there are various remedies for pest
control, use of synthetic pesticides is still popular.
However, excess use of pesticides has led to problems
like environmental pollution, ground water
contamination, secondary pest outbreak, phytotoxicity
, pesticides residue in fruits etc. Therefore, pesticide
usage in urban scenario, proximal to human activities,
is not desirable.There is a need to switch over to an
organic or eco-friendly pest management in peri- urban
fruit production. There is an urgent need to give
emphasis on non-chemical methods of control, such
as regulatory, physical, cultural and biological methods.
Since fruits are consumed afresh it should be residue
free. Among the eco-friendly pest management
methods, resistant varieties, cultural practices, plant
derivates, semi chemicals and biocontrol agents are
important and these methods can be integrated
successfully. Efficient management should include
integration of all the suitable methods to keep the pest
population in check. It consists of regulatory, physical,
cultural, chemical, biological and host resistance which
can be effectively employed to keep the pest population
in minimum level.
43
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
Regulatory methods
Plant quarantine is the first line of defense in plant
protection. The phytosanitary measures are required
to be in place to prevent the entry of exotic pests into
the country and regions Quarantine is an important
eco-friendly strategy for management of pests. These
are traditionally used to restrict the movement of
infested/infected plant materials and contaminated soil
into a state or country. A few examples for pests of
quarantine significance in India are coffee berry borer
Hypothenemus hampei introduced from Northeast
Africa, spiralling whitefly Alueurodicus disperses,
introduced from Caribbean region & Central America,
papaya mealy bug Paracoccus marginatus introduces
from Sri Lanka, etc. Urbanines who regularly travel
abroad, are fond of bringing in plant materials (seeds/
cuttings/bouquets) to India. This has to be totally avoided
quarantine officials in ports of entry need to be vigilant
and stricter.
Mechanical & physical methods
It includes some physical component of
environment such as temperature, humidity, or light to
destroy pests. Tillage, flaming, flooding, soil solarization
and plastic mulches contribute to kill the pests.
Heat treatment is one of the oldest methods of
pest control. Pests can be killed by heat,
desiccation, irradiation, high osmotic pressure, etc.
Hot water treatment- post harvest method of
mango fruits, within 24hr after harvest at 48Co
maintained by thermostat for 60 -90 min gave
100% control of fruit fly Bactocera dorsalis
infestation in cv Totapuri, Alphonso and
Banganapalli. This can also be practiced in home-
steads using a bucket of water and thermometer
with boiling water on a stove to regulate
temperature.
Solarization- it consists of covering moist soil with
a plastic film during intense sunshine and heat
capturing radiant energy, this leads to physical,
chemical and biological changes in soil, lethal to
various fungi, bacteria weed seeds etc.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Burning the crop residues on the soil surface, one
of the traditional methods to reduce weeds, insects
and pathogens.
Cold treatment- is effective for controlling tropical
fruit flies and certain other pests.
Light/Sticky traps.
Wrapping/ bagging of individual fruits etc, this
should not be difficult in small scale.
Cultural methods
The most commonly used cultural practices to
reduce the pest population includes crop rotation, use
of resistant varieties, flooding (if water is available)
pruning, trap cropping, inter cropping with antagonistic
plants, use of organic amendments to the soil etc.
Botanicals
Naturally occurring pesticides that are derived
from plants or plant parts are referred to as
Botanicals. Many plants and plant products are
known to cause reduction in the pest population below
the economic threshold level. In few cases plants have
been found to be antagonistic towards pests and some
have been shown to produce toxic materials inhibitory
to pests. Botanical pesticides have been in use in Indian
agriculture for centuries to minimize losses caused by
pests and diseases. It includes Rotenone, Pyrethrin,
Azadirachtin (neem), Neem seed kernel, Soluble neem
formulations, Garlic, Horticultural oils etc (Parmar and
Dev Kumar, 1993).Of these neem has been outstanding
The Indian Institute of Horticultural Research have
developed Neem Soap, Neem Repel, Neem Badam
25, Neem Seal, etc to combat pests. Neem/Pongamia
soaps are excellent repellents and are commercially
available, while others are in the pipeline.
5. Biological control
Biocontrol refers to the use of predators,
parasitoids, pathogens, competitors to control the pest
population. In this, natural enemies are conserved,
released, managed, or manipulated by humans.
Predators
They consume several-to-many prey in the course
of their development. They are free living and they
are usually as big as or bigger than their prey. The
important predators used in biological control are green
44
lacewing, Chrysoperla spp. against several soft bodied
insects such as aphids, leaf hoppers etc. Ladybird
beetle against aphids and mealy bugs, predatory
coccinellids against scales and mealy bugs. Some
examples are discussed below:
The Australian lady bird beetle, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri was introduced from Australia for the
control of green scale, Coccus viridi on citrus. It is
used against various spp of mealy bug of different
crops like citrus, grape, guava and scales too. A grub
could prey on 881.3 eggs or 259 nymphs of grape mealy
bug.
Among the predators, Mallada boninensis and
Menochilus sexmaculatus as major predators were
found associated with the citrus leaf miner,
Phyllocnists citrella (Shivankar et al., 2008). Release
of Mallada boninnenesis at 20-50/plant depending
upon the crop canopy, age and pest density is
recommended for reducing the leaf miner infestation
(Singh, 1995)
Predators such as chrysopids, coccinellids,
syrphids and spiders feed on citrus aphids, Toxoptera
spp. and reduce their incidence. Cheilomenes
sexmaculatus is observed in considerable numbers in
clearing the aphid colonies (Singh, 1993). Periodic
release of the lady bird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis can
effectively control citrus scale, Icerya purchasi.
The predator, C. montrouzieri is found
associated with the guava green shield scale,
Chloropulvinaria psidi (Verghese and Ramachander,
1998).
Orius maxidentex attacks whiteflies on chilli and
thrips on cotton.
Other coccinellids include Chilocorus nigrita,
Pharoscymnus horni, Scymnus coccivora,
Cocinella septempunctata, Cheilomenes
sexmaculata- predates on several spp of aphids like
Lipaphis erysimi, Brevicorne brassicae, Aphid
craccivora, Acyrthosiphon pisum and Myzus
persicae, C. sexmaculata can consume 24 adults and
176 nymphs of aphids/day. Chrysoperla carnea and
Mallada boninensis are widely used for the
management of lepidopterous pests, whiteflies and
aphids on fruit crops. Ants may have a negative impact
on predators (Verghese and Tandon, 1987).

Parasitoids
Parasitoids live in or on the body of their host
insect during least part of their life cycle. Parasitoid is
the term used to describe an insect that parasitizes
and kills its insect host. Usually the larval stage of the
parasitoid is the parasitic life stage. Most of the
parasitoids are from orders Hymenoptera and Diptera,
a few are from coleopteran. It includes
Trichogrammatids, Braconids, Ichneumonids,
Encyrtids and Aphelinids, Eulopida and Scelionids
etc.
Some of the most effectively used parasitoids are:
Trichogramma egg parasite against Helicoverpa
armigera on grapes, Papilio demoleus on citrus
and Deudorix isocrates on pomegranate etc
Leptomastix dactylopii against mealy bug,
Planococcus citri on several fruit crops.
Bracon hebetor against insect pests of coconut.
The main problem with the above natural agents
is their poor availability to farmers. Commercialization
with public funding is the answer to solve this.
Pathogens
Insect, like other animals and plants, are infected
by bacteria, fungi, protozoans and viruses that cause
disease. These diseases may reduce the rate of feeding
and growth of insect pests, slow or prevent their
reproduction, or kill them. Entomopathogenic fungi such
as Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae,
Nomurea rileyi, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus and
Verticillium lecanii are used against sucking pests like
thrips, aphids and mealy bugs. In bacteria most
commonly used bio-pesticide is Bacillus thuringiensis,
others include Bacillus sphaericus. We outline some
examples of eco-friendly IPM in selected crops/pests.
Many strains of bioagents have been commercialized
at IIHR which also act as plant growth promoters.
Integrated pest management in important
crops
Mango :Mango (Mangifera indica L.) one of the
most important tropical fruits in the world and currently
ranks 5th in total world production among fruit crops is
the major horticultural crop known as king of fruits.
India is the largest producer of mango in the world
45
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
with an annual production of 12750,000 tonnes from
an area of 2309,000 ha.
1. Fruit fly (Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel);
Bactrocera spp)
Fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) are one of the
most economically important groups of insect pests
world wide.
Damage symptom: The female punctures outer wall
of mature fruits with the help of its pointed ovipositor
and insert eggs in small clusters inside mesocarp of
mature fruits. On hatching, the maggots feed on fruit
pulp and the infested fruits start rotting due to further
secondary infection.
Eco-friendly management of fruit fly
Ploughing of orchard during November-
December to expose pupae to solar radiation
Prior to harvest (30-40 days) collect and dispose
infested and fallen fruits to
prevent further, multiplication and carry over of
population.
IIHR-Pheromone trap erected and tied tightly 3-
5 feet above ground level. (with toxicant or sticky
bands)
Bait application on trunk (Jaggery 10%).
Hot water treatment of fruit at 46 10o C for 60-
90 min (post-harvest), depending on size and
variety.
Area-wide IPM desirable (Verghese et al 2010).
Phenolics are known to impart resistance to
female fruit flies (Verghese et al., 2011).
Biological Agents
Eighteen species of parasitoids belonging to the
genus Opius are known to attack the fruit flies but
due to low parasitism caused by them are unable to
control the pest (Singh, 1993)
2. Hopper (Idioscopus clypealis, I.
nitidulus and Amritodus atkinsoni)
Damage symptoms: The wedge shaped nymphs and
adult insects puncture and suck sap of tender parts,
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
reducing vigour of plants and particularly destroying
the inflorescence and causing fruit drop. Heavy
puncturing and continuous draining of sap causes
curling and drying of infested tissue. They also damage
the crop by excreting honeydew resulting in sooty mold
formation which reduces the photosynthetic rate and
also facilitates for fungal infection.
Eco-friendly management of mango hoppers
Avoid dense planting; prune overcrowded
overlapping branches after rainy season.
Orchards should be kept clean by regular
ploughing and removal of weeds.
Conservation of bio control agents like predator,
Mallada boninensis, Chrysopalacciperda, egg
parasite, Polynema spp. Gonatocerus sp.
Tetrastichus sp. Cocccinella septempunctata
and fungus, Verticillium lecanii.
The reduviid predator is also found effective
against mango hoppers
Spraying of Azadirachtin 3000 ppm@2m/l at initial
stage of hopper population or neem soap 10g/lt
or suspension of Beauveria bassiana (106-9 spore
count) @ 5ml/lt at 10 days interval. Avoid all
sprays at full bloom to promote pollinators.
Yellow traps help in predicting population
(Verghese and Thangam, 2012)
3. Mealy bug (Rastrococcus iceroides,
Planococcus citri, Ferrisia virgata,
Drosicha mangiferae)
Symptoms: The adult bugs are covered with whitish
powder and colonize between bark of tree trunk, young
shoots and panicles, the nymphs ascent the trees and
settle on inflorescence causing flower drop, affecting
fruit set. They also excrete honey dew, a sticky
substance, which facilitates development of sooty mold.
Eco-friendly management of mealy bug
Raking of soil around tree trunk to expose the
eggs to natural enemies and sun, removal of
weeds.
Alkathene sheet (30 cm wide, 400 gauge) should
be put around the tree trunk at 0.5 -1.0 m above
46
the ground level and fastened by twine with a
grease barrier at the lower end in case of D.
mangiferae only. (Verghese, 1986).
Releasing of C. montrouzieri at 50 beetles/ tree
found effective in suppressing R. iceroides
population (Mani et al., 1995). Menochilus
sexmaculatus, Chrysopa scelestesare and
Beauveria bassiana also found effective.
The parasitoid, Anagyrus pseudcocci, and the
predator Cacoxenus perpicax, are known to
attack R. iceroides (Uma Narasimhan and
Chackko, 1988).
Neem Badam, a new product, has been developed
by Indian Institute of Horticultural Research to repel
and manage the mealy bugs and scales. The product
is 100% organic which can prevent establishment of
these insects as a repellent. The product is farmer-
friendly and recommended at 3 ml to 5 ml/L without
any phytotoxic effects.
4. Stem borer, Batocera rufomaculata
Symptoms: The damage is caused by grubs either to
roots or stems or both. The grubs after hatching from
eggs first feed on bark and make irregular cavities. It
makes tunnels which, results in drying of branches.
Organic management of stem borer
Keep orchard and bark of stem clean and healthy.
Cut and destroy affected branches with grubs
and pupae.
Clean hole and insert cotton wool soaked in
kerosene or petrol in each hole and plug them
with sealer cum healer (a IIHR product). This
also kills by asphyxiation and rejuvenation of bark
and tissues ( Shivananda et al., 2012)
Use of green muscardine fungi, Metarhizium
anisopliae or Beauveria bassiana may have
additive effects.
Neem seal is an organic product innovated for
controlling the cracks, gummosis and even borers on
stem. This can be used as an alternative for sealer
cum healer. The product has been tried on many mango
trees and found highly effective as repellent and as
well to seal the burrows and tunnels, at IIHR.

Another product sealer-cum- healer swabbed as
a shiny (600ml water + 1 kg of sealer cum healer)
seals the bored holes, asphyxiates the grubs and heals
the injured bark.
5. Stone weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae)
Adult weevils (5-8 mm) are stout and dark brown,
grubs are white legless and stumpy eggs are laid singly
on the pericarp of tender marble sized fruits. On
hatching grubs bore through the pulp, feed on seed
coat and later damage the cotyledons.
Eco-friendly management of stone weevil
Collection and destruction of infested and fallen
fruits at weekly interval till harvest fruit.
Cleaning junctions of main trunk and primary
branches after harvest to expose hibernating
adults, and mechanically reduces infestation
levels.
The natural enemies recorded include a mite
Rhizoglyphus sp, ants (Camponatus sp.,
Monomorium sp. and Oecophylla smaragdina)
and fungus Aspergillus sp., Beauveria bassiana
was found to be pathogenic on mango weevil.
Incidentally neem products are not useful in
management (Verghese et al., 2004)
Citrus :
Citrus fruits rank third in area and production with an
estimated production of 6.323 million tonnes from an
area of 0.749 million hectares. Commercially grown
citrus spp includes sweet orange (Citrus sinensis),
acid lime (C. aurantifolia), lemon (C. limon), grape
fruit (C. paradisi), pumello (C. grandis) etc.
1. Citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnists citrella)
The larvae feed on the epidermis of tender leaves
making serpentine mines, which are silvery in color.
The affected leaves become distorted and crumpled.
The larvae may also mine the epidermis of tender
shoots. Severe infestation will leads to defoliation. Of
the total damage caused by the pest complex in citrus,
30% is claimed by the leaf miner alone.
Organic management of citrus leaf miner
Clipping off infested leaves
Spraying with fish oil rosin soap and nicotine
sulphate (1:1) + 50 parts of water in early stage
of infestation.
47
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
Spraying of Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE)
4% at 10 days interval from early flushing.
Predators like Mallada boninensis and
Menochillus sexmaculata and parasitoids of
hymenoptera Citrostichus phyllocnistoides and
Cirrospilus quadristriatus were found
associated with citrus leaf miner (Shivankar et
al., 2008).
Parasitoids like Citrostichus phyllocnistoides,
Cirrospilus quadrisrtiatus, Elasmus
clarripennis, Bracon phyllocnistoides and
Simpieses purpurea have been recorded causing
30-40% parasitism.
Anon, 1990 have recorded that black chalcid larva,
Ageniapsis sp. alone to cause 80% parasitism
of moth.
2. Blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi
Eco-friendly Management of blackfly
Affected shoots should be clipped off and
destroyed
Neem seed kernel extract is effective in reducing
the black fly population.
Pest is regulated by parasitoids like Amitus
hesperidium and Encarsia clypealis up to 80-
90% in Karnataka.
The predators Serangium paracesetosum and
Mallada boninensis and parasitoids, Encarsia
bennetti (2000 adults/tree) were most effective.
Predators were observed feeding on eggs and
nymphal stages and parasitoids parasitizing only
nymphal stages.
Entomopathogenic fungi, Aschersonia aleyrodis
and Aegerita webberi attacks all the stages of
black fly.
3. Lemon butterflies (Papilio demoleus, P.
helenus, P. polytes, P. memnon)
These are almost active throughout the year,
feed voraciously on vegetative parts leading to severe
defoliation.
Eco-friendly management of lemon butterflies
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
4. Fruit sucking moth
The adults puncture the ripening fruits, such fruits
drop prematurely as a result of rotting due to fungal
and bacterial infections introduced due to punctures
causing fruit loss up to 40%.
Eco-friendly management of fruit sucking moth
Maintaining the field sanitation, removal of
alternative hosts of primary importance.
The fruit damage can be minimized by bagging
the fruits with palyrah baskets
Attracting the moths using light traps.
Several parasitoids have been recorded on fruit
sucking moth Achaea janata (Rao,1969) Egg
parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis and larval
parasitoid, Microplitis maculipennis are
effective.
Spraying of Neem Repel (IIHR product), repel
the moths for three days.
The eggs of Ophideres fullonica were
successfully parasitize by T. chilonis which
suggested the possibility of utilizing T. chilonis
for the management of the pest (Dodia et al.,
1986)
Orchard/tree netting, if practiced, gives effective
control.
Use of food baits ( Jayanthi et al., 2010)
Pomegranate
In India, pomegranate is considered as a crop of
arid and semi-arid regions because it can be grown in
severe drought and frost conditions. Pomegranate is
grown in an area of 1,16,400 ha with annual production
of 0.849 million tonnes. The fruit is used for various
medicinal purposes.
1. The fruit borer or the Anar butterfly
(Deudorix isocrates, D. epijarbas)
It is a polyphagous pest infesting crops like
pomegranate, apple, citrus, guava, litchi, loquat,
mulberry, peach, pear, plum, sapota etc. it causes up
to 40-90% fruit loss
Symptoms: The caterpillar bores inside the developing
fruits to feed on the pulp and seeds just below the rind.
The infested fruits begin to rot due to bacteria and
48
fungi. They ultimately fall off emitting an offensive
smell and the excreta of caterpillars comes out through
the entry holes.
Eco-friendly management of anar butterfly
Field sanitation, removal and destruction of all the
affected fruits.
Bag the fruits with paper or cloth bags during the
flowering period to prevent egg laying when the
fruits are up to 5 cm diameter.
Kakar and Sharma 1988 found that release of
egg parasitoid, T. chilonis at 2.5 lakhs/ha 4 times
at 10 days interval reduces the borer infestation
up to 50%.
The eggs are parasitized by Telenomus sp. and
Ooencyrtus papilioni.(Mani and
Krishnamoorthy,1996)
The larva is parasitized by Brachymeria
euploeae (Chalcidida)
Spray neem oil 1 % or NSKE 5 % at the time of
butterfly activity at 15-day interval.
Weekly spray of Bt at 1g/lt is effective.
2. Aphid, Aphis punicae
These are sap suckers which feeds on young
leaves and flowers which leads to shoot shriveling. It
excretes honeydew which results in the formation of
sooty mold.
Eco-friendly management of aphids
NSKE 5% was found to be effective in reducing
the aphid population without affecting the
population of natural enemies. (Verghese, 2000)
Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1995 reported that the
coccinellids, Scymus castaneus, S. sexmaculata,
S. latemaculatus and C. sexmaculata and
syrphid, P. serratus can reduce the aphid
population within two months.
3. Mealy bugs (Planococcus lilacinus, P.
citri, Nipaecoccus virids, Ferrisia virgata
and Maconellicoccus hirsutus )
Eco-friendly management of mealy bugs
The predators S. epius and C. montrouzieri are

found efficient in controlling mealy bug population
(Mani and Krishnamoorthy, 1990).
Spraying of Verticillum lecanii at 2g/lt is also
found effective.
Mani and Krishnamoorthy 2001 reported that the
parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii is
recommended for suppression of P. citri and C.
montrouzieri for all other mealy bugs.
Guava
1. Fruit Fly (Bactrocera dorsalis,
B.zonata)
Damage symptoms
Minute depression with dark punctures may be
seen on fruits, which is the ovipositional damage. The
infested fruit soften at the site of larval feeding and
later on rots and drop down. Ovipositional apertures
lead to secondary infection of pathogen.
Eco-friendly management of fruit fly
Destruction of infested fruits and raking the soil
around the tree basins exposing the pupae to suns
heat and natural enemies.
Bagging of fruits or wire netting of individual trees
on a limited scale for the purpose of high end
markets.
IIHR parapheromone traps @ 10/acre.
Fruits should be harvested at proper maturity and
ripened fruits to be removed from the tree.
Alcoholic extract (5%) of neem oil (Azadiricta
indica at 20% concentration has been found to
repel oviposition by B.zonata on guava (Kapoor,
2000). Recently efforts are made to use
azadirachtin as a pesticide for the control of fruit
fly. Gibberlic acid was applied before fruit colour
break at 0,10,20 and 50 ppm on cvs L-16,AC 10,L-
49 and Chittidar against Bactrocera correcta in
Tamil Nadu and highest concentration was
effective in all the varieties.(Jalaluddin et
al.,2001).However being a table fruit, the first
two methods are recommended.
Prediction models for timely intervention is
available (Jayanthi et al., 2011).
49
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
2. Bark Eating Caterpillar (Indarbela
spp.)
Damage symptoms
The infestation of this pest may be identified by
the presence of irregular tunnel and patches covered
with silken thread entangled with excreta and chewed
particles on shoot, branches, stems and main trunk.
Shelter holes may also be seen, more common at the
joints of shoots and branches
Eco-friendly management of bark eating
caterpillar
Orchard should be maintained clean and healthy.
Caterpillars may be killed mechanically by
inserting iron spike in shelter holes at early stages
of infestation. Clean and apply slurry of IIHRs
sealer cum healer. ( For one kg powder use 600ml
of water)
Entomogenous fungus Beauveria bassiana
cause killing of the caterpillars and provide natural
control up to some extent in guava orchards (Fasih
and Srivatsava,1988).
.The infection of Aspergillus candidus was also
recorded on larvae of this pest on guava,
pomegranate and plum (Singh et al.,1982).
Swabbing sealer cum healer developed by IIHR
on the damaged area with Dichlorvos mixed @
5ml/kg of slurry controlled the infestation
completely in guava.
3. Spiralling Whitefly (Aleurodicus
dispersus Russel)
In India it was first reported from Kerala in 1993
and later from other parts of peninsular India and the
Lakshadweep on over 235 plant species, including a
number of plant of economic importance (Ramani et
al., 2002)
Damage symptoms
Eggs are laid in loose spiral on the lower surface
of the leaves. Conspicuous white cottony cushion
coating is seen on lower surface of the leaves. The
insect produces honey dew, which facilitate the growth
of sooty mould. Affected leaves dry and drop down.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Eco-friendly management
Pruning infested shoots, installing yellow sticky
traps 20/ha to attract adults and spray of fish oil
rosin soap 40 ml/lt in early morning hours
In India tobacco extract , Neem oil (1%) and
detergents have been found effective (Ramani
et al.,2002)
In India a total of 28 species of predators were
reported on this pest in guava orchard (Mani,
2005) Encarsia haitensis Dozier and E.
guadeloupae Viggiani proved highly effective
against spiraling whitefly on guava at Bangalore
(Karnataka) and Kalekari (Andhra Pradesh)
4. Tea Mosquito Bug (Heliopeltis antony
Singnoret)
Damage symptoms
Young leaves show brown patches and later gets
dried. Brown to black spots seen on the infested flower
50
buds and scabs appear on fruits. Damage leads to
flower drop.
Eco-friendly management
Maintenance of clean and healthy orchard.
In case of heavy damage, spraying of neem oil
(2%) twice at fortnightly intervals at pea stage
of fruits was found effective (Ragumoorthy and
Arumugam, 1996). Parasitoids, Erythmeleus
helopeltidis, Telenomus Chatistricha and
Gonatocerus and predators Cremastrogaster
wroughtonii, Scymnus collaris and several
species of spiders and entomogenous fungus,
Aspergillus flavus provide natural control up to
some extent.
The few examples above serve to highlight how
non-chemical methods suffice many a time to
manage pests. Chemical insecticides should be
used only if absolutely needed (in epidemics), that
too in consultation with qualified experts.

Pest Management in Urban and Peri-urban Vegetables
and Ornamentals
P. N. Krishnamurthy, M. S. Rao and V. Sridhar
According to the United Nations, urbanisation is
unstoppable and as of now, over half of the worlds
population lives in urban areas, and by 2050, around
70 per cent of humanity will live in cities. Pests pose
a major threat in vegetables and ornamentals grown in
Urban and Peri-urban areas. Vegetables in urban areas
include terrace gardens, kitchen gardens. Among
Ornamentals, plants grown in landscape gardens,
terrace gardens, roof gardens, home gardens, herb
gardens, parks and lawns are important ones. Apart
from other horticultural commodities, ever increasing
demand for fulfilling the needs of growing urban
population, effective management of various vegetable
and ornamental pests is very essential particularly under
peri-urban Horticulture.
Pest management is the science of preventing,
suppressing, or eradicating biological organisms that
cause problems. The term Integrated Pest
Management (IPM), implies integration of approaches
and methods into a pest management system, which
takes into consideration the ecology of the environment
and all relevant interactions that pest management
practices may have upon the environment in which
one or more pest problems may exist. Poly houses are
basically naturally ventilated climate controlled. They
have a variety of applications like round the year/off-
season production of vegetables, ornamentals, planting
material acclimatization. Nature of damage due to
different pests under polyhouse conditions or protected
conditions is similar to the crops grown under open
conditions. However, because of availability of
congenial conditions for the multiplication of pests under
protected conditions, incidence of some pests will be
regular and very common under these conditions. Eg.
Thrips, mites and whiteflies are very common under
protected conditions.
Broadly, the IPM approaches may be classified
as a) Cultural (Water management, rouging of highly
infested plants, pruning of the plant parts); b) Biological
(conservation, augmentation and introduction of
parasites, predators and use of entomo-pathogens). c)
Mechanical control (pinching of leaf rollers, washing
51
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
off of aphids with water, collection of caterpillars and
webworms, and various destructive barriers for slugs
and weevils) and d) Chemicals which includes
Botanicals (use of plant products like neem, pongamia,
jatropha etc.,) and synthetic insecticides. Monitoring is
critical to the success of an IPM effort and key methods
include plant examination, pheromone traps, sticky
colored traps, and pitfall traps. In ornamental settings,
the aesthetic threshold usually determines management
action. The aesthetic threshold is the damage level that
is unacceptable to the viewer, even though plant health
may not be at stake. In this paper efforts are made to
discuss various common pests observed on vegetable
and ornamental crops grown in both Urban and Peri-
urban Horticulture.
Pest management in peri-urban
vegetables:
Based on the current status of different IPM
technologies, following IPM packages are suggested
for some important vegetable crops.
Tomato
Tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera is the major
pest on tomato. In addition, serpentine leaf miner,
Liriomyza trifolii and whitefly, Bemisia tabaci and
spider mites, Tetranychus urticae, T. cinnabarinus
are important pests in tomato. Following IPM is
suggested for tomato crop, for managing various pests.
Apply oiled neem cake @ 250 kg/ha while planting
(this will reduce leaf miner and reduce fruit borer
egg laying)
Plant 45-50 day old marigold seedlings and 25
day old tomato seedlings simultaneously in a
pattern of one row of marigold for every 16 rows
of tomato (Optional for tomato fruit borer
management)
Destroy leaf miner infested leaves before planting
and repeat 2-3 times at weekly interval after
planting.
Repeat oiled neem cake application at flowering
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
after 20 days (to reduce fruit borer incidence)
Spray NPV 250 LE/ha, 3 times in the evening at
7 days interval at 28, 35 and 42 days after planting.
Collect and destroy fruit borer infected fruits with
borer 3 - 4 times at weekly interval after 30 days
of planting.
Spray any acaricide registered with Central
insecticide board mixed with neem soap (0.75%)
to control mite (if required)
Under polyhosue conditions, for the management
of whitefly spray imidacloprid 200 SL (0.3ml/l)
or thiomethoxam 25 WP (0.3 g/l) in nursery at 15
days after sowing. Drench the base of the
seedlings with imidacloprid 200 SL (0.3 ml/l) or
thiomethoxam 25 WP (0.3 g/l) before
transplanting. After transplanting give need-based
sprays of imidacloprid 200 SL (0.3 ml/l) or
thiomethoxam 25 WP (0.3 g/l) at 15 days after
planting and do not repeat after fruiting stage as
this may leave harmful residues in fruits. Install
yellow sticky traps coated with adhesive or sticky
glue at crop canopy level for monitoring adult
whitefly population.
Brinjal
Shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, ash
weevil, Myllocerus subfaciatus, gall midge,
Asphondylia sp., leaf feeding beetle,
Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata, leaf hopper,
Amrasca bigutula buguttula, aphids, Aphis gossipii,
and red spider mite, Tetranychus sp., are some of
the important pests on brinjal. While fruit borer and
hoppers are major problem, mites, gall midge and ash
weevil may cause considerable yield loss occasionally.
Apply oiled neem cake while planting @250 kg/
ha in ridges (to manage ash weevil)
Repeat cake application at 30-40 DAP (to
manage ash weevil and early incidence of shoot
and fruit borer)
Release egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis
@ 50,000/ha at weekly intervals
Spray PNSPE or neem soap or pongamia soap
according to requirement to control other insect
pests of brinjal
52
Destroy infected fruits at each harvest.
Spray any acaricide registered with Central
insecticide board mixed with neem soap (0.75%)
to control mite (if required)
Cultivation of brinjal in low cost net houses can
be done if the market price of brinjal is high (>Rs.
15/kg).
Chilli/Capsicum:
The major pests of chilli/capsicum are thrips,
Scirtothrips dorsalis; white or yellow mite,
Polyphagotarsonemus latus and fruit borers,
Helicoverpa armigera and Spodoptera litura.
Spray PNSPE or neem soap or pongamia soap
at 10 days interval to minimise all the insect pests
of chilli.
Spray species specific NPV for fruit borers at
flowering and repeat 3 times at weekly interval if
the borers are regular.
Collect and destroy egg masses and young
gregarious caterpillars of S. litura.
Synthetic insecticides like Fipronil 5% SC (1 ml/
l), Emamectin benzoate 5% SG (0.125 g/l),
Fenpropathrin 30 % EC (1 ml/l), Lambda-
Cyhalothrin 5% SC (1 ml/l) and Dimethoate 30
% EC (2ml/l) can be used of for open cultivation
of chilli and capsicum. Regular sprays may cause
pesticide residue problems and appropriate
waiting periods have to be followed before
harvest after the spray. Hence judicious use of
chemicals is to be followed for both minimizing
the insecticide resistance and residues problem.
Mixing of pongamia oil (2 m/l of spray fluid) with
half of the recommended dose of insecticides,
shaking thoroughly with water and making an
emulsion will also help in reducing thrips. This
will also reduce pesticide load drastically on the
end produce.
Crucifers (cabbage and cauliflower):
The cruciferous vegetables suffer from a wide variety
of insect pests. The important ones are diamondback
moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (Linn.), Leaf webber,
Crocidolomia binotalis Zeller, Stem borer, Hellula

undalis Zeller, aphids, Brevicoryne brassicae (Linn),
Hyadaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach), stink bug, Bagrada
cruciferarum Kirkaldy.
The IPM package for cabbage and cauliflower
is presented below.
Sow one row of mustard for every 25 rows of
cabbage or cauliflower (Optional)
Spray the seedlings with Bt formulation or neem
soap or an effective contact insecticide like
indoxacarb just before transplanting and repeat
at 7 -10 DAP
Spray PNSPE or neem soap or Bt formulation
20 DAP at 7-10 days interval 3-4 times. Threshold
of 1 larva/plant may be followed to take spray
after the first spray given at 15-20 DAP.
Maximum of 4 sprays are required to a crop of
70-80 days duration
If trap crop mustard is taken, then spray it with
neem soap or quinalphos/chlorpyriphos 2-3 times
at 10-15 days interval.
Many new insecticides are registered with central
insecticide board for the control of diamondback
moth. They may be sprayed by maintaining
appropriate waiting periods.
Okra
The major pests of okra are petiole maggot, Aspondylia
sp., shoot and fruit borer, Earias vitella and Erias
fabia , hoppers, Amrasca biguttula biguttula and
mites, Tetranychus sp.
Apply 250 kg neem cake/ha while sowing (This
will reduce petiole maggot)
Repeat cake application at 30 days after sowing
at flowering
During summer spray dimethoate or imidacloprid
or thiomerthoxam before flowering only once to
control hoppers. No further sprays of these
insecticides have to be given as these may cause
pesticide residue problems. During other seasons
insecticide sprays are not required.
Spray neem soap or pongamia soaps or PNSPE
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Associations of India
at 7-10 days interval according to infestation.
Cucurbits (pumpkin, gourds, cucumber,
gherkin etc.)
Red pumpkin beetle, serpentine leaf miner, melon fruit
fly, thrips and red spider mites are major insect pests
on cucurbits.
Apply oiled neem cake @ 250 kg/ha to ridges
after germination of seeds (This will reduce leaf
miner)
Spray a contact insecticide like quinalphos or
chlorpyriphos if pumpkin beetle appears (this
appears only during early crop growth period).
Destroy cotyledon leaves infested with leaf miner
after 2 young true leaves are formed
Destroy leaves infested with leaf miner 2-3 times
at weekly interval
Repeat oiled neem cake application after 30-45
days to control fruit flies at flowering
Erect pheromone traps (33 per hectare) and spray
deltamethrin as bait spray mixed with 1% jaggery.
Spray PNSPE/Neem soap if required to control
fruit borer and fruit flies
Onion
Thrips and cut worms are the main pests of onion.
Apply oiled neem cake @ 250 kg/ha to ridges at
planting.
After 30 DAP, spray PNSPE or neem soap or
pongamia soaps at 10 days interval
Sprays of synthetic insecticides like dimethoate
(2 ml/l) or lambda cyhalothrin (0.75 ml/L) or
fipronil ( 1ml/l) may also be given.
French Beans
Stem fly, thrips and leaf miner are the major insect
pests.
Suggested IPM strategy for French Beans:
Avoid sowing during South west monsoon period.
This season stem fly is generally serious.
Spray PNSPE at 7, 10 and 15 Days after sowing.
Follow the management programmes
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
recommended for thrips in chilli in other
vegetables if required.
Pest management in ornamental crops
Pests plays an important role in case of
floriculture (Rose, Gerbera, Jasmine etc.) under Urban
and peri-urban horticulture. Demand for Polyhouse
grown ornamentals like Rose, Gerbera, Carnation etc.
is immense both for meeting export market and local
demand in the urban areas. Apart from this several
ornamentals are grown in peri-urban areas like
jasmines, marigold, chrysanthemum, crossandra,
gladiolus, tube rose etc.
Ornamentals grown under Urban and peri-urban
areas are attacked by number of insect pests, mites,
snails, slugs etc. Insects are the major pests on
landscape plants and trees in the gardens and can be
divided into three categories based on their feeding
habits; sucking pests, foliage feeders and bud and stem
borers. In the first category, aphids, spider mites, scales,
leafhoppers and whiteflies are the major pests. Second
category includes caterpillars, leaf miners, leaf beetles
and sawflies. Wood borers and termites come under
third category of garden/ornamental crop pests. Major
insect and non-insect pests on various ornamental
plants along with management options are discussed
below.
In case of landscape gardens, the pest
management options should start from the preparation
of the landscape garden itself. If properly executed,
IPM probably can reduce pesticide usage in the
landscape by 50 to 90% without sacrificing the
aesthetic quality of the plants. For the purpose of good
establishment of flower beds and lawn, soils should be
treated well with disinfectants and insecticides for the
management of soils pests. Selection of pest free plant
materials is equally important particularly for avoiding
the pests like scales and mealy bugs. As the landscape
garden consists of various types of plants mere location
of a pest on one plant should not lead to the spraying
of the entire garden, as the specificity of pests with
reference to host may change. Hence selective pest
management is to be taken up.
Scales: Aonidiella aurantii, Saissetia nigra,
Orthezia insignis, Pulvenaria psidi, Diaspis sp
54
The scale insects (both soft and hard) are an
important group of pests of many ornamental and
landscape plants. Scale insects vary in their
appearance from very small organisms (12 mm) that
occur under wax covers (some look like oyster shells),
to shiny pearl-like objects (about 5 mm), to creatures
covered with mealy wax. Some scale species are of
red or brown colour.
Adult female scales are almost always immobile
and permanently attached to the plant they have
parasitized. Scale insects waxy covering makes them
quite resistant to pesticides, which are only effective
against the first-instar nymph crawler stage. Both
adults and young scales suck the sap from mature
shoots and deplete vigor of the plant. Crawling of the
ants on plants signals beginning of the infestation.
Heavy infestation leads to sootymold development on
honeydew secreted by scales.
Management:
Selection of scale free planting materials is
essential to prevent infestation.
Cutting and burning of infested plant parts
reduces pest incidence.
Infested twigs and branches must be sprayed
thoroughly with horticultural oil or insecticidal
soaps.
Spray malathion 50 EC @ 1ml/l or chloropyriphos
20 EC 2.5 ml/l + dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/l or
ethion 50 EC @ 1ml/l.
Apply pongamia oil 10% + chlorpyrifos 2ml/l to
rose stems after pruning.
Mealy bugs: Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus citri,
Maconellicoccus rsutus, Coccidohystrix insolitus,
Phenacoccus solenopsis
Mealybugs are poly-phagous pests and
multiply on different hosts, causing considerable
damage. They are white, covered with mealy wax on
the dorsal surface. Mealybugs sucks juices from its
host plant and injects a toxic saliva as it feeds. This
process leads to the malformation of leaves and fruit,
as well as stunted leaves and terminal growth of several
flowering and foliage plants. Severe damage by caused
by mealy bugs feeding can also lead to the death of its

host. Mealybugs may be spread naturally by wind,
birds, and other wildlife, or by people moving infested
plant material to non infested areas. Mealybugs are a
major problem on ornamental crotons.
Management:
Spray Pongamia or Neem oil 2% when infestation
begins.
Spray Verticillium lecanii at 5 g /l during
evenings.
Release predator Cryptoleamus montrouzerii
@ 5-10 grubs/plant
Spray acephate 75 SP @ 1.5 ml/l or imidacloprid
200 SL @ 0.4ml/l at fortnightly interval.
Thrips: Thrips palmi, Scirtothrips dorsalis,
Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus
Thrips are tiny insects which feed on mainly new
growing parts of the plant. Both nymphs and adults
suck cell sap resulting in curled or bronzed leaves,
deformed buds with burnt margins and some species
can also form galls on plant parts. Some specific species
may transmit plant viruses as vectors.
Management:
Spray pongamia or neem oil at 1.0 % at initial
infestation levels.
Spray acephate 75 SP @ 1.5 g/l
Apply Fipronil 5 SC @ 1.5 ml/l or imidacloprid
200 SL @ 0.4ml/l or cartap hydrochloride 50 SP
@ 1.5 g/l in case of severe infestations.
Drench the soil with Chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 5ml/
l for killing pupae in the soil.
Under polyhouse cultivation of roses, spray
insecticides like imidacloroprid 200SL @ 0.4ml/l
or Fipronil 5 SC @ 1.5 ml/l or Acephate 75 SP
@1.5 g/l and drench the soil with chloropyriphos
20 EC @ 5ml/l at 10-15 days interval, by changing
the chemical with different mode of action.
Aphids: Macrosiphum rosae, Macrosiphoniella
sanborn, Myzus persicae, Aphis gossypii
Aphids are small, soft-bodied pear shaped insects
of various colours. They suck the sap from host plants.
They usually congregate on young, tender, succulent
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Associations of India
tissue. Both nymphs and adults suck cell sap and
devitalize plants. Various indicators of incidence of
aphids include, malformation of plant parts, curling of
leaves, a shiny sticky substance on leaves, stems and
ants movement on the plant.
Management:
Avoid practices that encourage the
development of excessive succulent growth,
such as over-fertilization, improper pruning,
and over watering.
Encourage natural enemies like lady bird
beetles, syrphid flies and lacewings
Spray neem or pongamia oil @ 10ml/l.
If the incidence is severe, spray dimethoate
30 EC @ 2ml/l or imidacloprid 200 SL @
0.4ml/l or acephate 75 SP @ 1g/l.
Whiteflies: Bemisia tabaci, Trialeurodes
vaparoriorum
Whiteflies have numerous hosts, including
Gerbera, hibiscus, rose, plumeria, poinsettia and
crotons. Adult whiteflies lay eggs singly on lower
side of leaves. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap from
growing leaves resulting in discolouration, yellowing
and stunted growth of the plants. In case of severe
infestation, sooty mould develops on honeydew
secreted by the pest. Major problem on gerbera
cultivated under polyhouses.
Spiralling whitefly is a polyphagous pest
and infests the lower surface of the leaves. It lays
eggs at right angles to the leaf veins in association
with irregular spiralling deposits of waxy white
flocculent.
Management:
Remove heavily infested leaves.
Spray soap oils to conserve beneficial insects
which usually keep these pests at low levels in
the landscape.
Install yellow sticky traps for their monitoring.
Spray Triazophos 40 EC @ 1.5ml/l or Methomyl
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
40 SP @ 1.5g/l or Acephate 75 SP @ 1.5 g/l or
dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/l for management of
nymphs. Spray dichlorovos 76 EC @ 1ml/l or
cartap hydrochloride 50 SP against adults
Spray Neem oil or pongamia oil and cotton seed
oil at 10 ml/l.
Fish oil insecticidal soap at 2.5 per cent also deters
the adults of the spiralling whitefly.
Two aphelinid parasitoids Encarsia sp. and
Encarsia gaudeloupae minimises the pest.
Caterpillar pestS: Helicoverpa armigera,
Spodoptera litura, Diacrisia obliqua, Agrotis sp.,
Achaea janata
Incidence of bud borers is observed from January
to April. Female moths lays cream coloured eggs on
young buds. Hatched larvae bore into buds by making
holes and feed on petals. Grown up larvae feed
voraciously on flowers.
Tobacco caterpillar and hairy caterpillar moth lays
ash coloured eggs in groups on lower side of leaves.
Early instar larvae feed gregariously on lower surface
of leaves by scraping resulting in skeletonization.
Greenish brown mature larvae feed voraciously during
nights on leaves and growing buds.
Cut worm moth lays eggs near ground level on
plant parts. Larvae feed on emerging shoots at night.
Grownup clay coloured larvae cut the plants at ground
level during nights. Plants are vulnerable to attack up
to 3-leaf stage. Cut worms also damage underground
corms and developing spikes also.
Management:
Deep ploughing and thorough land preparation
exposes pupae to predators.
Collection and destruction of egg masses and early
larval instars.
Collection and killing of mature larvae reduces
population.
Spray Neem seed kernel extract 4% or neem oil
1%.
Spraying of HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha with jaggery
in the evenings (specific to Helicoverpa
armigera).
56
Apply Dipel or Halt (Bacillus thuringiensis
formulations) @ 1g/l during evening.
Spray Methyl parathion 50 EC @ 1ml/l or
Fenvalerate 20EC @ 0.5 ml/l in combination with
diflubenzuron 25 WP @ 2g/l at appearance of
eggs on tender foliage.
Spread the poison bait (rice bran, jaggery and
chlorpyriphos @ 10:1:0.5) for cutworms.
Stem & Bark borers:
Indarbela tetraonis and I. quadrinotata are
the common bark borers on several landscape garden
plants. Batocera rufomaculata, Xylotechus
quadripes and Dihammus cervinus are the common
stem borers on some of the tree species. Stem borer,
Platyptilia molopis damages china aster.
The bark borer larva bores into the stem to
about 15-25 cm and feeds on the bark mostly during
night under shelter of webs covering a considerable
part of the stem extending from the bore hole. They
eat through the bark into the wood and in cases of
severe infestation sap movement is interfered with and
the tree ceases to flush. The incidence of the pest is
easily made out by the presence of the peculiar
winding galleries, generally near the forks or angles
on the stem and branches.
Stem borers lay eggs on trunk; hatched
grubs bore into trunks and feed inside. Affected trees
or bushes bear holes bearing excreta and sawdust
like powder.
Management:
For stem borer, clean the holes on the stems and
try to hook out the larva/grub. Remove and
destroy the affected branches. Apply sealer cum
healer, developed at IIHR, Bangalore.
If the pest is deep located, pour dichlorvos 76 EC
@1 ml/l inside the holes and plug the hole using
mud.
For bark borers injection of kerosene into the hole
and sealing it with cotton wool and mud gives
good control.
Remove damaged bark and spray with
horticultural oils followed by chlorpyriphos @ 2
ml/l or malathion 50 EC 1ml/l or profenophos %0
EC @ 1ml/l.

Whitegrubs & Chafer beetles: Holotrichia spp.,
Adoretus sp.
Both grubs and adults damage the plants. White
grub feeds on the roots and adults feeds on foliage.
White grub mainly multiplies in manures which are not
decomposed properly. Hence use only well rotten
organic manures. Chaffer beetles emerge from soil
with the onset of monsoon showers at dusk. They
feed on leaves, buds, flowers and tender shoots by
making irregular holes and cuts, resulting in severe
defoliation.
Management:
Dig the surrounding of the plants deeply after
pruning for exposing eggs, grubs and pupae to
natural enemies.
Install light traps between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. after
first monsoon showers.
Spray chlorpyriphos @ 2 ml/l or malathion 50 EC
1ml/l.
Hand pick the adult beetles in the morning
Apply Beauveria bassiana or Metarrizium
anisopliae formulation as drenching to the soil
(mix 2 kg of formulation with 1 kg of jaggery in
400 L of water)
Grass hoppers: Hieroglyphus banian, Oxya
chinensis, Colemania sphenrroides etc.
Grasshoppers can wreck havoc in flower
gardens. The nymphs and adults feed on different
grasses, completely eating away the foliage. During
grasshopper outbreaks, typical control methods involve
baits, sprays, and natural grasshopper management.
Management
Spray neem oil 1 % or neem seed kernal extract 4 %
If the incidence is severe, spray carbaryl 50 WP
@ 3 g/l or malathion 50 EC @ 1ml/l.
Bait grasshoppers by mixing insecticide with bran.
Reapply insecticide bait after rainfall for optimum
effectiveness.
Termites: Odontotermes sp
Termites are considered one of the most
destructive wood-feeding insects attacking grasses,
bushes and trees. They feed on roots resulting in death
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Associations of India
of young plants. They also damage higher plants above
ground by forming mud galleries on trunk and feeding
inside resulting in drying and ultimate death of the
attacked plants. Successful termite control usually
consists of utilizing bait systems and liquid insecticides.
Once an infestation occurs, prompt treatment of the
soil is very important.
Management:
While planting the landscape trees saplings, treat
pits with chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 5ml/l
Paint the bushes and tree trunks with combination
of copper oxychloride 4g/l+ chlorpyriphos 4ml/l+
neem oil 20ml/l
Dislodge the termite galleries and spray the
chemicals like imidacloprid 200 SL @ 0.5 ml/l or
chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 2ml/l.
Drench the soil where the termites reside with
Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 1.0 ml/l or fipronil 5 SC
@ 3.0 ml/l.
Leaf miner: Liriomyza trifolii
The incidence of leaf miner is severe in hot
seasons (March June). Adults lay eggs by punching
the leaves. Maggots mine the leaves by feeding on
mesophyl. Severely damaged leaves show extensive
mining, become brittle and dry up. Major problem on
Gerbera under polyhouse cultivation, marigold etc.
Management:
Remove and destroy severely mined leaves
Spray Triazophos 40 EC @ 1.5 ml/l or Abamectin
1.9 EC @ 0.4 ml/l against larvae.
Spray with Dichlorvos 76 EC @ 1ml/l or
Decamethrin 2.8 EC @ 1ml/l for managing adults.
Install yellow sticky traps coated with
Chlopyriphos20 EC @ 2.5 ml/l
Mites: Tetranycus urticae, Aceria sp,
Brevipalpus sp
Spider mites are minute, spider like creatures
of various colours such as yellow, brown, red, and
green. The attack the plants like rose, marigold, china
asters etc. They suck the sap from plant parts. Hot
and dry conditions favor mite multiplication. Their
damage results in pale coloured minute spots
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
(flecking), leaf discoloration ranging from yellow to
gray-green to bronze, loss of leaf luster, premature leaf
drop, and poor plant vigour. In heavy infestations, a
dusty webbing may be present. Major problem on rose
grown under polyhouses.
Management:
Cutting and burning of severely infested plant
parts.
Spider mites are especially attracted to and
proliferate on drought-stressed plants.
Spray pongamia or neem or jatropha oil at 5 ml/l.
If the incidence is severe, spray dicofol 18.5 EC@
2.5 ml/l or wettable sulphur 80 WP @ 3 g/l.
Under protected cultivation of crops like rose,
spray Abamectin 1.9 EC @ 0.5ml/l followed by
Flufenoxuron 10 DC @ 1 ml/l or Fenazaquine
10EC @1ml/l, if necessary during export season.
Snails & Slugs: Achatina sp., Nariella dussneri,
Laevicaulis alte
Adult and young ones devour plants during nights.
Snails attack is seen mainly during monsoon period
when high moist conditions prevail. They feed on leaves
by scraping, making big irregular holes and also cut
tender growing shoots.
Management:
Handpicking and killing of snails by dropping them
in 5 % salt solution.
Sprinkling of salt crystals in the paths or around
pots
Spread Snail kill (3% metaldehyde pellets) @
20Kg/Ac.
Spray neem oil @ 10 ml/l or soap nut extract @
60 g/l on foliage.
Place beer bottle with about half cup of beer
therein on its side in garden, opening level with
ground.
Use crushed egg shells, the sharp shells will cut
the slugs and they will die.
ANTS : Oecophylla sp., Dorylus orientalis
These ants will cause nuisance to the public in
parks. Ants will also affect the plants in the nurseries
58
and some times feed on the sown seeds in the nurseries.
Major problem on home garden plants like Hibiscus
etc, wherein ants cause webbing of the leaves and
helps in spreading of sucking pests like aphids and
mealy bugs.
Management :
Cutting and burning of the infested plant parts
Spray the nursery beds with chlorpyriphos @ 3
ml/l.
Some useful tips in pest management on
ornamentals
Before starting terrace garden, it is important to
till, weed and eliminate all sorts of pests.
Regular monitoring of the pests is very essential
as identification of the pests at early stage helps
in effective management of the pests like aphids,
thrips, mealybugs, mites etc. Pluck and destroy
the infested parts of the plants at early stage of
infestation eg. Mealybugs on crotons.
Opt for only ecofriendly and botanical pesticides,
in indoors as well as terrace gardens.
Always use protective clothing while spraying.
Avoid spraying insecticides repeatedly. Alternate
them with botanicals wherever possible to prevent
development of resistance and pest resurgence
Add 0.5 ml/l of any sticking agent to the spray
solution
Oil should be made into an emulsion before spray
by shaking thoroughly in a bottle before dilution
and should be sprayed immediately.
Botanicals may cause phyto-toxicity when the
temperature is more than 320C. It is always better
to spray botanicals in the evening hours.
It is advisable to spray bio-agents by mixing with
jaggery in the evening.
Nematode management
Almost all horticultural crops in peri-urban regions
of the country are invariably attacked with one or more
species of nematodes. These nematodes attack the
root system of seedlings in the beds. Galling of the
roots, stunted growth of roots as well as seedlings are

the manifestations of nematode damage in the beds.
Nematodes such as Meloidogyne incognita, M.
javanica (root-knot nematodes), Rotylenchulus
reniformis (reniform nematode), Heterodera sp.,
(cyst nematodes), Globodera sp. (golden cyst
nematode) and Pratylenchus spp., (lesion nematode)
are important among the nematodes attacking
horticultural crops. A few of these crops are grown in
protected conditions and a few are grown in open field
conditions in peri-urban regions.
Need for the management of nematodes
Securing healthy seedlings of any crop from
the beds is essential to ensure optimum plant population
stand, good growth of the crop and higher yields. If
the beds harbour heavy populations of nematodes it
will result in to the very weak seedlings with poor root
growth. Seedlings with stunted root system cannot
establish well. Nematode attack on the root system
makes the seedlings weak and also vulnerable for the
infection by secondary pathogens (soil borne fungi and
bacteria). Nematodes damage also results into the
breakdown of the resistance against pathogenic fungi
and bacteria. Further, nematode infected seedlings
facilitate the spread of the nematodes in the other beds
making the problem more difficult to manage in a larger
area. Because of all these reasons it is inevitable to
manage the nematodes in the beds.
Crops attacked by nematodes
Horticultural crops such as tomato, capsicum,
okra, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, gerbera, tuberose,
carnations and gladioli. A few of these crops are grown
in protected conditions and a few are grown in open
field conditions in peri-urban regions.
Where do these nematodes live: The maximum
number of nematodes are present at a distance of 2 to
5 cm from the base of the plant and at a depth of 4 to
20 cm. Two hundred cc of soil and 10 g of root samples
should be collected and tender portions of roots with
galls yield maximum number of nematodes.
What symptoms this nematode produces:
Infection of roots by these nematodes produces galls
or lesions on roots. Root damage is manifested by
varying degrees of retarded growth and leaf yellowing.
With the increase in nematode population, feeder roots
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Associations of India
are invaded and destroyed as fast as they are formed.
The resulting setback in the uptake of plant nutrients
leads to debility of the plant and production of smaller
fruits.
Management of nematodes in nursery
beds
Wherever it is possible in nursery beds, it is
advisable to add neem cake or castor cake @ 500 g/
sq m of the area before 15 days of sowing followed
by incorporation of 30 grams of carbofuran (Furadon
10G) or Thimet (Phorate 10G) per one square meter
area of bed. This method is found to be effective in
reducing the population of all types of nematodes.
After addition of above botanicals, beds have
to be watered at 4 day interval for proper
decomposition. At least 15 days are required for
complete decomposition of these botanicals and hence
a fortnight before sowing the seed, bed soil has to be
incorporated with these botanicals.
Integrated Nematode Management in nursery
beds, main field and poly-houses
I. Transplanted vegetables:
Tomato, Capsicum and Egg plant (Nematodes
:Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica) ; Cabbage
and Cauliflower (Nematode : M. incognita)
Integrated Management
Seed treatment with bio-pesticide - Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 20g/kg seed
Nursery bed treatment with bio-pesticide -
Trichoderma harzianum @ 50 g/sq.m
Management of nematodes in the main field:
Apply 2 tons of farm yard manure enriched with bio-
pesticide - Trichoderma harzianum per acre before
planting, along with 100 200 kg of neem or pongamia
cake
Non-transplanted vegetables
Crops : Okra, Carrot, Palak, Green peas, Cucumber,
Beans (Nematode: M. incognita)
Integrated Nematode Management
Seed treatment with bio-pesticide - Pseudomonas
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
fluorescens @ 10g/kg seed
Management of nematodes in the main field:
Apply 2 tons of farm yard manure enriched with 2 kg
Paecilomyces lilacenus and 2 kg Trichoderma
harzianum per acre before planting, along with 100
200 kg of neem or pongamia cake
Enrichment of farm yard manure (FYM) with bio-
agents: One kg of Paecilomyces lilacenus and 1 kg
of Trichoderma harzianum can be used to enrich
1 ton of farm yard manure. Farm yard manure added
with these bio-agents should be left under shade for a
period of 15 days and in between it is advisable to mix
FYM thoroughly at an interval of 3 days to enrich
FYM with the bio-agents)
Transplanted Ornamentals
Crops : Crossandra, China aster, Carnation, Gerbera
Nematode : Meloidogyne incognita
Integrated Nematode Management
Seed treatment with bio-pesticide Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 20g/kg seed
Nursery bed treatment with bio-pesticide
Paecilomyces lilacinus or Trichoderma
harzianum @ 50 g/sq.m
Management of nematodes in the main field:
Apply 2 tons of farm yard manure enriched with 2 kg
Paecilomyces lilacinus and 2 kg of Trichoderma
harzianum per acre before planting, along with 100
200 kg of neem or pongamia cake.
Non-transplanted Ornamentals
60
Crops : Tuberose, Rose and Chrysanthemum
Nematode : Meloidogyne incognita
Integrated Nematode Management
Management of nematodes in the main field:
Apply 2 tons of farm yard manure enriched with 2
kg Paecilomyces lilacinus and 2 kg of Trichoderma
harzianum per acre before planting, along with 100
200 kg of neem or pongamia cake.
Enrichment of farm yard manure (FYM) with bio-
agents: One kg bio-pesticide - Trichoderma
harzianum can be used to enrich 1 ton of farm yard
manure. Farm yard manure added with these bio-
agents should be left under shade for a period of 15
days and in between it is advisable to mix FYM
thoroughly at an interval of 3 days to enrich FYM
with the bio-agents)
Nematode management in poly houses:
Crops : Carnation and Gerbera
Nematode : M. incognita
Apply bio-pesticide - Paecilomyces lilacinus or
Trichoderma harzianum @ 50 g/sq.m of bed once
in 4 months.
Drench the beds with 10% neem or pogamia cake
suspension @ 3 liters / m2 once in a month. 10% neem
or pogamia cake suspension by dissolving 10 kg neem
or pogamia cake in 100 liters of tap water for 12 hours
and use immediately with or without filtration.
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

Waste Management in Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture

Neelima Garg

Solid wastes are those organic and inorganic Peri-urban areas are available open spaces and
waste materials produced by various activities of the have easy access from urban areas.
society, which have lost their value to the first user.
The solid waste collection in peri-urban area is
Improper disposal of solid wastes pollutes all the vital
often more complex compared to urban area. In
components of the living environment (i.e., air, land
addition to its own waste, the peri-urban area is
and water) at local and global levels. The problem is
burdened by urban waste as it is often used as disposal
more acute in developing nations like India than in
places. Moreover, the solid waste management in these
developed nations, as their economic growth as well
areas is inadequate, causing the residing communities
as urbanization is more rapid resulting into generation
to suffer from health hazards. In these areas the
of large quantity of organic solid waste. As per 2011
management of solid waste services is neither carried
census ,the total number of urban agglomerations/
out by a community unit, nor through partnership
towns, which constitutes the urban frame, is 6166 in
between the community, government agency and waste
the country. Between 2001 and 2011, the number of
entrepreneur. The local government agencies are not
people living in urban areas increased from 286 million
yet serious in operating solid waste services in such
to 377 million, a rise of 91 million. In comparison, the
areas, especially in unplanned settlements. In temporary
rural population increased by 90 million, up from 743
or final disposal sites, facilities or infrastructures such
million in 2001 to 833 million now. In percentage terms,
as shelter and water supply are rarely provided. The
urban population now accounts for 31.16 per cent of
government neglects the existence of waste
the total population of the country, up from 27.81 per
entrepreneurs. Low salary for waste collectors and
cent. The urban population increasing between 3
lack of performance control is the main reason for poor
3.5% per annum and yearly increase in waste
services.
generation is around 5% annually. Urban India
produces 68.8 million tons of municipal solid waste Solid waste is a broad term, which encompasses
annually at a per capita waste generation rate of 500 all kinds of waste such as municipal solid
grams/person/day. The magnitude of problem is that
waste, industrial waste, hazardous waste , bio-
the per capita waste generation is increasing by 1.3%
medical waste and electronic waste depending on their
per annum. Collection efficiency ranges between 50%
source & composition. It consists of organic and
to 90% of the solid waste generated. Urban local bodies
inorganic constituents which may or may not be
spend around Rs.500/- to Rs.1500/- per ton on solid
biodegradable.Municipal solid waste consists of
waste management of which, 60-70% of the amount
household solid waste, construction and demolition
is on collection alone, 20% - 30% on transportation.
debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets. This
Meagre share of the fund is spent on treatment and
garbage is generated mainly from residential and
disposal of waste. Crude dumping of waste is happening
commercial complexes. The garbage consists of four
in most of the cities. In developing countries, it is
broad categories viz., organic, toxic, recyclable and
common for municipalities to spend 20-50 percent of
soiled waste. The organic waste is composed mainly
their available recurrent budget on solid waste
of kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
management. Yet, it is also common that 30-60 percent
The main types of solid waste generated in urban
of all the urban solid waste in developing countries is
agriculture are :Agricultural wastes ,Fruit and vegetable
uncollected and less than 50 percent of the population
market waste ,Food processing industry, Kitchen,
is served. In some cases, as much as 80 percent of
restaurant and canteen food wastes, Yard wastes from
the collection and transport equipment is out of service,
community households and shops , Old garbage dumps
in need of repair or maintenance. In most developing
,Removal from garbage dumps, Cow dung, Park and
countries, open dumping with open burning is the norm.
verge trimmings, swept leaves etc.

61
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Household solid waste
Household solid waste management presents a
challenge in cities due to the dispersed production and
diverse composition of the waste, as well as the
relatively weak administrative and financial actions on
part of municipal authorities. The production of organic
waste in residential areas means that it poses an
immediate hygiene risk and requires some form of
effective management. In contrast, solid waste
produced by markets, hotels, restaurants or industry
tends to be more homogeneous and is concentrated in
greater quantities at fixed locations, resulting in
possibilities for lower collection costs, recycling and
disposal. Households in general produce approximately
0.60.7 kilogram of waste per person per day, with
wide variations according to season and household
income. This amounts to an estimated 600700 tonnes
per day for a city population of around 1 million. The
organic fraction of this waste accounts for about one-
third of the total and also varies considerably among
income groups. Higher-income households produce
almost four times as much organic waste as lower-
income households. Whilst the amount of organic waste
produced doesnt appear to vary much with different
seasons. The inorganic components such as plastic,
paper, metals and textiles, need to be separated, in order
to ensure a relatively safe recycling of organic matter.
With the growing concern about the situation
agencies such as municipal departments, local councils,
associations, waste management enterprises and non-
profit organizations, NGOs etc. are becoming involved
in the search for solutions. In cities like Lucknow some
waste collection agencies on hand driven carts are
involved in transporting waste to collection depots
within the immediate vicinity. There are a large number
of unauthorized waste collection points within the city.
Fruit and vegetable market waste:
Indian Agricultural Research Data Book 2004
showed the estimated production of fruits and
vegetables in India as 150 million tones and generates
50 million tones of wastes per annum. The polluted
environment and unhygienic conditions in the fruit and
vegetable markets are causing environmental and
health problems for both the buyers and the sellers.
The whole markets (both in small or big cities) are
62
filled with garbage, rotten vegetables and fruits emitting
odour. There is no proper mechanism for keeping the
market clean despite the civic authorities have hired a
number of employees for the purpose.
Fruit and vegetable processing industry
waste
The fruit and vegetable processing industry
includes both fresh pack and processing / value-
adding activities. The major waste streams are organic
waste including fruit and vegetable rejects, peel and
pomace and other raw material wastes. Washing
processes and packaging activities also generate waste.
Organic waste types may vary depending on the season
and also contribute to waste water.
Waste management
Waste management include collection, transport,
processing or disposal, managing and monitoring
of waste materials. The principles to waste
management are:
Reduce: Waste prevention, or source reduction,
means consuming and throwing away less. Source
reduction actually prevents the generation of waste in
the first place, so it is the most preferred method of
waste management and goes a long way toward This
will result reducing the cost of purchasing materials
(e.g. through avoiding disposal of damaged products),
minimising waste treatment and disposal costs (and
possibly generating alternative income streams by
finding secondary markets for waste products and
reducing environmental impacts due to waste disposal
and consumption of resources protecting the
environment.
Reuse: Reusing items by repairing them, donating
them to charity and community groups, or selling them
also reduces waste. Reusing products, when possible,
is even better than recycling because the item does
not need to be reprocessed before it can be used again.
Recycle: Recycling transforms materials that would
otherwise become waste into valuable resources. In
addition, it generates a host of environmental, financial,
and social benefits. Materials like glass, metal, plastics,
and paper are collected, separated and sent to facilities
that can process them into new materials or products.

Rebuy: In order to make recycling economically
feasible, we must buy recycled products and
packaging. When we buy recycled products, we create
an economic incentive for recyclable materials to be
collected, manufactured, and marketed as new
products. We should remember that unless were
buying recycled products, recycling has no meaning.
Transform: Covert process by-products such as seeds,
kernels, skins and peel to value added products such
as oils, antioxidants etc.
Approaches of waste management
Landfill :Disposal of waste in a landfill involves burying
the waste, and this remains a common practice in most
countries. Landfills were often established in
abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow
pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can
be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of
disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly designed
or poorly managed landfills can create a number of
adverse environmental impacts such as wind-
blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of
liquid leach ate. Another common product of landfills
is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon
dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks
down anaerobically . This gas can create odor
problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse
gas.
In India, over 15,500 tons of organic waste
including fruit and vegetable waste is created everyday
and most of this waste is simply dumped in a landfill.
One of the reasons that fruit and vegetable waste usually
ends up in a landfill is that most other disposal methods
require that the waste is treated first. So, loading the
waste into a landfill is the easiest and quickest method
of getting rid of it. Unfortunately as is often the case,
the easiest way is not the most environmentally way.
If land filling is the chosen option, management of the
culls should reduce leakage of liquids from the transport
truck. . Landfill gas mainly composed of methane and
CO2. When they are released into the atmosphere,
they mainly contribute to global warming. The GWP
of methane is 21 times more than that of CO2. Hence,
it is recommended to treat the waste and capture
methane for beneficial purposes. Design
characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to
contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material.
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase
its density and stability, and covered to prevent
attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills
also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to
extract the landfill gas. Future opportunities for land
fill are:
Converting CH4 into This can be used for
pipeline natural gas. cooking, burning and other
household activities.
Converting CH4 into This is one of the cost
electricity. intensive processes and
electricity generated can
be used near the landfill
site itself. It can be used
for garden and street
lighting as well as at
nearby slum areas
Flaring of landfill gas In this case, CH4 generated
from landfill gas would be
converted into CO2, which
is having less global
warming potential than CH4.
Incineration: Incineration is a disposal method in
which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion
so as to convert them into residue and gaseous
products. The efficiency of the technology is linked to
the waste characteristics and their properties such as
moisture content and calorific values This method is
useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste
management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of
solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume.
The combustion process involves essentially, drying,
volatilization, and ignition and desirably, elimination of
odours, and combustion of unburned furnace gases and
carbon suspended in the gases. It requires high
temperature of the order of 800-1000oC and sufficient
air and mixing of gas stream. The minimum
temperature for burning carbonaceous wastes to avoid
release of smoke and prevent emissions of dioxins and
furans is 850 o C. Incineration and other high
temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes
described as thermal treatment. Incinerators convert
waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale
by individuals and on a large scale by industry. There
are various types of incinerator plant design: moving
grate, fixed grate, rotary-kiln, fluidized bed. The typical
incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving
grate incinerator. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid
and gaseous waste. It is a controversial method of
waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of
gaseous pollutants.
Incineration is common in countries such
as Japan where land is more scarce, as these facilities
generally do not require as much area as
landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-
waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn
waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or
electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always
perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants
in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks
Back yard compost: the natural way of
dealing with organic wastes
Landfills across the globe are being closed at an
alarming rate. Yet the volume of waste produces on
planet earth continues to increase. Twenty percent of
the solid waste placed in
landfills consists of yard and garden wastes such
as leaves and grass clippings. Many countries, are
banning these wastes from landfills. One step we can
take toward solving our waste disposal problems is to
make use of lawn and garden wastes instead of
dumping them. Composting is natures way of recycling
organic materials back into the soil in order for the
cycle of life to continue. The billions of living micro-
organisms in healthy soil transform dead plants parts
into vital nutrients for new plant growth. Since healthy
plants come from healthy soil, one of the best ways
you healthy soil can be built in gardens and lawns by
using compost. Making compost can be easily made
with landscape trimmings and food scraps in ones own
backyard. When mixed with soil, compost increases
the organic matter content, improves the physical
properties of the soil, and supplies essential nutrients,
enhancing the soils ability to support plant growth.
Compost can also be applied to the soil surface to
conserve moisture, control weeds, reduce erosion,
improve appearance, and keep the soil from gaining or
64
losing heat too rapidly. Integrated Plant Nutrient
Management or IPNM, where composted urban waste
is used along with chemical inputs, has been shown to
reverse this trend, also drought-proofing crops through
improved soil vitality, root growth and soil moisture
retention.
That is why a Supreme Court Committee for Solid
Waste Management in Class 1 Cities in India, formed
in response to a PIL (Public Interest Litigation WP(C)
888/96) for improvement of poor waste management
countrywide, recommended in its 1999 Report the
composting of biodegradable waste as the method of
choice for hygienic waste processing.
With a small investment in time, the health and
appearance of can be improved , money on fertilizers
and mulch be saved, all while preserving natural
resources and protecting the environment. Through
the process of composting, these organic wastes can
be recycled to produce a natural material that can be
used in gardens, landscapes, and flower beds.
Biogas production
One method is to produce renewable energy by
using an anaerobic digestion system to generate biogas;
this mitigates the problem of incorrect solid waste
disposal and builds public awareness about solid waste
separation. Through this service cheaper access to
fuels provided, jobs are created, while reducing the
environmental problems that landfilling the waste
creates. The fuel is produced with an anaerobic
digestion process in batch process bio-digester. This
fuel will be in the form of biogas, a renewable resource
formed during the decomposition of organic waste. The
biogas is 30% less expensive than the current cost of
fuel. In addition, the by-product from the biogas
production may be sold back to farmers as bio-fertilizer,
which will increase their crop yield and ensure soil
productivity for years to come. This bio-fertilizer
enhances water holding capacity and soil aeration,
accelerates root growth and inhibits weed seed
germination. Not only does this fertilizer contain
significant nutrient levels, but it also is very sustainable.
The customer benefits of this solution are simple, but
the social benefits are more complex. First, is the
problem of waste. The waste that is being generated
by these fruit and vegetable markets is currently going

to a landfill where it decomposes and emits methane
into the atmosphere. Methane is one of the most potent
greenhouse gases and a major contributor to global
climate change. One days waste from Azadpur
Mandi, New Delhi gives off 10,000 cubic meters of
methane as it decomposes. The biogas production
captures this methane produced from the waste and is
used as a fuel. More specifically, per kilogram of fruit
and vegetable waste 91 liters of biogas can be
generated The gas which is released into the
atmosphere is in the form of carbon dioxide which is
over 20 times less potent of a greenhouse gas,
compared to methane.
Converting organic waste into handmade
paper
Azadpur Mandi, Asias biggest fruit and vegetable
market, generates 10,000 tonnes of waste every year
in the form of dried leaves, stems and other solid
waste. And as is the case with most things Indian,
disposal is a huge problem. At present, hired contractors
clear the waste and discard it chemically, but which
generates steam and acids. This, in turn, produces heat
and causes pollution. But the Jaipur-based Kumarappa
National Handmade Paper Institute (KNHPI) has now
come up with a suggestion to tackle this menace:
convert this waste into handmade paper and
considering the potential, the Delhi government has
formed a committee to examine feasibility of the project.
KNHPI will train entrepreneurs interested in setting
up waste-conversion plants and assist them in
marketing finished goods through its various outlets.
The demonstration project is set to cost approximately
Rs 50 lakh (excluding land) and will consist of a three-
staged process: manufacturing pulp (raw material),
handmade paper and, finally, paper-based items.Most
pulp for manufacturing paper would be derived from
banana wastes. The market generates between 2,000
tonnes and 3,000 tonnes of banana waste every year;
the handling cost of this waste is Re 1 per kg, including
transportation.
Mostly banana waste is used as a good, low-cost
raw material alternative to the existing sources of
handmade paper like bamboo and paddy straw, which
are becoming increasingly scarce and expensive. This
not only provides an excellent alternative raw material
but also helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The
65
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
handmade paper made will also be eco-friendlyHe said
handmade paper-based products have a significant
export
Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is the process by which worms
are used to convert organic materials
(usually wastes) into a humus-like material known
as vermicompost. Worms ingest the waste material -
break it up in their rudimentary gizzards - consume the
digestible/putrefiable portion, and then excrete a stable,
humus-like material that can be immediately marketed
and has a variety of documented benefits to the
consumer. It is an aerobic, bio-oxidation, non-
thermophilic process of organic waste decomposition
brought about by earthworms which promote microbial
activity. It has been estimated that earthworms add
230 kg N/ ha/ year in grasslands and 165 kg N/ha/
year in woodland sites. Earthworms increase the nitrate
production by stimulating bacterial activity and through
their own decomposition. There are reports that
concentrations of exchangeable cations such as Ca,
Mg, Na, K, available P and Mo in the worm casts are
higher than those in the surrounding soil.
Waste as animal feed
Horticultural waste are important component in
livestock feed all over the world. Citrus pulp left after
extraction of lemon juice may be used for animal feed.
Pineapple waste is good for ruminants and pigs. Coca
pods can be fed to cattle or pigs. Banana waste is
liked by cattle and pigs. Cashew fruits are rich in sugar
and can replace some grains in poultry or ruminant
ration. Tomato residues (after pulping are protein rich
and are liked by goats. Single cell protein grown on
organic waste can be used as protein rich animal feed.
Waste as source of functional foods
Fruit waste such as apple pomace, mango peel
and kernel, citrus peel, grape pomace and other solid
winery waste has been used for the recovery of food
ingredients, nutraceuticals and functional foods, that
provide demonstrated physiological benefits or reduce
the risk of chronic diseases. By-products like fruit
pomace, seeds and stalks are known sources of
antioxidants (phenolic acids, quercetin, flavonoids,
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
phytoelexins and pterostylbenes, resveratrol, e.t.c.),
counteracting the effects of saturated fat and reducing
the incidence of coronary heart disease mortality. These
substances also have anti-inflammatory activity, anti-
carcinogenic and anti-mutagenic effects. There is
considerable amount of scientific articles regarding
recovery of these products from grape by-products
and of new methods which deal with the improvement
of techniques for the recovery and antioxidant activity
of the isolated compounds. Fruit pomace, seeds, skin
and stems extracts have effective anti-bacterial results
when tested on bacteria species at a concentration of
five per cent. The extracts can be used in food
formulations to protect food against spoilage bacteria.
One of the main problems in using fruit wastes
as food is to ensure that the waste has a reasonable
microbiological quality. Only waste produced during
the same day should therefore be used - it is not
advisable to store-up wastes to use for example at the
end of a weeks production. Even with this precaution
the waste is still likely to contain mouldy fruit, discarded
during processing, insects, leaves, stems, soils etc which
will contaminate any products made from it.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that some
preliminary separation takes place during processing
(eg peel and waste pulp into one bin, mouldy parts,
leaves, soil etc to another which is discarded, stones,
seeds etc into a third bin).
Fruit and vegetables waste for production
of natural colorants
Pigments are characteristic quality criteria of food
so they are important. Natural food colorants can be
classified into 5 groups viz., anthocyanins, carotenoids,
chlorophyll, betalaines and other colorants. Fruits and
vegetables include natural food colorants in different
forms, and these are consumed as part of diet. Lutein
and chlorophyll in green vegetables, lycopene in tomato,
anthocyanins in fruits and vegetables can be given as
examples. Natural colorants are extracted from a lot
of sources by using developing technology. Pure
colorant content of colour extract shows differences
according to technology applied, and also they include
other chemicals. Thats why natural colorants are not
only pure pigments, and they form from mixture of
pigments that can be extracted.
66
Ways to reduce waste in a fruit and
vegetable processing industry
The principles of waste management (reduction, reuse,
recycling) should be followed.
Stock and ordering should be managed to avoid
over-ordering and to ensure that materials are
used before their expiry date.
Encourage use of raw materials on a first-in first-
used basis to avoid spoilage.
Food products suitable for human consumption
should be donated (e.g. packaging is
unmarketable) to charity organisations .
Food that is unsuitable for human consumption
may be suitable for stock feed or composting.
Returnable, recyclable or reusable packaging
should be purchased(e.g. use plastic crates for
fruit and vegetable deliveries).
Lightweight product packaging should be used
to reduce material consumption, increase the
number of items packaged into secondary
packaging (e.g. boxes used to transport products),
and/or use recyclable and ethylene scavenging
plastics.
Damaged timber pallets should be repaired.
Return pallets and boxes to product suppliers for
reuse or send to recycling.
Dry methods such as vibration or air jets should
be used to clean raw fruit and vegetables. Dry
peeling methods reduce the effluent volume (by
up to35%) and pollutant concentration (organic
load reduced by up to 25%).
The use of caustic or other cleaning chemicals
and wash water should be minimized. caustic
return storage system should be installed to enable
recycling of the caustic wash and final rinse.
Process wastewaters should be separated and
recirculated.
Countercurrent systems should be used where
washing is necessary.
Steam should be used instead of hot water to
reduce the quantity of wastewater going for
treatment .

The use of water for cleaning floors and machines
should be minimized.
Remove solid wastes without the use of water.
Reuse concentrated wastewaters and solid
wastes for production of by-products
Covert process by-products (e.g. seeds, kernels,
skins and peel) to value added products such as
oils, antioxidants etc.
The way forward :
An open dump or an uncontrolled waste disposal
area should be rehabilitated. It is advisable to move
67
Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
from open dumping to sanitary landlling in a phased
manner. Landlling should be restricted to non-
biodegradable, inert waste and other waste that are
not suitable either for recycling or for biological
processing. Comparing the biological, chemical and
thermal treatment options in the Indian scenario,
perhaps the biological processing should be given
priority. Now a days, instead of incineration, composting
and vermin-composting are successful and quite
popular now in India. But, it is slow process and
requires a large space. Latest technology on waste
utilization for value added products needs testing on
bigger scale.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective

Environmental Concerns of Cities and Management in

Relation to Climate Change
N.K.Srinivasa Rao

The world is in the midst of a massive urban
transition unlike that of any other time in history. Within
the next decade, more than half of the worlds
population, an estimated 3.3 billion, will be living in
urban areas a change with vast implications both for
human well-being and for the environment. As recently
as 1975, just over one third of the worlds people lived
in urban areas. By 2025, the proportion will have risen
to almost two thirds. The most rapid change is occurring
in the developing world, where urban populations are
growing at 3.5 percent per year, as opposed to less
than 1 percent in the more developed regions. Cities
are also reaching unprecedented sizes Tokyo, 27
million; Sao Paulo, Brazil, 16.4 million; Bombay, India,
15 million placing enormous strains on the institutional
and natural resources that support them.
Historically, cities have been driving forces in
economic and social development. As centers of
industry and commerce, cities have long been centers
of wealth and political power. Urbanization is associated
with higher incomes, improved health, higher literacy,
and improved quality of life. Yet along with the benefits
of urbanization come environmental and social ills, some
of staggering proportions. These include a diversity of
problems, from lack of access to clean drinking water,
to urban air pollution, to greenhouse gas emissions.
economic activities. Inadequate protection from rain,
extreme temperatures.
Biological pathogens-Pathogens in waste water, solid
waste (if not removed from the site), local water bodies.
Disease vectors, e.g. malaria-spreading Anopheles
mosquitoes breeding in standing water or filariasis-
spreading Culex mosquitoes breeding in blocked drains,
latrines or septic tanks.
Chemical pollutants-Ambient air pollution from fires,
stoves....; also perhaps from burning garbage if there
is no regular garbage collection service. Air and water
pollution and wastes from cottage industries and from
motor vehicles.
Physical hazards- Site-related hazards, e.g. housing
on slopes with risks of landslides; sites regularly flooded,
sites at risk from earthquakes.
Biological pathogens- Overcrowding/poor ventilation
aids transmission of infectious diseases.
Chemical pollutants- Toxic chemicals, dust etc.
Physical hazards - Dangerous
Biological pathogens- Pathogens in the open water
bodies (often from sewerage), also at municipal dumps,
and contaminated water in piped system.

2. Range of city-related environmental Chemical pollutants- Ambient air pollution (mostly

from industry and motor vehicles, motor vehicles role
hazards
generally growing), water pollution, and hazardous
Biological pathogens-Water-borne, water-washed wastes.
(or water-scarce), airborne, food-borne, vector-borne,
Physical hazards: Traffic hazards, Violence, Natural
including some water-related vectors (e.g. Aedes
disasters and their unnaturally large impact because
mosquitoes breeding in water containers where
of inadequate attention to prevention and mitigation.
households lack reliable piped supplied).
Resource degradatio Soil erosion from poor
Chemical pollutants- Indoor air pollution from fires,
watershed management or land development or
stoves or heaters,accidental poisoning from household
clearance, deforestation, water pollution, ecological
chemicals, and occupational exposure for home
damage from acid precipitation and ozone plumes, and
workers.
loss of biodiversity. Land or water pollution from waste
Physical hazards- Household accidents burns and dumping- Pollution of land from dumping of
scalds, cuts, falls. Physical hazards from home-based conventional household, industrial and commercial solid

68

wastes and toxic/hazardous wastes. Leaching of toxic
chemicals from waste dumps into water, contaminated
industrial sites, Pollution of surface water and
groundwater from sewage and surface runoff.
3. Cities and climate change
Climate change is a global phenomenon. Rising
global temperatures will cause sea levels to rise,
increase the number of extreme weather events such
as floods, droughts and storms, and will cause the
spread of diseases. All these will have costly impacts
on cities basic services, infrastructure, housing, human
livelihoods and health.
Human activities are releasing greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is produced when
fossil fuels are used to generate energy and when
forests are cut down and burned. Methane and nitrous
oxide are emitted from agricultural activities, changes
in land use, and other sources. Transport, industry and
households, all concentrated in urban centers are
among the key sectors which release greenhouse
gases. Artificial chemicals called halocarbons (CFCs,
HFCs, and PFCs) and other long-lived gases such as
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are released by industrial
processes. Ozone in the lower atmosphere is generated
indirectly by automobile exhaust fumes and other
sources. Power generation for electricity, heat, and
industrial activities makes up the bulk of emissions.
This is followed by land use changes (for example,
deforestation and burning), agriculture (including
fertilizer use and livestock), and transportation (fossil
fuels for automobiles) (8).
Rising levels of greenhouse gases are already
changing the climate. By absorbing infrared radiation,
these gases control the way natural energy flows
through the climate system. In response to humanitys
emissions, the climate has started to adjust to a thicker
blanket of greenhouse gases in order to maintain the
balance between energy arriving from the sun and
energy escaping back into space. Observations show
that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6C
over the 20th century. There is new and stronger
evidence that most of the observed warming over the
last 50 years is attributable to human activities.
Rising temperatures also result in increased
energy use, especially in cities where temperatures
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Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India
are already higher than in the surrounding rural areas
due to large expanses of concrete and pavement. Loss
of green cover in cities in the form of parks, trees and
agricultural land raises urban temperatures, as well as
contributing to climate change. Cities consume as much
as 80 percent of energy production worldwide and
account for a roughly equal share of global greenhouse
gas emissions. As development proceeds, greenhouse
gas emissions are driven less by industrial activities
and more by the energy services required for lighting,
heating, and cooling. The International Energy Agency
(IEA) estimates that urban areas currently account
for over 67 percent of energy-related global greenhouse
gases, which is expected to rise to 74 percent by 2030.
It is estimated that 89 percent of the increase in CO2
from energy use will be from developing countries (1).
How cities add to climate change problems
Urban activities generate close to 80 per cent of
all carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as significant amounts
of other greenhouse gases. Direct sources of
greenhouse gas emissions include energy generation,
vehicles, industry and the burning of fossil fuels and
biomass in households. Emissions from vehicles and
transport equipment are rising at a rate of 2.5 per cent
each year, and contribute not only to CO2 emissions,
but also to local and regional pollution problems through
the emission of carbon monoxide, lead, sulphur oxides
and nitrogen oxides. The electrical energy for public
lighting and transportation, and industrial, commercial
and household consumption, is also a source of
emissions. Industry is responsible for 43 per cent of
the global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion.
In addition, a reduction in the amount of green cover
in urban areas reduces a citys ability to reabsorb CO2,
and poor waste management releases CFCs and gases
such as methane into the atmosphere.
The need for urban adaptation
Cities are also a key contributor to climate change,
as city activities are the main source for carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions. It is essential, to make cities an
integral part of the solution in the fight against climate
change. Many cities are already doing a lot by using
renewable energy sources, cleaner production
techniques and regulations to control industrial
emissions. Energy-efficient housing, measures to
reduce traffic and vehicle emissions and to promote
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
non-motorized transport, contribute directly to the
reduction of CO2. Cutting emissions will also reduce
local pollution from industries and transport, thus
improving urban air quality and the health of city
dwellers. Co benefits are substantial. They include
public health improvements, cost savings through
increased efficiency, and energy security. Policies to
reduce GHG emissions through increasing energy
efficiency can result in significant reductions in energy
costs. These energy savings can compensate for the
initial investment. A good example is Los Angeles
where the city has retrofitted most of its public buildings.
In three years, investment costs were recovered by
savings in energy bills.
Low-carbon emissions and low pollution levels
are essential components of the quality of life
in cities.
Competitive cities that are eager to attract human
and financial capital to promote jobs and prosperity
need to curb air pollution and ensure a healthy
environment Until recently, most city programs to
address climate change have been focused on reducing
emissions of greenhouse gases to slow the rate of
climate change. These policies and programs are
referred to as climate change mitigation and include
activities to:
Encourage energy conservation and energy
efficiency
Expand renewable energy
Curb urban sprawl
Invest in public transportation, and
Capture methane from sewage and landfill
operations, and other initiatives.
These activities are vitally important. Many
reports indicate that reductions of 60 to 70% percent
of emissions are needed by 2050 in order for climate
stabilization to occur. This will require the concerted
effort of all levels of government, though cities can
make an important contribution to emissions reduction.
However, it is evident that even if we were able to
halt all greenhouse gas emissions immediately, climate
change will continue for the foreseeable future.
Greenhouse gases that have already accumulated
in the atmosphere will continue to alter our climate
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systems. As a consequence, actions to reduce the
vulnerability of populations to current and future climate
impacts are also vital. Programs that help reduce our
vulnerability to climate change are referred to as
adaptation to climate change. Adaptation can occur
prior to expected climate events anticipatory
adaptation or in response to an adverse climate event
reactive adaptation (6).
Cities are also a key contributor to climate change,
as city activities are the main source for carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions. It is essential, to make cities an
integral part of the solution in the fight against climate
change. Many cities are already doing a lot by using
renewable energy sources, cleaner production
techniques and regulations to control industrial
emissions. Energy-efficient housing, measures to
reduce traffic and vehicle emissions and to promote
non-motorized transport, contribute directly to the
reduction of CO2. Cutting emissions will also reduce
local pollution from industries and transport, thus
improving urban air quality and the health of city
dwellers
4. Environment and landscaping
In a world of climate change, challenge in dealing
with the resulted problems is facing developing
countries, especially its impacts upon urban
environment. Consequently, climate change is
dramatically effects on urban, natural resources and
peoples livelihoods. Making cities green and healthy
goes far beyond simply reducing CO2 emissions. A
holistic approach to environmental and energy issues
has to be adopted, as the many components of the
natural ecosystem are interwoven with those of the
social, economic, cultural and political urban system in
a unique manner(2). The rapid growth in the Indian
population and the accompanying increase in home
construction have created a larger population of
consumers involved in landscaping to one degree or
another.
Landscape Gardening is an art of arranging
outdoor space for mans use and enjoyment, thereby
enhancing the functional and aesthetic quality of that
which the eye beholds. Landscaping combines
elements of art and science to create a functional,
aesthetically pleasing extension of indoor living to the
outdoors. One initial purpose of landscape design is to

blend mans technology (house or building) into the
natural surroundings. To work toward a desirable
landscape design, the landscape horticulturist must
have a working knowledge of art elements and design
principles.
Climate change and landscaping
Predictions of climate change suggest major
changes in global temperature, rainfall, frequency and
timing of extreme weather, varying considerably across
space and time. Although the predicted changes are
still highly uncertain, particularly at the regional level,
we anticipate profound effects on the functioning of
landscapes. Climate change will significantly affect all
types of land use and ecosystem services, as well as
the quality of life for societies. Landscape Architecture
Role in Mitigating Negative Climate Change is to
explore a unique vision to control the adverse impacts
of the climate changes upon human life and urban
quality(2). Some of the important steps in landscape
designing are as follows:
Site planning: By properly positioning a building,
providing for more open space and planting appropriate
vegetation, site planning techniques can significantly
reduce CO2 emissions. Site planning is the art and
science of arranging the uses of portions of land.
Proper site planning can lead to substantial reductions
in energy use and sequester sizeable amounts of
carbon emissions. Through an assessment of a
sites environment, the landscape architect can
purposefully site buildings, provide open space, and
specify appropriate vegetative density.In order to
develop a site plan that includes comprehensive
environmental mitigation solutions, the landscape
architect must perform a thorough site investigation.
Site reconnaissance includes a careful evaluation of
the sites ecosystem, including solar access, open space,
drainage, vegetation, growing potential, and other
important environmental characteristics of the sites
region. Information collected through this process
provides a guide for subsequent design
decisions.A building should be situated in a way that
maximizes the insulating and buffering capabilities of
trees. The site plan can orient structures within a site
to take advantage of trees and passive solar energy,
as well as minimize the impact of development on
existing environmental site conditions.
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Open spaces: Open green spaces such as parks,
meadows, and fields can be a reliable source of carbon
sequestration. Open spaces absorb heat and cool an
area through evapotranspiration (evaporation and plant
transpiration from the lands surface to the
atmosphere). Clustering buildings and structures allows
for more open space, and reduces removal of existing
vegetation.
Plant selection: Plant selection plays a critical role
in creating sustainable sites. Trees absorb CO2, emit
oxygen, and provide energy-saving insulation to
buildings in the area. A canopy of 100 ten-year-old
trees can sequester up to one ton of carbon each year.
Trees have a powerful impact when configured near
parking lots and other paved spaces. By shading
vehicles and pavement, the trees mitigate the urban
heat island effect (UHIE).
Green roofs: Green roofs are increasingly recognized
across the nation for their environmental benefits. A
green roof is a roof that is either partially or completely
covered with plants. By cooling the surface of the roofs,
green roofs can help a region mitigate global warming
by reducing energy use and GHG emissions. Green
roofs mitigate the UHIE effect through the process of
evapotranspiration, releasing cooling water into the
atmosphere, and lowering ambient temperatures.
Plants also convert CO2, water and sunlight into oxygen
and glucose through photosynthesis. This cyclical
process supplies animals and humans with oxygen and
food and reduces the concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere. Green roofs regulate roof temperatures
and protect them from the wide temperature swings
that boost energy consumption. With decreased heating
and cooling needs, buildings with green roofs use less
energy. Situation models found that a typical one-story
building with a growing medium of about 3-4 inches
would result in a 25 percent reduction in energy
consumption for summer cooling.
Benefits of trees in urban areas
Trees are major capital assets in cities across the
country. Just as streets, sidewalks, public buildings and
recreational facilities are a part of a communitys
infrastructure, so are publicly owned trees. Trees
and, collectively, the urban forest are important
assets that require care and maintenance the same as
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
other public property. Trees are on the job 24 hours
every day working for all of us to improve our
environment and quality of life. Aside from the obvious
aesthetic benefits, trees within our urban forest
improve our air, protect our water, save energy, and
improve economic sustainability.
Trees, shrubs, wildflowers, and other plants in the
residential landscape can provide food, shelter, and
nesting sites for wildlife. Diversity can be added with
locally native plants, fruit trees, or evergreen species
for year-round cover. Planting invasive species should
be avoided.
Flowering annuals, perennials, shrubs, and trees
can add color to the yard and attract birds, bees, and
butterflies by providing nectar, pollen, seeds, or fruit.
The use of native species should be encouraged.
Landscaping with native plants has several appealing
factors. Native plants have evolved and adapted to
local conditions over thousands of years. They are
vigorous and hardy and can survive winter cold and
summer heat. Once established, they require no
irrigation or fertilization. The diversity of native plants
includes interesting flowers and foliage. Native shrubs
and trees provide a variety of heights, shapes and
textures in the landscape. Annuals and perennials have
the added benefit of attracting and providing habitat
for beneficial insects that help keep pests under control.
Be aware that if you attract butterflies, you also attract
their babies, caterpillars, which might eat plant leaves.
Nest boxes for cavity-nesting birds, roosting boxes for
bats, nesting blocks and bare ground for native bees,
and host plants for butterflies and caterpillars can be
provided. Adding a backyard pond, water garden, or
birdbath to provide water for wildlife can be considered.
The type of plants will determine to a great extent the
amounts of water, fertilizer, or pest control methods
one has to employ for a healthy landscape. Plants are
also the means to beautify the yard and create
comfortable places to enjoy the outdoors. Decisions
on plant selection will affect wildlife habitat and other
environmental considerations.
Putting the right plant in the right place will
contribute to a plants healthy and productive life;
reduce the need for fertilizers, pruning, water,
pesticides, and the necessity of replacing it. For
example: Selection of plants for the soil moisture and
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light conditions at each potential planting site; then select
the plant that will be the desired mature height and
width for that site. (1) Plants scattered throughout the
lawn appear unorganized. They also create
maintenance problems in terms of mowing, raking, and
giving plants the amount of water they need. (2) Young
trees and shrubs are often planted too close together
to get a full look. The result several years later is a
crowed landscape. Plants must be removed or
drastically pruned to reduce competition. (3) Consider
mature height and width of the plant and select plants
with an ultimate (mature) size that fits their location.
When plants grow too tall, they cover windows and no
longer enhance the homes appearance. Homeowners
sometimes try to compensate for this misplanting by
shearing to control the plant size. This constant shearing
weakens and disfigures shrubs. It also creates extra
work and yard wastes. Plants too close to the house
create a maintenance nightmare when it is time to repair
or paint the house and can provide access for pests to
enter homes. Turf and other plant varieties that are
suited to local conditions can be chosen, i.e., sun
exposure, moisture requirements, climate, and soil.
Plants with invasive growth or seeding habits can be
avoided. Over-planting by crowding trees, shrubs, or
perennials should be avoided. Over-planting causes
further problems such as poor air circulation and
stunted growth.
Preventing pollution problems from lawn
and garden fertilizers
Fertilizers are used by homeowners to maintain
and improve landscape beauty and quality. Increased
use of home lawn and garden fertilizers, however, has
caused concern about pollution of lakes and
groundwater.
The two fertilizer nutrients primarily involved,
nitrogen and phosphorus, are needed by all plants for
healthy growth. Although an individual lawn or garden
seems small, the total area of lawns and gardens in
urban environments can be significant. Runoff and
drainage waters carrying these nutrients may move
over hard-surfaced streets where there is no soil to
act as a filter. The potential result is an increase in
pollution problems.

Proper fertilizer use can enhance plant growth
without polluting the environment. Yet, misuse of
fertilizer may not only harm the environment, but may
result in injury to landscape plants.
Phosphorus and runoff concerns
Phosphorus is one of the macronutrients essential
for plant growth. This nutrient can also be a primary
cause for lake enrichment leading to growth of algae
and weeds (a process called eutrophication).
Sometimes phosphorus in lawn and garden fertilizers
is implicated as the source of pollution, but this is not
always an accurate assessment of the problem.
Although misuse or misapplication can pollute lakes,
proper application following soil test recommendations
does not pose a significant threat of lake pollution and
may reduce pollution possibility. The major sources of
phosphorus in runoff are from lawn clippings and tree
leaves left in the streets and gutters. Other sources of
phosphorus may come from soil particles either blown
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into the lakes by wind erosion or carried in runoff over
bare soil.
Inorganic phosphorus moves very little in soil.
When applied and incorporated as a fertilizer,
phosphorus is quickly bound by soil particles. Most of
it is not immediately available to plants and doesnt
leach (wash) through the soil into lakes or ground
waters. Although phosphorus is relatively immobile in
soils, some runoff containing soil particles and dissolved
phosphorus can still occur. Phosphorus taken up by
plants is incorporated into organic compounds. If not
mixed into the soil, organic phosphorus from plant
residues such as lawn clippings and tree leaves is
soluble and a potential pollution source. Another source
of phosphorus lake pollution is from the settling of
phosphorus-containing soil particles moved by wind or
water. These sources of pollution are difficult to identify
and control. Living plants such as trees, shrubs, and
native vegetation around the lake reduce soil erosion
and help remove particles from the air and runoff.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective

Themed Gardens and Sustainable Garden Landscapes for Future

Bengaluru
B.N.Sathyanarayana

Bangalore since the period of erstwhile Mysore
Maharajas, had a prestigious distinction of being hailed
as the Garden city. Thanks to the continued efforts
through Government initiatives Bangalore has still
retained that aura. Though rapid urbanization (owing
to its status as one of the fastest growing metros in the
world) has brought in misery in other fronts such as
Infrastructure, drainage, transport, traffic etc., the
gardens have not waned. Still Bangalore has plenty of
greenery left. Thanks to BBMP and the State
Department of Horticulture Bangalore has the record
number of public parks and gardens. This factor though
is comforting, falls short on the quality factor. A garden
has to be developed keeping two major objectives in
mind. The garden could be considered only when it is
aesthetically beautiful and functional.
Some observations made on the existing gardens
and parks of Bangalore:While the parks and gardens
developed in Bangalore scores on the functional aspect
to an extent but falls short on the aesthetics.The
features in our gardens appear included with not much
of thought, lacking either in the scientific logic or
aesthetic or feasibility as far as its cost factor and
maintenance.If you have seen one, you have seen them
all! This is the naked truth of our overriding number of
Bengalurus garden landscapes and parks. With the
connoisseurs of garden, a feeling of melancholy has
already set in owing to the monotony in our designed
landscapes. Soon these feelings will set in with the
commoner of Bengaluru also.Are our landscapes
sustainable? The answer is not really! because it
was not a factor at all when the gardens were designed.
Way to go for future Bengaluru:Creating a garden
with no theme interwoven into it is like creating an
entity with no heart and soul in it. In essence, it is
creating a life form with no life in it.
Themed Garden:I do think themed Gardens are not
a new concept. In the past, though not known for any
style of its own in regard to gardens, in India, the
gardens created were of theme or subject based.
Vatsayana, in his famous work Kamasutra,has
described four types of gardens based on some themes
and were named as Udyana, Promododyana,
Nandanavana and Vrikshavatica and each one to serve
a purpose. Persian and Japanese garden were all based
on a central theme of heaven though they differed in
their perception of heaven as depicted in their
contrasting styles of garden.
Civilisations have come a long way and have
changed demographically and culturally. Different
cultures have come closer and the gap has narrowed
down. The styles of landscapes which were particular
to their culture and concepts as in the various styles of
World such as English, Italian, French,, Japanese,
Chinese, Persian and Moghul have now been on the
wane to a great extent and now the designs of
landscapes in different parts of the world are uniquely
contemporary. Industrialisation and modernization have
a telling impact on the present day designs. Engineering
marvels have crept into designs of landscapes. If you
have seen one, the other should be pleasing, amazing
or astonishingly different, unlike any of that we find in
Bengaluru, barring one or two exceptions.
Hence, Bengaluru being a worlds science and
technological hub, it is all the more important that we
redefine our cityscapes. Surely, you cant take away
the role of gardens in this endevour of redefining our
cityscape. Surely, one of the ways to make our garden
landscapes distinct and different is to develop theme
oriented gardens. Then what are theme garden?
I describe theme gardens as gardens built around
a concept, or a subject or an idea. We can create theme
gardens on diverse ideas. Ideas could be of social,
scientific or of environmental context, or simply sky is
the limit for ones imagination to zero in on an idea.
As one of the core committee members of
the recent initiatives of BBMP (Greater Bengaluru City
Corporation) to design future garden landscapes for

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Bengaluru, I would surely relish the prospect of museums but well woven with other elements of a
associating myself in creating gardens with various basic garden with a greater emphasis on the element
themes. of mobility by bringing in plants which undergo distinct
changes with seasons, and to have shrubs and trees
Social themes which harbor lots of life forms such as birds, butterflies,
One religion one world insects etc.
Indias Freedom struggle
What are the advantages of designing themed
Celebration of Human spirit (Celebration of gardens? :These gardens lend freshness into garden
people winning over odds to serve the humankind) designs making us unique in our quest for gardens.
Human rights , and so on Bengaluru, surely would transform into a vibrant city.
Science themes What these gardens could do to our peoples
Space and Aliens, ethos?:These gardens and parks would connect us
Human colonisation in Moon and Mars and our children to this beautiful world and the universe.
Hence, our lives and life on this planet would be
Communication
worth it.
Robots, and so on
Sustainable Garden Landscapes:We are living in
For children
an era of degradation and crisis of limitation of all the
Spirit of Adventure vital resources which go on to sustain our life on earth.
Its our Universe To sustain ourselves and all the life around us, it is
Elephant park (showcasing world species of time we save our resources such as water, earth, and
elephants) energy and of course sustain our ecology. This could
Canine park only be achieved by creating our gardens which are
resource friendly.
Bird park
Butterfly What we could do to make our gardens resource
friendly?:It is time we do away or lessen the features
Our Village
in our garden which demand more water (such as
Snake park, and so on. lawns), more energy (such as artificial waterfalls,
Environment sprinklers etc.), conventional lighting source (by
One world switching on to CFLs and LEDs), etc.
Energy and our future, and so on Hence, it makes a lot of sense to have lots of
Horticultural themes perennial plants and trees which are less demanding
on water resources. Sprinklers could be used with the
Herbal Garden
idea of creating humidity and thus bringing down the
Garden of colors heat in the area. This in turn would help sustain many
Fragrant Garden life forms.
Fruit Garden, and so on..
Its time we put in our heart and soul while
The list could go on .. and lets not forget creating gardens and sincerely make a change for the
that all these gardens are not developed as just better of our living and thus create a healthy society.

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Horticulture -A Perspective
Landscape Gardening Retrospect and Prospect
H.P. Singh and H.P. Sumangla
The gardens and parks are the symbol of
prosperity of nation. India has the heritage of many
popular gardens and is known for garden culture to
share with the world. But with increasing urbanization,
population and effect of climate change, clean and
pollution free healthy environment is inevitable for good
health. The concept for green living has been increasing
among the public and there is demand for beautifying
the surroundings with exemplary landscape designs.
This concern has fuelled the growth but there are many
challenges which require to be addressed. Therefore,
this National Consultation, organized by the Indian
Society of Ornamental Horticulture at the Indian
Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, is timely
to take stock of current situation and develop strategies
for landscape gardening on scientific lines. Bangalore
has been pioneer in landscape and has contributed to
the introduction of new plant species, large scale
propagation and designing acceptable landscape and
it is befitting to organize this National Consultation,
first of its kind at this premier institute.
Scenario of food and nutrition
After achieving self sufficiency in cereal
production, horticulture got attention in early nineties
through higher plan investment. The investment has
been rewarding in terms of increased production.
Efforts have resulted in achieving 9 times increase in
horticulture production from the base level of 1950-
51. This has been possible due to technological
interventions. Resultantly, (Horticulture, which includes
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fruits, vegetables, flowers, potato and tuber crops,
spices, medicinal and aromatic plants and plantation
crops) has emerged as the best option for diversification
to meet the need for food, nutrition, health care besides
providing better returns on farm land and employment.
The changing scenario is attributed to technological
interventions and efforts for development. Science and
technology-led development has been a driving force
to face the challenges. Therefore, horticulture research
needs much more attention for utilization of waste land,
greening nutritional security, employment opportunity,
reversing the declining profitability, gender equity, health
care and above all for inclusive growth. Looking to
the challenge to produce more from less land and water,
the task to be accomplished, is much greater than
before. Thus needs a concerted effort.
Challenges of climate change
Climate change, a cause of concern globally will
have impact on horticultural crops, due to erratic
rainfall, more demand for water, and enhanced biotic
and abiotic stresses. However, the changes will not
only be harmful, as enhanced CO2 concentration may
enhance photosynthesis and increased temperature
may hasten the process of maturity. Increased
temperature will have more effect on reproductive
biology and reduced water may affect the productivity
but adaptive mechanism like time adjustment and
productive use of water shall reduce the negative
impact. These challenges could be addressed through

identification of the gene tolerant to high temperature,
flooding and drought, development of nutrient efficient
cultivars and production system for efficient use of
nutrients and water. Strategies therefore, have to
address the enhanced water efficiency, cultural
practices that conserve water and promote crop.
Development of climate resilient horticultural crops
which are tolerant to high temperature, moisture stress,
salinity and climate proofing though genomics and
biotechnology would be essentially required. On the
other hand we need better surroundings and congenial
work environment for better health and efficiency. Well
designed landscape gardening would be one of the
approach. Because plants offer tremendous
environmental benefits. Micro climate created by plants
reduces temperature and is effective in augmentation
of carbon concentration and solar energy. Finally, it is
one of the tools for mitigation of pollution and controlling
soil erosion, regulating air movement, controlling glare
and above all carbon sequestration. But this would
need highly prioritized research to address the impact
of climate change. We must have also to enhance the
knowledge to address all the strategies and harness
the ecological benefits out of the landscape gardening
system which can convert the challenges into
opportunity for better living and working.
Landscape gardening an aesthetic way to
mitigate climate change
Landscaping, a creative skill has integration
of art and science of using plants in combination with
other garden features in a planned manner. In past,
landscape gardens have also served as conservation
for many plant species. Although, objective of landscape
gardening is beautification for aesthetic values it plays
a significant role in augmenting the micro-climate thus
is becoming an integrated part of the community. The
use of plants and flowers in daily life has also increased
and is regarded as necessity. A small garden attached
to the home is considered an added attraction and a
matter of great pride. Similarly, few potted plants in a
balcony of a residential flat of a multistoried building
bring enormous joy to the owner. On the other hand, a
well designed park with green lawn, trees, flower beds
and other features bring pure joy and enjoyment for
the public. Thus, landscape gardening is always a
source of pleasure and enjoyment. Its functional use,
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aesthetic value and ability to create an ambient
environment are well accepted by all
Landscaping focuses on the beautification of
outdoor terrain and to some extent, interior settings.
Landscaping usually begins with the sculpting of the
soil and natural lay of the land. It involves the planting
of ornamental trees, fruit trees, shrubs, vines, ground
covers, perennial flowers, annual flowers and bulbs.
Landscaping involves physical features of hardscape,
which includes fences, terraces, retaining walls, patios,
walks, drives, irrigation systems, lighting and water
features. However the art of landscaping has accrued
substantial benefits to mankind including control of
erosion, protect water supplies, provide food, create
habitat for wildlife, and providing clean environment
by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.
These days landscape gardening has become a major
business venture, which promotes the nursery business
as well. In present day context, the places where there
is no space for outdoor landscaping; indoor landscaping
is also becoming popular. Indoor landscaping includes
the use of poted plants, terrariums, dish gardens, tray
gardens; bonsai etc. In certain places, when ground
space is not available for landscaping roof gardening;
terrace gardening and window boxes are better options.
Landscaping has also become popular on a smaller
scale. In present day conditions, problems like water,
air, soil and noise pollution can be resolved with
landscaping to a great extent. It brings a wide scope
for landscape planners as well as designers to harness
its potential for the betterment of the society and to
earn profits. Landscaping industry also provides
business to allied industries.
Historical perspective
India is one of the few nations to have had a
continuous civilization from about 3000 BC and love
for flowers and plants and garden has been a cultural
heritage. Evidences of landscape gardening is available
from Harappa Civilization, (2500-2000 B.C). Trees
were considered important and to protect them they
were given religious values but the philosophy behind
using trees was not merely religious but it was symbol
of mutual respect and cordial relationship. There are
many references to forests, forest glades, and flower
filled clearings in the passages about life in the forests
in the Puranas and the Indian epics. Typically these
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
mention flowering creepers, shading trees, singing
birds, fragrant flowers, and ponds, often associated
with an ashrama or other simple dwelling. A landscape
garden with trees and flowers are also described in
Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and is attached to
kings and of rishis. In some cases, such as the
descriptions of early Pataliputra under the Magadhas,
accounts of informal gardens are given in relation to
cities, or in the immediate neighborhood of cities.
Earliest outline of the formal gardens of a palace comes
from about AD400 from Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. This
has a strong rectangular layout, based on the axis of
the palace. Mughal Gardens came into existence in
India in 15th century, during Emperor Babars period.
Their gardens are formal gardens which are based on
the geometric surrounds of a civic building, aligned with
the compass directions, and is based on the cosmic
order. Italian gardens came into existence at the time
of Renaissance that it reappeared in popular culture.
The renaissance landscape developed through the 16th
and 17th centuries, leading to levels of grandeur as
seen in the work at Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles
among other locations. In 18th century England, a new
breed of landscapers came to the fore, such as William
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Kent, Humphrey Repton and Lancelot Capability
Brown, who each created vast parklands, and
remodeled the extensive grounds of stately homes, to
resemble a neat and tidy version of nature. However,
during the time of Emperor Ashoka (268-231BC) the
planting of roadside trees started, but there was no
planning and planting was done haphazardly.
Current perspective of landscape
gardening
The history reveals the changing scenario of Indian
gardens and landscape with changing culture. The
historical landscape is an act as the protocol for
development and progress if we dive into idea and
philosophy of gardening. India has great garden culture
to share with world. Around 1200 to 1000 B.C. India
had a developed art of town planning irrigation systems
were also developed and were in use. In the 19th
century, urban planning became important, and this gave
rise to the modern focus of landscaping, due to the
desire of people to blend modern planning with the
traditional landscaping which had been previously
enjoyed. Today, landscape architecture is a widely
practiced discipline, with innovation in designs and plans
for gardens and public spaces occurring around the
world. Today in the time of globalization, the gardens
also have corporate touch to its features, elements and
principles. The idea of garden is changing as the people
have isolated from natural greens, they have started
living in compact crunchy spaces. The resources are
shrinking. I would like to recall what Mahatma has
said Earth produce enough what everybody needs
but it cant fulfill everybodys greed. The urbanization
in India is taking place at a faster rate and is expected
that by 2030, 41 per cent of population will be living in

urban areas. Keeping in view the different aspects of
population demography, the urban landscaping need to
go through major breakthrough and use of greens
intelligently in most appealing way by using growing
structures and selective single or multiple plant species.
The challenge to us is to provide each one of them, a
space with pollution free breath, where one can
recharge body, mind and soul, where one will call self
a lifelong student of nature, where families will have
everlasting joy, secure feeling and will live memories
with their close ones.
Global scenario of landscape gardening
The landscape which is gaining popularity in recent
times is also known globally as the Lifestyle
Horticulture Green Industry or Environmental
Horticulture Industry. The impact of lifestyle
horticulture on global economy is estimated to be worth
$ 286.7 billion (Bn). Most countries of the world, more
particularly the developed economies, have in the
recent times a well established lifestyle horticulture
industry like in USA, Australia and Europe, where it is
the fastest growing enterprise in horticulture, increasing
at roughly US$ 500 million annually. In most of these
countries, cut flowers constitute the most prominent
part, but they lack the comprehensive coverage to
encompass the entire industry. The groundbreaking
study in USA has triggered efforts in other countries
to develop a rough measure of what the economic value
of lifestyle horticulture might be at global level. Most
nations are scrutinizing the use of these resources
through the analytical lens of benefits and costs. In
the USA, the economic value of lifestyle horticulture
represents approximately 1% of GDP, thus leading to
the assumption that in such developed economies,
people would spend more on lifestyle horticulture
amenities, than the developing nation.
Landscape gardening which includes growing and
utilization of garden flowers, turf grass, bedding plants,
potted plants, hedges, edges, water garden, rock garden
etc. has made appreciable growth in the last two
decades as commercial venture. The use of floricultural
produce is no longer confined to religious purposes
alone but floriculture has become a part of modern
lifestyle and floral products are being utilized in floral
decorations, floral craft, interiorscaping and beautifying
commercial premises. Thus, the lifestyle horticulture
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represents business and activities involving production
of ornamental plants, cut flowers, turf, foliage and
delivers a range of services for such projects. The
business has transformed to landscape design,
contracting and maintenance services, whole sale and
retail sales, development of parks and leisure places,
gardens, besides providing technical advices.
Resultantly, development of landscape gardening has
provided not only opportunities for floriculture farming
but also for improving livelihood compared to other
crops. The development of landscape gardening also
provides very good business opportunities in other allied
sectors like specialized transport services and
production of supply of allied products, nursery bags,
pots, potting media, tools, plant protection and other
equipments etc. This has happened due to the vision
of policy planners who were involved with various
stakeholders in floriculture sector and provided the
required direction that has resulted in appropriate
growth in ornamental horticulture.
Scientific efforts for landscape gardening
The horticultural research has received focus and work
is done through various institutes. The work on
ornamental horticulture (floriculture and landscape) has
been largely done in the division of horticulture in
institutes/SAUs. National Research Centres for
Orchids started in Sikkim has focus on
commercialization of orchids. All India Coordinated
Project started in 1971 has major focus on garden
flower or cutflowers. To widen the scope of research
and to integrate the efforts, ICAR has established a
Directorate of Floriculture Research at New Delhi.
Although, at all the places, the division of floriculture
has mandate for landscape but, no research on design
development, harmonization of plants and impact
related to climate has been done. Research related to
turf grasses has also not been attempted. Many of the
countries have a dependant of Environmental
horticulture, which deals with landscape gardening and
have succeeded in development of better human
resources. Considering the changing scenario and our
heritage, it would be pertinent to start a division of
Environmental horticulture and having the focus on
landscape gardening on scientific lines which should
include civil architectures, plant architecture relation
with environment and appropriate designing skilled.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
This would go in long way not only providing skill human
resources but would create lot of direct and indirect
employment at different levels.
Landscape gardening and ecological
benefits
Continuing deforestation and rapid urbanization the
masses of concrete are increasing day by day thereby,
resulting in increased pollution. Therefore, there is an
urgent need to tackle this problem in order to keep our
surroundings green, healthy and eco friendly.
Landscaping is one of the major solutions to this
problem. Landscapes can be classified as outdoor
landscaping and indoor landscaping (interior scaping).
According to use and requirement of people,
landscaping can be done for public offices like courts,
private offices, government offices, corporate houses,
cinemas, hotels; educational institutes like school,
colleges, university campus; factories; places of
historical importance; places of worship like temple,
mosque, church; cemeteries and burial grounds etc.
Besides this, landscaping of public places like highways
(either national or state), railway stations, railway lines,
bus terminus, airports, etc. is also very important.
Commercial outdoor landscaping includes the golf
industry, lawns for cricket grounds and pitches etc.
The intelligent landscape management can reduce
water and air pollution, mitigate health risks for people
and wildlife, and safeguard the environment and species
diversity. By implementing sound landscaping principles
one can also reduce landscape maintenance costs.
The cities seem to suffer from air pollution more than
other rural areas. The common pollutants in the air
are carbon dioxide (maximum) and other gases of
nitrogen, sulphur, fluorine and volatile pesticides. Plants
can reduce the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
as they take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
and give out oxygen, thus purifying the air. Similarly a
number of leguminous ornamental plants fix the
atmospheric nitrogen and reduce the pollution. Plants
with thick foliage also trap pollutants, which are later
on washed away by the rains. Some plants, such as,
hydrangea, mustard and hyacinth absorb toxic material
from the environment. Plants can block, diffuse, guide
or channel winds. Along street canyons, plants could
be used to direct wind so that the wind flushes out the
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polluted air. In areas of wind tunnels, hard, sturdy plants
could be used to block or diffuse winds.
Besides air, water and noise pollution, the plants control
erosion caused due to excessive wind, rain or snow.
Plants with good branching and deep root system well
developed fibrous surface roots, help reducing the loss
of fertile top soil. Thus plants also control soil erosion
besides controlling landslides and mudslides. Plants
reduce radiated heat, thereby bringing down
temperature. In winter, deciduous trees which shed
their leaves, allow sunlight to pass through, thereby
warming the area. Besides harvesting the sunlight for
photosynthesis the canopy also transpires and liberates
moisture which reduces the air temperature to a great
extent.
Landscape gardening system and
principles behind planning
Landscaping may be best long-term investment for
reducing heating and cooling costs, while also bringing
other improvements to the community. With some
careful thought one can incorporate many of the
principles of conservation landscaping and create a
beautiful, as well as environmentally sound, landscape.
Native plants have adapted to the growing conditions
of an area and are better able to handle stress. Native
plants are available for landscaping and often require
less work to maintain than exotic plant species. Plants
grown from local seed sources or taken as cuttings
from existing native plants are best suited to the soil
and climatic conditions of the area. The use of native
grasses in the lawns to the area and appropriate to
growing conditions, will not only reduce dependence
on a regime of watering but also fertilizers requirement
can be reduced.
Interior-scaping- a miniature landscape
It is now common to find living plants inside homes,
offices, banks, hotels, restaurants, clubs, hospitals and
schools. They are used for esthetic improvement to
any indoor area or interior landscape, as well as
functioning to remove air pollutants from the interior
environment. Plants take on many indoor
environmental health problems by reducing levels of
carbon dioxide, increasing relative humidity, reducing
airborne dust levels, and reducing levels of certain

common interior pollutants such as formaldehyde,
benzene, and nitrogen dioxide. Clean air, increased
productivity, stress reduction, and reduced sick days
are the documented reasons to include professional
plant services in interior landscape. NASA research
showed that many house plants have the ability to
remove pollutants such as benzene and formaldehyde
from indoor air. Important air-purifying house plants
are suitable for interiorscaping are Golden pothos
(Epipremnum aureum), Dracaena deremensis
Striped, Peace lily (Spathiphyllum sp.), Spider plant
(Chlorophytum comosum Vittatum), Chinese
evergreen (Aglaonema crispum Deborah). Interior
decoration of houses with plants and miniature
landscaping is gaining popularity. Some special features
of interiorscaping such as Terrarium (glass cases), bottle
garden, or aquarium and a beautiful mini landscaping
in a dish, or a bowl, play a very important role to develop
attractive mini garden inside a house. Suitable plants
for terrarium are Acorus gramineous Varigatus,
Begonia-rex, Chamaedorea, Cryplanthus acaulis,
Dracaena snaderiana, ferns, Fittonia verschaffettii
var. argyroneura, Maranta cenconcura, Pellionia
pulchera, Selaginella krassiana. Trailing plants such
as Hedera helix, Pilea mescosa, Syngonium
podophyllum or Zebrina pendula can be used for
tray garden which will hang down to the side of the
bowl or dish. A desert scene can be creating in such
type of gardens by planting small cacti or succulents
amidst small piece of stones and pebbles.
Improving the ecosystem
Flowering /foliage plants in the garden not only add
beauty but also help to improve the ecosystem. Trees
attract birds and also help in conservation of flora and
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Associations of India
fauna. Flowering and foliage plants play an important
role in reducing the temperature. As the scarcity of
water is becoming a major issue, recycled water can
be effectively used in gardens .This will help not only
in preventing environmental pollution but also helps in
beautification. The enormous potential of Landscape
Architecture sector needs to be utilized. This will help
in improving the living conditions of the people. Indoor
plants play an important role in beautification of the
work places and also help in improving the quality of
the air in the working area and improve the work
efficiency. Thematic or conceptual garden designing
is the present day trend. The native trees which utilize
more CO2 can be assessed by determining the carbon
use efficiency and photosynthetic efficiency of the
plants. Trees absorb CO2, emit oxygen, and provide
energy-saving insulation to buildings. A canopy of 100
ten-year-old trees can sequester up to one ton of
carbon each year. Green roofs are increasingly
recognized across the nation for their environmental
benefits.
Landscaping a specialization and rising
profession
The landscape designing has thrown up a number of
opportunities for creation of new avenues for
employment and professional development. Among
such professions, Landscape Architecture stands alone
in terms of its wider acceptance and job market in the
country and abroad. The term Landscape architecture
was invented by a Scotsman (Gilbert Laing Meason,
in 1828), it was an American (Frederick Law Olmsted)
who gave birth to the landscape architecture profession.
In 1863, official use of the designation landscape
architect by New Yorks park commissioners marked
the symbolic genesis of landscape architecture as a
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
modern design profession. Olmsted became a pioneer
and visionary for the profession. Landscape
architecture is the branch of architecture dealing with
the arrangement of land and buildings for human use
and enjoyment, rehabilitation of land and designing of
man-made constructs. The scope of the profession
includes architectural design, site planning, estate
development, urban/town planning, spatial planning and
historic preservation. Landscaping is a multi-
disciplinary field. The activities of a landscape architect
can range from the creation of public parks and
pathways to site planning for corporate office buildings,
from the design of residential estates to the design of
civil infrastructure and the management of
wildernesses or wetland reclamation of degraded
landscapes such as mines or landfills.
Landscape architecture and garden design are separate
arts with a shared and ancient heritage. The distinction
is that gardens are usually enclosed and private.
Landscape architecture is concerned with public
gardens and public spaces. Societies require landscape
architectural policies. Urbanization should be preceded
by landscape plans. With imagination and skill, land
uses can be integrated. Reservoirs should be planned
as part of a landscape. There is an opportunity to
develop reservoir side land for gardens. Reservoirs in
towns could provide a type of water recreation. With
environmental concerns becoming increasingly
important, landscape architects are being called upon
to bring their expertise to solve complex problems.
Rural concerns are attracting landscape architects to
farmland preservation, small town revitalization,
landscape preservation, and energy resource
development and conservation. Advances in computer
technology have opened the field of computerized
design, and land reclamation has become a major area
of work for members of the profession. Landscape
architects have even begun to use their skill within
indoor environments. In future more people seek the
expertise and services of the profession.
Education in landscape gardening
The education in Landscaping is offered in vary limited
institutions across the country. Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi (Division of Floriculture
and Landscaping), offers courses in floriculture and
landscaping to M. Sc. and Ph.D. students. Dr.
82
Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture &
Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP) has an M.Sc programme
in Floriculture & Landscaping. The Yashwantrao
Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nasik offers a
diploma in landscape gardening. Landscape
architecture is offered as a postgraduate course
(Masters of LA) to graduates in architecture, civil
engineering and town planning. The Punjab Agricultural
University, (Department of Floriculture and
Landscaping) PAU, offers courses in floriculture and
landscaping to undergraduate and postgraduate (M.
Sc.) students. A PG Diploma in Interiors and
Landscape Design is offered at NISIET, Hyderabad.
School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi
(Deemed University), offers under graduate and
masters degree in planning and architecture. There is
a need to strengthen the education system with new
curriculum and also establish specialized institutions to
cater to this sector. A short course may also help the
curator of garden for enhanced skill for management
of garden. These courses will also help in developing
human resources.
The support for floriculture sector under the central
sector schemes and various state programmes is
confined to commercial floricultural crops but is not
extended to landscape gardening. Therefore keeping
in view of the enormous silent contribution of this sector
to the Indian economy, the National consultation that
is being organized by the Indian Society of Ornamental
Horticulture and Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research is in right perspective. I am sure the two
day deliberations would identify the issues and develop
a road map in order to bring to the fore the ground
realities of the sector and also to bring the required
attention to policy for providing suitable support
mechanism for the development of the landscape
gardening.
Research in landscape gardening has never been
a priority in our country. First Bermuda grass hybrid
was released in early 1960s in USA whereas we have
not even started the basic research work. Despite the
fact that Bermuda grass is indigenous to our region.
Novelties are always in demand and variety
development has shortest incubation period in
ornamentals. For garden use a plant just has to be
beautiful and tolerant to biotic and Abiotic stresses.

There has been a lot of breeding work but mostly
concentrated to commercial flower crops. There is
tremendous scope for new varieties of landscape
plants which must be tapped. Nursery production is a
huge business but lacks research backing. Plant
health management in landscapes is another priority
area for research which needs urgent attention.
Pollution mitigation and carbon sequestration by
individual plant species has not been explored to the
required level so far and merits attention for its great
benefits. Although late, computer aided landscape
design has recently been added to the course
curriculum of degrees in floriculture and landscaping.
This needs further strengthening though teachers
training and aiding development of landscape design
studios in the institutions offering these courses.
Databases of landscape plants should be developed
for ready reference of landscape designers.
Aesthetically planned surroundings are not a luxury
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Associations of India
anymore but form one of the basic necessities of life
due to its environmental benefits. Thus landscaping
deserves due importance in research priorities and
policy planning for providing better living conditions to
the people.
Conclusion
Landscape gardens have been a culture in India
which got different types of design and has harmony.
Many of past gardens are famous for its design and
wealth of plants. Now with increasing population,
urbanization and concern for environment landscape
gardens, which provides environmental services
through its mitigation effect, are becoming very
important. Therefore, there is a need for scientifically
designed landscape garden both exterior and interior,
which would need research focus and human resource
developm
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Green Space in Cities Importance and Scope
V. Ponnuswami
Green spaces are the trees and grass and
shrubs in yards, parks or medians, intermingled
throughout the built environment. Green space is any
piece of land covered with vegetation and usually refers
to parks, golf courses, sports fields and other open
land within the built-up area, whether publicly
accessible or not. The term urban open space can
describe many types of open areas. According to one
definition urban open space may be defined as, The
counterpart of development, and a natural and cultural
resource not being synonymous with either unused
land or park and recreation areas. According to
another definition urban open space may be defined
as, The land and/or water area with its surface open
to the sky, consciously acquired or publicly regulated
to serve conservation and urban shaping function in
addition to providing recreational opportunities.
In almost all instances, the space referred to by
the term is, in fact, green space. However, there are
examples of urban green space which, though not
publicly owned/regulated, are still considered urban
open space. Generally considered open to the public,
urban open spaces are sometimes privately owned.
Some examples of such places include higher education
campuses, neighbourhood/community parks/gardens,
and institutional or corporate grounds. These areas still
function to provide aesthetic and psychological relief
from urban development. Urban settlements
transform the natural environment so greatly that people
tend to see the city only as an employment site, and
economic and cultural center. Thus a growing number
of people prefer to reside in greener suburbs or rural
areas. This results in increased automobile commuter
traffic, accompanied by traffic jams, accidents, stress,
and ever more damage to the environment. Concepts
of sustainable development or the ecological city
represent strategies for changing these negative trends.
The purpose for doing so is principally the well-being
of a citys residents. Often this entails bringing more
of the natural environment back into the city, because
urban green space fulfils several critical functions in
an urban context that benefit peoples quality of life.
There is a broad consensus about the importance, and
84
therefore the value, of urban green space in cities as
currently constructed, in addition to its value in planning
ecological cities. Steadily growing traffic and urban heat
not only damage the environment, but also incur social
and economic costs. Expenditures can be saved by
making small changes to existing situations.
Furthermore, an integrated approach is needed for
designing and maintaining urban green space.
Role of parks and green open spaces in
urban areas
The role of parks and green open spaces in urban
areas is often underestimated. The potential of these
areas to improve both the quality of life of city dwellers
and urban sustainability is not always fully realized. In
order for green spaces and trees to make a meaningful
contribution to city branding, green space planners and
managers need to find out how green spaces can
contribute to a citys main agendas. Today, for example,
this relates very much to topics such as global
competitiveness, social cohesion, lifestyle changes (and
health challenges), and climate change. Green spaces
link up to all of these agendas. Green cities are more
successful in attracting talent, innovation, investment
and visitors. Green spaces have been found to offer
important public spaces acting as social meeting points
for the citys different resident groups. Use of, and
simply having a view of, green spaces promotes
peoples health and wellbeing. Moreover, although urban
trees help sequester greenhouse gases, urban forestrys
main contribution to the climate change agenda relates
to making cities more resilient. Trees and green spaces
moderate urban climates and help in storm water
management.
Benefits of urban open space
The benefits that urban open space provides to
citizens can be broken into three basic forms;
recreation, ecology, and aesthetic value.
Recreational
Urban open space is often appreciated for the
recreational opportunities it provides. Recreation in

urban open space may include active recreation (such
as organized sports and individual exercise) or passive
recreation, which may simply entail being in the open
space. Time spent in an urban open space for recreation
offers a reprieve from the urban environment.
Ecological
The conservation of nature in an urban
environment has direct impact on people for another
reason as well. Popular awareness of the balance of
nature, of natural processes and of mans place in
nature and his effect on nature i.e., ecological
awareness is important. As human live more and more
in man-made surroundings i.e., cities, he risks harming
himself by building and acting in ignorance of natural
processes. Beyond this man-nature benefit, urban open
spaces also serve as islands of nature,
promoting biodiversity and providing a home for natural
species in environments that are otherwise
uninhabitable due to city development.
Aesthetic
The aesthetic value of urban open spaces is self-
evident. People enjoy viewing nature, especially when
it is otherwise extensively deprived, as is the case in
urban environments. Therefore, open space offers the
value of substituting gray infrastructure.
Other values of urban open space
The value of urban open space can also be
considered with regards to the specific functions it
provides. These functions may be described as; the
nature function, urban design function, economic
function, social retreat function and outdoor recreation
function. From a sociological viewpoint, civic and
social capital, cultural expression, economic
development, education, green infrastructure, public
health, recreation, and urban form are the benefits of
urban open space.
Additional beneficial aspects of urban open space
can be factored into how valuable it is compared to
other urban development. One study categorizes these
measures of value into six groups: utility, function,
contemplative, aesthetic, recreational, and
ecological. These categories account for the value an
urban open space holds to the development of the city
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Associations of India
in addition to just those things citizens consciously
appreciate. For example, the function value of an
open space accounts for, the advantages an urban open
space may provide in controlling run off. The major
three values listed, aesthetic, recreational, and
ecological, are essentially the same as the values that
make urban open spaces consciously valuable to
citizens. Significant research supports the notion that
urban open spaces offer health benefits to city
residents through exposure to a natural environment.
It has been unambiguously shown that there is a strong
association between the enjoyment of nature and the
health of a city population in general.
Several epidemiological studies were carried
out in Britain, Netherlands and Tokyo to examine the
health of various classes of people in relationship to
the presence of green space in their surroundings. All
the studies pointed to the potential benefits of nearby
nature, listed below:
A positive effect on recovery from stress and
attention fatigue.
A positive impact on mood, concentration, mental
fatigue, self-discipline and physiological stress.
Faster recovery rates for hospital patients, who
have a view of nature.
Parents of children suffering from Attention
Deficit Disorder, report
improvement and fewer attention problems when
the area of play is in
natural settings.
Green spaces may enhance the potential of
creating and sustaining community interaction and
networks.
Urban open spaces offer citizens relief from the
strains of urban environments and everyday demands.
That respite can come in the form of a walk or run,
time spent sitting or reading, watching the birds,
essentially any time spent in the natural environment
the open space offers. Research shows that when
open spaces are attractive and accessible, people are
more likely to engage in physical activity, which has
obvious inherent health benefits. Accessibility has been
shown to increase open space use, (Hartig, 2007).
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Public recreation parks are multi-use, but
recent advances in best practices has prompted many
cities to move away from old-fashioned and biologically
impoverished urban savannah designs, to mosaic
environments, which allow full recreational use but
maintain higher levels of biodiversity and hence deliver
greater benefits to human well-being. Further research
has established that the psychological benefits gained
by visitors to urban green spaces increase with
biodiversity, indicating that green alone is not
sufficient; the quality of that green is important in
delivering the health benefits.
Environmental benefits of green spaces
They filter pollutants and dust from the air, they
provide shade and lower temperatures in urban areas,
and they even reduce erosion of soil into our waterways.
These are just a few of the environmental benefits
that green spaces provide.
Urban advantages: More green space within a citys
boundaries can improve the urban environment. Some
of the advantages are, green spaces help regulate air
quality and climate, reduce energy consumption by
countering the warming effects of paved surfaces,
recharge groundwater supplies and protect lakes and
streams from polluted runoff.
Water quality protection: Proper landscaping
reduces nitrate leaching from the soil into the water
supply and reduces surface water runoff, keeping
phosphorus and other pollutants out of our waterways
and preventing septic system overload.
Reduced heat buildup: Trees in a parking lot can
reduce on-site heat buildup, decrease runoff and
enhance night time cool downs. Studies have shown a
31 degree difference between shaded and unshaded
areas.
Reduced soil erosion: A dense cover of plants and
mulch holds soil in place, keeping sediment out of lakes,
streams, storm drains and roads; and reducing flooding,
mudslides and dust storms.
Improved air quality: Trees, shrubs and turf remove
smoke, dust and other pollutants from the air. One tree
can remove 26 pounds of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere annually, equaling 11,000 miles of car
emissions. One study showed that one acre of trees
86
has the ability to remove 13 tons of particles and gases
annually and 2,500 square feet of turf absorbs carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and releases enough
oxygen for a family of four to breathe.
Lower attic temperatures: Trees shading homes can
reduce attic temperatures as much as 40 degrees.
According to the EPA, urban forests reduce urban air
temperatures significantly by shading heat sinks such
as buildings and concrete and returning humidity to
the air through evaporative cooling.
Natural resource conservation: By using trees to
modify temperatures, the amount of fossil fuels used
for cooling and heating is reduced. Properly placed
deciduous trees reduce house temperatures in the
summer, allowing air conditioning units to run 2 to 4
percent more efficiently. The trees also allow the sun
to warm the house in the winter.
Green roofs cool urban hot spots: Led by cities
such as Chicago and Toronto, as well as a number of
universities, evidence is mounting that green roofs (i.e.
roofs totally or partially covered with vegetation) can
play an important role in saving energy, reducing the
urban heat island effect and adding more green space
to a built environment.
Cooler summer days: Lawns will be 30 degrees
cooler than asphalt and 14 degrees cooler than bare
soil in the heat of summer.
Natural resource conservation: Homeowners can
grass cycle by leaving grass clippings on the lawn
when mowing. The clippings quickly decompose and
release valuable nutrients back into the soil to feed the
grass, reducing the need for nitrogen by 25 to 50
percent. Modern mulching lawn mowers make grass
cycling even easier, and homeowners can reduce their
mowing time by 30 to 40 percent by not having to bag
clippings.
Reduced pollution: Trees naturally remove pollutants
from the air, so every tree thats subtracted from a
citys ecosystem means some particulate pollution
remains that should have been filtered out. In
Washington, that amounts to 540 extra tons each year.
Rainfall retention: A healthy, sodded lawn absorbs
rainfall 6 times more effectively than a wheat field
and 4 times better than a hay field.

Natural storm water management : A big tree
removes 60 to 70 times the pollution than a small tree.
Biodiversity and ecosystems of urban
open space
The environment of an urban open space
significantly influences how that space is perceived
and used. Some green spaces maintain a natural
environment with a native and self-
sustaining ecosystem. Depending on factors such as
the location of the city and the location of the space
within the city, this natural open space may be a grassy
field, woodland, or something aquatic such as a stream,
swamp, pond or lake. Other areas may be more heavily
influenced by its purpose and use. Examples of open
space that would match this description are playing
fields, gardens, or imposed ecosystems.
Species of flora and fauna commonly found in
urban open space may include species that have
adapted to city life as well as species not typical in the
conventional urban environment because of
significantly different ecosystems that comprise urban
open spaces. Species most often able to co-exist with
man in an urban setting are usually those that are
able to reproduce rapidly and to take advantage of
transitory conditions or to evolve varieties suited to
the urban situation. Therefore, larger urban open
spaces, especially those with various types of
environments, are more likely to support a diverse
ecosystem. Depending on the type of open space,
species may be either exotic or native producing a
corresponding ecosystem. Often, large urban open
spaces that rely on a natural local ecosystem
experience greater success in terms of maintaining a
balanced biodiversity, so long as the areas are
established and managed primarily to benefit natural
wildlife populations in order that they may function as
regional reservoirs.
Current trends
Segmentation of urban open spaces was
particularly prominent in America during the twentieth
century. Since the late 1800s, open space designers
have been concerned with guiding, containing or
separating urban growth, distributing recreation, and/
or producing scenic amenity, mostly within the
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framework of geometric abstractions. Such
segmentation was especially prominent in the 1990s,
when urban open spaces took a path similar to that of
parks, following the modernization trend of
segmentation and specialization of areas. In concert
with the additional social divisions, open spaces grew
more specific in purpose. Perhaps this increase in
division of social classes use of open space,
demonstrated by the segmentation of the spaces,
displays a situation similar to the privatization of London
parks in the eighteenth century, which displayed a desire
to make classes more distinct.
Today, not only is appreciation for and use of urban
open spaces flourishing in locations that historically
lacked such traditions, but also the number of urban
open spaces is increasing rapidly as well. In, places
like Scandinavia, which do not have a significant history
of outdoor recreation and gathering places, are seeing
a proliferation of urban open spaces and adopting a
lifestyle supported by the extra urban breathing room.
An example of this can be seen in Copenhagen where
an area closed to car traffic in 1962 developed, in just
a few decades, a culture of public political gatherings
and outdoor cafes emerged.
Controversy
Value
Properties near urban open space tend to have a
higher value. One study was able to demonstrate that,
a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase
in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water
(810%) or open space (612%). Housing zones
with proximity to the parks fetch high premium, when
the housing in question is an apartment whereas
independent houses, fetch low premium. This may be
due to the potential negative externalities that may
surround parks, particularly in the evenings.
Access
Urban open space is under strong pressure. Due
to increasing urbanization, combined with a spatial
planning policy of densification, more people face the
prospect of living in less green residential environments,
especially people from low economic strata. This may
lead to environmental injustice with regard to the
distribution of access to public green space.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Conclusion
One could argue that achieving ecological
sustainability in cities begins with green space.
Because the benefits of trees and natural vegetation
are so comprehensive and interconnected, simply
creating more green space within a citys boundaries
can improve the urban environment. Trees help regulate
local air quality and climate, countering the warming
effects of paved surfaces and energy consumption by
providing shade and absorbing heat through
evapotranspiration. Green spaces also contribute to
ecological health by breaking up the built and paved
landscape with land that filters storm water and
snowmelt, recharging groundwater supplies and
protecting lakes and streams from polluted runoff. In,
sufficiently large portions, green spaces can provide
important habitat for birds and other wildlife. The
benefits of urban green space are not limited to these
ecological services. Parks provide city residents with
opportunities for exercise and recreation. Street trees
can enhance the aesthetic appeal of neighborhoods
and promote an overall sense of well being in
communities; studies, in fact, have demonstrated a
connection between urban greenery and mental health.
Increasingly, green spaces are contributing to cities
local food supply, through their use as community
gardens or other urban agriculture initiatives.
Urban horticulture can take many different forms:
rooftop gardens, community gardens, and community
supported agriculture (CSA) farms in which people
purchase shares providing farmers with income up
88
front and customers with produce throughout the
growing season. The form or shape of urban
horticulture depends a lot on density. In downtown
areas, urban horticulture typically takes place on
rooftop gardens, balconies, temporarily vacant lots, and
occasionally in public parks. Small-scale greenhouse
systems, including hydroponics, can also be found in
some denser areas of the city. As one moves out from
the core urban horticulture often takes place along rail
lines or main roads. The final zone of urban horticulture
is the periphery, where the city merges into the
countryside. Agriculture operations in this area are
usually geared towards serving the metropolitan
market through CSAs and Farmers Markets.
Current thinking about urban agriculture and
horticulture encompasses the concept of food
systems, which refers to sustainable local production
and distribution of food. By incorporating food systems
into their planning process, cities can achieve energy
savings and other environmental benefits. Energy
consumption and pollution are reduced by cutting the
transportation requirements for bringing food from the
farm to the plate. Locally-grown food can often be
produced with minimal use of pesticides and fertilizers.
Urban agriculture provides social and economic
benefits as well. Community gardens can foster social
interaction and create educational opportunities for
children. By eliminating intermediate steps in the
conventional food distribution network, urban
agriculture can result in lower prices for consumers
and higher income for farmers.

Vertical Garden - A Boon for Limited Space
S.I. Hanamashetti, Balaji S. Kulkarni and Geeta Venkatapur
Vertical gardens are naturally, occurring or
created, vegetation on vertical surfaces. Vegetations
found at waterfalls, riverbanks, seeping rocks, cliffs,
caves, and slopes are some of the examples of
naturally occurring vertical gardens. Manmade vertical
gardens are plants that either partially or fully cover
the walls and pillars of the building inside or outside. In
urban areas space is a serious problem, and plants are
essential to function as sink of CO2, in this context,
vertical garden provide an option,which is the growing
of plants on the vertical surfaces, be it on the wall of a
home or something that is larger like the facade of a
building. A vertical garden is a living garden that grows
out from a surface such as a wall .Vertical gardens
design consists of natural elements interlaced with
aspects of urban living, architecture and environment.
A grid system that vertically stacks plants is a vertical
garden which combines industrial elements with plant-
based displays in freestanding walls.
Although the technology for vertical gardening is
relatively new, the idea appears to have been developed
centuries ago by the ancient civilization of
Mesopotamia. Most famous example of vertical
garden is the hanging gardens of Babylon created
seventh century B.C.. The Hanging Gardens of
Babylon were one of the greatest achievement of
vertical gardening in the ancient times. In 20th century,
French botanist Patrick Blanck created the green
wall. It was in 1988 that Patrick Blanc filed a patent
for the creation of a device to grow plants without
soil on a vertical surface,the modern green wall was
then created. The plant supporting system is very light
and thus can be implemented on any wall. Patrick Blanc
tells us, The Vertical Garden allows man to re-create
a living system very similar to natural environments.
Need for vertical garden
Vertical garden is a solution for small urban spaces.
Green or living wall improves air quality by sequestering
CO2 and reduces pressure on environment. It also
r
educes a heat radiations from the sun and helps in
stabilisation of temperature and humidity. The gardens
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also provide a privacy and disguise from unattractive
views. Buildings with interior planting looks very
expensive and welcoming to its residents. Vertical
garden is also called as Green wall or Living wall or
Fyto-wall or Bio-wall.
Green wall technologies may be divided into two
major categories Green faades are wall systems
where climbing plants or cascading groundcovers are
trained to cover specially designed supporting
structures. Planting materials can be rooted at the base
of the structures, in intermediate planters, or on
rooftops. Green faades can be attached to existing
walls or built as freestanding structures. It is a simple
system like what is seen in balconies and it requires
low maintenance. The Living walls (also called bio-
walls) are composed of pre-vegetated panels or
integrated fabric systems that are affixed to a structural
wall or frame. Modular panels can be comprised of
polypropylene plastic containers, geo-textiles, irrigation,
and growing medium and vegetation. Living walls are
walls, indoors and outdoors, composed of individual
planting cells attached to a supporting panel system.
Plant selection and management
The major concern, when a vertical garden is
installed outdoors, is the climate, because some plants
can live in certain climates and others could not. Indoor
vertical gardens are living in the same conditions all
over the world so it is easy to choose from any indoor
plants. There are approximately 400,000 different types
of plants species; however, not all of them can be used
in vertical gardens. Most plants that could be planted
in pots can be used in living walls and cascading plants
or vines could be used in green facades. Species
selection should be based on design criteria for the
particular type of living wall system and the climate.
Climber species that utilize the natural charecterstics
of climbing plants. The plants should be fast
growing,and foliage should cover the surface fully from
ground to top.Plants selected for vertical garden must
have capacity to withstand full sun exposure or
shadowing during the day from nearby buildings.Plant
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
species grown in a medium with limited root zone
volume fit well living wall system.The plants should
have a fibrous root system and strong stem to root
connection added with capacity to withstand
wind,exposure to sun and shade. A number of plants
have special features like fast growing or drought
tolerance are mostly recommended for moderate to
hot climates because they do not use much water. Other
plants which have attractive look of foliage,fragrant,
capacity to provide fruits and herbs can also be used
.However, plants should be evergreen depending on
the location
The critical criteria of a suitable planting media
for green wall planting is that it should be light in weight
with the ability to hold water and nutrients and should
offer adequate moisture holding capacity and the
capability of developing a firm root zone (for plant
stability). But it must also drain easily. Additionally, if
the system is to become an active green wall/bio wall
media must provide adequate air exchange. The supply
of moisture to the soil mass is critical to the survival of
the green wall. Although it may sound like an
elementary process, the supply of moisture to the plants
is a rather complex operation. The relatively thin, well
drained soilless mixtures used in a green wall cannot
provide the plantings with the subsurface water
normally available to ground level plantings. Care must
be exercised to prevent the planting media from drying
out and causing damage to the plant materials.
Normally,a sensor controlled drip irrigation system can
manage the irrigation system using a minimum of
water.Regular professional maintenance of the
plantings and facilities should be accounted for in
budgeting and planning. Special attention must be given
to pruning plant materials in order to maintain balance
between plant size and root growth (based on limited
availability of rooting area). Regular grooming on the
plants to remove dead and dying foliage should be
accounted for, and systems should be designed to
facilitate this.
Benefits of vertical gardens
The test performed on the southwest side of the
3rd level of the parking structure by choosing two
openings, one with a vertical garden and other without
,Indicated that temperature varies behind the vertical
garden and the empty area which ranged between 2-
90
8 degrees. The temperature behind the Vertical
Gardens was reduced the most around 1pm and 3pm
every day. Test with vertical garden showed a few
degrees reduction in temperature compared to the
opening without vertical garden. The relative humidity
differences behind the vertical garden and the empty
area were minimal. This helped in developing micro-
climate inside the building. In other test with three
different types, one with the hanging plants,second one
with green wall and another one with exposed concrete
wall indicated that green wall panels reduced the wall
temperature by 10C than the exposed concrete wall.
The system that was tested had automatic water drip
system for irrigation. The irrigation system was set to
work automatically every three days . The test cells
showed the increased level of relative humidity when
compared to the control cells. This may be due to the
fact that irrigation holds water, which helps to lower
the temperature that increases relative humidity. This
helps in maintaining the micro-climatic.
Green walls are able to filter contaminantes that
are regularly flushed out of buildings through traditional
ventilation systems. The filtration is performed by plants,
and in the case of bio-filtration it is the micro-organisms.
Elevated temperatures in modern urban environments
with increasing numbers of vehicles, air conditioners
and industrial emissions have led to a rise in nitrogen
oxides (NOx) sulphur oxides (SOx), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO) and
particulate matter. The emissions from IC engine
contain oxides of sulphates and nitrates. Inside the plant
tissues, they are oxidized to SO2 and NO2. To test,
the faade was exposed to an exhaust of a diesel
powered IC engine which was made to run purely
under no-load and full load conditions for 90 minutes.
The samples (leaves) were collected from the
experimental faade at an intervals of 15 minutes, to
study the emission effects. Altogether 6 sets of leaf
samples were taken plucked from random locations
on the faade for chemical analysis. The samples
collected were dried in an oven for 24 hours at 700 to
800C. The dried samples were then powdered and
the concentration of sulphates and nitrates were finally
determined by analyzing it through standard procedures
followed by UV spectrophotometer absorption method.
SumThe results obtained from the chemical
analysis of the collected samples under no-load and

full-load conditions reveal that sulphates and nitrates
are efficiently removed by facades draped with Passion
flower. Both under no-load and full-load test conditions,
although a steady sulphate concentration prevails
throughout the samples. The concentration of nitrates
showed a steep rise. The emissions from an IC engine
especially of NOx was more when compared to SOx
and carbon monoxide. If such a small leaf area of the
faade draped with passion flower creeper can oxidize
irreversibly reasonable quantity of sulphates and
nitrates, we can attain good mass transfer rate and
substantial atmospheric cleansing from full scale walls.
A study done on indoor plant system, to improve
the indoor air quality, and a correlation between the
CO 2 derived from human breathing and the
photosynthesis of plants indicated that correlation of
CO2 concentration change between plants and person
in the simulated space. The changes in CO 2
concentration in the person living area without the
plants increased quickly compared person living area
with the plants. Correlation of CO2 concentration
change between person with plants and person with
vertical garden showed that t vertical garden drastically
reduces the CO2 concentration .Evidently, CO2 can
be reduced by placing several indoor plants in a closed
room. A large amount of plants can be planted in a
small area only by vertical garden.
Noise is another indoor environmental factor that
affects occupants. It has been well established that
noisy environments are stressful, frustrating, and
prevent people from working at their best of capacity.
Installation of vertical garden can act as another layer
to absorb noise from outside as well as inside the
building.Moreover, the white noise produced by wind
moving through the branches and leaves of vertical
garden can play a positive.The growing media in living
wall systems will contribute to a reduction of sound
levels that transmit through or reflect from the living
wall system. The vegetations and the soil in the vertical
garden will also contribute to improving the sound
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Associations of India
insulation and reducing sound reflection. A set of tests
performed on the different specimen,to understand the
acoustical changes behind a vertical garden indicated
that climbers have the least absorption, but vertical
garden plants had better absorption.
Sick building syndrome (SBS) and the sick house
syndrome (SHS) have become more prevalent which
is a nonspecific symptoms such as eye, nose, skin and
throat irritations, headache, fatigue, and skin rashes.
Urbanisation,industrialisation,lack of space,poor
ventilation and pollute are associated this happenings.
Having vertical garden can reduce indoor volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and other compounds
linked to SBS . Vertical garden inside the building can
act as a bio-filter as well as oxygen-generator. A green
wall with a mass of plant leaf material can absorb
carbon oxides and heavy metal particles. For instance,
25 m2 of leaf surface area can produce 27g of oxygen
per hour during the day, equal to human consumption
and 150 m2 can balance human intake for one year.
60m2 of vertical garden can filter 40 tons of harmful
gases and process 15kg of heavy metals. Inside the
building, VOCs, benzene, toluene and other toxic fumes
are degraded by plants. These benefits will greatly
impact and help people suffering from respiratory
diseases.
There are many reasons for practicing vertical
gardening including both ecological and economical
benefits. For plant lovers and gardeners, it is a fun to
practice vertical gardening within limited spaces. For
educators, vertical gardening provides a creative and
exciting hands-on opportunity to teach science,
mathematics and economics. For health-conscious
consumers, vertical gardening, an organic growing
system, provides fresher and cleaner vegetables and
fruits with little or minimum usage of chemicals. For
business-minded persons, who do not have farm land,
vertical gardening serves as a production system which
may create a niche market for specialty vegetables,
herbs and fruits.
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants as Key Components in Urban and
Periurban Horticulture (UPH)
T. Vasantha Kumar, K. Hima Bindu, D.H. Sukanya and M.A. Suryanarayana
Introduction
Urban and peri urban Horticulture is assuming
importance and is evident throughout the world
including both developing and developed countries and
shows definite pattern.In developing countries the
proportion of people living in urban areas is rising. This
includes a large number of people who have migrated
from rural areas to become part of the informal urban
or peri urban sector and a smaller middle class with
jobs in the formal sector though there could be
exceptions like large and rapidly expanding middle class
in China. As far as India is concerned the Indian urban
population is increasing at an alarming pace adding a
growing number of urban poor which is an outcome of
migratory population from rural areas searching for
livelihood options in the cities. The present rapid
urbanization calls for an immediate attention to cater
for increasing demands of food security to combat
poverty, malnutrition in the urban and periurban areas.
Urban and peri urban horticulture (UPH) thus can
significantly contribute in alleviating food insecurity.
The UPH also assumes a greater role in providing fresh
nutritious and healthy food all through the year at an
affordable cost.
Medicinal and aromatic plants
Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) constitute
an important aspect of UPH. Demand for herbal
medicine is on rise globally and access to quality herbs
for home use can be addressed through integrating
and promoting MAPs in UPH. They can be very easily
grown in home gardens, pot culture, micro- gardens
and in landscaping of urban and peri urban areas. Many
of the MAPs are suitable for kitchen gardens as they
can serve as herbs for primary health care, flavoring
agents and culinary purpose. Medicinal plants usage
varies with factors such as income and access to public
health facilities, ethnicity, gender and ethno-botanical
92
knowledge. In developed countries the main distinction
is between the relatively poor and well off, with higher
income, but also lack of access to modern treatment
predicts the use of traditional medicine. The use of
latter to prevent illness is apparently common and
persistent. A high frequency in use of traditional
medicine is found among migrants in developed
countries. Available evidence suggests that medicinal
plant consumption will remain stable or increase in the
short to medium term.
Use of medicinal plants scenario
Medicinal plants provide poor people in developing
countries with affordable health care options and
wellness of people in developed countries with health
maintenance options. The current Global trends in
developing and developed countries indicate that
medicinal plant consumption is likely to increase in
the short to medium term-Consumer, producer and
society-wide medicinal plant benefits will continue.
MAPs in household gardens
India has a rich heritage of traditional systems of
medicine (TSM) and the use of plants for health is
intricately woven into our lifestyle. Traditional medicine
is also very popular as these plant based medicines
form an accessible and affordable form of health
management for the poor and marginalized, who cannot
afford or access formal health care systems especially
in urban and peri urban areas. Home grown MAPs
can be used for effective management of many
common ailments pertaining to respiratory allergies,
gastric problems, skin afflictions, women health,
anemia, geriatric health, general debility etc. The
government policy through AYUSH is also to
encourage and provide complete medical health care
systems. Most cities and towns have vacant and under-
utilized lands which can be used for growing medicinal
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

plants such as shrubs and trees. Medicinal herbs can MAPs in urban and peri urban
be grown in beds for landscapes including areas not landscaping
suited for construction of buildings (along water streams
Medicinal and aromatic plants can be potential
close to Airports etc.). Medicinal and aromatic shrubs
design elements for landscaping and are exploited in
and trees can be an important component in community
theme based gardens which serve for pleasure, well
gardens(formal and informal),home gardens, nutritional
being and conservation. The gardens with herbs can
gardens(managed in schools, hospitals, prisons,
be centered over themes like culinary usage, herbal
factories), roof top gardening, churches/temples,
gardens and aromatic gardens. Some herbal gardens
community centers, road side and walking tracks ,food
are also designed to serve specific purpose viz.,
pantries and housing developments. These are rather
religious/spiritual (navagraha vana, rasi vana, nakshatra
managed by members of the community (with
vana) or for novelty (aroma gardens with aromatic
production mainly for use by the member s
herbs).
households).
A large number of medicinal and aromatic plants
Women represent an important portion of urban
can be used as landscape elements depending on the
farmers as they tend to have most of the responsibility
growth habit, form, texture, color and the size. Herb
for household health and are interested in having
plants can be useful in beds, borders, rock gardens,
medicinal plants in pots and terrace gardens for home
hedges and container gardens. Adathoda vasica, Vitex
remedies and aromatic plants in hanging pots in foyers
trifoliatum, Lawsonia alba, Hibiscus rosa sinesis
and sit outs and open verandas bringing relief to
have been effectively used as hedge plants. The others
stressed mind and body of the urban and peri urban
are herbal plants in landscaping a) aid in conservation
population.
of medicinal plants b) maintain an eco- balance c)
A large number of plants are suited for growing provide extra income d) provide primary health care
in roof gardens, homestead gardens, kitchen gardens and e) help soil conservation. Therefore the concept
or for pot culture. Some of the MAPS suitable for the of using medicinal plants in landscaping will not only
purpose are given below provide pleasure and beauty but will also help in
conservation of many medicinal plants. They can be
Medicinal herbs: Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi,
used in bedding, foliage plants, flowering plants,
Thyme leaved gratiola), Centella asiatica
climbers and hedge plants complementing other garden
(Mandukaparni, Indian penny wort), Mentha viridis
elements.
(Pudina, Field mint), Solanum nigrum (ganagalu soppu,
black night shade), Mentha piperata (Gamathi, Bedding and foliage plants: The herbs have
Peppermint), Coleus aromaticus (Karpuravalli, Indian different foliage shapes, some can grow well and give
borage), Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi, Holy basil), Ocimum a ground cover under shade and moist places and are
basilicum (Tulsi, Sweet basil) Aloe vera (Kumari, also suitable for container gardens. Some of the herbs
Indian aloe), Piper betle (Nagavalli, Betelvine) Piper that can be useful as bedding plants and in container
longum (Pippali ,Long pepper), Andrographis gardens are Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi, Thyme leaved
paniculata (Kalmegh ) gratiola), Centella asiatica (Mandukaparni, Indian
penny wort), Hemigraphis colorata (Tincture plant),
Fragrant herbs : Rosemarinus officinalis -Rose
Mentha viridis (Pudina, Field mint), Mentha
mary, Thymus vulgaris Thyme. Lavendula
piperatia (Gamathi, Peppermint), Mentha
officinalis Lavender, Majorana hortenses Murwa
arvensis(Japanese mint),Mentha spicata (Pahari,
Marjoram, Sweet majoram, Artemisia vulgaris -
Spearmint), Majorana hortenses (Murwa, Sweet
Davana, Artemisia annua - Sweet worm wood,
majoram). Few examples of MAPs for foliage plants
Melisa officinalis etc
are Coleus aromaticus (Karpuravalli, Indian borage),

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Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective

Coleus vettiveroides (Hribera,), Ocimum sanctum Conclusions

(Tulsi, Holy basil), Ocimum basilicum (Tulsi, Sweet
basil) Aloe vera (Kumari, Indian aloe).
Aromatic Plants and essential oils: Aromatic
herbs have added advantage of olfactory delight
attributed to its attractive foliage and aroma. Some of
the herbs and aromatic grasses that can be used are
Rosamarinus officinalis Rose mary, Thymus vulgaris
Thyme, Lavendula officinalis Lavender, Melissa
officinalis Lemon balm, Artemisia pallens Davana,
Artemisia annua Sweet worm wood, scented
geraniums and aromatic grasses: Cymbopogan
martinii Rosha grass, Palmarosa, Cymbopogan
citratus Agin ghas, Lemon grass Cymbogon
flexosus,Vetiveria zizanoides Khas khas Vetiver etc
UPH is a potential component of food, health and
nutrition strategies for the urban population. It can also
be a potential way of generation of income and
employment for many urban households. As a
component of UPH, MAPs can significantly contribute
in the primary health care of urban population. MAPs
also provide greenery, beauty and aroma to the
environment. Popularizing the concept and making the
plant material and technical expertise available is most
essential. For successful implementation, UPH is to
be integrated into urban development planning, land-
and water-use management, urban waste recycling and
product safety assurance policies and strategies.

94
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

Contributors
Abraham Verghese Krishnamurthy P. N.
Division of Entomology and Nematology, Division of Entomology and Nematology
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Indian Institute Of Horticultural Research
Hessaraghatta Lake PO, Bangalore.-560089 Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089

Balaji S. Kulkarni. Malhotra S.K .

Department of Floriculture and Landscaping Principal Scientist
KRC College of Horticulture KAB-II,
UHS Bagalkot, Arabhavi.
Nair A.K.
Chowdappa P. Division of Vegetable Crops
Division of Plant Pathology Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089
Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089
Neelima Garg
Geeta Venkatapur Division of Post Harvest Technology
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture
KRC College of Horticulture Lucknow (U.P.) India
UHS Bagalkot, Arabhavi.
Prabhakar M.
Hanumashetti S.I. Division of Vegetable Crops
KRC College of Horticulture Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
UHS Bagalkot, Arabhavi. Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089

Hebbar S.S. Rao M. S.

Division of Vegetable Crops Division of Entomology and Nematology
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089 Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089

Hegde M. R. Robert Fernandes

Research and Management Coordination Unit. AVP Landscape & Horticulture Dept,
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, K. Raheja Corp .Mumbai.
Hessaraghatta Lake PO, Bangalore -560089,
Sathyanarayana B.N.
Janakiram T. Department of Horticulture,
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping, GKVK, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute Bangalore
New Delhi
Singh H. P.
Jawaharlal M. Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping (CHAI)
HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore 249,Sector 18A,Dwarka,
New Delhi 110075, India

95
Urban and Peri- Urban
Horticulture -A Perspective

Sidhu A.S. Usha

Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Division of Floriculture and Landscaping,
Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089 Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi
Shivananda T. N.
Agriculture Technology Information Center (ATIC) Vishwanath S.
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Director
Hessaraghatta Lake PO, Bangalore -560089 Biome Environmental
Bangalore.
Srinivasa Rao N.K.
Division of Physiology and Biochemistry Vasantha Kumar .T
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Section of Medicinal Crops, Indian Institute of
Bangalore. Horticultural Research,
Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore-560 089
Sridhar V. E mail- thuppil@iihr.ernet.in
Division of Entomology and Nematology
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Hima Bindu .K
Hessaraghatta Section of Medicinal Crops, Indian Institute of
Bangalore 560 089 Horticultural Research,
Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore-560 089
Subesh Ranjith Kumar C.
Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Sukanya DH
HC & RI, TNAU, Coimbatore Section of Medicinal Crops, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research,
Sumangala H.P. Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore-560 089
Division of Ornamental Crops
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Suryanarayana M.A.
Hessaraghatta, Bangalore 560 089 Section of Medicinal Crops, Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research,
Rakshitha Mouly Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore-560 089
Division of Entomology and Nematology,
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
Hessaraghatta Lake PO
Bangalore -560089

96
 Confederation of Horticulture
Associations of India

Acronyms
BBMP Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Paalike
CSA -community supported agriculture
CFC - Chlorofluorocarbons
CFL - Compact Fluorescent Light bulbs
CGIAR -Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CH4 Methane
CII- Confederation of Industry
Co- Carbon monoxide
CODEX- Codex Alimentarius Commission.
EfW Energy from waste
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GDP - Gross domestic product
GHG Green House Gas
HACCP- Hazard analysis Critical Control Point
HFC - Hydro fluorocarbons
ICAR- Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IEA - International Energy Agency
IIHR- Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
IIM- Indian Institute of Management
IPM Integrated Nutrient management
IWM Integrated water management
KNHPI - Kumarappa National Handmade Paper Institute
LED Light Emitting Diodes
NAAS- National Academy of Agricultural Sciences
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NHB- National Horticulture Board
Nox Nitrogen oxides
PFC- Per fluorocarbons
PIL - Public Interest Litigation
PUVF - Periurban vegetable farming
RH- Relative Humidity
SUDS- Sustainable urban drainage systems
Sox Sulphur oxides.
UHIE - urban heat island effect
UN - United Nations
UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCHS- United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
UPH - Urban and Peri Urban horticulture.
VOCs- volatile organic compounds
WHO- World Health Organization
WtE Waste to energy

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 About the Chairman
Dr H.P. Singh, with rare combination of scientific excellence, conscientious administration, dynamic
management skills and academic depth, in a career spanning 42 years, a prime mover of
research,development and education, has served horticulture/agriculture in various capacities
namely,Scientist, Project Coordinator (Fruits); Director, NRC for Banana; Horticulture
Commissioner, Govt. of India; Chairman, Coconut Development Board; Dean (Agriculture),
GBPUA&T, Pantnagar; Vice-Chancellor, RAU, Pusa; Deputy Director General (Horticulture),
ICAR, and now, he is the Founder and Chairman of Confederation of Horticulture Associations of
India(CHAI).Additionally,he also served as DDG(Ag Ext.), MS, NCPH, Director Hort.and others. He
occupied positions in many international organisations like the Chairman of APCC, Jakarta, National Director for
internationally-aided projects and Chairperson of Steering Committee, BAPNET, Bioversity International. He formulated and
implemented various international programmes. With excellent academic record, Dr Singh has outstandingly contributed to
research, education and development,which earned him 3 international, 36 national awards and 9 fellowships including the
Fellow of NAAS. He has developed many cultivars and technologies which has impacted the horticulture. Recognising his
immense contribution, OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, has conferred him D.Sc. (Honoris causa). Dr Singh, the architect of National
Horticulture Mission, starting from planning to execution, has transformed Indian horticulture. He has authored and edited 57
books, 30 bulletins, 40 reports and over 350 scientific papers and is widely traveled in India and abroad and has peer recognition
in international community.Many high powered committees, both at national and level, have been headed by him to provide
solutions to the challenges.His efforts have provided a strong foundation for horticultural development, leading to Golden
Revolution in India.Visionary approach with zeal and commitment for achieving excellence and exemplary skills in
management of Dr Singh has brought dynamisms to the positions which ever, wherever, he held.Initiative of NanoTech in
Agriculture by the ICAR is credited to Dr Singh.As the Founder and Chairman of CHAI, Dr Singh is committed to science and
technology-led development by providing professional solutions to the emerging challenges.
Contact address: 249, Sector 18A, Dwarka, New Delhi 110075 Phone: 91-9871450730 (off) / 91-9582898983
Email: confedhorti@gmail.com, web: chai.org.in

About the Editors

Dr. H.P. Sumangala, Scientist, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research , Bangalore with expertise in
landscape gardening and floriculture has developed alternate cropping systems for peri-Urban and introduced
concept of combating indoor air pollution by foliage plants and and also wild / native plants for landscaping.
More than 47articles including 6 book chapter, three books are to her credit. She had honour of invited for
presentation of her concepts by then Honorable President of India, Dr. A.P.J.Abdul Kalam. She is member in
many committees on beautification and landscape gardening?As an organizing secretary , she organized
National consultation on Landscape Gardening for Aesthetic Values and Environmental services (2010). National workshop on
Urban and Peri Urban Horticulture (2011). She is Fellow and executive member of Indian Society of Ornamental Crops, New
Delhi. She is fellow of Confederation of Horticultural Association of India. She is recipient of many awards for her papers.
Dr S.K. Malhotra, Principal Scientist,Division of Horticulture,Indian Council of Agricultural Research,in his
career spanning 24 years has significantly contributed for the improvement of annual horticultural crops
especially seed spices.He is credited to have developed 12 varieties in 8 spices crops.He is currently working as
technology manager for formulation, implementation and monitoring of research programmes and processes in
horticulture.His contribution to horticulture has earned him many awards,fellowships,and peer recognition. He
has been member in many important committees including working group constituted by Planning Commission
constituted for 12th Plan. He has published more than 50 research papers, articles and 35 book chapters. He is holding many
important positions in professional societies and is editor for the international journal. He is widely travelled and has visited
many countries to deliver lecture and get training.
Dr. P. Chowdappa, Principal Scientist, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, worked at CABI
Bioscience , UK on molecular biology of Phytopthora diseses of plantation crops. As a National Network
Coordinator ,ALCOCERA, he is coordinating research on Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Cercospora diseases
of field and horticultural crops, operating at 16 centers to develop cutting edge technologies for effective
management of the diseases across the crops and regions in India.He has developed diagnostic kits for rapid
detection of Alternaria solani in tomato, Colletotrichum capsici in chilli, seeds and Seed Pro- a microbial growth
promoter and fungal disease suppressor which has been commercialized.He has published more than 50 research papers, 22
book chapters, 03 experimental manuals, 16 technical bulletins, 03 extension folders, 19 popular articles and 4 books. He was a
member National Steering Committee on cocoa , Coordinator , Cocoa phytophthora and expert Committtee Member in coffee
wilt. Awarded DFID and BSPP ,UK and Best Student, poster and oral presentation awards by Indian Phytopathological Society ,
New Delhi and society for Promotion of Horticulture, Bangalore.He is president of CHAI, Karnataka Unit.
In India, people living in urban area will be more than 40% by 2030 and shall be more than 65 % by 2050. In this
context, horticulture in urban and peri-urban area becomes vital to address the challenges owing to rapid
urbanisation of cities and small towns. The book Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture -A perspective discusses
all the issues in interdisciplinary mode to develop action plan and strategies for fostering and developing UPH -------

H P Singh