CalculusHandbook PDF

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
(www.mathguy.us)
Calculus

Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version3.4
November15,2017
Copyright200817,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
NotetoStudents
ThisCalculusHandbookwasdevelopedprimarilythroughworkwithanumberofAPCalculus
classes,soitcontainswhatmoststudentsneedtopreparefortheAPCalculusExam(ABorBC)
orafirstyearcollegeCalculuscourse.Inaddition,anumberofmoreadvancedtopicshave
beenaddedtothehandbooktowhetthestudentsappetiteforhigherlevelstudy.
Itisimportanttonotethatsomeofthetipsandtricksnotedinthishandbook,whilegenerating
validsolutions,maynotbeacceptabletotheCollegeBoardortothestudentsinstructor.The
studentshouldalwayscheckwiththeirinstructortodetermineifaparticulartechniquethat
theyfindusefulisacceptable.
WhyMakethisHandbook?
Oneofmymainpurposesforwritingthishandbookistoencouragethestudenttowonder,to
askwhatabout?orwhatif?Ifindthatstudentsaresobusytodaythattheydont
havethetime,ordonttakethetime,tofindthebeautyandmajestythatexistswithin
Mathematics.And,itisthere,justbelowthesurface.Sobecuriousandseekitout.
Theanswerstoallofthequestionsbelowareinsidethishandbook,butareseldomtaught.
Whatisoscillatingbehaviorandhowdoesitaffectalimit?
Isthereageneralizedruleforthederivativeofaproductofmultiplefunctions?
Whatsthepartialderivativeshortcuttoimplicitdifferentiation?
Whatarethehyperbolicfunctionsandhowdotheyrelatetothetrigonometric
functions?
WhencanIsimplifyadifficultdefiniteintegralbybreakingitintoitsevenandodd
components?
WhatisVectorCalculus?
Additionally,askyourself:
Why?Alwaysaskwhy?
CanIcomeupwithasimplermethodofdoingthingsthanIambeingtaught?
WhatproblemscanIcomeupwithtostumpmyfriends?
Thosewhoapproachmathinthismannerwillbetomorrowsleaders.Areyouoneofthem?
Pleasefeelfreetocontactmeatearl@mathguy.usifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments.
Thankyouandbestwishes!
CoverartbyRebeccaWilliams,
Earl
Twitterhandle:@jolteonkitty
Version 3.4 Page 2 of 229 November 15, 2017

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter1:FunctionsandLimits
8 Functions
10 ContinuityExamples
11 Limits
12 TechniquesforFindingLimits
14 IndeterminateForms
16 WhenLimitsFailtoExist
Chapter2:Differentiation
17 Definition,BasicRules,ProductRule
18 Quotient,ChainandPowerRules;ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions
19 TrigonometricandInverseTrigonometricFunctions
21 GeneralizedProductRule
23 InverseFunctionRule
24 PartialDifferentiation
25 ImplicitDifferentiation
28 LogarithmicDifferentiation
Chapter3:ApplicationsofDerivatives
29 MaximaandMinima(i.e.,Extrema)
31 InflectionPoints
32 SpecialCase:ExtremaandInflectionPointsofPolynomials
33 KeyPointsonf(x),f'(x)andf''(x)
36 CurveSketching
41 DeterminingtheShapeofaCurveBasedOnItsDerivatives
42 Rolles'sTheoremandtheMeanValueTheorem(MVT)
43 RelatedRates
46 Kinematics(ParticleMotion)
48 Differentials
49 Curvature
50 Newton'sMethod
Chapter4:Integration
52 IndefiniteIntegration(Antiderivatives)
53 ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions
53 TrigonometricFunctions
56 InverseTrigonometricFunctions
58 SelectingtheRightFunctionforanIntergral

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter5:TechniquesofIntegration
59 u Substitution
61 IntegrationbyPartialFractions
64 IntegrationbyParts
68 IntegrationbyPartsTabularMethod
69 IntegrationbyTrigonometricSubstitution
70 ImpossibleIntegrals
Chapter6:HyperbolicFunctions
71 Definitions
72 Identities
73 RelationshiptoTrigonometricFunctions
74 InverseHyperbolicFunctions
75 GraphsofHyperbolicFunctionsandTheirInverses
76 Derivatives
77 Integrals
Chapter7:DefiniteIntegrals
79 RiemannSums
84 RulesofDefiniteIntegration
84 FundamentalTheoremsofCalculus
85 PropertiesofDefiniteIntegrals
86 SolvingDefiniteIntegralswithDirectedLineSegments
87 u Subsitution
89 SpecialTechniquesforEvaluation
91 DerivativeofanIntegral
Chapter8:ApplicationsofIntegration
92 AreaUnderaCurve
93 AreaBetweenCurves
94 AreainPolarForm
96 AreasofLimacons
98 ArcLength
101 ComparisonofFormulasforRectangular,PolarandParametricForms
102 AreaofaSurfaceofRevolution
103 VolumesofSolidsofRevolution
Chapter9:ImproperIntegrals
109 DefiniteIntegralswithInfiniteLimitsofIntegration
110 DefiniteIntegralswithDiscontinuousIntegrands

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter10:DifferentialEquations
111 Definitions
112 SeparableFirstOrderDifferentialEquations
114 SlopeFields
115 LogisticFunction
116 NumericalMethods
Chapter11:VectorCalculus
120 Introduction
120 SpecialUnitVectors
120 VectorComponents
121 PropertiesofVectors
122 DotProduct
123 CrossProduct
125 TripleProducts
127 Gradient
128 Divergence
129 Curl
130 Laplacian
Chapter12:Sequences
131 Definitions
131 TypesofSequences
132 TheoremsaboutSequences
133 ConvergenceandDivergence
Chapter13:Series
134 Introduction
135 KeyProperties
135 nthTermConvergenceTheorems
135 PowerSeries
136 TelescopingSeries
137 GeometricSeries
138 EstimatingtheValueofSerieswithPositiveTerms
139 RiemannZetaFunction(p Series)
143 BernoulliNumbers
145 ConvergenceTests
150 AlternatingSeries
152 RadiusandIntervalofConvergenceofPowerSeries
155 SummaryofConvergence/DivergenceTests

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter14:TaylorandMacLaurinSeries
156 TaylorSeries
156 MacLaurinSeries
158 LaGrangeRemainder
Chapter15:MiscellaneousCoolStuff
159 e
160 DerivationofEuler'sFormula
162 LogarithmsofNegativeRealNumbersandComplexNumbers
163 WhatIsi i
164 z
DerivativeofetoaComplexPower(e )
165 DerivativesofaCircle
166 DerivativesofaEllipse
167 DerivativesofaHyperbola
168 Derivativeof:(x+y)3=x3+y3
169 InflectionPointsofthePDFoftheNormalDistribution
Appendices
170 AppendixA:KeyDefinitions
190 AppendixB:KeyTheorems
194 AppendixC:ListofKeyDerivativesandIntegrals
201 AppendixD:KeyFunctionsandTheirDerivatives
205 AppendixE:GeometryandTrigonometryFormulas
210 AppendixF:PolarandParametricEquations
221 AppendixG:InterestingSeries
222 Index
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definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
mathworld.wolfram.com

Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
SchaumsOutlines
AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolmathstudentisaSchaumsOutline.Each
bookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantial
numberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthe
book,sothestudentcanseehowtheycanbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandotherbooksellers.
OtherUsefulBooks

Chapter1 FunctionsandLimits
Functions
Definitions
Expression:Ameaningfularrangementofmathematicalvalues,variablesand
operations.
Relation:Anexpressionthatdefinesaconnectionbetweenasetofinputsandasetof
outputs.ThesetofinputsiscalledtheDomainoftherelation.Thesetofoutputsis
calledtheRangeoftherelation.
Function:Arelationinwhicheachelementinthedomaincorrespondstoexactlyone
elementintherange.
OnetoOneFunction:Afunctioninwhicheachelementintherangeisproducedby
exactlyoneelementinthedomain.
Continuity:Afunction, ,iscontinuousat iff:
o isdefined,
o lim exists,and Note: lim existsifandonlyif:

o lim
lim lim .

ContinuityRules
If and arecontinuousfunctionsatapoint , ,andif isaconstant,thenthe
followingarealsotrueat , :
iscontinuous. Addition
iscontinuous. Subtraction
iscontinuous. ScalarMultiplication
iscontinuous. Multiplication
iscontinuousif 0. Division
iscontinuousif exists. Exponents
iscontinuousif exists. Roots
Note:Allpolynomialfunctionsarecontinuousontheinterval , .

TypesofDiscontinuities
ADiscontinuityoccursatalocationwherethegraphofarelationorfunctionisnotconnected.
RemovableDiscontinuity.Adiscontinuitythatcanbe
repairedbyaddingasinglepointtothegraph.
Typically,thiswillshowupasaholeinagraph.Inthe
function ,aremovablediscontinuity
existsat 1.
Mathematically,aremovablediscontinuityisapointat
whichthelimitof at existsbutdoesnotequal
.Thatis,
lim
lim

Note:aremovablediscontinuityexistsat whetherornot exists.
EssentialDiscontinuity.Adiscontinuitythatisnotremovable.Mathematically,a
removablediscontinuityisapointatwhichthelimitof at doesnotexist.This
includes:
o JumpDiscontinuity.Adiscontinuityat
whichthelimitfromtheleftdoesnotequal
thelimitfromtheright.Thatis,
lim
lim

Inthefunction ,ajump
discontinuityexistsat 1.

o InfiniteDiscontinuity.Theseoccuratvertical
asymptotes.
Inthefunction ,infinite
discontinuitiesexistat 3, 2 .


Continuity Examples
Case1
JumpDiscontinuity
Notcontinuous
Limitdoesnotexist
5 mayormaynotexist(itdoesnotexistinthe
graphshown)

Case2
RemovableDiscontinuity
Notcontinuous
Limitexists
5 doesnotexist
Case3
RemovableDiscontinuity
Notcontinuous
Limitexists
5 existsbutdoesnotequalthelimit
Case4
NoDiscontinuity
Continuous
Limitexists
5 existsandisequalthelimit

Limits
Definitions
FormalDefinition:Let beafunctiondefinedonanopenintervalcontaining ,exceptpossiblyat
,andlet bearealnumber.Then,thestatement:
lim

meansthatforeach 0,thereexistsa 0suchthat:
0 | | implies| | .

Writtenusingmathsymbols: 0 00 | | | | .
InformalDefinition:Thelimitisthevalue thatafunctionapproachesasthevalueofthe
inputvariable approachesthedesiredvalue .
Limitsmayexistapproaching fromeithertheleft lim

ortheright lim
.

Ifthelimitsfromtheleftandrightarethesame(e.g.,theyarebothequalto ),thenthelimit
existsat andwesaylim
.

LimitRules
Assumingthateachoftherequisitelimitsexist,thefollowingrulesapply:
lim
lim
lim
AdditionofLimits

lim
lim
lim
SubtractionofLimits

lim
lim
ScalarMultiplication

lim
lim
lim
MultiplicationofLimits

lim

DivisionofLimits

lim
lim
Powers

lim
lim
Roots

Also,assumingthateachoftherequisitelimitsexists,thetypicalpropertiesofadditionand
multiplication(e.g.,commutativeproperty,associativeproperty,distributiveproperty,inverse
property,etc.)applytolimits.

Techniques for Finding Limits
Substitution
Theeasiestmethod,whenitworks,fordeterminingalimitissubstitution.Usingthismethod,
simplysubstitutethevalueof intothelimitexpressiontoseeifitcanbecalculateddirectly.
Example1.1:
2 3 2
lim

2 3 2
Simplification
Whensubstitutionfails,othermethodsmustbeconsidered.Withrationalfunctions(andsome
others),simplificationmayproduceasatisfactorysolution.
Example1.2:
25 5 5
lim
lim
5
5 5
Rationalization
Rationalizingaportionofthelimitexpressionisoftenusefulinsituationswherealimitis
indeterminate.Intheexamplebelowthelimitexpressionhastheindeterminateform
.Otherindeterminateformsarediscussedlaterinthischapter.
Example1.3:
lim
8

First,noticethatthislimitistakento ,whichcanoftencauseconfusion.So,lets
modifyitsothatwearetakingthelimitto .Wedothisusingthesubstitution .
lim
8 lim
8

Next,letsrationalizetheexpressioninthelimitbymultiplyingbyanameforone,usingits
conjugate.
(contd)

8 8
lim
8 lim

1 8
8 8
lim
lim

8 8
8 8 8
lim
lim
4
8 8 1 1
1 1
LHospitalsRule
If and aredifferentiablefunctionsand 0near andif:
lim 0 and lim 0 lim and lim

Then,

Note:LHospitalsrulecanberepeatedasmanytimesasnecessaryaslongastheresultofeach
stepisanindeterminateform.Ifastepproducesaformthatisnotindeterminate,thelimit
shouldbecalculatedatthatpoint.
Example1.4:
d
sin sin cos 1
lim dx
lim
lim

1 1
Example1.5:
d
dx 1 1
lim
lim

1 d 3 31
1
dx
Example1.6:(involvingsuccessiveapplicationsofLHospitalsRule)
3 2 1 9 2 18 18
lim
lim
lim
lim

4 5 2 12 10 24 10 24


Indeterminate Forms of Limits
Thefollowingtablepresentssometypesofindeterminateformsthatmaybeencounteredand
suggestedmethodsforevaluatinglimitsinthoseforms.
Form StepstoDeterminetheLimit
0
or UseLHospitalsRule
0
Foreitheroftheseforms:
0
1. Convertto or
2. UseLHospitalsRule
Foranyoftheseforms:
0
1. Take ofthetermorwritetheterminexponentialform*
2. Convertto or
1
3. UseLHospitalsRule

*For ,convertto: or

Example 1.7: Form LHospitals Rule
1
lim lim lim

Example 1.8: Form

1 sin
lim
cos cos

LHospitals Rule
1 sin cos
lim lim
cos sin


Example 1.9: Form
let: lim

LHospitals Rule
ln
ln lim ln lim lim

lim 0

Then, since ln 0, we get
Example 1.10: Form

/ /
let: lim

LHospitals Rule
ln 1
ln lim lim lim 0
1
Then, since ln 0, we get
Example 1.11: Form
let: lim 1 sin 4

ln 1 sin 4
ln lim cot ln 1 sin 4 lim
tan

LHospitals Rule
4 cos 4 41
lim 1 sin 4 1 0
sec 1

When Limits Fail to Exist
Thereareseveralcircumstanceswhenlimitsfailtoexist:
Whentakenseparately,limitsfromthe
leftandrightaredifferent.This
generallyoccursatajumpdiscontinuity.
| |
Inthegraphof ,ajump
discontinuityexistsat 0,so
| |
lim
doesnotexist.

Oscillatingbehavioratthelimitpoint.Considerthefunction ,as 0.In
anyneighborhoodaround 0,
thevalueofthefunctionvariesfrom
1to 1.Therefore,
1
lim
cos doesnotexist.

Thisfunctionisalsodiscontinuousat
0,thoughitisdifficulttosee
thisonthegraph.
Unboundedbehavioratthelimitpoint.Typically,thiswillhappenatavertical
asymptote.
Inthegraphof | |,aninfinitediscontinuity
existsat 0becausethelogarithmsofpositivereal
numbersthatapproachzerobecomelargenegative
numberswithoutbound.Therefore,
ln| | doesnotexist.
lim

Note:inthiscase,wemaywrite: lim ln| |


Chapter2 Differentiation
Basic Rules of Differentiation
Definition of a Derivative
lim
lim

Note:Intheserules, isaconstant,and and arefunctionsdifferentiablein .
Basic Derivative Rules
TheProduct,QuotientandChainRulesareshowninLeibnitz,Lagrange,anddifferentialforms.
Product Rule (two terms)
Product Rule (three terms)

Quotient Rule

Chain Rule
, where:
Power Rule
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 0, 1
ln ln
1 1
ln ln
1 1
log log
ln ln


Derivatives of Special Functions

Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Functions (repeated from prior page)
sin cos sin cos
cos sin cos sin
tan sec tan sec
cot csc cot csc
sec sec tan sec sec tan
csc csc cot csc csc cot
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1 1 Angle in
sin sin
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cos cos
1 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
tan tan
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cot cot
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
sec sec
| | 1 | | 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
csc csc
| | 1 | | 1 Q I or Q IV


Development of Inverse Trig Derivatives
InverseSine
If sin ,then sin .Takethederivativeofbothsidesofthis
equation,andconsidertheresultinconjunctionwiththetriangleatright.
sin
cos 1
1 1

cos 1

InverseTangent
If tan ,then tan .Takethederivativeofbothsidesofthis
tan
sec 1
1 1 1
cos
sec 1 1

InverseSecant
If sec ,then sec .Takethederivativeofbothsidesofthis
sec
sec tan 1
1 cos 1 1 | | 1

sec tan sin | | 1 | | 1
Notetheuseoftheabsolutevaluesigninthisderivative.Thisoccursbecausethe
functionisdefinedonlyinquadrants1and2,andthesinefunctionisalwayspositiveinthese
twoquadrants.Thestudentmayverifythattheslopeofthe functionisalwayspositive.

Generalized Product Rule

Product Rule (three terms)
Product Rule (four terms)

Generalized Product Rule (n terms) Inwords:
1. Takethederivativeofeach
functionintheproduct.
2. Multiplyitbyalloftheother
functionsintheproduct.
3. Addalloftheresultingterms.
Example2.1:ProductRule(sixterms) fromGeneralizedProductRule

Generalized Product Rule

Example
Inwords:
Generalized Product Rule (n terms) 1. Takethederivativeofeach

functionintheproduct.
2. Multiplyitbyalloftheother
functionsintheproduct.
3. Addalloftheresultingterms.

Example2.2: Findthederivativeof:
Let:
Then, build the derivative based on the four components of the function:
Original Derivative of Original Remaining Functions

Function Term Function Term
Theresultingderivativeis:

Inverse Function Rule
TheInverseFunctionRulestatesthefollowing:
If and areinversefunctionsand 0,then
Tounderstandwhatthismeans,itmaybebesttolookatwhatitsaysgraphicallyandcreatean
InverseFunctionDiagram.
Example2.3:Let 3.Findtheslopeof atthepoint 7, 2 .
Tosolvethis,letslookatthegraphof
anditsinverse .
Thefigureatrightshowsthesetwoplots,alongwiththe
axisofreflectionandthelinestangenttothetwocurves
atthedesiredpoints.
Noticethefollowing:
,so
,so
(theanswer)
AnInverseFunctionDiagram(IFD)organizesthisinformationasfollows:
IFDforExample2.3 GeneralIFD


Partial Differentiation
Partialdifferentiationisdifferentiationwithrespecttoasinglevariable,withallothervariables
beingtreatedasconstants.
Example2.4:Considerthefunction , 2 3 .
Fullderivative: Partialderivative: Partialderivative:
2 3 2 3 2 3
2 3 2 3

Noticeinthepartialderivativepanelsabove,thattheoffvariableistreatedasaconstant.
Inthelefthandpanel,thederivativeistakeninitsnormalmanner,includingusingthe
productruleonthe term.
Inthemiddlepanel,whichtakesthepartialderivativewithrespectto , isconsidered
tobethecoefficientof inthe term.Inthesamepanel,the3 termisconsidered
tobeaconstant,soitspartialderivativewithrespectto is 0.
Intherighthandpanel,whichtakesthepartialderivativewithrespectto , is
consideredtobethecoefficientof inthe term.Inthesamepanel,the2 termis
consideredtobeaconstant,soitspartialderivativewithrespectto is 0.
Partialderivativesprovidemeasuresofratesofchangeinthedirectionofthevariable.So,fora
3dimensionalcurve, provides the rate of change in the direction and provides the
rate of change in the direction. Partial derivatives are especially useful in physics and
engineering.
Example2.5: Let . Then,

Implicit Differentiation
Implicitdifferentiationistypicallyusedwhenitistoodifficulttodifferentiateafunction
directly.Theentireexpressionisdifferentiatedwithrespecttooneofthevariablesinthe
expression,andalgebraisusedtosimplifytheexpressionforthedesiredderivative.
Example2.6: Find fortheellipse 36.
Wecouldbeginbymanipulatingtheequationtoobtainavaluefor :
However,thisisafairlyuglyexpressionfor ,andtheprocessofdeveloping isalso

ugly.Itismanytimeseasiertodifferentiateimplicitlyasfollows:
1. Startwiththegivenequation: 36
2. Multiplybothsidesby36to
getridofthedenominators: 9 4 1296
3. Differentiatewithrespectto : 18 8 0
4. Subtract18 : 8 18
5. Divideby8 :
6. Sometimesyouwillwantto
substituteinthevalueof

togettheexpressionsolelyin
termsof :
( 12)

Theresultisstilluglyand,infact,itmustbeugly.However,thealgebrarequiredtoget
theresultmaybecleanerandeasierusingimplicitdifferentiation.Insomecases,itis
eitherextremelydifficultorimpossibletodevelopanexpressionfor intermsof
becausethevariablesaresointertwined;seetheexampleonthenextpage.

Implicit Differentiation (contd)
Example2.7: Find fortheequation: sin cos 0.
Manipulatingthisequationtofind asafunctionof isoutofthequestion.So,weuse

implicitdifferentiationasfollows:
1. Startwiththegivenequation: 0
2. Differentiatewithrespectto usingtheproductruleandthechainrule:
3. Simplify:
4. Combineliketermsandsimplify:
cos cos sin sin 0
cos cos sin sin

(aslongas: cos cos 0

Thatsasgoodaswecando.Noticethatthederivativeisafunctionofboth and .
Eventhoughwecannotdevelopanexpressionfor asafunctionof ,wecanstill
calculateaderivativeofthefunctionintermsof and .Vivaimplicitdifferentiation!

Implicit Differentiation (contd)
Implicit Differentiation Using Partial Derivatives
Let , .Then,thefollowingformulaisoftenashortcuttocalculating .
Letsredotheexamplesfromthepreviouspagesusingthepartialderivativemethod.
Example2.8: Find fortheellipse 36.
Let: .Then,
Example2.9: Find fortheequation: sin cos 0.
Let: .Then,
Contrasttheworkrequiredherewiththelengthyeffortsrequiredtocalculatetheseresultson
thetwopriorpages.
So,implicitdifferentiationusingpartialderivativescanbefastand,becausefewerstepsare
involved,improveaccuracy.Justbecarefulhowyouhandleeachvariable.Thismethodis
differentandtakessomegettingusedto.

Logarithmic Differentiation
Logarithmicdifferentiationistypicallyusedwhenfunctionsexistinboththebaseandthe
exponentofanexponentialexpression.Withoutthisapproach,thedifferentiationofthe
functionwouldbemuchmoredifficult.Theprocessinvolvesseveralsteps,asfollows:
1. Ifpossible,putthefunctionintheform:
2. Takenaturallogarithmsofbothsidesoftheexpression.
3. Takethederivativesofbothsidesoftheexpression.
4. Solvefor .
Example2.10:Calculatethederivativeofthegeneralcase ,where and are

functionsof ,andaredifferentiableat .
1. Originalequation
2. Takenaturallogarithmsofbothsides
3. Simplifyrightside
4. Takederivativesofbothsides

5. ApplyProductRuleandChainRuleto

rightside
6. Multiplybothsidesby

7. Substitutevalueof

8. Simplify


Chapter3 ApplicationsofDifferentiation
Maxima and Minima
RelativeExtrema
Relativemaximaandminima(alsocalledrelativeextrema)mayexistwhereverthederivativeof
afunctioniseitherequaltozeroorundefined.However,theseconditionsarenotsufficientto
establishthatanextremeexists;wemustalsohaveachangeinthedirectionofthecurve,i.e.,
fromincreasingtodecreasingorfromdecreasingtoincreasing.
Note:relativeextremacannotexistattheendpointsofaclosedinterval.
FirstDerivativeTest
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheopeninterval , ,and
isacriticalnumber , (i.e., iseitherzeroordoesnotexist),
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,exceptpossiblyatc,
Then
If changesfrompositivetonegativeat ,then isarelativemaximum.
If changesfromnegativetopositiveat ,then isarelativeminimum.
Theconclusionsofthistheoremaresummarizedinthetablebelow:
First Signof left Signof Typeof

Derivative Extreme
of rightof
Case1 None
0
Case2 or Minimum
Case3 does None
notexist.
Case4 Maximum

Illustrationof
FirstDerivativeTest
forCases1to4:

SecondDerivativeTest
If
, ,and
0and exists,
Then
If 0,then isarelativemaximum.
If 0,then isarelativeminimum.
Theconclusionsofthetheoremaresummarizedinthetablebelow:
First Second Typeof

Derivative Derivative Extreme Intheeventthatthesecond
derivativeiszeroordoesnotexist
Case1 0 Maximum (Case3),wecannotconclude
0
whetherornotanextremeexists.
Case2 or 0 Minimum Inthiscase,itmaybeagoodidea
does tousetheFirstDerivativeTestat
Case3 0or TestFails
notexist. thepointinquestion.
doesnotexist

AbsoluteExtrema
Absoluteextrema(alsocalledglobalextremaorsimplyextrema)existatthelocationsof
eitherrelativeextremaortheendpointsofaninterval.
Notethatifanintervalisopen,theendpointdoesnotexistandsoitcannotbeanabsolute
extreme.Thismeansthatinsomecases,afunctionwillnothaveanabsolutemaximumorwill
nothaveanabsoluteminimum(orwillnothaveeither)ontheintervalinquestion.
Afunctionmayhave0, 1ormoreabsolutemaxima
and/orabsoluteminimaonaninterval.Inthe
illustrationtotheright,thefunctionhas:
Twoabsoluteminima,at 1, 1 and 2, 1 .
Noabsolutemaximum.
Onerelativemaximum,at 0, 3 .
OnerelativeminimumThepointlocatedat
2, 1 isbotharelativeminimumandan
absoluteminimum.

Inflection Points
Definition
Aninflectionpointisalocationonacurvewhereconcavitychangesfromupwardtodownward
orfromdownwardtoupward.
Ataninflectionpoint, 0or doesnotexist.
However,itisnotnecessarilytruethatif 0,thenthereisaninflectionpointat .
TestingforanInflectionPoint
Tofindtheinflectionpointsofacurveinaspecifiedinterval,
Determineall values( )forwhich 0or doesnotexist.
Consideronly valueswherethefunctionhasatangentline.
Testthesignof totheleftandtotherightof .
Ifthesignof changesfrompositivetonegativeorfromnegativetopositiveat
,then , isaninflectionpointofthefunction.

Second Signof Signof Inflection
Derivative leftof rightof Point?
Case1 No
0
Case2 or Yes
Case3 does No

Case4 notexist Yes

Note:inflectionpointscannotexistattheendpointsofaclosedinterval.
Concavity
Afunction, ,isconcaveupwardonanintervalif isincreasing
ontheinterval,i.e.,if 0.
Afunction, ,isconcavedownwardonanintervalif is
decreasingontheinterval,i.e.,if 0.
Concavitychangesatinflectionpoints,fromupwardtodownwardor
fromdownwardtoupward.Intheillustrationatright,aninflection
pointexistsatthepoint 2, 3 .

Special Case: Extrema and Inflection Points of Polynomials
Forapolynomial, ,criticalvaluesofexistatall valuesforwhich 0.However,

criticalvaluesdonotnecessarilyproduceextrema.Possibleinflectionpointsexistatall
valuesforwhich 0.However,notallofthese valuesproduceinflectionpoints.
Tofindtheextremaandinflectionpointsofapolynomialwecanlookatthefactoredformsof
and ,respectively.Everypolynomialcanbefactoredintolineartermswithreal
rootsandquadratictermswithcomplexrootsasfollows:

where,kisascalar(constant),each isarealrootof ,eachexponent isaninteger,and
each isaquadratictermwithcomplexroots.
Extrema
Theexponents( )ofthelinearfactorsof determinetheexistenceofextrema.
Anoddexponentonalineartermof indicatesthat crossesthe axisatthe
rootoftheterm,so hasanextremeatthatroot.Furtheranalysisisrequiredto
determinewhethertheextremeisamaximumoraminimum.
Anevenexponentonalineartermof indicatesthat bouncesoffthe axis
attherootoftheterm,so doesnothaveanextremeatthatroot.
Example3.1:Consider 3 2 3 3 4 7 .
Theoriginalpolynomial, ,hascriticalvaluesforeachterm: 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 7 .
However,extremaexistonlyforthetermswithoddexponents: 3, 3, 3, 7 .
InflectionPoints(PI)
Theexponents( )ofthelinearfactorsof determinetheexistenceofinflectionpoints.
Anoddexponentonalineartermof indicatesthat hasaninflectionpointat
therootofthatterm.
Anevenexponentonalineartermof indicatesthat doesnothavean
inflectionpointattherootofthatterm.
Example3.2:Consider 3 2 3 3 4 7 .
Inflectionpointsexistonlyforthetermswithoddexponents: 3, 3, 3, 7 .

Key Points on , and Alauria Diagram
AnAlauriaDiagramshowsasinglecurveas , or onasinglepage.The
purposeofthediagramistoanswerthequestion:Ifthegivencurveis , or ,
wherearethekeypointsonthegraph.
Ifthecurverepresents :
s intercepts(greenandoneyellow)
existwherethecurvetouchesthexaxis.
Relativemaximaandminima(yellow)existatthe
topsandbottomsofhumps.
Inflectionpoints(orange)existwhereconcavity
changesfromuptodownorfromdowntoup.

Ifthecurverepresents (1stderivative):
s interceptscannotbeseen.
Relativemaximaandminimaof (yellow)
existwherethecurvecrossesthe axis.Ifthe
curvebouncesoffthe axis,thereisnoextreme
atthatlocation.
Inflectionpointsof (orange)existatthe
topsandbottomsofhumps.

Ifthecurverepresents (2ndderivative):
s interceptscannotbeseen.
Relativemaximaandminimaof cannot
beseen.
Inflectionpointsof (orange)existwhere
thecurvecrossesthe axis.Ifthecurve
bouncesoffthe axis,thereisnoinflection
pointatthatlocation.

Key Points on , and
Thegraphsbelowshow , or forthesame5thdegreepolynomialfunction.The
dottedblueverticallineidentifiesonelocationofanextreme(therearefour,butonlyoneis
illustrated)Thedasheddarkredverticallineidentifiesonelocationofapointofinflection
(therearethree,butonlyoneisillustrated).
Inagraphof :

Relativeextremaexistatthetopsand
bottomofhumps.
Inflectionpointsexistatlocationswhere
concavitychangesfromuptodownorfrom
downtoup.
Inagraphof :

Relativeextremaof existwherethe
curvecrossesthe axis.Ifthecurve
bouncesoffthe axis,thereisnoextreme
atthatlocation.
Inflectionpointsof existatthetops
andbottomsofhumps.
Inagraphof :
Relativeextremaof cannotbeseen.
Inflectionpointsof existwherethe
curvecrossesthe axis.Ifthecurve
bouncesoffthe axis,thereisno
inflectionpointatthatlocation.

What Does the Graph of Tell Us about ?

Shortanswer:alot!Considerthegraphofthederivativeof when
ontheinterval , .
Increasingvs.Decreasing
Wecantellif isincreasingordecreasingbasedonwhether ispositiveornegative.

Criticalvaluesexistwhere iszeroordoesnotexist.Relativemaximaandminimaexistat
criticalvaluesifthegraphof crossesthe axis.Seethegraphandchartbelow.Note
thatcriticalvalues,relativemaximaandrelativeminimadonotexistatendpointsofaninterval.
Increasingvs.Decreasing
Increasing Decreasing
Positive Negative
Allitemsinacolumnoccursimultaneously.
Concavity
Wecantellif isconcaveuporconcavedownbasedonwhether isincreasingor

decreasing.InflectionPointsexistattheextremaof ,i.e.atthetopandbottomofany
humpsonthegraphof .Seethegraphandchartbelow.Notethatinflectionpointsdo
notexistatendpointsofaninterval.

Concavity
Concaveup Concavedown
Positive Negative
Allitemsinacolumnoccursimultaneously.

Curve Sketching
CurveSketchingismucheasierwiththetoolsofCalculus.Inparticular,thecalculationof
derivativesallowsthestudenttoidentifycriticalvalues(relativemaximaandminima)and
inflectionpointsforacurve.Acurvecanthenbebrokenintointervalsforwhichthevarious
characteristics(e.g.,increasingordecreasing,concaveupordown)canbedetermined.
TheacronymDIACIDEmayhelpthestudentrecallthethingsthatshouldbeconsideredin
sketchingcurves.
DIACIDE:
Derivatives:generally,thestudentshoulddevelopthefirstandsecondderivativesof
thecurve,andevaluatethosederivativesateachkeyvalue(e.g.,criticalpoints,
inflectionpoints)of .
Intercepts:totheextentpossible,thestudentshoulddevelopboth and intercepts

forthecurve. interceptsoccurwhere 0. interceptsoccurat 0.
Asymptotes:verticalasymptotesshouldbeidentifiedsothatthecurvecanbesplitinto
continuoussubsegments.Verticalasymptotesoccuratvaluesof wherethecurve
approaches or ; doesnotexistatthesevaluesof .Horizontal
asymptotesarecoveredbelowunderthecategoryEndBehavior.
CriticalValues:relativemaximaandminimaarelocationswherethecurvechanges
fromincreasingtodecreasingorfromdecreasingtoincreasing.Theyoccuratcritical
values,where 0orwhere doesnotexist.
Concavity:concavityisdeterminedbythevalueofthesecondderivative:
0impliesdownwardconcavity
0impliesupwardconcavity
InflectionPoints:aninflectionpointisalocationonthecurvewhereconcavitychanges
fromupwardtodownwardorfromdownwardtoupward.Ataninflectionpoint,
0orwhere doesnotexist.
Domain:thedomainofafunctionisthesetofallxvaluesforwhichayvalueexists.If
thedomainofafunctionisotherthanallrealnumbers,careshouldbetakentograph
onlythosevaluesofthefunctionincludedinthedomain.
EndBehavior:endbehavioristhebehaviorofacurveontheleftandtheright,i.e.,as
tendstoward and .Thecurvemayincreaseordecreaseunboundedatitsends,
oritmaytendtowardahorizontalasymptote.

Example3.3:Sketchthegraphoff(x)=x35x2+3x+6.
DIACIDE: Derivatives, Intercepts, Asymptotes, Critical Values, Concavity, Inflection Points,

Domain, End Behavior
Derivatives: 5 3 6
NotethetwoCs.
3 10 3
6 10
Intercepts: Usesyntheticdivisiontofind: 2,so: 2 3 3

Then,usethequadraticformulatofind: 0.791, 3.791
intercepts,then,are: 0.791, 2, 3.791
intercepts: 0 6
Asymptotes: Noneforapolynomial
CriticalValues: 3 10 3 0at ,3
Critical Pointsare: . 333, 6.481 , 3, 3
. 333 0, so . 333, 6.481 isarelative
maximum
3 0, so 3, 3 isarelativeminimum
Concavity: 0for 1.667(concavedownward)

0for 1.667(concaveupward)
InflectionPoints: 6 10 0at ~ 1.667

Inflection Pointis: 1.667, 1.741
Domain: Allrealvaluesof forapolynomial
EndBehavior:Positiveleadcoefficientonacubicequationimpliesthat:
lim
, and

lim


,
Example3.4:Sketchthegraphof
DIACIDE:

Derivatives:
Intercepts: interceptwheresin 0,so, ,with beinganyinteger

interceptat 0 0
Asymptotes: Noverticalasymptotes.Horizontalasymptoteat 0.
CriticalValues: 0wherecos sin .Critical Pointsexistat ,

. 707, 3.224 isarelativemaximum; 3.927, 0.139 isarelativeminimum
Thereareaninfinitenumberofrelativemaximaandminima,alternatingat
valuesthatare apart.
Concavity: Thefunctionisconcaveupwherecos 0,i.e.,QuadrantsIIandIII

andisconcavedownwherecos 0,i.e.,QuadrantsIandIV.
InflectionPoints: 0wherecos 0
Inflection Pointsexistat: ,
Domain: Allrealvaluesof
EndBehavior: lim
doesnotexist,asthefunctionoscillatesupanddownwitheach

period
lim
0


Example3.5:Sketch the graph of
DIACIDE:

Derivatives:
Intercepts: interceptwhere 4 0,so, Plottheseintercepts

onthegraph.
interceptat
Asymptotes: Verticalasymptoteswhere: 9 0,so .

Horizontalasymptoteat: Plottheasymptotes
2 2 onthegraph.
4 4
lim
2 lim
2 1
9 9
CriticalValues: 0where 0;so 0 0

Plotthecritical
Since 0 0, , isarelativemaximum
valuesonthegraph.
Concavity: Theconcavityofthevariousintervalsareshowninthetableonthenextpage
InflectionPoints: 0where 3 0 Ifthereareinflectionpoints,

Therefore,therearenorealinflectionpoints plotthemonthegraph.
Domain: Allrealvaluesof ,exceptattheverticalasymptotes

So,thedomainis:AllReal 3, 3
2 4
EndBehavior: lim
2 1
9 Theseimplytheexistenceofa
2 4 horizontalasymptoteat 1.
lim
2 1
9

Example3.5(contd)
Insomecases,itisusefultosetupatableofintervalswhicharedefinedbythekeyvalues
identifiedingreenabove: , , .Thekeyvaluesaremadeupof:
Verticalasymptotes
Relativemaximaandminima
InflectionPoints
values GraphCharacteristics
, 3 curveincreasing,concaveup
3 undefined undefined undefined verticalasymptote
3, 0 curveincreasing,concavedown
0 . 444 0 relativemaximum
0, 3 curvedecreasing,concavedown
3 undefined undefined undefined verticalasymptote
3, curvedecreasing,concaveup

Determining the Shape of a Curve Based On Its Derivatives
Thepossibleshapesofacurve,basedonitsfirstandsecondderivativesare:
Increasingfunction DecreasingfunctionIncreasingfunction Decreasingfunction

0 0 0 0
Concaveup Concaveup Concavedown Concavedown

0 0 0 0
So,givenadifferentiablefunctionwithfirstandsecondderivativesidentified,weneedonly
matchtheshapesabovetotheintervalsofthefunctionandthenjointhemtogether.Ifweare
givenpointsonthecurve,wemustalsofittheshapethroughthegivenpoints.
Example3.6:Supposewewanttodeterminetheapproximateshapeofthecurveofthe
differentiablefunctiondefinedbythefollowingtable.
1 3 3 3 5 5 5 7
f '( x ) Positive 0 Negative Negative Negative
f "( x ) Negative Negative Negative 0 Positive
Curve Flat
Pointof
Shape Relative Inflection
Maximum
Togettheshapeofthefunctionoverthegiveninterval,jointheshapesforeachsubinterval
togetherasshownatright.
Note:Ifwearegivenpointsonthecurve,wemustalso
stretchorcompressthevariouspartsoftheresulting
shapetofitthroughthegivenpoints.

3 5

Rolles Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem

RollesTheorem MeanValueTheorem(MVT)

If If
1. iscontinuouson , . 1. iscontinuouson , .
2. isdifferentiablein , . 2. isdifferentiablein , .
3. .
Then Then
Thereisatleastonevalue in , Thereisatleastonevalue in ,
suchthat 0.
suchthat .

ConclusioninWords:Thereisatleastone ConclusioninWords:Thereisatleastone
pointin , withahorizontaltangent pointin , wheretheslopeofthe
line. tangentlinehasthesameslopeasthe
secantlineover , .
Note:IftheconditionsforRollesTheoremaresatisfied,theneitherRollesTheoremortheMVT
canbeapplied.
RollesTheoremconcludesthatthereisavalue suchthat: 0
TheMVTconcludesthatthereisavalue suchthat: 0
Thesetwoconclusionsareidentical.


Related Rates
RelatedRatesProblems
Tosolveproblemsthatinvolveratesofchangeoftwoormorerelatedvariables,eachwith
respecttoathirdvariable,wemusttakederivativeswithrespecttothethirdvariable(often,
time)andremembertousethechainruleateachstep.Therearenumerousmethodsthatcan
beusedtosolvetheseproblems;onethatstudentshavefoundparticularlyhelpfulisdescribed
andillustratedbelow.
TheGeneralSpecificMethod
ThismethodbreaksupthesolutionintotheGeneralandSpecificCasesdescribedinthe
problem,asfollows:
TheGeneralCase
Dealwithallvariablesintheabstract,withoutanynumberssubstitutedforthe
variables.
Setupanyformulasrequiredtosolvetheproblem(e.g.,volumeofacone).
Takeanyderivatives(basedontheaboveformulas)requiredtosolvetheproblem.
TheSpecificCase
Recordanyvaluesofvariablesforthespecificsituationdescribedintheproblem.
Calculateanyadditionalvaluesrequiredbasedonthoseprovidedintheproblem(e.g.,
thelengthofthethirdsideofarighttriangle).
AfteranyderivativesaredevelopedintheGeneralCase,substitutevaluesforthe
variablesinthederivativeequation.
Derivethesolutiontotheproblembysolvingtheresultingequation.
Notes:
Forsomeproblems,youmayneedtodrawapictureofthesituationdescribedinthe
problem.Intheseproblems,youshoulddrawapicturefortheGeneralCaseanda
secondpicturefortheSpecificCase.SeeExample3.9,below.
Intheexamplesthatfollow,theGeneralCaseisshownontheleftandtheSpecificCase
isshownontheright.

Example3.7:Thevolumeofacylinderischangingby48cm3persecondwhentheradiusofthe
cylinderis2cm.Iftheheightistwicetheradius,findtherateofchangeoftheradiuswhenr=
2cm.Note: .
GeneralCase SpecificCase
Informationgiven:
Weareaskedtofind :
2 48 2
2 2
Substitutevaluesintotheequation
Takethederivativesof derivedintheGeneralCase:
bothsideswithrespecttot:
6
6
48 6 2
Afterthispartisdone,movetothe

Dosomealgebratocalculate:
SpecificCase.
cm/sec
Example3.8:TheSAofasphereischangingby36cm2persecondwhentheradiusofthe
cylinderis3cm.Findtherateofchangeoftheradiuswhenr=3cm.Note: 4 .
Weareaskedtofind : Informationgiven:
4 36 3
Takethederivativesof Substitutevaluesintotheequation
bothsideswithrespecttot: derivedintheGeneralCase:
8 8
Afterthispartisdone,movetothe 36 8 3
SpecificCase.
cm/sec


Example3.9:Aladder25feetlongisleaningagainstthewallofahouse.Thebaseofthe
ladderispulledawayfromthewallatarateof2feetpersecond.Howfastisthetopofthe
laddermovingdownthewallwhenitsbaseis7feetfromthewall?
Weareaskedtofind Informationgiven:
Basedonthedrawing: 25 7 25
625 Calculate: 24
Takethederivativesof 2
bothsideswithrespecttot:
Substitutevaluesintotheequation
2 2 0 derivedintheGeneralCase:
Afterthispartisdone,movetothe
2 2 0
SpecificCase.
2 7 2 2 24 0
Example3.10:Theradiusrofacircleisincreasingatarateof3cm/minute.Findtherateof
changeoftheareawhenthecircumference 12 cm.
Weareaskedtofind : Informationgiven:
2 12 3
Takethederivativesof Substitutevaluesintotheequation
bothsideswithrespecttot: derivedintheGeneralCase:
2 2
Afterthispartisdone,movetothe 12 3

SpecificCase.

Kinematics (Particle Motion)
Position
Positionisthelocationofaparticleatapointintime.Itistypicallyrepresentedbythe
functions or .
Displacement
Displacementisameasureofthedifferencebetweenaparticlesstartingpointanditsending
point.Itmaybeeitherpositiveornegative.Aformulafordisplacementis:
,where isthepositionatanypointintime,and isthestartingposition.

Distance
Distanceisameasureofthetotalmovementofaparticle;itisalwaysapositivevalue.Total
distanceisthesumoftheabsolutevaluesofthedisplacementsofaparticleinitsvarious
directions.
Example3.11:Aparticlemovesfrom 0to 6to 2.
Displacement 2 0 2units
Distance sumofabsolutevaluesofindividualdisplacements
|6 0| |2 6| 10units
Velocity
Velocitymeasurestherateofchangeinposition.Instantaneousvelocityisgenerallyshown
usingthevariable andaveragevelocityisgenerallyshownas .Velocitymayalsobeshown
asavector ,whichhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Thefollowingformulasapplyto
velocity:
Instantaneousvelocity: (i.e,thederivativeofthepositionfunction)
Velocityattime : (where, isinitialvelocityand isaconstantacceleration)

Averagevelocity:

Velocitymaybeeitherpositiveornegative.


Speed
Speed,likevelocity,measurestherateofchangeinposition.However,unlikevelocity,speedis
alwayspositive(itdoesnothavedirection).Instantaneousspeedistheabsolutevalueof
velocity| |atapointintime.Averagespeedisbasedondistanceinsteadofdisplacement.The
followingformulasapplytospeed:
Instantaneousspeed:| | (i.e,theabsolutevalueofthevelocityfunction)

Averagespeed:

Anoteaboutspeed:
Speedisincreasingwhenvelocityandaccelerationhavethesamesign(either or ).
Speedisdecreasingwhenvelocityandaccelerationhavedifferentsigns(one ,one ).
Acceleration
Accelerationmeasurestherateofchangeinvelocity.Instantaneousaccelerationisgenerally
shownusingthevariable andaverageaccelerationisgenerallyshownas .Accelerationmay
alsobeshownasavector ,whichhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Thefollowingformulas
applytoacceleration:
Instantaneousacceleration:

Averageacceleration:

MovingAmongFunctions
Thefollowingdiagramdescribeshowtomovebackandforthamongtheposition,velocityand
accelerationfunctions.(Note:integrationishandledinasubsequentchapter.)

Differentials
FindingtheTangentLine
Mostproblemsthatusedifferentialtofindthetangentlinedealwiththreeissues:
Developingtheequationofatangentlineatapointonacurve
Estimatingthevalueofafunctionusingthetangentline.
Estimatingthechangeinthevaluesofafunctionbetweentwopoints,usingthe
tangentline.
Ineachcase,thetangentlineisinvolved,soletstakealookatit.Thekeyequationis:
Howdoesthisequationcomeabout?Letslookatacurveandfindtheequationofthetangent
linetothatcurve,inthegeneralcase.Seethediagrambelow:
Letourpointonthecurvebe , .
Theslopeofthetangentlineat , is .
Usethepointslopeformofalinetocalculatethe
equationoftheline:

Add tobothsidesoftheequationtoobtainthe
formshownabove
Letstakeacloserlookatthepiecesoftheequation:
First,defineyouranchor, ,andcalculate

and .Substitutetheseintotheequation isalsoshownas .Itisthe

andyouarewellonyourwaytoasolutionto differencebetweenthexvalueyouare
theproblem.
evaluatingandyouranchortothecurve,
whichisthetangentpoint , .

Thisisthechangepart.So,whenyouare
askedaboutthechangein betweentwo
pointsorthepotentialerrorinmeasuring
something,thisistheparttofocuson.

Curvature
Curvature is the rate of change of the direction of a curve at a

point, P (i.e., how fast the curve is turning at point P).
Direction is based on , the angle between the xaxis and the
tangent to the curve at P. The rate of change is taken with
respect to , the length of an arbitrary arc on the curve near
point P. We use the Greek letter kappa, , for the measure of
curvature.
This is illustrated for the function ln 4 3 at right.

lim

This results in the following equations for :
or
1 1
Polar Form: Let be a function in polar form. Then, the polar form of curvature is
given by:
2

where, ,

The Osculating Circle of a curve at Point P is the circle which is:

Tangent to the curve at point P.
Lies on the concave side of the curve at point P.
Has the same curvature as the curve at point P.
The Radius of Curvature of a curve at Point P is the

radius of the osculating circle at point P.
| |
The Center of Curvature of a curve at Point P is the

center of the osculating circle at Point P.


Newtons Method
Sometimesitisdifficultorimpossibletofindtheexactrootsofan
equation.Insuchcases,approximatevaluesmaybefoundusing
numericalmethods.NewtonsMethodisapopularapproachfor
determiningrootsthisway,primarilybecauseitissimpleand
easilyprogrammedforusewithacomputer.
NewtonsMethod
Usethefollowingstepstoidentifyarootofafunction
usingNewtonsMethod.
1. Selectanestimateoftherootyouarelookingfor.Callthisestimate .Itmaybe
usefultographthefunctionforthispurpose.
2. Usethedifferentialformula(seeabove)torefineyourestimateoftheroot:

Wewantanestimateof when 0.Setting 0,thedifferentialformulacanbe
manipulatedalgebraicallytoget:
Letthisvalueof beournextestimate, ,ofthevalueoftherootweseek.Then,
3. Repeattheprocesstogetsubsequentvaluesof ,i.e.,
4. ContinueStep3untilthesequence converges;thatis,untilsuccessiveestimates
roundtothesamevaluebasedonapredeterminedlevelofaccuracy.
WhenNewtonsMethodDiverges
NewtonsMethoddivergesundercertainconditions.Thatis,forsomefunctionsand/or
starting values,successivevaluesof maynotexist,mayfluctuatebackandforthbetween
values,ormaygrowfurtherandfurtherawayfromtheinitialestimateoftheroot.Whenthis
occurs,youmaywanttoselectadifferentstartingvalueof andtryagain.However,the
studentshouldbeawarethattherearesituationswhereNewtonsMethodfailsaltogether.

Example3.12: Estimatetherootof near tosixdecimalplaces.
Letsgraphthefunction.Inthegraph,itis
clearthatthereisarootcloseto .So,
wearehopefulthatNewtonsMethodwill
convergequickly.
Webeginwiththefollowing:
5
cos
cos sin
Now,letsdevelopsuccessivevaluesof .Note:MicrosoftExcelisusefulforthispurpose.
cos 5 0.099643
5 5 5.1172
cos 5 sin 5 0.8502
.
cos 5.1172
5.1172 .
5.123764
cos 5.1172 sin 5.1172
.
cos 5.123764
5.123764 .
5.123787
cos 5.123764 sin 5.123764
.
cos 5.123787
5.123787 .
.
cos 5.123787 sin 5.123787
Atthispoint,westoptheprocessbecause whenroundedtosixdecimals.Thesequence
of{ }appearstohaveconvergedto5.123787,whichisoursolution.Ifyoulike,youcanuse
amoderngraphingcalculatortoverifythatthisisinfactagoodestimateofthedesiredrootof
.
Note:WhiletheuseofmodernhandheldgraphingcalculatorsmakesNewtonsMethod
unnecessaryintheCalculusclassroom,itsuseinmathematicalcomputerapplicationsis
essential.ItisveryusefulinMicrosoftExcel,VisualBasic,Python,Javaandotherapplicationsin
whichthedeterminationofarootisautomated.

Chapter4 Integration
Rules of Indefinite Integration
Note:therulespresentedinthischapteromitthe C termthatmustbeaddedtoall
indefiniteintegralsinordertosavespaceandavoidclutter.Pleaseremembertoaddthe
C termonallworkyouperformwithindefiniteintegrals.
Basic Rules
Integration by Parts
Power Rule
1 1
1 ln| |
1
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 0, 1
1 1
ln ln
ln ln

Integrals of Special Functions
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

ln ln
1 1
ln| | ln| |
ln ln ln ln
1 1
ln ln ln ln
ln ln
Trigonometric Functions
sin cos
cos sin
tan ln |sec | ln |cos | sec tan
cot ln |csc | ln |sin | csc cot
sec ln |sec tan | sec tan sec
csc ln |csc cot | csc cot csc

Derivations of the Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
sin
tan
cos
Let: cos so that: sin Then,
1
tan ln| | ln| cos |
cos
cot
sin
Let: sin so that: cos Then,
1
cot ln| | ln| sin |
Multiply the numerator and denominator by: sec tan

Then,
sec tan sec sec tan

sec sec
sec tan sec tan
Let: sec tan so that: sec tan sec
Then,
1
sec ln| | ln| sec tan |

Derivations of the Integrals of Trig Functions (contd)
Multiply the numerator and denominator by: csc cot

Then,
csc cot csc csc cot

csc csc
csc cot csc cot
Let: csc cot so that: csc tan csc
Then,
1
csc ln| | ln| csc cot |

Integration Involving Inverse Trig Functions
KeyFormulas:
BaseFormulas GeneralFormulas
1 1
sin sin
1
1 1 1
tan tan
1
1 1 1 | |
sec | | sec
1
AboutInverseTrigFunctions
Asanexample,sin asksthequestion,whatangle(inradians)hasasinevalueof ?So,

sin sin sin
Itisimportant,forthesepurposes,tounderstandthequadrantsinwhicheachinverseTrig
functionisdefined,asshowninthefollowingcharts.

RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions

Function GivesaResultIn:

sin
2 2
cos 0

tan
2 2
SolutionstoproblemsinvolvinginverseTrigfunctionsmaybeexpressed
multipleways.Forexample,inthetriangleatrightwithsides , and ,
themeasureofangleAcanbeexpressedasfollows:
A sin tan sec
Somecalculatorswillnevergiveresultsusingthesec function,preferringtousethetan
functioninstead;theanswersareequivalent.Forexample,sec |2 | tan 4 1.

Indefinite Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin sin 1
cos cos 1
1
tan tan ln 1
2
1
cot cot ln 1
2
sec sec ln 1 sec 0,

2
sec ln 1 sec ,
2
csc csc ln 1 csc 0,

2
csc ln 1 csc ,0
2
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
1 1
sin sin
1
1 1 1
tan tan
1
1 1 1 | |
sec | | sec
1



Selecting the Right Function for an Integral
Form Function Integral
1 1
sin sin

1 1 1
tan tan
1 1 1 | |
sec sec

1 1
sinh * ln

1 1
cosh * ln

1
tanh *
1 1
ln
1 2
coth *

1 1 1
sech * ln
| |
1 1 1
csch * ln
| |

*Thisisaninversehyperbolicfunction.Formoreinformation,seeChapter6.Notethatyoudo
notneedtoknowaboutinversehyperbolicfunctionstousetheformulasonthispage.

Chapter5 TechniquesofIntegration
Substitution
Often,anintegrandwillcontainafunctionwithinafunction.Forexample,intheintegral

,wehavethefunction withinthelnfunction.Whenthishappens,itisoften

usefultosubstituteanothervariablefortheinternalfunction.Typicallythevariableuisusedto
representtheinnerfunction,sotheprocessiscalled substitution.
Thetypicalprocessusedfor substitutionisdescribedinstepsbelow.Whentryingthis
approach,notethefollowing:
substitutionwillworkforallintegrals,evenonesthatlookripeforit,thoughitdoes
workoften.
Ifoneattemptedsubstitutiondoesnotwork,thestudentshouldtryanotherone.It
takespracticetotraintheeyetoidentifywhatfunctionsworkwellinthisprocess.
Itispossiblethatthestudentwillbefacedwithanintegralthansimplycannotbe
integratedbyanyelementarymethod(e.g., ).
Process
Followingarethestepsforthegeneralsolutiontoanintegralusing substitution.
1. Setaportionoftheintegrandequaltoanewvariable,e.g., .Looktotherestofthe
integrandindecidingwhattosetequalto .Youwillneedtohave intheintegrand
aswell,ifthistechniqueistofindsuccess.
2. Find intermsof .
3. Rearrangetheintegrandsothattheintegralexistsintermsof insteadof .
4. Performtheintegration.
5. Substitutetheexpressionfor backintotheresultoftheintegration.
6. Ifyouareuncomfortablewiththeresult,integrateittoseeifyougettheintegrandasa
result.Ifso,youhaveachievedyourgoal.And,dontforgetthe foranindefinite
integration.

Example5.1:Find:

1
ln ln 1 1
2 ln ln
2
1

1 1 1

2 2 2


Example5.2:Find:
1 ln
1 ln
1

1
1 ln
1

3

Example5.3:Find: Recall: sin with sin

9
1

3 1 3

3
1
1 1
3
3
1
3
sin
Example5.4:Find: Recall: tan with tan

1
1

1
1
tan
1

Partial Fractions
PartialFractions
Everyrationalfunctionoftheform canbeexpressedasasumoffractionswith
linearandquadraticformsintheirdenominators.Forexample:
2 3 4

4 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 2 4
Ourtaskistodeterminetheappropriatefractions,includingthevaluesofthe s, sand s,
sowecanintegratethefunction.Theresultofintegrationtendstocontainanumberofnatural
logarithmtermsandinversetangentterms,aswellasothers.
Thefollowingprocesscanbeusedtodeterminethesetoffractions(includingthe s, sand
s)whosesumisequalto .
Process
1. If hasthesamedegreeorhigherdegreethan ,divide by toobtain

thenonfractional(polynomial)componentoftherationalfunction.Proceedinthenext
stepswiththefractionalcomponentoftherationalfunction.
Example5.5: 4 .
Sinceitiseasytointegratethepolynomialportionofthisresult,(i.e., 4),itremains
tointegratethefractionalportion(i.e., ) .
2. Todeterminethedenominatorsofthefractionsontherightsideoftheequalsign,we
mustfirstfactorthedenominatorof ,i.e., .
Notethateverypolynomialcanbeexpressedastheproductoflineartermsand
quadraticterms,sothat:
Where istheleadcoefficient,the termsarethelinearfactorsandthe

arethequadratictermsof .

3. Everyrationalfunctioncanbeexpressedasthesumoffractionsofthefollowingtypes:
or
where and takevaluesfrom1tothemultiplicityofthefactorin .
Examples5.65.8:
2 5 3

2 2 2 2
6 2

3 7 3 7 3 7
2 3 4

1 3 4 1 1 1 3 4 1
Wemustsolveforthevaluesofthe s, sand s.Thisisaccomplishedbyobtaininga

commondenominatorandthenequatingthecoefficientsofeachterminthe
numerator.Thiswillgenerateanumberofequationswiththesamenumberof
unknownvaluesof , and .
Example5.6a(usingthefirstexpressionabove):
2 5 3

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
Equatingthenumerators,then,
2 5 3 4 4 2
Sothat:
2 2
Wesolvethese
4 5 equationstoobtain: 3
4 2 3 1
Finallyconcludingthat:
2 5 3 2 3 1 2 3 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

4. Thefinalstepistointegratetheresultingfractions.
Example5.6b(continuingfromStep3):
2 5 3 2 3 1

2 2 2 2
3 1
ln| 2| 2

2 2 2

Integration by Parts
General
Fromtheproductruleofderivativeswehave:

Rearrangingtermsweget:

Finally,integratingbothsidesgivesus:
Thislastformulaistheoneforintegrationbypartsandisextremelyusefulinsolvingintegrals.
Whenperforminganintegrationbyparts,firstdefine and .
LIATE
Whenintegratingbyparts,studentsoftenstrugglewithhowtobreakuptheoriginalintegrand
into and .LIATEisanacronymthatisoftenusedtodeterminewhichpartoftheintegrand
shouldbecome .Hereshowitworks:let bethefunctionfromtheoriginalintegrandthat
showsupfirstonthelistbelow.
Logarithmicfunctions(e.g.,ln )
Inversetrigonometricfunctions(e.g.,tan )
Algebraicfunctions(e.g., 2)
Trigonometricfunctions(e.g.,cos )
Exponentialfunctions(e.g., )
Ingeneral,wewanttolet beafunctionwhosederivative isbothrelativelysimpleand

compatiblewith .Logarithmicandinversetrigonometricfunctionsappearfirstinthelist
becausetheirderivativesarealgebraic;soif isalgebraic, isalgebraicandanintegration
withweirdfunctionsistransformedintoonethatiscompletelyalgebraic.Notethatthe
LIATEapproachdoesnotalwayswork,butinmanycasesitcanbehelpful.

Example5.9:Find cos (note:ignorethe untiltheend)
cos sin cos sin Let:

cos sin
sin cos sin
sin cos
sin cos 1 cos
sin cos 1 cos
cos sin cos cos
2 cos sin cos
1
cos sin cos
2
Example5.9A:Find cos withoutusingintegrationbyparts
LetsusetheTrigidentity:cos
1 cos 2
cos
2
1
1 cos 2
2
1 1
sin 2
2 2
Next,recallthatsin 2 2 sin cos .So,
1 1
cos 2 sin cos
2 2
1
sin cos
2

Example5.10:Find ln
ln ln Let: ln
1

ln 1
ln
Example5.11:Find
Let:
2
2
2
Let:
2 2
Example5.12:Find tan
Let: tan
tan tan 2

1 1

1 1 1
tan 2
2 1 2
1 2
tan ln 1
2

Example5.13:TheGammaFunctionisdefinedbythefollowingdefiniteintegral:
Inthiscontext, isaconstantand isthevariableintheintegrand.
Let:
1

1

0
1
lim
0

So,weobtainoneofthekeypropertiesoftheGammaFunction:
Next,letscompute: 1

1 0 1
0

Nowforsomethingespeciallycool.Basedonthesetworesults,wehavethefollowing:
1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 1!
3 2 2 2 1 2 2!
4 3 3 3 2 6 3!
5 4 4 4 6 24 4!

!


Integration by Parts Tabular Method
IftheuseofIntegrationbyPartsresultsinanotherintegralthatmustbesolvedusing
integrationbyparts,theTabularMethodcanbeusedtosimplifyrepeatingtheprocessand
savetime.Thismethodisparticularlyusefulwhenoneofthetermsoftheintegrandisa
polynomial.
DescriptionoftheMethod
Createatableliketheonebelow,startingwiththe and substitutionstobeusedinthe
initialintegrationbyparts.Startthe columnonelinehigherthanthe column.
Inthe column,takeconsecutivederivativesuntilthederivativeequalszero.
Inthe column,takeconsecutiveintegralsuntilthederivativecolumnequalszero.
Inthesigncolumn,beginwitha signandalternate andsigns.
Multiplythesignandtheexpressionsinthe and columnstoobtaineachtermof
thesolution.
Addallofthetermsobtainedasdescribedabovetoobtainthecompletesolution.
Example5.14:TabularMethodtodetermine
Terms Sign , , , , , ,
sin 2
1
, cos 2
2
1
, 3 take sin 2 take
4
consecutive consecutive
1
, 6 derivatives cos 2 integrals
8
1
, 6 sin 2
16
Solution:
1 1 1 1
sin 2 cos 2 3 sin 2 6 cos 2 6 sin 2
2 4 8 16
1 3 3 3
cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 sin 2
2 4 4 8

Trigonometric Substitution
Certainintegrandsarebesthandledwithatrigonometricsubstitution.Threecommonforms
areshowninthetablebelow:
IntegralContainsthisForm TrythisSubstitution
tan
sec
sin or cos
Whyarethesehelpful?Quitesimplybecausetheyeliminatewhatisoftenthemostdifficult
partoftheproblemthesquarerootsign.Letslookateachofthesubstitutionsinthetable.
Usingthesubstitution tan ,wehave:
tan tan 1 sec sec
Usingthesubstitution sec ,wehave:
sec sec 1 tan tan
Usingthesubstitution sin ,wehave:
sin 1 sin cos cos
Usingthesubstitution cos ,wehave:
cos 1 cos sin sin
Example5.15:

16 Let: 4 tan

4 sec 4 sec

4 tan 4 tan 16
4 sec

4 tan 4 sec
1 sec 1
csc
4 tan 4
1 1 16 4
ln|csc cot | ln
4 4

Impossible Integrals
Someexpressionsareimpossibletointegrateusingelementarymethods.Examplesare
providedbelow.
ErrorFunction
Thisintegralmaybeencounteredinexercisesrelatedtothenormalprobability
distribution.Itisimportantenoughthattablesofvalueassociatedwithits
definiteintegralformhavebeendeveloped.
erf
OtherFunctionswithTablesofValues
Anumberofotherintegralsareimportantenoughtohavetablesofvaluesdevelopedforthem:
FunctionName IndefiniteForm DefiniteForm

1 1
LogarithmicIntegral
ln ln
sin sin
SineIntegral
cos cos
CosineIntegral
ExponentialIntegral
OtherImpossibleIntegrals
1 1 1
sin , cos , tan , sin , sin , sin
, , , ln ln , ln sin ,
ln
Manymorefunctionsthatcannotbeintegratedusingelementarymethodscanbefoundat:
https://owlcation.com/stem/ListofFunctionsYouCannotIntegrateNoAntiderivatives

Chapter6 HyperbolicFunctions
Hyperbolic Functions
Definitions

Geometric Representation
Theillustrationatrightprovidesageometric
representationofavalue"z"anditshyperbolic
functionvaluesrelativetotheunithyperbola.
Thehyperboliccosine" cosh ",istheequation

oftheCatenary,theshapeofhangingchainthatis
supportedatbothends.
Manyofthepropertiesofhyperbolicfunctionsbeara
strikingresemblancetothecorrespondingproperties
oftrigonometricfunctions(seenextpage).
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions


Hyperbolic Function Identities
Comparison of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Identities
Hyperbolic Function Identity Trigonometric Function Identity
sinh sinh sin sin
cosh cosh cos cos
tanh tanh tan tan

cosh sinh 1 sin cos 1
sech 1 tanh sec 1 tan
csch coth 1 csc 1 cot

sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh sin sin cos cos sin
sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh sin sin cos cos sin
sinh 2 2 sinh cosh sin 2 2 sin cos
cosh cosh cosh sinh sinh cos cos cos sin sin
cosh cosh cosh sinh sinh cos cos cos sin sin
cosh 2 cosh sinh cos 2 cos sin
tanh tanh tan tan

tanh tan
1 tanh tanh 1 tan tan
tanh tanh tan tan

tanh tan
1 tanh tanh 1 tan tan

1 cosh 2 1 cos 2
sinh sin
2 2
1 cosh 2 1 cos 2
cosh cos
2 2

Hyperbolic Function Identities
Relationship between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
sinh sin
Fromthesetworelationships,theotherfourmaybedetermined.
cosh cos
sinh
tanh tan
cosh
cosh
coth cot
sinh
1
sech sec
cosh
1
csch csc
sinh
Series Expansions
AppendixGprovidesseriesexpansionsforthetrigonometricfunctionssin andcos .Those

arerepeatedhere,alongwiththeseriesexpansionsforthecorrespondinghyperbolicfunctions
sinh andcosh .
sin cos 1
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
sinh cosh 1
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
Itispossibletodevelopseriesexpansionsfortheotherfourhyperbolicfunctions,butthey
involvethemoreesotericBernoullinumbersandEulernumbers.Instead,thestudentmaywish
todevelopvaluesfortheotherfourhyperbolicfunctionsfromtheexpansionsofsinh and
cosh .

! ! !
Example6.1:tanh

! ! !

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Logarithmic Forms of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Function Function
Principal Values Domain Range
sinh ln 1 , ,
cosh ln 1 1, 0,
1 1
tanh ln 1, 1 ,
2 1
1 1 1
coth tanh ln , 1 1, ,
2 1
1 1 1
sech cosh ln 0, 1 0,
1 1 1
csch sinh ln , ,
| |
Graphs of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions


Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses
Hyperbolic Functions
sinh cosh sinh cosh
cosh sinh cosh sinh
tanh sech tanh sech
coth csch coth csch
sech sech tanh sech sech tanh
csch csch coth csch csch coth
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

1 1
sinh sinh
1 1
1 1
cosh cosh
1 1
1 1
tanh tanh
1 1
1 1
coth coth
1 1
1 1
sech sech
1 1
1 1
csch csch
| | 1 | | 1


Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses
Hyperbolic Functions Becarefulwiththeseintegrals.Acoupleof

themhaveinversetrigonometricfunctionsin
sinh cosh theformulas.Thesearehighlightedinblue.
cosh sinh
tanh ln cosh sech tanh
coth ln|sinh | csch coth
sech 2 tan sech tanh sech
csch ln tanh csch coth coth

2
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions Note:theintegration

rulespresentedinthis
sinh sinh 1 chapteromitthe
termthatmustbe
cosh cosh 1 addedtoallindefinite
integralsinordertosave
1 spaceandavoidclutter.
tanh tanh ln 1
2 Pleaseremembertoadd
1 the termonall
coth coth ln 1 workyouperformwith
2
indefiniteintegrals.
sech sech sin
csch csch sinh if 0
csch sinh if 0


Other Integrals Relating to Hyperbolic Functions
1 1
sinh ln

1 1
cosh ln

1 1
tanh
1 1
ln
1 1 2
coth

1 1 | | 1 1
sech ln
| |
1 1 | | 1 1
csch ln
| |
Note:Theresultsaboveareshownwithouttheirconstantterm( ).Whenmorethanone
resultisshown,theresultsmaydifferbyaconstant,meaningthattheconstantsintheformulas
maybedifferent.
Example6.2:Fromthefirstrowabove:
1 1
sinh and ln

Fromearlierinthischapter,weknowthatthelogarithmicformofsinh is:
sinh ln 1
Then:
1
sinh ln 1

ln ln ln
Soweseethat ln andsotheformulasbothwork,buthavedifferentconstant
terms.

Chapter7 DefiniteIntegrals
Definite Integrals as Riemann Sums
Riemann Sum
ARiemannSumisthesumoftheareasofasetofrectanglesthatcanbeusedtoapproximate
theareaunderacurveoveraclosedinterval.
Consideraclosedinterval , on thatispartitionedinto subintervalsoflengths

, , , .Let beanyvalueof onthe thsubinterval.Then,theRiemann
Sumisgivenby:
AgraphicalrepresentationofaRiemannsum
ontheinterval 2, 5 isprovidedatright.
Notethattheareaunderacurvefrom
to is:

lim

Thelargest iscalledthemeshsizeofthepartition.AtypicalRiemannSumisdeveloped
withall thesame(i.e.,constantmeshsize),butthisisnotrequired.Theresultingdefinite
integral, iscalledtheRiemannIntegralof ontheinterval , .
Withconstantmeshsize,theRiemannIntegralof ontheinterval , canbeexpressed:

lim

where,

.


Methods for Calculating Riemann Sums
RiemannSumsareoftencalculatedusingequalsubintervalsovertheintervalspecified.Below
areexamplesof4commonlyusedapproaches.Althoughsomemethodsprovidebetter

answersthanothersundervariousconditions,thelimitsundereachmethodasmax 0
arethesame,andareequaltotheintegraltheyareintendedtoapproximate.
x x dx .Using n 3 ,estimatetheareaunderthecurve.
8
Example7.1:Given: 2
2
.Thethreeintervalsinquestionare: , , , , , .Then,
LeftEndpoint Rectangles (userectangleswithleftendpointsonthecurve)

2 4 6 2 12 30 units2
RightEndpoint Rectangles (userectangleswithrightendpointsonthecurve)

4 6 8 12 30 56 units2
Trapezoid Rule (usetrapezoidswithallendpointsonthecurve) Note:theactualvalueof

theareaunderthecurveis:

units2
138
Midpoint Rule (userectangleswithmidpointsonthecurve)
3 5 7 6 20 42 units2

Riemann Sums of Tables Using the TI84
Considerthefollowingproblem:
UsearightRiemannSumtoapproximatetheareaunderthecurveontheinterval 2, 13 .
2 4 5.5 8 9.2 10.3 11.8 13

4 1 2 1 5 11 13 9
Thereareeightcolumnsand,therefore,sevenintervalsinthetable.Theformulaforthe
requiredRiemannSum,then,is:
wherethe arethewidthsoftheintervalsandthe arethevaluesofthefunctionat

therightsideofeachinterval(becausewearecalculatingarightRiemannSum).
Thestudentcancalculatethisdirectlyas:
1 4 2 2 5.5 4 1 8 .5.5 5 9.2 8 11 10.3 9.2 13 11.8 10.3 9 13 11.8 .
Alternatively,thestudentcanusetheTI84calculatorasfollows:
Step1:STATEDITL1enterthevaluesof inthecolumnforL1.
Step2:STATEDITL2entertheappropriatevaluesof inthecolumnforL2.
Step3:2NDQUITthiswilltakeyoubacktotheTI84shomescreen.
Step3:L1xL2STO>L3thiswillputtheproductofcolumnsL1andL2incolumnL3.
NotethatL3willcontaintheareasofeachoftherectanglesintheRiemannSum.
Step4:2NDLISTMATHSUM(L3thiswilladdthevaluesincolumnL3,givingthe
valueof ,which,forthisproblem,matchesthesumof . shownabove.
Note:enteringL1,L2orL3requiresuseofthe2NDkey.
ThestudentcanreviewthecontentsofthelistsL1,L2,andL3using
STATEDIT.Forthisproblem,thedisplaywilllooksomethinglike
theimageatright.Theadvantagesofthisare:
Itallowsthestudenttochecktheirworkquickly.
IfthestudentisaskedforsomeotherkindofRiemannSum,a
portionoftherequiredinputisalreadyintheTI84.
EachstudentshouldusewhichevermethodofcalculatingRiemannSumsworksbestforthem.

Riemann Integrals with Constant Mesh Size

Withconstantmeshsize,theRiemannIntegralof ontheinterval , canbeexpressed:

lim

where,

.

AformulaforarightendpointRiemannSumwith subintervals,then,canbedeveloped
using:

, 1, 2, ,
Example7.2:ProvidetheexactvalueofbyexpressingitasthelimitofaRiemannsum.

StartwiththedefinitionofaRiemannSumwithconstantmeshsize(seeabove):

lim

Using subintervalsandarightendpointRiemannSum,
4 2 2

2 2 , 1, 2, ,

2 2 8 4
2 2 4
So,
2 2
lim
2


Riemann Sum Methods Over or UnderEstimates
LeftandRightEndpointMethods
OverorUnderestimatesfortheLeftandRightEndpointMethodsdependonwhethera
functionisincreasingordecreasingovertheintervalused.
OverorUnder OverorUnder
Method Method
Estimate Estimate
LeftEndpoint Under LeftEndpoint Over

RightEndpoint Over RightEndpoint Under
MidpointandTrapezoidMethods
OverorUnderestimatesfortheMidpointandTrapezoidalMethodsdependonwhethera
functionisconcaveuporconcavedownovertheintervalused.
ConcaveUp ConcaveDown
OverorUnder OverorUnder
Method Method
Estimate Estimate
Midpoint Under Midpoint Over

Trapezoidal Over Trapezoidal Under

Rules of Definite Integration
First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If isacontinuousfunctionon , ,and isanyantiderivativeof ,then
Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If isacontinuousfunctionon , ,thenforevery ,
Chain Rule of Definite Integration

If isacontinuousfunctionon , ,thenforevery ,
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

If isacontinuousfunctionon , ,thenthereisavalue , ,suchthat

Properties of Definite Integrals
SameUpperandLowerLimits
0 Iftheupperandlowerlimitsoftheintegral
arethesame,itsvalueiszero.
ReversedLimits
Reversingthelimitsofanintegralnegates
itsvalue.
MultiplicationbyaScalar
Theintegraloftheproductofascalar
andafunctionistheproductofthe
scalarandtheintegralofthefunction.
TelescopingLimits
Theintegralovertheinterval , isequalto
theintegralovertheinterval , ,plusthe
integralovertheinterval , .
SumorDifference
Theintegralofasum(ordifference)of
functionsisthesum(ordifference)of
theintegralsofthefunctions.
LinearCombination
Theintegralofalinear
combinationoffunctionsis
thelinearcombinationofthe
integralsofthefunctions.

Solving Definite Integrals with Directed Line Segments
AcommonprobleminelementaryCalculusistousethevaluesofdefiniteintegralsofagiven
function overtwoormoreintervalstoobtainthevalueofadefiniteintegralof over
arelatedinterval.Theillustrationbelowshowshowdirectedlinesegmentscanbeusedto
simplifythecalculationsrequiredforthiskindofproblem.
Example7.3:Giventhat 3 84and 5 75, find .
Step1:Removeanyscalarmultipliersbydividingthevaluesgivenbythescalarmultipliers.
Divide: 3 84by3toget 28.
Divide: 5 75by5toget 15.
Step2:Drawdirectedlinesegmentsforeachofthedefiniteintegralsintheproblem.Label
eachsegmentwithitsmagnitude.Thestarting
andendingpointsofeachsegmentreflectthe
limitsintheintegral.Knownvaluesareshown
inblueandthetargetvalueisingreen.
Noticethatthefirstsegmentstretchesover
theinterval 3, 8 andhasmagnitude28,reflecting 28.Theothersegments
areconstructedsimilarly.Wewanttofindthemagnitudeofthethird(green)segment.
Wecouldsubtractthesecondsegmentfromthefirsttoobtainthesolutionsegment.Its
magnitudewouldbe: 28 15 4 .Ifwedothis,wearedone;wehave
oursolution.Alternatively,wecouldtakeamorefluidapproachtothisproblemasinStep3.
Step3(ifdesired):Reorientsegmentsas
neededsowecanfollowtheknowndirected
segmentsfromthebeginningtotheendofthe
intervalrequiredforthesolution(i.e.,from
3to 4).
Ifwereorientthemiddlesegmentsoitispointingtotheleft,themagnitudeofthenewsecond
segmentbecomes15,reflectingthefactthatwearemovingtotheleftinsteadoftotheright.
UsingCalculus,thisreflectsthefactthat 15.Wearenowableto
getto 4byfollowingtheknownsegmentsinthedirectionsshown.Then,wesimplyadd
themagnitudesoftheknownsegmentstogetoursolution: 28 15 4 .

Definite Integrals Substitution
substitutionmaybeusedintheevaluationofdefiniteintegralsaswellasindefiniteintegrals
(note:using substitutionwithindefiniteintegralsiscoveredinChapter5).Theprocesswith
definiteintegralsisslightlydifferentandmayevenbeabiteasier.
Process
Followingarethestepsforthegeneralsolutiontoadefiniteintegralusing substitution.
1. Setaportionoftheintegrandequaltoanewvariable,e.g., .Looktotherestofthe
integrandindecidingwhattosetequalto .Youwillneedtohave intheintegrand
aswell,ifthistechniqueistofindsuccess.
2. Find intermsof .
3. Rearrangetheintegrandsothattheintegralexistsintermsof insteadof .
4. Performtheintegration.
5. Evaluatethevaluesofthelimitsofintegrationintermsofthenewvariableand
substitutetheseintothedefiniteintegralintermsofu.
6. Evaluatetheresult.
Notethatbycalculatingthelimitsofintegrationintermsofthenewvariable, ,weareableto
avoidthestepwherewemustsubstitutetheexpressionfor backintotheresultofthe
integration.Thissavestimeandreducesthelikelihoodoferrorinthecalculation.

Example7.4:Evaluate:
2
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
2 1 0 1
1 3

1 1 1 1 1 1
1
3 3 1 3 3


Example7.5:Evaluate: sin 2

sin 2 2
2

1
sin 2 2
2 4

2

2
1 2
sin
2 2

1 2 1 2 1
cos cos 0 1
2 2 2 2 2

Example7.6:Evaluate: tan sec
Fortrigfunctionsotherthansineandcosine,weneedtomakesurethedenominatorsofthe
functionsarenotzerowithinourinterval.Iftheyarezero,thefunctionisnotcontinuousonthe
intervalandsotheFundamentalTheoremofCalculusdoesnotapply.
Forthecurrentproblem,weneedtomakesurecos 0overtheinterval 0, inordertouse

theFundamentalTheoremofCalculus.Sincecos 0 at , inthisneighborhood,we
areokaytoproceed.
tan
tan sec sec

1 1 1 1
1 2
0 2 4
2 0 2 0 0
ALTERNATIVEAPPROACH:setting sec
sec
tan sec
sec tan

2
sec sec tan 4
0 1
2 1 2 1 2
2 12
2 1 2

Definite Integrals Special Techniques
Sometimesitisdifficultorimpossibletotakeanantiderivativeofanintegrand.Insuchcases,it
maystillbepossibletoevaluateadefiniteintegral,butspecialtechniquesandcreativitymaybe
required.Thissectionpresentsafewtechniquesthatthestudentmayfindhelpful.
EvenandOddFunctions
Thefollowingtechniquecansometimesbeusedtosolveadefiniteintegralthathaslimitsthatare
additiveinverses(i.e, and ).
Everyfunctioncanbesplitintoevenandoddcomponents.Theevenandoddcomponentsofagiven
function, ,are:

2 2
Noticethat:
,sothat isanevenfunction.
,sothat isanoddfunction.

Furtherrecallthat,foranoddfunctionwithlimitsthatareadditiveinverses,anynegativeareasunder
thecurveareexactlyoffsetbycorrespondingpositiveareasunderthecurve.Thatis:
Additionally,foranevenfunctionwithlimitsthatareadditiveinverses,theareaunderthecurvetothe
leftofthe axisisthesameastheareaunderthecurvetotherightofthe axis.Thatis:
Therefore,wehave:
And,finally,substitutingfromtheaboveequations:
Letslookatanexampleofhowthiscanbeusedtoevaluateadifficultdefiniteintegralonthenextpage.


Example7.7:Evaluate
cos(x)
f(x) =
1 + ex
First,define: .

Noticethattherearenosingularitiesforthisintegral.Thatis,there
arenopointsbetweenthelimits(i.e., )atwhich
doesnotexist.Sowemayproceedinanormalfashion.
Next,letslookattheevenandoddcomponentsof .
1 cos cos

2 2 1 1
Notingthatcos cos ,weget:

1 cos cos cos 1 1 cos(x)
feven(x) =
2 1 1 2 1 1 2
cos 1 1

2 1 1
cos 2 cos

2 2 2
Theoddcomponentof is(note:thisworkisnotnecessarytoevaluatetheintegral):
1 cos cos

2 2 1 1

1 cos

2 1 1
cos cos
2

1
1
1
1
fodd(x) =
cos(x)
2 ex ex
2 + ex + ex
cos 1 1

2 1 1
cos

2 2
Sincethevalueoftheoddcomponentofthedefiniteintegraliszero,weneedonlyevaluatethe
evencomponentofthedefiniteintegralusingtheformulaonthepreviouspage:

cos 2
2 sin sin sin 0 1 0
2 0 2


Derivative of an Integral
TheSecondFundamentalTheoremofCalculusstatesthatif isacontinuousfunctionon
theinterval , ,thenforevery , , .Essentially,thisisa
statementthatintegrationanddifferentiationareinverses.But,thereismore.Iftheupper
limitisafunctionof ,say ,thenwemustapplythechainruletoget:
Notethat isaconstantand isafunctionin .Alsonotethatthevalueoftheconstant is

irrelevantinthisexpression,aslongas iscontinuousontherequiredinterval.
Ifbothofthelimitsintheintegralarefunctionsof ,wecantakeadvantageofapropertyof
definiteintegralstodevelopasolution.Let and bothbefunctionsin ,andlet bean
arbitraryconstantintheintervalwhere iscontinuous.Then,
So,
Example7.8:
3 sin 2 6 cos 2
Example7.9:
sec 2

Chapter8 ApplicationsofIntegration
Area Under a Curve
Theareaunderacurvecanbecalculateddirectlybyintegratingthecurveoverthedesired
interval.Notethefollowing:
Theareaunderacurveisactuallytheareabetweentheaxisandthecurve.Inthis
sense,thewordundermaybeabitofamisnomer.
Theareaunderacurvemaybepositive(ifabovethe axis)ornegative(ifbelowthe
axis).

Example8.1:Findtheareaunderthecurve 2 onthe
interval 1, 1 .
3 1
2 2
4 1
3 3
1 21 1 2 1
4 4
5 11
4 4
Example8.2:Findtheareaunderthecurve 4 sec tan ontheinterval , .
4 sec tan 4 sec 3

3 Negative Positive
Area Area
4 3 4 4
0
cos 1 1
3 2 2
Note:thisinterestingresultmeansthatthenegativearea
underthecurveof 4 sec tan ontheinterval
, 0 isexactlyoffsetexactlybythepositiveareaabove
thecurveontheinterval 0, .

Area Between Curves
Theareabetweentwocurvesisthedifferenceoftheareasunderthecurves.Itisalways
positive,soifthecurvesswitchpositionintermsofwhichoneissuperior(ontoportothe
right),theintegrationmusttakethatintoaccount.
Example8.3:Findtheareaoftheregionisboundedbythe axisandthecurves sin and

cos (i.e.,insidethegreenlinesintheillustration).
First,wemustfindthepointofintersectioninQuadrant1.
sin cos at ,soourintervalofintegrationis 0,

Next,considerwhichcurveissuperiortotheother(i.e.,whichoneis
higheriftheformoftheequationsis ,ormoretotherightif
theformoftheequationsis ).Theothercurveisinferior.The
inferiorcurveissubtractedfromthesuperiorcurveintheintegrand.
Ontheinterval 0, , cos isthehigherofthetwocurves.
Finally,calculatetheareabyintegratingthedifferencebetweenthecurves.
cos sin sin cos 4 sin cos sin 0 cos 0

0 4 4
2 2
0 1
2 2
Example8.4:Findtheareaoftheregionbetween and
1ontheinterval 1, 1 (i.e.,insidethegreenlinesin
theillustration).
Ontheinterval 1, 1 ,thehighestcurveis .
Calculatetheareabyintegratingthedifferencebetweenthecurves.
1 1
1 1

3 1
1 1 1 1 2
1 1 2
3 3 3


Area in Polar Form
AreainPolarFormisgivenby:
1
Let: Then,
2
Why?
Thediagramatrightillustratesthereasonthatweusetheaboveformula
forarea.Theintegraladdsalloftheslices(seethecolorslicesinthe
diagram)insidethecurveinquestion.Eachsliceisasectorofacircle
withradius andangle (aninfinitesimallysmallangle).Theareaofa
singleslice,then,is timestheareaofthecirclecontainingit.Thatis:
1

2 2
Integratingthisoverthedesiredintervalof resultsintheaboveformulaforarea.
Example8.5:Findtheareainthefirstquadrantinsidethelemniscate 4 sin 2 shownin

theabovediagram.
First,weneedtodeterminethelimitsofintegration.ConsiderthattheloopinQuadrant1
beginsandendsatlocationswhere 0.So,weneedtofindtwovaluesofthevariable
thatmake 0.Wedothisbysetting 0intheequationofthelemniscate.
0 4 sin 2 ,whichoccurswhensin 2 0,whichoccursat 0, , , ,
Forourlimitsofintegration,wewilluse0and becausethesetwovaluesdefinetheloopin
Quadrant1.Wecancheckthisbyevaluating foravalueintheinterval 0, andmaking
suretheresultingpointisinQuadrant1.Letsfind when .

4 sin 2 41 4 2(inQuadrant1)
TheareaofthelemniscateaboveinQuadrant1,then,iscalculatedas:
1 1 2
4 sin 2 2 sin 2 cos 2
2 2 0

Example8.6:Calculatetheareaofthegenerallemniscateoftheform sin 2 .
NotethattheareaoftheentirelemniscateisdoublethatoftheloopinQuadrant1.Then,
1 1 2
2 sin 2 sin 2 cos 2
2 2 0
Example8.7:Findtheareawithintheinnerloopofthelimaon 1 2 cos .
First,weneedtodeterminethelimitsofintegration.Considerthat
theloopbeginsandendsatlocationswhere 0.So,weneed
tofindthevaluesofthevariable thatmake 0anddefine
theinnerloop.Wedothisbysetting 0intheequationofthe
lemniscate.
0 1 2 cos ,whichoccurswhencos ,which

occursat ,
Next,weneedtomakesurethattheinnerloopisdefinedas progressesfrom to .We

candothisbyevaluating foravalueof intheinterval , andmakingsuretheresulting
pointisontheinnerloop.Letsfind when .

1 2 cos 1
Wecheckthepolarpoint 1, onthecurveandnotethatitisontheinnerloop.
Therefore,ourlimitsofintegrationarethevalues , .
Theareaoftheinnerloopofthelimaon 1 2 cos ,then,iscalculatedas:
1 1 1
1 2 cos 1 4 cos 4 cos
2 2 2
1 1 cos 2 3
1 4 cos 4 2 cos cos 2
2 2 2
3 1 4
3
2 sin sin 2
2 2 2
3

Areas of Limaons
Limaonsthathavebothinnerandouterloopspresentachallengewhencalculatingarea.The
generalformofalimaonis:
cos or sin
When| | | |,thelimaonhasaninnerloopthatcoverspartofitsouterloop,sowemust
becarefulcalculatingareasinthiskindoflimaon.
Example8.8:Findtheareabetweentheloops(i.e.,insidetheouterloopbutoutsidetheinner
loop)ofthelimaon: 1 2 sin .
First,weneedtofindwhere 1 2 sin 0sowecanidentifythestartingandending
valuesfortheinnerloop.Afterfindingthesevaluestobe , ,wecanlookatthecurve
overvariousintervalson 0,2 andcalculatetheareasassociatedwiththoseintervals.

/
1 33 8
0, : 1 2 sin ~ 0.0844
6 2 4
/
5 1 2 33
,
: 1 2 sin ~ 0.5435
6 6 2 / 2
5 1 33 8
, : 1 2 sin ~ 0.0844
6 2 / 4
1 3 8
,2 : 1 2 sin ~ 8.7124
2 2
Thetotalareaofthelimaon,includingboththeouterandinnerloops,isthesumofthese:
1
0,2 : 1 2 sin 3 ~ 9.4248
2

Asketchofthecompletelimaon 1 2 sin isshowninFigure1below.Sincetakingthe

areafrom0to2 includestheareacompletelyinsidetheouterloopplustheareainsidethe
innerloop,thetotalareacanbethoughtofasshowninFigure2.
Thisillustratesthattheareawithintheinnerloopisincludedin 1 2 sin
twice,andtherefore,mustbesubtractedtwicewhenlookingfortheareabetweentheloops.
Subtractingitonceleavesalloftheareainsidetheouterloop(Figure3).Asecondsubtraction
isrequiredtoobtaintheareabetweentheloops.
Figure1 Figure2 Figure3

1 2 sin |1 2 sin | 1 2 sin
Graphedon 0, 2 Graphedon 0, 2 Graphedon 0, ,2
Givenalloftheabove,letscalculatethekeyareasofthelimaon 1 2 sin :
Thetotalareaofthelimaon,includingboththeouterloopandtheinnerloop,is:
1
Interval 0,2 : 1 2 sin 3 ~ 9.4248
2
Theareainsidetheinnerloopiscalculatedas:
/
5 1 2 33
Interval , : 1 2 sin ~ 0.5435
6 6 2 / 2
Theareabetweentheloops(i.e.,thesolutiontothisexample)iscalculatedas:
1 1
1 2 sin 2 1 2 sin 33 ~ 8.3377
2 2

Arc Length
Thearclength, ,ofacurve,initsvariousforms,isdiscussedbelow:
RectangularForm:
Forafunctionoftheform: ,from to
.
Forafunctionoftheform: ,from to
.
Example8.9:Findthelengthofthearconthehyperboliccurve cosh onthe

interval 0, 2 .
Usingtheaboveformula,andnotingthat sinh :
1 1
2
1
1 2
4
1
2
4

2 2
2 1 1

2 0 2 2

PolarForm:
Forafunctionoftheform: ,
Example8.10:Findthelengthofthearcofonepetalontherose 2 cos 3 .
Tofindtheintervalwhichdefinesonepetal,weset 0.
0 2 cos 3 ,whichoccurswhencos 3 0,which

occursat , , , .Alittleinvestigationreveals
wecandefineafullpetalovertheinterval , .
Nextfind: 6 sin 3 .
Then,thearclengthofasinglepetalis:
2 cos 3 6 sin 3
4 cos 3 36 sin 3
2 cos 3 9 sin 3
2 cos 3 sin 3 8 sin 3
Thisexpressionisquiteuglybutcanbehandledbyamoderncalculator.Itsvalueis
approximately . ascalculatedonboththeTI84PlusandtheTInSpire.

ParametricForm:
Forafunctionoftheform: ,
Example8.11:Findthelengthofthearcofonepetalontherosedefinedbytheparametric
equations 2 cos 3 cos and 2 cos 3 sin .
Thisisthesamecurvedefinedintheexampleabove.Sowewill
integrateoverthesameinterval: , .
Tointegrateinparametricform,weneed and .Lets

calculatethem:
2 cos 3 sin cos 3 sin 3
2 cos 3 cos sin 3 sin 3
Then,
4 cos 3 sin cos 3 sin 3 4 cos 3 cos sin 3 sin 3
cos 3 sin 6 cos cos 3 sin sin 3 9 cos sin 3

2
cos 3 cos 6 cos cos 3 sin sin 3 9 sin sin 3
Noticeinthisexpressionthattermsaboveandbeloweachothercanbecombinedtoget:
2 cos 3 sin cos 9 sin cos sin 3
2 cos 3 9 sin 3 2
Thisisexactlythesameexpressionthatwasderivedonthepreviouspageinpolarform.

Comparison of Formulas for Rectangular, Polar and Parametric Forms

RectangularForm PolarForm ParametricForm

Form

cos cos
Conversion
tan sin sin
1
AreaUnderCurve
2
1
AreaBetweenCurves
2
ArcLength( ) 1
MagnitudeofSpeed(2D) 1
/ sin cos / sin cos

SlopeofTangentLine
/ cos sin / cos sin
SecondDerivative
HorizontalTangents 0 sin cos 0 sin cos 0
VerticalTangents undefined cos sin 0 cos sin 0

Area of a Surface of Revolution
Rotationaboutthe Axis
Rotationofacurve from to .
2 2 1
isthearclengthofthecurveon , .
Ifthecurveisdefinedbyparametricequations, , :
Rotationaboutthe Axis
Rotationofacurve from to .
2 2 1
isthearclengthofthecurveon , .
Ifthecurveisdefinedbyparametricequations, , :

Volumes of Solids of Revolution
Solids of Rotation about:

Revolution xaxis yaxis
Disk

Method
Washer

Method(1)
2 2
Cylindrical Shell
Method(2) or or
2 2
2 2
Difference of
Shells Method(2)(3) or or
2 2
Area Cross Section

Method(4)
Notes:
1. TheWasherMethodisanextensionoftheDiskMethod.
2. istheradiusofthecylindricalshell.Incaseswherethereisagapbetweentheaxisof
revolutionandthefunctionsbeingrevolved, isthedistancebetweentheaxisof
revolutionandeither or ,asappropriate.
3. TheDifferenceofShellsMethodisanextensionoftheCylindricalShellMethod.
4. Thefunction istheareaofthecrosssectionbeingintegrated.


Disk and Washer Methods
TheformulasfortheDiskMethodandWasherMethodforcalculatingvolumesofrevolution
areprovidedabove.Below,wepresentanapproachthatcanbeusedtocalculatevolumesof
revolutionusingthesemethods.
UndertheDiskMethod,weintegratetheareaoftheregionbetweenacurveanditsaxisof
revolutiontoobtainvolume.Sinceeachcrosssectionoftheresultingobjectwillbeacircle,we
usetheformula asourstartingpoint.Theresultingformulais:
or
TheWasherMethodissimplyadualapplicationoftheDiskMethod.Considerthe
illustrationatright.Ifwewanttheareaoftheshadedregion,wesubtractthe
areaofthesmallercirclefromtheareaofthelargercircle.Thesameoccurswith
theWasherMethod;sinceweintegratecrosssectionalareatofindvolume,soto
obtainthevolumeofrevolutionofaregionbetweenthetwocurvesweintegrate
thedifferenceintheareasbetweenthetwocurves.
Belowisasetofstepsthatcanbeusedtodeterminethevolumeofrevolutionofaregion
betweentwocurves.Theapproachisillustratedbasedonthefollowingexample:
Example8.12:Findthevolumethatresultsfromrevolvingtheregionbetweenthecurves
2 and abouttheline 6.
Steps
1. Graphtheequationsprovidedandanyotherinformationgiven
intheproblem(illustratedbelow).Then,isolatethesectionof
thegraphthatwewanttoworkwith(illustratedatright).The
diskswewilluseareshownasgreenandorangeverticallines.
Thedashedobjectsarereflectionsofthecurvesanddisksover
theaxisofrevolution;thesegiveusanideaofwhatthecentral
crosssectionofthe3 shapewilllooklikeafterrevolution.You
donotneedtodrawthese.
Integration
Interval

2. Identifywhetherthereisagapbetweentheregiontoberevolvedandtheaxisof
revolution.Intheexample,theaxisofrevolutionis 6,sothereisclearlyagap
betweena)theredandbluecurves,andb)theaxisofrevolution.Therefore,wewilluse
theWasherMethod.
3. Setuptheintegralformtobeused.
a. DiskMethod: radius or radius
b. WasherMethod: big radius small radius or

big radius small radius
4. Identifythevariableofintegration(i.e.,areweusing or ?).Thedisksusedmust
beperpendiculartotheaxisofrevolution.
a. Ifwearerevolvingaroundanaxis,usethevariableofthataxis.
b. Iftheaxisofrevolutionisalineoftheform, or ,usetheopposite
variablefromtheonethatoccursintheequationoftheaxis.Intheexample,the
axisofrevolutionis 6,sowewillintegratewithrespectto .
Note:Theexpressionsusedintheintegrationmustbeintermsofthevariableof
integration.So,forexample,ifthevariableofintegrationis andtheequationofa
curveisgivenas ,wemustinvertthistotheform before
integrating.
5. Identifythelimitsofintegration.Intheexample,thecurvesintersectat 0and
4.Thisresultsinanequationforvolumeintheform:
big radius small radius
6. Substitutetheexpressionsforthebigandsmallradiiinsidetheintegral.Inthe
example,wehavethefollowing:
a. big radius 6
b. small radius 6 2
Thisresultsinthefollowing:
~ .
NotethatthismatchesthevaluecalculatedusingtheDifferenceofShellsMethod
below.

Cylindrical Shell Methods
TheformulasfortheCylindricalShellMethodandDifferenceofShellsMethodforcalculating
volumesofrevolutionareprovidedabove.Below,wepresentanapproachthatcanbeusedto
calculatevolumesofrevolutionusingthesemethods.
UndertheCylindricalShellMethod,weintegratethevolumeofashellacrosstheappropriate
valuesof or .Weusetheformulaforthevolumeofacylinderasourstartingpoint(i.e.,
2 ,where istypicallythefunctionprovided).Theresultingformulais:
2 or 2
TheDifferenceofShellsMethodisessentiallyadualapplicationofthe
CylindricalShellMethod.Wewantthevolumeofthecylinderwhose
heightisthedifferencebetweentwofunctions(seeillustrationat
right).
Belowisasetofstepsthatcanbeusedtodeterminethevolumeofrevolutionofaregion
betweentwocurves.Theapproachisillustratedbasedonthefollowingexample:
Example8.13:Findthevolumethatresultsfromrevolvingtheregionbetweenthecurves
2 and abouttheline 6.
Steps
1. Graphtheequationsprovidedandanyotherinformationgivenintheproblem
(illustratedbelowleft).Then,isolatethesectionofthegraphthatwewanttoworkwith
(illustratedbelowright).Alsoshownarereflectionsofthecurvesovertheaxisof
revolution(dashedcurves);thisallowsustoseetheothersideofthecylindricalshells
wewilluse.Atypicalshellisshownasagreencylinder.

Integration
Interval

2. Identifywhethertheintegrationinvolvesoneortwocurves.
a. Onecurve:UsetheCylindricalShellMethod.
b. Twocurves:UsetheDifferenceofShellsMethod.Thisisthecaseintheexample.
3. Setuptheintegralformtobeused.Let betheradiusoftheshell.
a. CylindricalShellMethod: 2 or 2 .
b. DifferenceofShellsMethod: 2 difference of shell heights or

2 difference of shell heights .
4. Identifythevariableofintegration(i.e.,areweusing or ?).Theshellsusedmust
beparalleltotheaxisofrevolution.
a. Ifwearerevolvingaroundanaxis,considertheequationofthataxis(i.e.,the
axishasequation: 0).
b. Theaxisofrevolutionisalineoftheform, or ,usethesame
variableastheonethatoccursintheequationoftheaxisofrevolution.Inthe
example,theaxisofrevolutionis 6,sowewillintegratewithrespectto .
2 difference of shell heights
5. Identifythelimitsofintegration.Intheexample,thecurvesintersectat 0and
4.Thisresultsinanequationforvolumeintheform:
2 difference of shell heights
6. Substitutetheexpressionsfor andthedifferenceofshellheightsintotheintegral.In
theexample,weneedtoconverteachequationtotheform because isthe
variableofintegration:
a. so 2 2 so
1 2
Thedifferenceofshellheights,then,is 2
4
.
b. Theradiusofashellisthedifferencebetweentheline 6andthevalueof
intheinterval,sotheradiusis6 .
Thisresultsinthefollowing:
~ .
NotethatthismatchesthevaluecalculatedusingtheWasherMethodabove.

Volume by Area of a CrossSection
Someproblemsrequireustodeterminevolumeofasolidusingitsbaseandcrosssectional
areaacrossthatbase.Thesearenotproblemsbasedonrevolutionofashape,soweusea
morebasicformula(thatdoesnotinvolve):
or
Belowisasetofstepsthatcanbeusedtodeterminevolumeforthistypeofproblem.The
approachisillustratedusingthefollowingexample:
Example8.14:Findthevolumeofasolidwithabaseof 2sin overtheinterval 0,

ifthecrosssectionsperpendiculartothe axisareequilateraltriangleswhosebasesstretch
fromthe axistothecurve.
Steps
1. Graphthecurveofthebaseovertheintervalspecified.
2. Determinethevariableofintegration.Thiswillalwaysbethe
variablewhoseaxisisperpendiculartothecrosssections
specified.Intheexample,thevariableofintegrationis .
3. Determinethelimitsofintegration.Thisistypicallytheinterval
providedintheproblem.Intheexample,thisistheinterval 0, .
4. Drawthecrosssectionyouareprovidedintheproblem.Intheexample,weare
workingwithequilateraltriangleswithbaseequalto
thefunction 2sin .
5. Determinetheareaofthecrosssectionintermsof
theappropriatevariable.Weneedtheareaofan
equilateraltriangleforthisexample.Thisareacanbe
developedfrombasicprinciplesusingtheillustration

atright,orfromtheformula: ,where isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.

Intheexample: 2sin 3 sin
6. IntegratetheareaofthecrosssectionusingthelimitsdeterminedinStep3.
3 sin 3 cos ~ .
0

Chapter9 ImproperIntegrals
Improper Integration
Improperintegrationreferstointegrationwheretheintervalofintegrationcontainsoneor
morepointswheretheintegrandisnotdefined.
InfiniteLimits
Wheneitherorbothofthelimitsofintegrationareinfinite,wereplacetheinfinitelimitbya
variableandtakethelimitoftheintegralasthevariableapproachesinfinity.
lim
lim

lim
lim

Note:inthisthirdformula,youcanselectthevalueof tobeanyconvenientvalue
thatproducesconvergentintervals.
Example9.1:
1 1
lim

lim
lim

1
1 1 1
lim
lim
0 1 1
1 1
Example9.2:
1 1
lim

9 9
1 1 1
lim

3 3
1
3
1 0
lim
tan
3 3
1 1
lim
tan 0 tan 0
3 3 3 2 6


Chapter9 ImproperIntegrals
DiscontinuousIntegrand
Limitsarealsorequiredincaseswherethefunctioninanintegrandisdiscontinuousoverthe
intervalofitslimits.
Ifthereisadiscontinuityat , Ifthereisadiscontinuityat ,
lim
lim

Ifthereisadiscontinuityat where ,
lim
lim

Example9.3:
1 1
lim

4 4
0
lim
ln 4 lim
ln 4
0
lim
ln 4 0 ln 4

ln 4
Example9.4:
1
lim

1 1
lim
2 lim
2

lim
21 2 2 0 2

Example9.5:
sec tan lim sec tan

/
lim

sec lim

sec sec


Chapter10 DifferentialEquations
Differential Equations
Definitions
ADifferentialEquationisanequationthatcontainsanindependentvariable,oneormore
dependentvariables,andfullorpartialderivativesofthedependentvariables.
AnOrdinaryDifferentialEquation(ODE)isadifferentialequationthatcontainsordinary(not
partial)derivatives.Generally,anODEisexpressedinoneofthefollowingforms:
, , , , , 0or , , , , ,
APartialDifferentialEquation(PDE)isadifferentialequationthatcontainspartialderivatives.
TheOrderofadifferentialequationisthehighestderivativeofadependentvariableinthe
equation.
ALinearODEofOrder isanequationoftheform:
whereeachofthe isafunctionin only,(i.e.,notin oranyofitsderivatives).The

neednotbelinearfunctions.ThelabelLinearrefersto anditsderivatives;that
is,therearenopowersof anditsderivativesandnoproductsof and/oranyofits
derivatives.Forexample,therearenotermslike , ,etc.
ASeparablefirstorderODEisonethatcanbewrittenintheform:
ASolutiontoadifferentialequationisanyfunctionthatsatisfiesthedifferentialequationinthe
intervalspecified.
InitialConditionsarethosethatallowustodeterminewhichofapossiblesetofsolutionstoa
differentialequationweseek.Inessence,theseallowustodeterminethevalueofany
constantsthatturnupintheintegrationsrequiredtosolvethedifferentialequations.
AnInitialValueProblemisadifferentialequationwhosesolutiondependsontheinitial
conditionsprovided.
TheActualSolutiontoadifferentialequationisthespecificsolutionthatsatisfiesboththe
differentialequationandtheinitialconditions.
AnExplicitSolutionisasolutionthatcanbeexpressedintheform .
AnImplicitSolutionisasolutionthatcannotbeexpressedintheform .

SeparableFirstOrderODEs
MostofthedifferentiableequationsthatwillbeencounteredinfirstyearCalculuswillbe
separablefirstorderdifferentialequations.Typically,wewilluseAlgebratoidentify and
togettheequationintotheform .
Next,wetreat and asseparateentities,andconverttheequationtotheform:
Finally,weintegratebothsidestoobtainasolution:
Thefinalresultwillhavea term.Typically,youneedonlyone termsincethe

constantsfromeachintegralcanbesubtractedtogetasingleconstantterm.Often,thereisan
initialconditionprovidedwhichallowsustocalculatethevalueof .
Example10.1:Findtheexplicitactualsolutionto if 1, 0 isapointonthecurve.
Anexplicitsolutionisoneoftheform .Anactualsolutionisoneinwhichwehave
solvedforanyconstantsthatpopup.
Letsbeginbyseparatingthevariables.
Substituting 1, 0 for , gives 1 1 so, 2
ln 2
Notetheresultingdomainrestriction: 2.


Anexplicitsolutionisoneoftheform .Anactualsolutionisoneinwhichwehave
solvedforanyconstantsthatpopup.
Letsbeginbyseparatingthevariables.Notethatsincethereisan inthenumerator,wedonot
needtouseinversetrigfunctions.

9
9
2
4 25and 5
9
1 2

2 9
1 1
2
2 2

Then,substituting 25, 5 for , gives:5 25 so, 0

Analternativewaytodevelopasolution,involving moredirectly,wouldbetoreplacethe
threelinesimmediatelyabovewiththese:

9

Then,substituting 4, 5 for , gives:5 9 4 5 25 so, 0

SlopeFields
ASlopeField(alsocalledaDirectionField)isagraphicalrepresentationoftheslopesofacurve
atvariouspointsthataredefinedbyadifferentialequation.Eachpositioninthegraph(i.e.,
eachpoint , )isrepresentedbyalinesegmentindicatingtheslopeofthecurveatthat
point.
Example10.3: Example10.4:
Ifyouknowapointonacurveandifyouhaveitscorrespondingslopefielddiagram,youcan
plotyourpointandthenfollowtheslopelinestodeterminethecurve.

SlopeFieldgenerator
SlopeFieldfor: availableat:
http://www.mathscoop.com

/calculus/differential
equations/slopefield
1 1 generator.php

2 2

Substituting 1, 2 for , gives: 3
Finally,notingthat 1, 2 isasolution,wecannarrowthesolutiondownto:

Logistic Function
ALogisticFunctiondescribesthegrowthofa
populationovertime.Earlyinitsgrowthphase,the
modeldescribesnearexponentialpopulationgrowth.
Asthepopulationgrowslarger,iteventuallyfaces
limitsthatreduceitsgrowthrate.Lateinitsgrowth
phase,apopulationapproachesamaximumvalue,
calledthecarryingcapacity.
TwoformsoftheLogisticFunctionforapopulation
,overtime,arecommon:

or or
1 1
Thesymbolsintheseequationshavethefollowingmeanings:
isthepopulationattime .
isthecarryingcapacityofthepopulation.Itisthemaximumpopulationsustainable
inthesystem
0 istheinitialpopulation.
istherateofgrowthofthepopulation,andiscalledthegrowthparameter.
isthevariablefortime.
ThedifferentialequationthatleadstotheLogisticFunctionis:
CharacteristicsoftheLogisticFunction
0forall
lim

hasaninflectionpointat ln 1 ,when .Therefore,the
maximumrateofgrowthforthepopulationoccurswhen .

Numerical Methods
Ifweknowapointonacurveandtheslopeofthecurveateachpoint,butdonotknowthe
equationofthecurve,itispossibletoestimatethevalueofanotherpointonthesamecurve
usingnumericalmethods.Severalofthesenumericalmethodsarepresentedbelow.
EulersMethod
EulersMethodestimatesthelocationofthenewpointbasedonthepositionofthefirstpoint
andtheslopeofthecurveatintervalsbetweenthetwopoints.Anynumberofintervals, ,can
beused.Eachintervaliscalledatimestep.Theformulasinvolvedareasfollows.
Let: , betheinitial(known)point.
, betheintermediatepoints,for 1, 2, .
, bethedesiredpoint.Notethat isthenumberoftimestepsand isknown.
bethedistancebetweensuccessive values.Thatis, .
Then,EulersMethodestimateseach basedon andtheslopeofthefunctionat

, ,usingtheformulas:
Example10.6:Let 2 .Estimate 2 using4timestepsifweknow 1, 2 is

apointonthecurve.
Westartatpoint , 1,2 ,usingatimestepof 0.25.Thefollowingtable

showstheiterationsrequiredtoestimate 2 .Valuesinthetableareroundedto2decimals
fordisplay,buttheexactvaluesareusedinallcalculations.

0 1.00 2.00 2 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 0.25 2.75
1 1.25 2.75 2 2.75 1.25 4.25 2.75 4.25 0.25 3.81
2 1.50 3.81 2 3.81 1.50 6.13 3.81 6.13 0.25 5.34
3 1.75 5.34 2 5.34 1.75 8.94 5.34 8.94 0.25 7.58
4 2.00 7.58
SinceitisnaturaltodevelopEulersMethodintableform,itis
relativelyeasytoadaptittoaspreadsheetprogramsuchas
MicrosoftExcel.
Aplotofsuccessivevaluesof isshowninthegraphatright.

ModifiedEulersMethod
TheModifiedEulersMethodislikeEulersMethod,butdevelopstheslopeateachpointasthe
averageoftheslopesatthebeginningandendofeachinterval.Usingthesamenotationason
thepreviouspage,theModifiedEulersMethodusesatwostepformula:
Predictorstep:
Correctorstep:
Inthecorrectorstep,theestimateof isbasedonthevalueof generatedinthe

predictorstep.

apointonthecurve.
Westartatpoint , 1,2 ,usingatimestepof 0.25.Thefollowingtable

showstheiterationsrequiredtoestimate 2 .Valuesinthetableareroundedto2decimals
fordisplay,buttheexactvaluesareusedinallcalculations.
or
0 1.00 2.00 2 2.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 0.25 2.75
Corrector 2 2.75 1.25 4.25 2.00 3.00 4.25 /2 0.25 2.91
1 1.25 2.91 2 2.91 1.25 4.56 2.91 4.56 0.25 4.05
Corrector 2 4.05 1.50 6.59 2.91 4.56 6.59 /2 0.25 4.30
2 1.50 4.30 2 4.30 1.50 7.10 4.30 7.10 0.25 6.08
Corrector 2 6.08 1.75 10.40 4.30 7.10 10.40 /2 0.25 6.49
3 1.75 6.49 2 6.49 1.75 11.23 6.49 11.23 0.25 9.30
Corrector 2 9.30 2.00 16.59 6.49 11.23 16.59 /2 0.25 9.97
4 2.00 9.97
Aplotofsuccessivevaluesof isshowninthegraphatright.
TheModifiedEulersMethodismorecomplexthanEulersMethod,butit
tendstobemoreaccuratebecauseitusesabetterestimateoftheslope
ineachinterval.Thoughcomplex,thismethodisalsorelativelyeasyto
adapttoaspreadsheetprogramsuchasMicrosoftExcel.
Order:Anumericalmethodissaidtobeoforder ifitproducesexactresultsforpolynomialsof
degree orless.Eulersmethodisoforder1.ModifiedEulersMethodisoforder2.The
RungeKuttaMethod,describedonthenextpage,isoforder4.

RungeKuttaMethod
RungeKuttaMethodanorder4numericalmethodforestimatingpointsonacurveusingan
initialpointandslopesofthecurveatvariouslocations.Usingsimilarnotationtothatonthe
previouspages,theRungeKuttaMethodusesthefollowingformulas:
Note:Since
1 valueshavea
2 2
6 specificmeaning
wherethefollowing valuesareweightedtogethertoobtainincremental inthismethod,
valuesof . wehave
switchedour
, isthederivativeofthefunctionat ,i.e., , .
indexvariable
, from to .
,
,
,
Notethattheslope, , ,usedindefiningeachsuccessive valuebuildsontheslope

determinedintheprevious value.

apointonthecurve.
TimeStep1:Onceagain,westartatpoint , 1,2 ,and 0.25.Thefollowingsteps

showthecalculationof 1.25 :
, 1, 2 , 2
, 0.25 1, 2 0.25 2 2 1 0.75
1 1
, 0.25 1.125, 2.375
2 2
0.25 2 2.375 1.125 0.90625
1 1
, 0.25 1.125, 2.453125
2 2
0.25 2 2.453125 1.125 0.9453125
, 0.25 1.25, 2.9453125

0.25 2 2.9453125 1.25 1.16015625
1
1.25 2 2
6
1
2 0.75 2 0.90625 2 0.9453125 1.16015625 .
6

TimeSteps2to4:Performingthesamesetofcalculationsforthreemorestepsgivesthe
followingvalues,allroundedtotwodecimals:
1.50 4.40 1.75 6.72 2.00 10.48

Toninedecimalplaces,with4timesteps,ourcalculatedvalueof 2.00 is10.479962905.
Changingthenumberoftimestepsproducestheresultsinthefollowingtable.
Numberof Valueof
TimeSteps 2.00
4 10.479962905 Noticehowtheincreasingthenumber
10 10.486111552 oftimestepsinthecalculation
20 10.486305959 improvestheaccuracyoftheresults.
50 10.486319742 With500timestepstheresultis
100 10.486320099 accurateto9decimalplaces.
200 10.486320122
500 10.486320124
Actual 10.486320124
Insummary,letscomparetheresultsunderthethreemethodsabovetothetruevaluesforthe
functiondefinedbyourconditions: .
Estimatesof atEachTimeStepUnderFourNumericalMethods
Modified Runge
Time Eulers Actual
value Eulers Kutta
Step Method Value
Method (4steps)
1 1.25 2.75 2.90625 2.935546875 2.935901588
2 1.50 3.8125 4.30078125 4.396682739 4.397852286
3 1.75 5.34375 6.488769531 6.724219203 6.727111338
4 2.00 7.578125 9.966125488 10.479962905 10.486320124
Clearly,thehighertheorder,themoreaccuratetheestimateswereforthefunctiondefinedinthe
example.Thiswilltendtobetrue,butwillnotbetrueineverycase.Increasingthenumberofsteps,
andcorrespondinglydecreasingthevalueof ,willalsotendtoincreasetheaccuracyoftheestimates.
EventhoughthereareasignificantnumberofstepsandcalculationsinvolvedindevelopingRungeKutta
estimates,theiraccuracymaywarranttheeffort,especiallyifaspreadsheetproramisreadilyavailable
tothestudent.

Chapter11 VectorCalculus
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewind
blowingtowardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceof10kg
weightbeingpulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthe
positiveaxeswillbequiteusefultous.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector Direction Graphical

positive axis representationof
positive axis unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
positive axis
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifa
vectorsinitialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is
, , ,thenthevectordisplaces inthe direction, inthe
direction,and inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:

Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:
Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:

Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofaright
trianglewithsides and .

Vector Properties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefuland
relativelysimple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If ,then cos and sin
Then, cos sin (note:thisformulaisused

inForcecalculations)
If and ,then
If ,then
Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat 0).Note:the

zerovectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
Note: canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation: , .Thisnotationis

usefulincalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
PropertiesofVectors
AdditiveIdentity
AdditiveInverse
CommutativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
1 MultiplicativeIdentity
Also,notethat:
| | MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof


Vector Dot Product
TheDotProductoftwovectors, and ,isdefinedas

follows:

Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar,notavector.Itdescribessomething
abouttherelationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Ausefulapproachto
calculatingthedotproductoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
, , alternative
vector
, , notation
General Example 11.1
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically. , , 4, 3, 2
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe , , 2, 2, 5
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
8 6 10
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
0 ZeroProperty
0 , and areorthogonaltoeachother.
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
Moreproperties:
If 0and and ,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).
Ifthereisascalar suchthat ,then and areparallel.

If istheanglebetween and ,thencos


Vector Cross Product
CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
Let: u u u and v v v
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
x u u u u v u v u v u v u v u v
v v v
x sin
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathirdvectorthatis
orthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,normaltothe
planecontainingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthesecond
formulaabove, istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.Its
orientation(direction)isdeterminedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
Usingyourrighthand: x
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let: u u and v v
u u
Then, x v v u v u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.
Thatis,vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
x sin .

PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
x x ZeroProperty
x , x , x , and areorthogonaltoeachother
x , x , x Reverseorientationorthogonality
x Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
x x AnticommutativeProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
x x x DistributiveProperty
m x x m m x ScalarMultiplication
Moreproperties:
If x ,then and areparallel.

If istheanglebetween and ,then
o x sin

o sin


Vector Triple Products
ScalarTripleProduct
Let: u u u .Thenthetripleproduct x givesascalarrepresenting
thevolumeofaparallelepipedwith , ,and asedges:
u u u
x v v v
w w w
x x
OtherTripleProducts
x x Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
x x
x x x
Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif x 0.
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts


Kinematics (Particle Motion) Vectors
ThispageisanextensionoftheKinematicspagesinChapter3,adaptedto3dimensionalspace.
Thecorrespondingapplicationto2dimensionalspacewouldremovethethird(i.e., )
componentofeachvectorpresented.Onthispage, notationisusedforthevectorsrather
than , , notation.
Position
Positionisthelocationofaparticleatapointintime.Itmayberepresentedbythevector
, , .
Velocity
Velocitymeasurestherateofchangeinposition.Instantaneousvelocityisthevectoroffirst
derivativesofthepositionvector , , .Velocityvectorcomponentsmaybe
eitherpositiveornegative.
Speed
Speedisthemagnitudeofthevelocityvector;itisalwayspositive.Theformulaforspeedis:

Acceleration
Accelerationmeasurestherateofchangeinvelocity.Instantaneousaccelerationisthevector
ofsecondderivativesofthepositionvector , , .
MovingAmongVectors
Thefollowingdiagramdescribeshowtomovebackandforthamongtheposition,velocityand
accelerationvectors.
Displacement
Displacementisameasureofthedistancebetweenaparticlesstartingpositionanditsending
position.Thedisplacementvectorfrom to maybecalculatedas:
, ,

Gradient
ScalarFieldsandVectorFields
AScalarFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavalueateachpointinspace.Forexample,wecan
measurethetemperatureateachpointwithinanobject.Thetemperaturecanbeexpressedas
, , .(note: istheGreekletterphi,correspondingtotheEnglishletter .)
AVectorFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavectorateachpointinspace.Forexample,we
canmeasureamagneticfield(magnitudeanddirectionofthemagneticforce)ateachpointin
spacearoundachargedparticle.Themagneticfieldcanbeexpressedas , , .Note
thatthehalfarrowsovertheletters and indicatethatthefunctiongeneratesavector
field.
DelOperator
Whenlookingascalarfielditisoftenusefultoknowtheratesofchange(i.e.,slopes)ateach
pointinthe , and directions.Toobtainthisinformation,weusetheDelOperator:
Gradient
TheGradientofascalarfield describestheratesofchangeinthe , and directionsat
eachpointinthefieldinvectorform.Therefore,thegradientgeneratesavectorfieldfromthe
pointsinthescalarfield.Thegradientisobtainedbyapplyingthedeloperatorto .
, and arecalleddirectionalderivativesofthescalarfield .
Example11.2:
Suppose: , , sin ln
Then: cos , and

1
So, cos ;providingallthreedirectionalderivativesinasinglevector.
Overasetofpointsinspace,thisresultsinavectorfield.
Atpoint 2, 0.5, 1 , cos 2 2 ~ 0.416 2 2.718

Divergence
Divergence
TheDivergenceofavectorfielddescribestheflowofmaterial,likewaterorelectricalcharge,
awayfrom(ifpositive)orinto(ifnegative)eachpointinspace.Thedivergencemapsthevector
ateachpointinthematerialtoascalaratthatsamepoint(i.e.,thedotproductofthevectorin
anditsassociatedratesofchangeinthe , and directions),therebyproducingascalar
field.
Let V V V whereV , V , V areeachfunctionsin , and .Then,
V V V
V V V

Pointsofpositivedivergencearereferredtoassources,whilepointsofnegativedivergenceare
referredtoassinks.Thedivergenceateachpointisthenetoutflowofmaterialatthatpoint,
sothatifthereisbothinflowandoutflowatapoint,theseflowsarenettedindeterminingthe
divergence(netoutflow)atthepoint.
Example11.3:
Letsstartwiththevectorfieldcreatedbytakingthegradientof onthepriorpage.Let:
1
cos
Inthisexpression,noticethat:V cos , V ,andV .Then:
V V V 1
sin
Letsfindthevalueofthedivergenceatacoupleofpoints,andseewhatittellsus.
At 1, 1, 0 ,wehave: sin 1 0.841.Thisvalueisgreater

thanzero,indicatingthat isasource,andthatthevector at producesanoutflow.
At 3, 1, 2 ,wehave: sin 3 1.006.Thisvalueisless

thanzero,indicatingthat isasink,andthatthevector at producesaninflow.

Curl
Curl
TheCurlofavectorfielddescribesthecirculationofmaterial,likewaterorelectricalcharge,
abouteachpointinthematerial.Thecurlmapsthevectorateachpointintheoriginalvector
fieldtoanothervector(i.e.,thecrossproductoftheoriginalvectoranditsassociatedratesof
changeinthe , and directions)atthatsamepoint,therebyproducinganewvectorfield.
x x V V V
V V V V V V

V V V
Thecurlgivesthedirectionoftheaxisofcirculationofmaterialatapoint .
Themagnitudeofthecurlgivesthestrengthofthecirculation.Ifthecurlata
pointisequaltothezerovector(i.e., ),itsmagnitudeiszeroandthematerial
issaidtobeirrotationalatthatpoint.
Example11.4:
Weneedtouseamorecomplexvectorfieldforthecurltoproducemeaningfulresults.Let:
cos
Inthisexpression,noticethat:V cos , V ,andV .Then:
V V V V V V
x
cos cos
Letsfindthevalueofthecurlatapoint,andseewhatittellsus.Let 1, 1, 2 .Then,
2 0.25 cos 1 2 0.5 2 cos 1 ~ 15.0 14.2 0.6
Thecirculation,then,atPointPisaroundanaxisinthedirectionof: 15.0 14.2 0.6
Thestrengthofthecirculationisgivenbythemagnitudeofthecurl:
15.0 14.2 0.6 20.7

Laplacian
Laplacian
TheLaplacianOperatorissimilartotheDelOperator,butinvolvessecondpartialderivatives.
TheLaplacianofascalarfield isthedivergenceofthegradientofthefield.Itisused
extensivelyinthesciences.
Example11.5:
Forthescalarfield , , sin ln ,wealreadycalculatedtheLaplacianinthe
examplefordivergenceabove(butwedidnotcallitthat).ItisrepeatedherewithLaplacian
notationforeaseofreference.
Gradient:
Forthescalarfielddefinedabove: cos , and

1
So, cos
Laplacian(DivergenceoftheGradient):
1
sin
LetsthenfindthevalueoftheLaplacianatacoupleofpoints.
At 1, 1, 0 ,wehave: sin 1 0.841.
At 3, 1, 2 ,wehave: sin 3 1.006.

Chapter12 Sequences
Sequences
Definitions
ASequenceisanorderedsetofnumbers.
ATermisanelementinthesetoforderednumbers.
AnInfiniteSequencehasnoend.AFiniteSequencehasafinalterm.
AnExplicitSequenceisonethatspecificallydefinesthetermsofthesequencebasedonthe
numberoftheterm.Byconvention,thenumberofthetermisusuallyexpressedinterms
ofthevariables or .Wetalkofthenthtermorthekthtermofthesequenceorseries.
ARecursiveSequencedefinesatermbasedononeormorepreviousterms.
TypesofSequences
Atermofasequenceisdenoted andanentiresequenceofterms .Generally(unless
otherwisespecified), 1 forthefirsttermofasequence, 2forthesecondterm,etc.
ExplicitSequence:termsofthesequence aredefinedbyaformula.
Examples12.112.5:
2 2 4 6 8
, , , ,
1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
1, , , ,
2 3 4
1 3 3 3 3
3 , , , ,
2 2 4 8 16
1 1, 1, 1, 1,
1 1 1 1
1, , , 0, , 0, , note: the first term of this sequence is
2 6 30 42

RecursiveSequence:eachtermisdefinedintermsofpreviousterms.
Examples12.612.7:
, 1 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
, 3, 1 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 4, 7,

Chapter12 Sequences
More Definitions for Sequences
MonotonicSequence:Asequenceismonotonicifitstermsare:
Nonincreasing(i.e., ),or
Nondecreasing(i.e., ).
Notethatsuccessivetermsmaybeequal,aslongastheydonotturnaroundandhead
backinthedirectionfromwhencetheycame.
Often,youcandeterminewhetherasequenceismonotonicbygraphingitsterms.
BoundedSequence:Asequenceisboundedifitisboundedfromaboveandbelow.
Asequenceisboundedfromaboveifthereisanumber suchthat .The
leastupperboundiscalledtheSupremum.
Asequenceisboundedfrombelowifthereisanumber suchthat .The
greatestlowerboundiscalledtheInfimum.
Theorems about Sequences
Considerthesequences , and .Thefollowingtheoremsapply:
SqueezeTheorem:
If some and lim lim , then lim .

AbsoluteValueTheorem:
If lim
| | 0 , then lim
0.

BoundedMonotonicSequenceTheorem:
Ifasequenceisboundedandmonotonic,thenitconverges.

Chapter12 Sequences
LimitofaSequence
: lim .Thelimit existsifwecanmake ascloseto aswelikeby

making sufficientlylarge.
Convergence:Ifthelimitoftheterms exists,thesequenceissaidtobe
convergent.
Divergence:Ifthelimitoftheterms doesnotexist,thesequenceissaidtobe
divergent.
Limitsaredeterminedintheusualmanner.
Usualpropertiesoflimitsarepreservedinsequences(e.g.,addition,scalar
multiplication,multiplication,divisionoflimits).

MuchmoreaboutlimitsispresentedinChapter1.

Chapter13 Series
Series
Introduction
ASeriesisanorderedsummationofasequence.If isaninfinitesequence,thenthe
associatedinfiniteseries(orsimplyseries)is:
ThePartialSumcontainingthefirstntermsof is:
Asequenceofpartialsumscanbeformedasfollows:
, , , ,
Notethefollowingabouttheseformulas:
ThesymbolSisthecapitalGreeklettersigma,whichtranslatesintoEnglishas ,
appropriatefortheoperationofSummation.
Theletter isusedasanindexvariableinbothformulas.Theinitial(minimum)valueof
isshownbelowthesummationsignandtheterminal(maximum)valueof isshown
abovethesummationsign.Lettersotherthan maybeused; , ,and arecommon.
Whenevaluatingaseries,makesureyoureviewtheinitialandterminalvaluesoftheindex
variable.Manymistakesaremadebyassumingvaluesfortheseinsteadofusingtheactual
valuesintheproblem.
Thesubscript in (inthepartialsumformula)indicatesthatthesummationis
performedonlythroughterm .Thisistruewhethertheformulastartsat 0, 1,
orsomeothervalueof ,thoughalternativenotationsmaybeusedifproperlyidentified.
ConvergenceandDivergence
Ifthesequenceofpartialsums convergesto ,theseriesconverges.Notsurprisingly,
iscalledthesumoftheseries.
Ifthesequenceofpartialsums diverges,theseriesdiverges.

Chapter13 Series
KeyPropertiesofSeries(thesealsoholdforpartialsums)
Scalarmultiplication
Sumanddifferenceformulas
Multiplication
Inordertomultiplyseries,youmustmultiplyeveryterminoneseriesbyeverytermintheother
series.Althoughthismayseemdaunting,therearetimeswhentheproductsofonlycertainterms
areofinterestandwefindthatmultiplicationofseriescanbeveryuseful.
thTermConvergenceTheorems
If converges, then lim

0.

If lim
0, then diverges.

PowerSeries
APowerSeriesisaninfiniteseriesinwhicheachtermisexpressedastheproductofaconstant
andapowerofabinomialterm.Generally,apowerseriesiscenteredaboutaparticularvalueof
,whichwewillcall inthefollowingexpression:
ExamplesofpowerseriesaretheTaylorandMaclaurinseriescoveredinChapter14.

Chapter13 Series
TelescopingSeries
ATelescopingSeriesisonewhosetermspartiallycancel,leavingonlyalimitednumberoftermsin
thepartialsums.Thegeneralformofatelescopingseries,anditssumareis:
lim

Convergence:Atelescopingserieswillconvergeifandonlyifthelimitingtermoftheseries,
lim
,isafinitevalue.

Caution:Telescopingseriesmaybedeceptive.Alwaystakecarewiththemandmakesureyou
performtheappropriateconvergencetestsbeforeconcludingthattheseriessumstoaparticular
value.
Example13.1:
1 1 1 Noticetheusefulnessofthe

1 telescopingapproachinthecase
ofarationalfunctionthatcanbe
ThePartialSumsforthisexampleare: expressedaspartialfractions.
Thisapproachwillnotworkfor
1 somerationalfunctions,butnot
1 allofthem.
2
1 1 1 1
1 1
2 2 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
2 2 3 3 4 4
...
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
2 2 3 3 4 1 1
Then,
1
1 lim

1

Chapter13 Series
GeometricSeries
AGeometricSerieshastheform:
If | | 1,thentheseriesconvergesto:
If | | 1,thentheseriesdiverges.
PartialSums
Partialsumshavetheform:
...
1

1
Example13.2:
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.9999
10 1 10 100 1000
Inthisgeometricseries,wehave 0.9and .Thereforetheseriesconvergesto:
1 0.9
0.9 1
10 1
1
10
Thisproves,therefore,that0.9999 1.

Chapter13 Series
EstimatingtheValueofaSerieswithPositiveTerms
Letthefollowingbetrue:
isapositive,decreasing,continuousfunctionforallvaluesof , 0.
forallintegervaluesof .
isaconvergentserieswithpartialsums.
TheRemainderTermofthesum,afterthe thterm,isdefinedas: .
Then,
Andso,

Chapter13 Series
Riemann Zeta Functions ( Series)

Definition
TheRiemannZetaFunctionisdefinedbytheequivalentintegralandsummationforms:

Thesummationformofthefunctionisoftencalleda series(and replaces intheformula).
Zetafunctionsaregenerallydifficulttoevaluatefrombasicprinciples.Anexampleofhowoneof
theworldsgreatestmathematiciansevaluated in1735isprovidedlaterinthischapter.
PositiveEvenIntegers
Valuesof forpositiveevenintegervaluesof inclosedform(asrationalexpressions

involving)havebeencalculatedbymathematicians.Theformulafortheseis:
| |
where isthe thBernoulliNumber. 1
! 1
Thedecimalapproximationsbelowweredevelopedfromupto14millionterms
2
ofthe seriesusingtheAlgebraAppavailableatwww.mathguy.us. 1

6
Somevaluesof forpositiveevenintegervaluesof are: 0
1
2 1.644933966 8 1.004077356
30
0
4 1.082323233 10 1.000994575 1

42
0
6 1.017343061 12 1.000246086
1

30
PositiveOddIntegers 0
5

Valuesof forpositiveoddintegervaluesof donothaveageneral 66
formula,butcanbeapproximated. 0
691

1 diverges 7 1.008349277 2730
3 1.202056903 9 1.002008392
5 1.036927755 11 1.000494188

Chapter13 Series
Analytic Continuation
Considerthefollowingdevelopment: AnalyticContinuation
Let: 1 1 1 1 1 Theresultsinthelefthandcolumnarean
1 1 1 1 exampleofaconceptintroducedinComplex
2 1 Analysis(i.e.,CalculusofComplexVariables)
1 calledAnalyticContinuation.Althoughthe

2 resultsarecorrectforthevalueofthe
Next, function 1 ,wecannotconcludethat:
1
Let: 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
12
1 2 3 4 Why?Becausetheseriesdoesnotconverge;
2 1 1 1 1 1 therefore,itdoesnothaveavalue.What
1 doeshaveavalueisthefunctionthat
2 overlapstheserieswheretheseries
2
1 converges.

4
Forvaluesof 1,theZetaFunctionand
Then, theconvergent seriesareequal:
Let: 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
4 8 12 Thefunctionalsoexists(i.e.,continues)for
4 valuesof forwhichtheseriesdiverges.
3 ThisisAnalyticContinuation.
1 1 1 1 Foranotherexample,considerthefollowing

3 3 4 12 functionandseries:
1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 1
12 1
Thisseriesconvergesonlyfor 1 1.
AndtheRiemannZetaFunctionvalue? Yet,wecancalculatethefunctionvaluefor
2.
Thisresultisconsistentwiththefollowing 1
valueoftheRiemannZetaFunction: 1
1 2
1 Thisdoesnotimplythat:
1
12
1 2 2 2 1
Howisthispossible?Seethecolumnto
therightforanexplanation. Again,thefunctioncontinueswherethe
seriesdoesnot.

Chapter13 Series
Eulers Development of the Value of
Definition
Thisisalsoa serieswith 2.A Seriesisdefinedas:
seriesconvergefor 1anddivergefor 1.
Eulersdevelopmentgivesusaglimpseoftheextentofhisgenius.Seeifyouagree.
EulersDevelopment
1. BeginwiththeMaclaurinExpansionfor:sin .
sin
3! 5! 7! 9!
2. Weknowthatwecanfitacurveofdegree throughanysetof 1points.Eulerproposed

thatweconsiderthesinefunctiontobeapolynomialofinfinitedegreethatgoesthroughthe
infinitenumberofpointsofthefunction.
Further,henotedthatthezerosofthepolynomialarethezerosofthesinefunction,i.e.,
0, , 2 , 3 , 4 .So,thepolynomialforsin isaninfiniteproductthatlookslike
thefollowing,where issomeconstant:
sin 4 9 16
3. Divideeachtermontherightbyafactorthatresultsin1sbeforethe sineachterm.
Changetheleadconstanttoreflectthis.Letscallthenewleadconstant .
4 9 16
sin
4 9 16
1 1 1 1
4 9 16

Chapter13 Series
4. Determinethevalueof bydividingeachsideby andevaluatingtheresultat 0.
sin
lim
1 1 1 1
4 9 16
UseLHospitalsRuleontheleftsidetodeterminethatlim
lim
1.Then,

1 1 1 1 so, 1.
5. RewritethepolynomialinStep3with 1.
sin 1 1 1 1
4 9 16
6. Letsexaminethecoefficientof intheequationinStep5.
Thecoefficientofthe terminthisproductisobtainedbymultiplying bythe partofone

oftheothertermsand1sintherestoftheotherterms.Wesumtheresultofthisacrossallof
themultipliedtermstogetthefollowing termfortheequationinStep5:
1 1 1 1

4 9 16
7. The terminStep1mustbeequaltothe terminStep6,sincebothrepresentthe term

inanexpansionforsin .Equatingthetwocoefficientsof gives:
1 1 1 1 1

3! 4 9 16
8. MultiplybothsidesoftheresultinStep7by toget:
1 1 1 1
2
6 1 4 9 16
So,


Chapter13 Series
Bernoulli Numbers and the Riemann Zeta Function
SummationFormulasforPowersofPositiveIntegers
1 1 1
1 2
2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1 1
1 2
6 3 2 6
1 1 1 1
1 2
6 4 2 4
1 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 1
1 2
6 5 2 3 30
Thecoefficientsofthe termsarecalledBernoulliNumbers.Arecursiveformulaforthe
Bernoullinumbersis:

1 2 2 1
0
1 2 2
1 1

1 2 2
Then,wecancalculatesuccessiveBernoulliNumbers,startingwith 1as:
1
1 1
1
2 2
1 1 1 1
1 3 1 1 3
3 3 2 6
1 1 1 1
1 4 6 1 1 4 6 0
4 4 2 6
1 1 1 1
1 5 10 10 1 1 5 10 10 0
5 5 2 6
1

30

Chapter13 Series
ThebluenumbersintheaboveformulasarethevaluesfromPascalsTriangle,excludingthelast
twodiagonalcolumns:
0foreveryodd 1.
/
Belowarevaluesof forevenvaluesof 24.Note:| 2 | ~ 4 as
1 1 7 174611

6 30 6 330
1 5 3617 854513

30 66 510 138
1 691 43867 236364091

42 2730 798 2730
BernoulliNumbersrelatetotheRiemannZetaFunctionsasfollows:
1 1 1 1 | | 2
2
1 2 3 2 2 !
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 6
1 2 3 6 1 2 3 945
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 8
1 2 3 90 1 2 3 9450
Thefunction expandsusingBernoulliNumbersasfollows:
1 1 1 1
1
1 ! 2 6 30 42

Chapter13 Series
Series Convergence Tests
IntegralTest
Let beapositiveseries,and
let beacontinuous,positive,decreasingfunctionon , , 0, suchthat
forevery .Then,
converges if and only if converges.
Iftheseriesconverges,.Thatis,thesumoftheseriesandtheintegralwill
havedifferentvalues.
ComparisonTest
Let and bepositiveseries.Ifthereisanindex ,beyondwhich forevery
,then:
If converges,sodoes .
If diverges,sodoes .
LimitComparisonTest
Let and bepositiveseriessuchthat0 lim
.Then:

convergesifandonlyif converges.
divergesifandonlyif diverges.

AbsoluteandConditionalConvergence
isabsolutelyconvergentif | | isconvergent.
isconditionallyconvergentifitisconvergentbutnotabsolutelyconvergent.
TermRearrangement
Ifaninfiniteseriesisabsolutelyconvergent,thetermscanberearrangedwithoutaffecting
theresultingsum.
Ifaninfiniteseriesisconditionallyconvergent,arearrangementofthetermsmayaffect
theresultingsum.

Chapter13 Series
RatioTest
Let beaseries.Thenconsiderthe thand 1 thterms:
If lim 1, then: is absolutely convergent.

If lim 1, then: is divergent.

If lim 1, then no conclusion about convergence or divergence can be drawn.

Example13.3:
Determinewhetherthefollowingseriesconvergesordiverges:
!
1
1 ! 1 ! 1 1 !
Ratio
1 ! 1 !
!
1 1 1
1
Then,
lim 1 1 Since ,theseriesdiverges.


Chapter13 Series
RootTest
Let beaseries.Thenconsiderthe thterm:
If lim | | 1, then: is absolutely convergent.

If lim | | 1, then: is divergent.

If lim | | 1, then no conclusion about convergence or divergence can be drawn.

Example13.4:
2 3
Determinewhetherthefollowingseriesconvergesordiverges:
3 2
3
2 3 2 3 2 3 2
Root
3 2 3 2 3 2 2
3
Then,
lim 1 Since ,theseriesconverges.


Chapter13 Series
Dirichlets Convergence Test
DirichletsTest
Ifhasboundedpartialsumsand
isadecreasingpositivesequencewith lim
0,

thentheseriesconverges.

cos
Example13.5:ProvethattheseriesconvergesusingDirichletsConvergenceTest.
Usingthenotationshownabove,wewilllet cos ,and .Werequireonlythat
cos
beboundedsince lim
clearlydecreasesto0.

StartbyprovingthefollowingTrigonometricidentity:
1 1
sin sin
cos 2 2
1
2 sin
2
1 1 1 1 1
sin cos cos sin sin cos cos sin 2 cos sin
2 2 2 2 2 cos
1 1
2 sin 2 sin
2 2
Next,letslookatthe thPartialSuminlightoftheaboveidentity.Notethatittelescopes:
1 1
sin sin
cos 2 2
1
2 sin
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin 1 sin sin 2 sin 1 sin sin
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2 sin 2 sin 2 sin
2 2 2
1 1
sin sin
2 2
1
2 sin
2
Notethatsin isboundedintherange cos

1, 1 .Therefore,isboundedinthe
range: , ,andsotheoriginalseriesconverges.

Chapter13 Series
Abels Convergence Test
AbelsTest

Ifconvergesand
isamonotonicboundedsequence,thentheseries
converges.
1
cos
Example13.6:ProvethattheseriesconvergesusingAbelsConvergenceTest.
1 1
Usingthenotationshownabove,wewilllet 2,and cos 2 .Weneedtoshowthat
1 1
a)convergesandb)cos
2 isbothmonotonicandbounded.
1

First,identifyasa series,with 2,soitconverges.
1
Second,letslookatsomevaluesofcos 2 inthetabletothe
right.Thesequenceisclearlymonotonicandisboundedbythe
1
valueofcos 0 1. 1 cos ~ 0.5403
1
WehavemetbothrequirementsofAbelsConvergenceTest,and 1
wecanconcludethatthegivenseriesconverges. 2 cos ~ 0.9689
4
Note:theseriesinthisexamplecouldalsohavebeendetermined 1
3 cos ~ 0.9938
tobeconvergent(usingthecomparisontest)bycomparingittoa 9
serieswith 2. 1
4 cos ~ 0.9980
16
1
5 cos ~ 0.9992
25

Chapter13 Series
Alternating Series
ThegeneralformforanAlternatingSeriesthatincludesanerrortermis:
Theorem:Ifthesequence, ,ispositiveandnonincreasing,and lim 0,

Then: 1 converges,and
If isthentherrorterm,then:| |
ErrorTerm
Themaximumerrorinaconvergingalternatingseriesafter termsisterm 1 .Using
this,wecanestimatethevalueofaseriestoadesiredlevelofaccuracy.
1
Example13.7:Approximatethefollowingsumto4decimalplaces:
6
Weneedtofindterm 1toestimatetheerror.Fortheseriesprovided,thistermis .
The 1 termsimplyindicatesthedirectionoftheerror.Themagnitudeoftheerroristhe
balanceoftheerrorterm,i.e., .
Inordertofindanapproximationoftheseriesto4decimalplaces,weneedanerrorlessthan
0.00005.So,wewant:
1
0.00005
6
Wecansolvethisusinglogarithmsorbytakingsuccessivepowersof .Eitherway,wefind:
~ 0.0001286 0.00005and ~ 0.0000214 0.00005,so 1 6,and 5.
Using5termsofthealternatingseries,wefindthatthevalueofthesumto4decimalplacesis:
1 1 1 1 1 1
.
6 6 36 216 1296 7776
Theactualvalueoftheseriesis ~ 0.1428571,sowecanseethatthedesiredlevelofaccuracy
hasbeenachieved.


Chapter13 Series
AbsoluteandConditionalConvergence
isabsolutelyconvergentif | | isconvergent.
isconditionallyconvergentifitisconvergentbutnotabsolutelyconvergent.
TermRearrangement
Ifaninfiniteseriesisabsolutelyconvergent,thetermscanberearrangedwithoutaffecting
theresultingsum.
Ifaninfiniteseriesisconditionallyconvergent,arearrangementofthetermsmayaffect
theresultingsum.
MoreTheoremsaboutAbsolutelyConvergentSeries
Thefollowingtheoremsapplytoabsolutelyconvergentseries(i.e.,absolutelyconvergent
alternatingseriesandconvergentseriesofdecreasingpositiveterms):
Thecommutativelawappliestotermsinanabsolutelyconvergentseries;i.e.,termscanbe
rearrangedwithoutaffectingthevalueoftheseries.
Everysubseriesofanabsolutelyconvergentseriesisabsolutelyconvergent;i.e.,termscan
beomittedandtheresultisanabsolutelyconvergentseries.
Thesum,differenceandproductofabsolutelyconvergentseriesareabsolutely
convergent.Furthermore,if and aretwoabsolutelyconvergentseriessuch
thatA andB ,then:
o A B.
o A B.
o A B.

Chapter13 Series
Radius and Interval of Convergence of Power Series
ConsiderthePowerSeries:
Definitions:
Center:Thevalue iscalledthecenterofthepowerseries.Manypowerserieshavea
centerof 0.
Coefficients:Thevalues arecalledthecoefficientsofthepowerseries.
RadiusofConvergence:Theseriesmayconvergeforcertainvaluesof anddivergefor
othervaluesof .Iftheseriesconvergesforallvaluesof withinacertaindistance, ,
from ,i.e.,for ontheinterval , ,wecall theradiusofconvergenceofthe
series.
IntervalofConvergence:Thesetofallvaluesof forwhichthepowerseriesconvergesis
calledtheintervalofconvergenceoftheseries.Theintervalofconvergenceisclosely
relatedtotheradiusofconvergence;itincludestheopeninterval , ,andmay
alsoincludeoneorbothendpointsofthatinterval.
FindingtheRadiusandIntervalofConvergence
TheradiusofconvergenceisfoundusingtheRatioTestortheRootTest.Tofindtheintervalof
convergence,theseriesdefinedateachendpointoftheintervalmustbetestedseparately.
Example13.8:Considerthepowerseries: 1
UsingtheRatioTest,wefind:
lim lim lim | | 1 intheopeninterval: 1, 1 .

So,thisserieshasaradiusofconvergence: 1aboutacenterof 0.
Tofindtheintervalofconvergenceoftheseries,wemusttesttheendpoints,i.e., 1.
When 1,weget 1 1 1 1 ,whichdiverges.
When 1,weget 1 1 1 1 ,whichalsodiverges.
Theintervalofconvergence,then,is 1, 1 .Itdoesnotincludeeitherendpoint.

Chapter13 Series
Differentiating or Integrating Power Series
WhendifferentiatingorintegratingaPowerSeries,wedifferentiateorintegratetermbyterm.
Example13.9:Integratethepowerseries: 1
1
1
1
1 1 1

2 3 4
Theresultoftheintegrationturnsouttobethepowerseriesforln 1 ,plusaconstant,
whichwewouldexpecttobethecasebecause:
1
ln 1 .
1
Theorem:DifferentiationofaPowerSeries
Ifafunction isdefinedbyapowerserieswithradiusofconvergence ,then:
isdifferentiableontheopenintervaldefinedby .
isfoundbytermbytermdifferentiationofthepowerseriesfor .
Theresultingpowerseriesfor alsohasradiusofconvergence .
Theintervalofconvergenceof maybethesameasthatfor ,oritmayloseeitheror
bothendpoints.
Theorem:IntegrationofaPowerSeries
Ifafunction isdefinedbyapowerserieswithradiusofconvergence ,then:
isfoundbytermbytermintegrationofthepowerseriesfor .
Theresultingpowerseriesfor alsohasradiusofconvergence .
Theintervalofconvergenceof maybethesameasthatfor ,oritmaygaineitheror
bothendpoints.

Differentiation: Integration:
Termbytermdifferentiation. Termbytermintegration.
Relative
HassameRatioofConvergence. to HassameRatioofConvergence.

IntervalofConvergencemaylose IntervalofConvergencemaygain
oneorbothendpoints. oneorbothendpoints.

Chapter13 Series
Example13.10:TheMaclaurinSeriesfor is:
1
1
1
Asshownonapreviouspage,itsintervalofconvergenceis 1, 1 .
Integratingtermbytermweget:
1
1
1
ln 1 1
Forthenewseries,ln 1 ,notethat hasnoimpactonwhethertheseriesconverges

ordivergesatanypoint.Then,
UsingtheRatioTest,wefind:
/
lim lim lim lim | | 1 intheopen
/
interval: 1, 1 .
So,thisseriesalsohasaradiusofconvergence 1aboutacenterof 0.
Tofindtheintervalofconvergenceoftheseries,wemusttesttheendpoints,i.e., 1.
When 1,wegetln 2 1 ,whichconvergesbythealternatingseries

test.
When 1,wegetln 0 1 ,whichdiverges(itisthenegative

harmonicseries,andln 0isundefined).
Theintervalofconvergence,then,is 1, 1 .Itincludestherightendpoint.
Conclusion:Inthecaseofthisexample,theintervalofconvergenceoftheintegratedseriespicks
uptheendpointat 1.

Chapter13 Series
McCartin Table: Summary of Basic Tests for Series
Conditionsfor Conditionsfor
Test SeriesForm Comments
Convergence Divergence
thterm(testsfor lim 0 Thistestshould

divergenceonly) lim
0 alwaysbe
required,butnot
sufficient performedfirst.
Telescoping
Series lim
isfinite lim
notfinite lim

SpecialSeries
Geometric
Series( 0) | | 1 | | 1
1
Series 1 1 1
1 1
AlternatingSeries Remainder:
0 1 lim
0 lim
0
| |
Integral ispositive, Remainder:

continuous,and

decreasing 0
converges(2) diverges
Comparison Comparisonof
( 0, 0) and needonly

converges diverges existfor beyond
someindex .
LimitComparison 0 lim lim 0 Coulduse lim

( 0, 0)
insteadof lim

converges diverges
intheconditions.
Ratio Testinconclusiveif:
lim
1

lim
1 lim
1.
(absolute
convergence) Useanothertest.
Root lim | | 1 Testinconclusiveif:

lim
| | 1 lim
| | 1.

(absolute
convergence) Useanothertest.
Notes:(1)Riemannzetafunction. (2)Iftheseriesconverges, .

Chapter14 TaylorandMaclaurinSeries
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
TaylorSeries
ATaylorseriesisanexpansionofafunctionaroundagivenvalueof .Generally,ithasthe
followingformaroundthepoint :

! 1! 2! 3!
MaclaurinSeries
AMaclaurinseriesisaTaylorSeriesaroundthevalue 0.Generally,ithasthefollowing
form:
0 0 0 0
0
! 1! 2! 3!
Example . :
FindtheMaclaurinexpansionfor :
0 1
0 1
0 1
. . .
0 1
SubstitutingthesevaluesintotheMaclaurinexpansionformula(andrecallingthat 0! 1)we
get:
1
2! 3! 4! !

Example . :
FindtheMaclaurinexpansionfor ln 1 :
ln 1 0 ln 1 0 0
1 1
0 1
1 1 0
1 1
0 1 1!
1 1 0
2 2
0 2 2!
1 1 0
6 6
0 6 3!
1 1
. . .
1 !
1 0 1 1 !
1
SubstitutingthesevaluesintotheMaclaurinexpansionformula,weget:
1 2! 3! 1 1 !
ln 1
2! 3! 4! !
1

2 3 4 5 6
TaylorSeriesConvergenceTheorem
ATaylorSeriesforafunction thathasderivativesofallordersonanopeninterval
centeredat convergesifandonlyif:

lim
lim
0
1 !
Theterm iscalledtheLagrangeRemainder; isthevalueof thatproducesthe

greatestvalueof between and .SeemoreontheLagrangeRemainderonthe
nextpage.

LaGrangeRemainder
TheformforaTaylorSeriesabout thatincludesanerrortermis:

2! !
Theterm iscalledtheLagrangeRemainder,andhastheform:

1 !
where producesthegreatestvalueof between and .
Thisformistypicallyusedtoapproximatethevalueofaseriestoadesiredlevelofaccuracy.
Example14.3:Approximate usingfivetermsoftheMaclaurinSeries(i.e.,theTaylorSeries
about 0)for andestimatethemaximumerrorintheestimate.
Usingfivetermsandletting ,weget:
1
2! 3! 4!
1 1 1
1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
~ 1 1 .
2 2! 3! 4! 2 8 48 384
Tofindthemaximumpotentialerrorinthisestimate,calculate:

for and between0and .
!
Since ,thefifthderivativeof is: .Themaximumvalueofthis

between 0and occursat .Then,
1.65basedonourestimateof1.6484375above(wewillcheckthis
aftercompletingourestimateofthemaximumerror).Combiningallofthis,
1
1 2 1 1.65 1
.
2 5! 2 5! 2
Notethatthemaximumvalueof ,then,is1.6484375 0.0004297 1.6488672,whichis
lessthanthe1.65usedincalculating ,soourestimateisgood.Theactualvalueof is
1.6487212 .

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Whatise?
Eulersnumber,eisthebaseofthenaturallogarithms.
eisatranscendentalnumber,meaningthatitisnottherootofanypolynomialwith
integercoefficients.
WhatMakesesoSpecial?
eshowsupoverandoverinmathematics,especiallyinregardtolimits,derivatives,and
integrals.Inparticular,itisnoteworthythat:

1
lim 1 lim 1
!
1
lim 1

Perhaps,mostinterestingly,thefollowingequation,calledEulersEquation,relatesfive
seeminglyunrelatedmathematicalconstantstoeachother.

SomeSeriesRepresentationsofe
Therearemanymoreseriesinvolvinge.
Asamplingoftheseisprovidedat:
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
! 2 6 24 120 http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html.
1 1

! 1 1 1 1
1 1
2 6 24 120
DecimalExpansion
2.718281828459045235360287471352662497757247093699959574966
Thewebsitehttp://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2milshowsthedecimalexpansion
ofetoover2milliondigits.


Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivation of Eulers Formula by Integration
Startwith: cos sin [notethat 0, 1 isapointonthisfunction]
Then: sin cos
cos sin
Integrate:
ln [notethat 0since 0, 1 isapointonthisfunction]
FinalResult:
VeryCoolSubCase
When ,Eulersequationbecomes:
cos sin
or, 1 Notethatthiswillallowustocalculate
logarithmsofnegativenumbers.
Rewritingthisprovidesanequationthatrelatesfiveofthemostimportantmathematical
constantstoeachother:

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivation of Eulers Formula Using Power Series
APowerSeriesaboutzeroisaninfiniteseriesoftheform:
Manymathematicalfunctionscanbeexpressedaspowerseries.Ofparticularinterestin
derivingEulersIdentityarethefollowing:
1
sin
2 1 ! 3! 5! 7!
1
cos 1
2 ! 2! 4! 6!
1
! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Note,then,that:
1
i sin
2 1 ! 3! 5! 7!
1
cos 1
2 ! 2! 4! 6!

1
! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
Noticethatwhenweaddthefirsttwoserieswegetthethird,sowehave:
and, substituting yields:


Chapter15 CoolStuff
Logarithms of Negative Real Numbers and Complex Numbers
NaturalLogarithmofaNegativeRealNumber
FromEulersFormula,wehave:
1
Takingthenaturallogarithmofbothsidesgives:
ln ln 1 which implies that ln 1

Next,let beapositiverealnumber.Then:
ln ln 1 ln 1 ln

Logarithm(AnyBase)ofaNegativeRealNumber
Tocalculatelog ,usethechangeofbaseformula:log .
Letthenewbasebe toget:log
LogarithmofaComplexNumber(PrincipalValue)
Define inpolarformas: ,where isthemodulus(i.e.,

magnitude)of and tan istheargument(i.e.,angle),inradians,ofcomplexnumber
.Then,

and where,

Chapter15 CoolStuff
What Is ( to the power of )
Startwith: (EulersFormulaspecialcase)
Then: 1
Calculate toobtain:

~ . ~
Soweseethatitispossibletotakeanimaginarynumbertoanimaginarypowerandreturntotherealm
ofrealnumbers.

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivative of e to a Complex Power ( )
Startwith:
cos sin
Then: cos sin
CauchyRiemannEquations
Acomplexfunction, , , ,isdifferentiableatpoint ifandonlyif
thefunctions and aredifferentiableand:
and
ThesearecalledtheCauchyRiemannEquationsforthefunctions and :
and in Cartesian form
and in Polar form
Derivativeof
Foradifferentiablecomplexfunction, , , :
Then,let cos sin :
cos and sin
cos sin cos sin
So, .Cool,huh?

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivatives of a Circle
ThegeneralequationofacirclecenteredattheOriginis: , where istheradius

ofthecircle.
FirstDerivative

Notethat isaconstant,soitsderivativeiszero.UsingImplicitDifferentiation(withrespect
to ),weget:
2 2 0
SecondDerivative
Wehaveacoupleofoptionsatthispoint.Wecoulddoimplicitdifferentiationon
2 2 0,butgiventhesimplicityof ,letsworkfromthere.
UsetheQuotientRule,simplifyandsubstitutein intheexpression.
Noticethatthenumeratorisequaltothelefthandsideoftheequationofthecircle.Wecan
simplifytheexpressionforthesecondderivativebysubstituting for toget:

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivatives of an Ellipse
ThegeneralequationofanellipsecenteredattheOriginis: 1,where isthe

radiusoftheellipseinthe directionand istheradiusoftheellipseinthe direction.
FirstDerivative
1whichcanalsobewritten
Notethat isaconstant,soitsderivativeiszero.UsingImplicitDifferentiation(with
respectto ),weget:
2 2 0
SecondDerivative
Giventhesimplicityof ,letsworkfromtheretocalculate .
Noticethatthenumeratorinsidethebracketsisequaltothelefthandsideoftheequationof
theellipse.Wecansimplifythisexpressionbysubstituting for toget:

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivatives of a Hyperbola
Thegeneralequationofahyperbolawithaverticaltransverseaxis,centeredattheOriginis:
1,where , 0 aretheverticesofthehyperbola.
FirstDerivative
1whichcanalsobewritten
Notethat isaconstant,soitsderivativeiszero.UsingImplicitDifferentiation(with
respectto ),weget:
2 2 0
SecondDerivative
Giventhesimplicityof ,letsworkfromtheretocalculate .
Noticethatthenumeratorinsidethebracketsisequaltothelefthandsideoftheequationof
thehyperbola.Wecansimplifythisexpressionbysubstituting for toget:

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Derivative of:
Startingexpression:
Expandthecubicofthebinomial: 3 3
Subtract frombothsides: 3 3 0
Dividebothsidesby3: 0
Investigatethisexpression:
Factorit: 0
Solutionsarethethreelines: 0, 0,
Notetheslopesoftheselines: undefined, 0, 1
Obtainthederivative:
Startwith: 0
Implicitdifferentiation: 2 2 0
Rearrangeterms: 2 2 0
Solvefor :
Factoredform:
Considereachsolutionseparately:

0: undefined
0: 0

: 1
Conclusion:
isanelegantwaytodescribethederivativeof withrespectto forthe

expression (whichisnotafunction).However,itisnoteworthy,that
thisderivativecanonlytakeonthreepossiblevalues(ifweallowundefinedtocountasa
value)undefined,0and 1.

Chapter15 CoolStuff
Inflection Points of the PDF of the Normal Distribution
TheequationfortheProbabilityDensityFunction(PDF)oftheNormalDistributionis:

where and arethemeanandstandarddeviationofthedistribution.
1

2 2
2

2
1 1

Setting 0,andnotingthat 0forallvaluesof ,weget:
1 0Sothat: .
Further,notingthatthevalueofthesecondderivativechangessignsateachofthesevalues,
weconcludethatinflectionpointsexistat .
InEnglish,theinflectionpointsoftheProbabilityDensityFunctionoftheNormalDistribution
existatpointsonestandarddeviationaboveorbelowthemean.


Appendix A
Key Definitions in Calculus
AbsoluteMaximum
SeeentryonGlobalMaximum.Mayalsosimplybecalledthemaximum.
AbsoluteMinimum
SeeentryonGlobalMinimum.Mayalsosimplybecalledtheminimum.
Antiderivative
Alsocalledtheindefiniteintegralofafunction, ,anantiderivativeof isafunction
,suchthat onanintervalof .
Thegeneralantiderivativeof istheantiderivativeexpressedasafunctionwhichincludes
theadditionofaconstant ,whichiscalledtheconstantofintegration.
Example: 2 isanantiderivativeof 6 because .

2 isthegeneralantiderivativeof 6 because
forallvaluesof .
Notation:theantiderivativeofafunction, ,isexpressedas: .

AppendixA KeyDefinitions
AultTable
NamedforALainaAult,theMathDepartmentChairatDamonteRanchHighSchoolinReno,
Nevada,anAultTableisachartthatshowsthesignsandthebehaviorofafunctionandits
derivativesoverkeyintervalsoftheindependentvariable(usually or ).Itisveryusefulin
curvesketchingbecauseitmakestheprocessoffindingextremaandinflectionpointsrelatively
easy.ThestepstobuildinganAultTableare:
1. Calculatethefirstandsecondderivativesofthe
functionbeingconsidered.Additionalderivativesmay
betakenifneeded.
2. Findthezerosofeachderivative;theseformthe
intervalendpointsforthetable.Notethatthezerosof
thefirstderivativearecriticalvalues,representing
potentialmaximaandminima,andthezerosofthe
secondderivativearepotentialinflectionpoints.
3. Arrangethezerosofthefirsttwoderivativesin
numericalorder,andcreatemutuallyexclusiveopen
intervalswiththezerosasendpoints.Ifappropriate,
includeintervalsextendingto and/or.
4. Createasetofrowsasshowninthetableonthenext
page.Atthispointtheboxesinthetablewillbeempty.
5. Determinethesignofeachderivativeineachinterval
andrecordthatinformationintheappropriatebox
usinga ora .
6. UsethesignsdeterminedinStep5toidentifyforeach
intervala)whetherthefunctionisincreasingor
decreasing(greenlinesinthetable),b)whetherthe AnAulttablefacilitatesthegraphing
firstderivativeisincreasingordecreasing(redlinesin ofafunctionliketheoneabove:
thetable),c)whetherthefunctionisconcaveupor 2 9 12 4
down(bottomredlineinthetable),andd)theshapeof
thecurveontheinterval.
Fromtheinformationinthetable,youcandeterminethelocationofallextremaandinflection
pointsofthecurve.Youcanalsodeterminewherethespeedispositive;thesignsofboththe
firstandsecondderivativesarethesame.
Anexampleisprovidedonthenextpage:

Example:developanAultTableforthefunction:s(t)=2t39t2+12t4
Firstfindthekeyfunctions:
2 9 12 4 Positionfunction
6 18 12 Velocityfunction
| | |6 18 12| Speedfunction
12 18 Accelerationfunction
Next,findthefunctionscriticalvalues,inflectionpoints,andmaybeacouplemorepoints.
2 9 12 4 0 4

6 1 2 0 CriticalValuesof are: 1, 2
CriticalPointsare: 1, 1 , 2, 0

6 2 3 0 InflectionPointat: 1.5
2 9 12 4 3 5,justtogetanotherpointtoplot
Then,buildanAultTablewithintervalsseparatedbythekeyvalues:
Keyvaluesof thatdefinetheintervalsinthetableare 1, 1.5, 2
Note:Identifythesigns(i.e., , )first.Theworddescriptorsarebasedonthesigns.
, , . . , ,
increasing decreasing decreasing increasing

andis: decreasing decreasing increasing increasing

: concavedown concavedown concaveup concaveup
Curve
Shape
Results.Thisfunctionhas:
Amaximumat 1.
Aminimumat 2.
Aninflectionpointat 1.5.

Concavity
Afunction, ,isconcaveupwardonanintervalif isincreasing
ontheinterval,i.e.,if 0.
Afunction, ,isconcavedownwardonanintervalif is
decreasingontheinterval,i.e.,if 0.
Concavitychangesatinflectionpoints,fromupwardtodownwardor
fromdownwardtoupward.
Continuity
Afunction, ,iscontinuousat iff:
a. isdefined,
b. lim exists,and

c. lim
Basically,thefunctionvalueandlimitatapoint
mustbothexistandbeequaltoeachother.
Thecurveshowniscontinuouseverywhere
exceptattheholesandtheverticalasymptote.
CriticalNumbersorCriticalValues(andCriticalPoints)
Ifafunction, ,isdefinedatc,thenthecritical
numbers(alsocalledcriticalvalues)of are
valueswhere 0andwhere doesnot
exist(i.e., isnotdifferentiableat ).Thisincludes
valueswheretheslopeofthecurveishorizontal,
andwherecuspsanddiscontinuitiesexistinan
interval.
Thepointswherethecriticalnumbersexistare
calledcriticalpoints.Note:endpointsareexcluded
fromthisdefinition,butmustalsobetestedincaseswherethestudentseeksanabsolute(i.e.,
global)maximumorminimumofaninterval.

DecreasingFunction
Afunction, ,isdecreasingonanintervalifforanytwovaluesintheinterval, and ,with
,itistruethat .
DegreeofaDifferentialEquation
Thedegreeofadifferentialequationisthepowerofthehighestderivativeterminthe
equation.Contrastthiswiththeorderofadifferentialequation.
Examples:
Degree 1
Degree 2
Degree 5

Derivative
Themeasureoftheslopeofacurveateachpointalongthecurve.Thederivativeofafunction
isitselfafunction,generallydenoted or .Thederivativeprovidesthe
instantaneousrateofchangeofafunctionatthepointatwhichitismeasured.
Thederivativefunctionisgivenbyeitherofthetwofollowinglimits,whichareequivalent:
lim
or lim

Inthefigurebelow,thederivativeofthecurve 25 at 3, 4 istheslopeofthe
tangentlineat 3, 4 ,whichis .
Differentiable
Afunctionisdifferentiableatapoint,ifa
derivativecanbetakenatthatpoint.A
functionisnotdifferentiableatany value
thatisnotinitsdomain,atdiscontinuities,at
sharpturnsandwherethecurveisvertical.
Tofindwhereafunctionisnotdifferentiable
byinspection,lookforpointsofdiscontinuity,
sharpturns,andverticalslopesinthecurve.
Inthecurveshownatright,thecurveisnot
differentiableatthepointsofdiscontinuity
( 5 noratthecusp( 2).

Differential
Considerafunction ,thatisdifferentiableonanopenintervalaround . and
representsmallchangesinthevariables and around on .Then,
Thedifferentialof isdenotedas ,and .
Thedifferentialof isdenotedas ,and
istheactualchangeis resultingfromachangein of . isanapproximation
of .
DifferentialEquation
Anequationwhichincludesvariablesandoneormoreoftheirderivatives.
Anordinarydifferentialequation(ODE)isadifferentialequationthatincludesanindependent
variable(e.g., ),adependentvariable(e.g., ),andoneormorederivativesofthedependent
varaiable,(e.g., , , ,etc.).
Ifthedifferentialequationincludespartialderivatives,itisapartialdifferentialequation(PDE),
andnotanordinarydifferentialequation.SeeChapter10formoredefinitions.
Examples:

Displacement
Displacementisameasureoftheshortestpathbetweentwopoints.SoifyoustartatPointAandend
atPointB,thelengthofthelinesegmentconnectingthemisthedisplacement.
Togetdisplacementfromvelocity:
Integratevelocityovertheentireinterval,withoutanybreaks.
Distance
Distanceisameasureofthelengthofthepathtakentogetfromonepointtoanother.So,traveling
backwardaddstodistanceandreducesdisplacement.
Togetdistancefromvelocity,overaninterval , :
Integratevelocityoverthe , inpieces,breakingitupateachpointwherevelocity
changessignfrom" " to" "orfrom " "to " ".
Taketheabsolutevalueofeachseparatedefiniteintegraltogetthedistanceforthat
interval.
Addthedistancesovereachintervaltogetthetotaldistance.


isthebaseofthenaturallogarithms.Itisatranscendentalnumber,meaningthatitisnotthe
rootofanypolynomialwithintegercoefficients.
1 1
lim 1 lim 1
!
1 1 1 1 1
1 1
! 2 6 24 120
1 1

! 1 1 1 1
1 1
2 6 24 120
EulersEquation:
1 0showstheinterconnectionoffiveseeminglyunrelatedmathematicalconstants.
DecimalExpansionof :
2.7 1828 1828 4590 4523 5360 2874 7135 2662 4977 5724 7093 6999 5957 4966
The web site http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2mil shows the decimal
expansion of e to over 2 million digits.

GlobalMaximum
Aglobalmaximumisthefunctionvalueatpoint onanintervalif forall inthe
interval.Thatis, isaglobalmaximumifthereisanintervalcontaining where isthe
greatestvalueintheinterval.Notethattheintervalmaycontainmultiplerelativemaximabut
onlyoneglobalmaximum.
GlobalMinimum
Aglobalminimumisthefunctionvalueatpoint onanintervalif forall inthe
interval.Thatis, isaglobalminimumifthereisanintervalcontaining where isthe
leastvalueintheinterval.Notethattheintervalmaycontainmultiplerelativeminimabutonly
oneglobalminimum.
HorizontalAsymptote
If:
lim
, or

lim
,

thentheline isa
horizontalasymptoteof .

HyperbolicFunctions
Thesetofhyperbolicfunctionsrelatetotheunithyperbolainmuchthesamewaythat
trigonometricfunctionsrelatetotheunitcircle.Hyperbolicfunctionshavethesameshorthand
namesastheircorrespondingtrigonometricfunctions,butwithanhattheendofthename
toindicatethatthefunctionishyperbolic.Thenamesarereadhyperbolicsine,hyperbolic
cosine,etc.
GraphsofHyperbolicFunctions


IncreasingFunction
Afunction, ,isincreasingonan
intervalifforanytwovaluesinthe
interval, and ,with ,itis
truethat .
InflectionPoint
Aninflectionpointisalocationonacurve
whereconcavitychangesfromupwardto
downwardorfromdownwardtoupward.
Ataninflectionpoint,thecurvehasatangent
lineand 0or doesnotexist.
However,itisnotnecessarilytruethatif
0,thenthereisaninflectionpointat
.
InverseFunction
Twofunctions and areinversesifandonlyif:
forevery inthedomainof ,and
forevery inthedomainof .
Importantpointsaboutinversefunctions:
Eachfunctionisareflectionoftheotheroverthe
line .
Thedomainofeachfunctionistherangeofthe
other.Sometimesadomainrestrictionisneeded
tomakethishappen.
If ,then .
Theslopesofinversefunctionsatagivenvalueof arereciprocals.


MonotonicFunction
Afunction ismonotonicifitiseitherentirelynonincreasingorentirelynondecreasing.The
derivativeofamonotonicfunctionneverchangessign.
Astrictlymonotonicfunctioniseitherentirelyincreasingorentirelydecreasing.Thederivative
ofastrictlymonotonicfunctioniseitheralwayspositiveoralwaysnegative.Strictlymonotonic
functionsarealsoonetoone.
NaturalExponentialFunction
Thenaturalexponentialfunctionisdefinedas:
.
Itistheinverseofthenaturallogarithmicfunction.
NaturalLogarithmicFunction
Thenaturallogarithmicfunctionisdefinedas:
1 41
ln , 0. ln 4 ~ 1.38629
1
Thebaseofthenaturallogarithmis .So,
ln log


OnetoOneFunction
Afunction isonetooneif:
forevery inthedomainof ,thereisexactlyone suchthat ,and
forevery intherangeof ,thereisexactlyone suchthat .
Afunctionhasaninverseifandonlyifitisonetoone.Onetoonefunctionsarealso
monotonic.Monotonicfunctionsarenotnecessarilyonetoone,butstrictlymonotonic
functionsarenecessarilyonetoone.
OrderofaDifferentialEquation
Theorderofadifferentialequationisthehighestderivativethatoccursintheequation.
Contrastthiswiththedegreeofadifferentialequation.
Examples:
Order 4
Order 1
Order 2
OrdinaryDifferentialEquation(ODE)
Anordinarydifferentialequationisonethatinvolvesasingleindependentvariable.
ExamplesofODEs: NotODEs(PartialDifferentialEquations):
and

PartialDifferentialEquation(PDE)
Apartialdifferentialequationisonethatinvolvesmorethanoneindependentvariable.
ExamplesofPDEs:
and
PositionFunction
Apositionfunctionisafunctionthatprovidesthelocation(i.e.,position)ofapointmovingina
straightline,inaplaneorinspace.Thepositionfunctionisoftendenoted ,where istime,
theindependentvariable.Whenpositionisidentifiedalongastraightline,wehave:
Positionfunction
Velocityfunction(rateofchangeinposition;maybepositive,negative,orzero)
| | Speedfunction(absolutevalueofvelocity;itiszeroorpositivebydefinition)
Accelerationfunction(rateofchangeinvelocity)
Jerkfunction(rateofchangeinacceleration)
Notethattheinverserelationshipsholdforthefunctionsaswell.Forexample,considertheposition
function andthevelocityfuntion :
and
GeneralCaseofIntegratingthePositionFunctioninProblemsInvolvingGravity
Givenintialposition 0 ,andintialvelocity 0 ,thepositionfunctionisgivenas:
16 0 0 whereallfunctionsinvolvetheunitsfeetandseconds.
Note:Theforceofgravityis 32 / or 9.8 / .

RelativeMaximum
Arelativemaximumisthefunctionvalueat
point inanopenintervalif
and forarbitrarily
small .Thatis, isarelativemaximum
ifthereisanopenintervalcontaining
where isthegreatestvalueinthe
interval.
RelativeMinimum
Arelativeminimumisthefunctionvalueatpoint inanopenintervalif and
forarbitrarilysmall .Thatis, isarelativeminimumifthereisanopen
intervalcontaining where istheleastvalueintheinterval.
RiemannIntegral

If isaRiemannSum(seetheentryonRiemannSumbelow),thenthe
correspondingdefiniteintegral, iscalledtheRiemannIntegralof onthe
interval , .RiemannIntegralsinone,twoandthreedimensionsare:
lim

, lim

,

, , lim
,
,


RiemannSum
ARiemannSumisthesumoftheareasofasetofrectanglesthatcanbeusedtoapproximate
theareaunderacurveoveraclosedinterval.
Consideraclosedinterval , on thatispartitionedinto subintervalsoflengths

, , , .Let beanyvalueof onthe thsubinterval.Then,theRiemann
Sumisgivenby:
AgraphicalrepresentationofaRiemannsum
ontheinterval 2, 5 isprovidedatright.
Notethattheareaunderacurvefrom
to is:

lim

Thelargest iscalledthemeshsizeofthepartition.AtypicalRiemannSumisdeveloped
withall thesame(i.e.,constantmeshsize),butthisisnotrequired.Theresultingdefinite
integral, iscalledtheRiemannIntegralof ontheinterval , .
ScalarField
AScalarFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavalueateachpointinspace.Forexample,wecan
measurethetemperatureateachpointwithinanobject.Thetemperaturecanbeexpressedas
T=(x,y,z).(note:istheGreekletterphi,correspondingtotheEnglishletterf.)

SeparationofVariables
SeparationofVariablesisatechniqueusedtoassistinthesolutionofdifferentialequations.
Theprocessinvolvesusingalgebratocollectalltermsinvolvingonevariableononesideofan
equationandalltermsinvolvingtheothervariableontheothersideofanequation.
Example:
Originaldifferentialequation:

Revisedformwithvariablesseparated:

Singularity
Asingularityisapointatwhichamathematicalexpressionorotherobjectisnotdefinedorfails
tobewellbehaved.Typically,singularitiesexistatdiscontinuities.
Example:
Inevaluatingthefollowingintegral,wenoticethat doesnotexistat 0.Wesay,

then,that hasasingularityat 0.Specialtechniquesmustoftenbeemployedto
solveintegralswithsingularities.

SlopeField
Aslopefield(alsocalledadirectionfield)isagraphicalrepresentationoftheslopesofacurveat
variouspointsthataredefinedbyadifferentialequation.Eachpositioninthegraph(i.e.,each
point , )isrepresentedbyalinesegmentindicatingtheslopeofthecurveatthatpoint.
Examples:
Ifyouknowapointonacurveandifyouhaveitscorrespondingslopefielddiagram,youcan
plotyourpointandthenfollowtheslopelinestodeterminethecurve.Slopefieldplottersare
availableonlineat:
http://www.mathscoop.com/calculus/differentialequations/slopefieldgenerator.php
http://www.geogebratube.org/student/m42741
VectorField
AVectorFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavectorateachpointinspace.Forexample,we
canmeasureamagneticfield(magnitudeanddirectionofthemagneticforce)ateachpointin
spacearoundachargedparticle.Themagneticfieldcanbeexpressedas , , .Note
thatthehalfarrowovertheletters and indicatethatthefunctiongeneratesavectorfield.

VerticalAsymptote

Iflim orlim
,thentheline isaverticalasymptoteof
.

Appendix B
Key Theorems in Calculus
Functions and Limits
InverseFunctionTheorem
Afunctionhasaninversefunctionifandonlyifitisonetoone.
IntermediateValueTheorem(IVT)
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheclosedinterval , ,and
isavaluebetween and ,
Then
thereisavalue in , suchthat .
ExtremeValueTheorem(EVT)
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheclosedinterval , ,
Then
hasbothanabsolutemaximumandanabsoluteminimumon , .
SqueezeTheorem(Limits):
If
, and
lim
lim

Then
lim


AppendixB KeyTheorems
Differentiation
Rolle'sTheorem
If
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,and
,
Then
thereisatleastonevalue in , where 0.

MeanValueTheorem(MVT)
If
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,
Then
Thereisatleastonevalue in , where

IncreasingandDecreasingIntervalTheorem
If
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,
Then
If 0forevery , ,then isincreasingon , .
If 0forevery , ,then isdecreasingon , .
If 0forevery , ,then isconstanton , .

ConcaveIntervalTheorem
If
existsontheopeninterval , ,
Then
If 0forevery , ,then isconcaveupwardon , .
If 0forevery , ,then isconcavedownwardon , .


FirstDerivativeTest(forfindingextrema)
If
isacriticalnumber , ,
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,exceptpossiblyatc,
Then
If changesfrompositivetonegativeat ,then isarelativemaximum.
If changesfromnegativetopositiveat ,then isarelativeminimum.

SecondDerivativeTest(forfindingextrema)
If
, ,and
0and exists,
Then
If 0,then isarelativemaximum.
If 0,then isarelativeminimum.

InflectionPointTheorem
If
, ,and
0or doesnotexist,
Then
, maybeaninflectionpointof .
InverseFunctionContinuityandDifferentiability
If
afunction, ,hasaninverse,
Then
If iscontinuousonitsdomain,thensois onitsdomain.
If isincreasingonitsdomain,thensois onitsdomain.
If isdecreasingonitsdomain,thensois onitsdomain.
If isdifferentiableonitsdomain,thensois onitsdomain(wherever 0).
Note:thisexceptionexistsbecausethederivativesof and areinverses.


DerivativeofanInverseFunction
If
afunction, ,isdifferentiableat ,and
hasaninversefunction ,and
,
Then
(i.e.,thederivativesofinversefunctionsarereciprocals).

Integration
FirstFundamentalTheoremofCalculus
If
isacontinuousfunctionon , ,
isanyantiderivativeof ,then
Then

SecondFundamentalTheoremofCalculus
If
Then
Forevery , ,

MeanValueTheoremforIntegrals(MVT)
If
Then
thereisavalue , ,suchthat

Appendix C

Summary of Key Derivatives and Integrals


AppendixC KeyDerivativesandIntegrals

CommonFunctions
PowerRule
ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions 0, 1
ln ln
1 1
ln ln
1 1
log log
ln ln
TrigonometricFunctions
sin cos sin cos
cos sin cos sin
tan sec tan sec
cot csc cot csc


TrigonometricandInverseTrigonometricFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions(repeatedfrompriorpage)
sin cos sin cos
cos sin cos sin
tan sec tan sec
cot csc cot csc
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
1 1 Angle in
sin sin
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cos cos
1 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
tan tan
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
cot cot
1 1 Q I or Q IV
1 1 Angle in
sec sec
| | 1 | | 1 Q I or Q II
1 1 Angle in
csc csc
| | 1 | | 1 Q I or Q IV


Indefinite Integrals

Note:therulespresentedinthissectionomitthe termthatmustbeaddedtoall
indefiniteintegralsinordertosavespaceandavoidclutter.Pleaseremembertoaddthe
termonallworkyouperformwithindefiniteintegrals.
BasicRules
IntegrationbyParts
PowerRule
1 1
1 ln| |
1
ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions 0, 1
ln ln
1 1
ln ln
ln ln

Indefinite Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
TrigonometricFunctions
sin cos
cos sin
tan ln |sec | ln |cos | sec tan
cot ln |csc | ln |sin | csc cot
sec ln |sec tan | sec tan sec
csc ln |csc cot | csc cot csc

Indefinite Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin sin 1
cos cos 1
1
tan tan ln 1
2
1
cot cot ln 1
2
sec sec ln 1 sec 0,

2
sec ln 1 sec ,
2
csc csc ln 1 csc 0,

2
csc ln 1 csc ,0
2
InvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
1 1
sin sin
1
1 1 1
tan tan
1
1 1 1 | |
sec | | sec
1



SelectingtheRightFunctionforanIntegral
Form Function Integral
1 1
sin sin

1 1 1
tan tan
1 1 1 | |
sec sec

1 1
sinh * ln

1 1
cosh * ln

1
tanh *
1 1
ln
1 2
coth *

1 1 1
sech * ln
| |
1 1 1
csch * ln
| |
*Thisisaninversehyperbolicfunction.Formoreinformation,seeChapter6.Notethatyoudo
notneedtoknowaboutinversehyperbolicfunctionstousetheformulasonthispage.

Appendix D

Key Functions and Their Derivatives

AppendixD FunctionsandTheirDerivatives
FunctionsandTheirDerivatives
Function
Description Thefunctionisalwaysconcave Thegraphofthefunctionhas Thefunctionisalways Thefunctionhasoneabsolute

upandthelimitoff(x)asx the and axesas decreasingandhasthexaxis maximumandthexaxisisan
approaches0is1. horizontalandvertical asanasymptote. asymptote.
asymptotes.
Function
Graph
First
Derivative
Graph
Second
Derivative
Graph

Function .
| |
.
Description Thelogisticcurve.Itisalways Thefunctionhastworelative Thefunctionisalways Thefunctionisperiodicwith

increasingandhasonepoint minimaandonerelative increasingontherightand domain andrange 1, 1 .
ofinflection. maximum. alwaysdecreasingontheleft.
Theyaxisasanasymptote.
Function
Graph
First
Derivative
Graph
Second
Derivative
Graph

Function
Description Thefunctionhasoneabsolute Thegraphhasthreezeros, Thefunctionhasonerelative Thefunctionhastworelative

minimumandnopointsof onerelativeminimum,one maximum,tworelative maxima,tworelativeminima,
inflection. relativemaximum,andone minima,andtwopointsof andthreepointsofinflection.
pointofinflection. inflection.
Function
Graph
First
Derivative
Graph
Second
Derivative
Graph

Appendix E
Geometry and Trigonometry Formulas

AppendixE GeometryandTrigonometryFormulas
Geometry
SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas2DShapes
Shape Figure Perimeter Area

Kite
,
,

Trapezoid ,
, b ,b bases
h height

Parallelogram
,

Rectangle
,

Rhombus
,

Square
,

RegularPolygon

Circle

Ellipse


Geometry
SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas3DShapes
Shape Figure SurfaceArea Volume

Sphere

Right

Cylinder

Cone

Square
Pyramid

Rectangular
Prism

Cube

General

RightPrism


Trigonometry
FunctionRelationships OppositeAngleFormulas Cofunction Formulas(inQuadrantI)

1 1

sin sin sin cos cos sin
sin csc 2 2

csc sin
cos cos
1 1 tan cot cot tan
cos sec tan tan 2 2
sec cos
1 1 cot cot sec csc csc sec
tan cot 2 2
cot tan
sec sec
sin cos AngleAdditionFormulas
tan cot
cos sin csc csc
sin sin cos cos sin
PythagoreanIdentities HalfAngleFormulas sin sin cos cos sin
sin cos 1 cos cos cos sin sin

1 cos
sin cos cos cos sin sin
tan 1 sec 2 2
tan tan
cot 1 csc tan
1 tan tan

1 cos
cos tan tan
2 2
DoubleAngleFormulas tan
1 tan tan
sin 2 2 sin cos 1 cos
tan
2 1 cos ProducttoSumFormulas
cos 2 cos sin
1 2 sin 1
1 cos sin sin
cos cos
2 cos 1 2
sin
1
2 tan sin cos cos cos cos
tan 2 2
1 tan 1 cos
1
sin cos sin sin
2
TripleAngleFormulas PowerReducingFormulas 1
cos sin sin sin
sin 3 3 sin 4 sin 1 cos 2 2
sin
2
cos 3 4 cos 3 cos 1 cos 2 SumtoProductFormulas
cos
3 tan tan 2
tan 3 1 cos 2 sin sin 2 sin cos
1 3 tan tan 2 2
1 cos 2

sin sin 2 sin cos
2 2
ArcLength LawofSines
cos cos 2 cos cos
2 2
LawofCosines LawofTangents cos cos 2 sin sin

2 2
2 cos 1
tan
2 cos 2
1 MollweidesFormulas
2 cos tan mathguy.us
2 1
cos
2
EulersFormula PolarMultiplicationandDivision 1
sin
2
cos sin cis Let: cis cis 1
sin
2
DeMoivresFormula cis cis 1
cos
2
cis cis

Trigonometry
Period 2 Period 2 Period

Amplitude:| |
" "
Period:

PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:

Period 2 Period 2 Period HarmonicMotion

cos or

sin

2 , 0

TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles(UnitCircle)
Rad
0 0 0 1 0
6 30 1/2 3/2 3/3
4 45 2/2 2/2 1
3 60 3/2 1/2 3
2 90 1 0 undefined

Rectangular/PolarConversion TriangleArea VectorProperties

Rectangular Polar 1
0 0
, , 2
0

cos
1 1
sin tan
2 2
cos sin 1 sin sin

or 2 sin

cos 1
sin
sin tan 2
1 1
1
1 1
2 2
1 | |
2
cos 3 3
1
sin
UnitVector:

tan sin
VectorDotProduct VectorCrossProduct AnglebetweenVectors

u u
x u v u v cos sin
v v
x x x iff 0iff x 0

Appendix F

Polar and Parametric Equations


AppendixF PolarandParametricEquations
PolarGraphs
Typically,PolarGraphswillbeplottedonpolargraphpapersuchasthat
illustratedatright.Onthisgraph,apoint , canbeconsideredtobethe
intersectionofthecircleofradius andtheterminalsideoftheangle (see
theillustrationbelow).Note:afreePCappthatcanbeusedtodesignand
printyourownpolargraphpaperisavailableatwww.mathguy.us.
PartsofthePolarGraph
Theillustrationbelowshowsthekeypartsofapolargraph,alongwithapoint, 4, .

ThePoleisthepoint 0, 0 (i.e.,theorigin).

ThePolarAxisisthepositive axis.
TheLine: isthepositive axis.

Manyequationsthatcontainthecosine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.

Manyequationsthatcontainthesine
functionaresymmetricaboutthe axis.

PolarEquationsSymmetry
Followingarethethreemaintypesofsymmetryexhibitedinmanypolarequationgraphs:
Symmetryabout: QuadrantsContainingSymmetry SymmetryTest(1)
Pole Opposite(IandIIIorIIandIV) Replace with intheequation
Lefthemisphere(IIandIII) or Replace with intheequation

axis
righthemisphere(IandIV)
axis Upperhemisphere(IandII)or Replace , with , inthe

lowerhemisphere(IIIandIV) equation
(1)
Ifperformingtheindicatedreplacementresultsinanequivalentequation,theequationpasses
thesymmetrytestandtheindicatedsymmetryexists.Iftheequationfailsthesymmetrytest,
symmetrymayormaynotexist.

GraphsofPolarEquations
GraphingMethods
Method1:Pointplotting
Createatwocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof .Thisisakintoa
twocolumnchartthatcalculatesvaluesof forselectedvaluesof thatcanbeusedtoplota
rectangularcoordinatesequation(e.g., 4 3).
The valuesyouselectforpurposesofpointplottingshouldvarydependingontheequation
youareworkingwith(inparticular,thecoefficientof intheequation).However,asafebet
istostartwithmultiplesof 6(including 0).Ploteachpointonthepolargraphand
seewhatshapeemerges.Ifyouneedmoreorfewerpointstoseewhatcurveisemerging,
adjustasyougo.
Ifyouknowanythingaboutthecurve(typicalshape,symmetry,etc.),useittofacilitate
plottingpoints.
Connectthepointswithasmoothcurve.Admiretheresult;manyofthesecurvesare
aestheticallypleasing.
Method2:Calculator
UsingaTI84PlusCalculatororitsequivalent,dothefollowing:
Makesureyourcalculatorissettoradiansandpolarfunctions.HittheMODE
key;selectRADIANSinrow4andPOLARinrow5.Afteryoudothis,hitting
CLEARwillgetyoubacktothemainscreen.
HitY=andentertheequationintheform .UsetheX,T, ,nkeyto
enterintotheequation.Ifyourequationisoftheform ,youmay
needtoentertwofunctions, and ,andplotboth.
HitGRAPHtoplotthefunctionorfunctionsyouenteredinthepreviousstep.
Ifnecessary,hitWINDOWtoadjusttheparametersoftheplot.
o Ifyoucannotseethewholefunction,adjusttheXandYvariables(oruseZOOM).
o Ifthecurveisnotsmooth,reducethevalueofthe stepvariable.Thiswillplotmore
pointsonthescreen.Notethatsmallervaluesof steprequiremoretimetoplotthe
curve,sochooseavaluethatplotsthecurvewellinareasonableamountoftime.
o Iftheentirecurveisnotplotted,adjustthevaluesofthe minand maxvariablesuntil
youseewhatappearstobetheentireplot.
Note:Youcanviewthetableofpointsusedtographthepolarfunctionbyhitting2NDTABLE.

GraphofPolarEquations
Circle

Equation: sin Equation: cos Equation:
Location: Location: Location:
above axisif 0 rightof axisif 0 CenteredonthePole
below axisif 0 leftof axisif 0
Radius: /2 Radius: /2 Radius:
Symmetry: axis Symmetry: axis Symmetry:Pole, axis,
axis
Rose
Characteristicsofroses:
Equation: sin
o Symmetricaboutthe axis
Equation: cos
Containedwithinacircleofradius
If isodd,therosehas petals.
If iseventherosehas2 petals.
Notethatacircleisarosewithonepetal(i.e, 1).

GraphsofPolarEquations
LimaonofPascal

Equation: sin Equation: cos
Location:bulbabove axisif 0 Location:bulbrightof axisif 0
bulbbelow axisif 0 bulbleftof axisif 0
Symmetry: axis Symmetry: axis
FourLimaonShapes
2 2
Innerloop Cardioid Dimple Nodimple
FourLimaonOrientations(usingtheCardioidasanexample)

sinefunction sinefunction cosinefunction cosinefunction

0 0 0 0


GraphofPolarEquations
LemniscateofBernoulli

Thelemniscateisthesetofallpoints
forwhichtheproductofthe
distancesfromtwopoints(i.e.,foci)

whichare2 apartis .

Characteristicsoflemniscates:
Equation: sin 2
o Symmetricabouttheline
Equation: cos 2
Containedwithinacircleofradius
Spirals
HyperbolicSpiral:
ArchimedesSpiralFermatsSpiral

Lituus:
Characteristicsofspirals:
Equation: , 0
o DistancefromthePoleincreaseswith
Equation: , 0
o HyperbolicSpiral 1 :asymptotictotheline unitsfromthe axis
o Lituus 2 :asymptotictothe axis
Notcontainedwithinanycircle

GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
ExampleF.1:
Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheforms sin and cos .

Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueof .
If isaneveninteger,therosewillhave2 petals.
If isanoddinteger,itwillhave petals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan

argumentof2 ,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin 0, 2
2 0, .Youcouldplotmore
0 0
points,butthisintervalissufficient
/12 2 7/12 2
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
/6 3.464 2/3 3.464 soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
/4 4 3/4 4
/3 3.464 5 /6 3.464 Oncesymmetryis
5 /12 2 11 /12 2 established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
/2 0 0
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe Bluepointsonthegraph
twopetalsrightofthe axis. correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe Orangepointsonthe
othertwopetalswithout graphcorrespondto
calculatingmorepoints. orangevaluesinthetable.
ThefourRoseforms:

GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
ExampleF.2:
Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofform sin with .Theuseofthesinefunction

indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricaboutthe axis.The signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethe axis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:

Generally,youwanttolookat
valuesof in 0, 2 .However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
0 2
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
/6 3 7/6 1 dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
/3 3.732 4/3 0.268 functionandthecoefficientof .
/2 4 3/2 0
2 /3 3.732 5 /3 0.268
Oncesymmetryis
5 /6 3 11 /6 1 established,thesevalues
2 2 2 areeasilydetermined.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethe axisresults
Bluepointsonthegraph
from inQ1andQ2,
correspondtobluevalues
wherethesinefunctionis inthetable.
positive.
Similarly,theportionof Orangepointsonthe
thegraphbelowthexaxis graphcorrespondto
resultsfrom inQ3and orangevaluesinthetable.
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
ThefourCardioidforms:

ConvertingBetweenPolarandRectangularFormsofEquations
RectangulartoPolar
ToconvertanequationfromRectangularFormtoPolarForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute cos for
sin Substitute sin for
Substitute for
ExampleF.3:Convert8 3 10 0toapolarequationoftheform .
StartingEquation: 8 3 10 0
Substitute cos and sin : 8 cos 3 sin 10 0
Factorout : 8 cos 3 sin 10
Divideby 8 cos 3 sin :

PolartoRectangular
ToconvertanequationfromPolarFormtoRectangularForm,usethefollowingequivalences:
cos Substitute for cos
sin Substitute for sin
Substitute for
ExampleF.4:Convertr = 8 cos + 9 sin toarectangularequation.

StartingEquation: r = 8 cos + 9 sin
Substitutecos , sin : 8 9
Multiplyby : 8 9
Substitute : 8 9
Subtract8 9 : 8 9 0
Completethesquare: 8 16 9 16
Simplifytostandardformforacircle:

ParametricEquations
Onewaytodefineacurveisbymaking and (or and )functionsofathirdvariable,often (for

time).ThethirdvariableiscalledtheParameter,andfunctionsdefinedinthismanneraresaidtobe
inParametricForm.TheequationsthatdefinethedesiredfunctionarecalledParametricEquations.
InParametricEquations,theparameteristheindependentvariable.Eachoftheothertwo(ormore)
variablesisdependentonthevalueoftheparameter.Astheparameterchanges,theothervariables
change,generatingthepointsofthefunction.
ExampleF.5:Arelativelysimpleexampleisacircle,whichwecandefineasfollows:
Circle: cos sin
Asthevariable progressesfrom0to2 ,acircleofradius isborn.
Thecircleintheillustrationatrightcanbedefinedinseveralways:
Cartesianform: 16
Polarform: 4
Parametricform: 4 cos 4 sin

FamiliarCurves
Manycurveswithwhichthestudentmaybefamiliarhaveparametricforms.Amongthosearethe
following:
Curve CartesianForm PolarForm ParametricForm
Parabolawithhorizontal 2

directrix 1 sin
Ellipsewithhorizontal cos
1 1 cos
majoraxis sin
0 1
Hyperbolawithhorizontal sec
1 1 cos
transverseaxis tan
1
Ascanbeseenfromthischart,sometimestheparametricformofafunctionisitssimplest.Infact,
parametricequationsoftenallowustographcurvesthatwouldbeverydifficulttographineither
PolarformorCartesianform.Someoftheseareillustratedonthenextpage.

SomeFunctionsDefinedbyParametricEquations
(StarWarsfans:arethesetheoidsyouarelookingfor?)
Thegraphsbelowareexamplesoffunctionsdefinedbyparametricequations.Theequationsanda
briefdescriptionofthecurveareprovidedforeachfunction.
Deltoid Nephroid Astroid

Parametricequations: Parametricequations: Parametricequations:
2 cos cos 2 3 cos cos 3 cos
2 sin sin 2 3 sin sin 3 sin
Thedeltoidisthepathofa Thenephroidisthepathofa Theastroidisthepathofa
pointonthecircumference
pointonthecircumference pointonthecircumference
ofacircleasitmakesthree ofacircleasitmakestwo ofacircleasitmakesfour

completerevolutionsonthe completerevolutionsonthe completerevolutionsonthe
insideofalargercircle.
outsideofalargercircle. insideofalargercircle.
Cycloid
Parametricequations: Thecycloidisthepathofapointonthecircumferenceofacircleasthe
sin circlerollsalongaflatsurface(think:thepathofapointontheoutside
ofabicycletireasyourideonthesidewalk).Thecycloidisbotha
1 cos
brachistochroneandatautochrone(looktheseupifyouareinterested).

Appendix G
Interesting Series and Summation Formulas
1 1
1 2
2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2
6 6
1 1
1 2
2 2
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1
! 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ln ln
2 2 3
1 ln 1
ln 1
2 3 4
1 1
1 cos 1 cos
2 ! 2! 4! 6!
1 sin sin
2 1 ! 3! 5! 7!
1 tan tan
2 1 3 5 7
1 1

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
149 Abel'sConvergenceTest(Series)
151 AbsoluteConvergenceofaSeries
30 AbsoluteExtremaseealsoIntegration
47,126 Acceleration
33 AlauriaDiagram
140 AnalyticContinuation
52 Antiderivatives
98,101 ArcLength
92 AreabyIntegration
103,108 AreaCrossSectionMethodVolumeofaSolid
94 AreainPolarForm
96 AreaofaLimacon
102 AreaofaSurfaceofRevolution
220 Astroid
171 AultTable
143 BernoulliNumbers
214 Cardioid
164 CauchyRiemannEquations
49 CenterofCurvature
18 ChainRule
213 Circle(PolarForm)
145 ComparisonTestforSeriesConvergence
31 Concavity
151 ConditionalConvergenceofaSeries
101 ConversionamongRectangular,Polar,ParametricForms
132 ConvergenceTestsSequences
145 ConvergenceTestsSeries
10 ContinuityExamples
8 ContinuityRules
70 CosineIntegralCi(x)
123 CrossProduct

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
129 Curl
49 Curvature
36 CurveSketching
220 Cycloid
103,106 CylindricalShellMethodsVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
84 DefiniteIntegration
79 DefiniteIntegrals
84 FundamentalTheoremofCalculus
85 PropertiesofDefiniteIntegrals
79 RiemannSums
84 RulesofDefiniteIntegration
86 SolvingDefiniteIntegralswithDirectedLineSegments
89 SpecialTechniques
87 u Substitution
170 DefinitionsAlphabetically
127 DelOperator
220 Deltoid
164 DerivativeofetoaComplexPower(ez)
168 Derivativeof:(x+y)3=x3+y3
DerivativesseeDifferentiation
165 DerivativesofaCircle
166 DerivativesofaEllipse
167 DerivativesofaHyperbola
36 DIACIDE(curvesketching)
111 DifferentialEquations
48 Differentials
Differentiation
17 BasicRules
18 ExponentialandTrigonometricFunctions
21 GeneralizedProductRule
23 InverseFunctionRule
23 InverseFunctionDiagram
195 ListofKeyDerivatives

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
101 ParametricDerivatives
35 WhatDoestheGraphoff '(x) TellUsaboutf(x) ?
148 DirichletsConvergenceTest(Series)
9 Discontinuities
103,104 DiskMethodVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
46,126 Displacement
46 Distance
128 Divergence
122 DotProduct
159 e
9 EssentialDiscontinuity
160 Euler'sFormula
116 Euler'sMethods(DifferentialEquations)
18,53 ExponentialFunctions
70 ExponentialIntegralEi(x)
29 Exterema
32 ExteremaofPolynomials
29 FirstDerivativeTest
8 Functions
221 FunctionsandTheirDerivatives(Summary)
84 FundamentalTheoremsofCalculus
67 GammaFunction
43 GeneralSpecificMethod(forRelatedRatesProblems)
206 GeometryFormulas(AreaandVolume)
127 Gradient
216 GraphingPolarEquations
HyperbolicFunctions
71 Definitions
76 Derivatives
75 GraphsofHyperbolicFunctionsandTheirInverses
72 Identities
77 Integrals

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
74 InverseHyperbolicFunctions
73 RelationshiptoTrigonometricFunctions
215 HyperbolicSpiral
i
163 i
109 ImproperIntegrals
145 IntegralTestforSeriesConvergence
77 Integrals
52 IndefiniteIntegration
9 InfiniteDiscontinuity
31 InflectionPoints
32 InflectionPointsofPolynomials
Integration
53 ExponentialFunctions
52 IndefiniteIntegration(Antiderivatives)
197 ListofKeyIntegrals
53 LogarithmicFunctions
61 PartialFractions
64 Parts
68 PartsTabularMethod
58 SelectingtheRightFunctionforanIntergral
53 TrigonometricFunctions
69 TrigonometricSubstitutions
59 u Substitution
152 IntervalofConvergence
23 InverseFunctionDiagram(forderivatives)
56 AboutInverseTrigFunctions
19 Derivatives
20 DevelopmentofDerivatives
56,57 Integrals

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
9 JumpDiscontinuity
33 KeyPointsonf(x),f'(x)andf''(x)
126 Kinematics(ParticleMotion)Vectors
13 L'Hospital'sRule
158 LagrangeRemainderofaTaylorSeries
130 Laplacian
80 LeftEndpointMethod(RiemannSum)
215 LemniscateofBernoulli
64 LIATE
96,214 Limacon
12 LimitFindingTechniques
11 LimitRules
11 Limits
16 Limits:FailuretoExist
215 Lituus
18,53 LogarithmicFunctions
70 LogarithmicIntegralli(x)
162 LogarithmsofComplexNumbers
162 LogarithmsofNegativeRealNumbers
115 LogisticFunction
156 MaclaurinSeries
29 MaximaandMinima
42 MeanValueTheorem
79 MeshSize(ofaRiemannSum)
80 MidpointMethod(RiemannSum)
220 Nephroid
50 Newton'sMethod
169 NormalDistributionPDFInflectionPoints
117 OrderofaNumericalMethod(DifferentialEquations)
16 OscillatingBehaviorofLimits

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
49 OsculatingCircle
139 p Series
101 ParametricFormsSummary
61 PartialFractions
46 ParticleMotion
101 PolarFormsSummary
211 PolarGraphs
46,126 PositionFunction
18 PowerRule(differentiation)
135 PowerSeries
17,21 ProductRule(differentiation)
18 QuotientRule(differentiation)
152 RadiusofConvergence
49 RadiusofCurvature
146 RatioTestforSeriesConvergence
101 RectangularForms
43 RelatedRates
29 RelativeExtrema
9 RemovableDiscontinuity
102,103 RevolutionVolume,SurfaceArea
79 RiemannSums
139 RiemannZetaFunction(p Series)
80 RightEndpointMethod(RiemannSum)
123 RightHandRule
42 Rolle'sTheorem
147 RootTestforSeriesConvergence
213 Rose
118 RungeKuttaMethod(DifferentialEquations)
127 ScalarField
30 SecondDerivativeTest
131 Sequences
132 AbsoluteValueTheorem

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
132 BoundedMonotonicSequenceTheorem
132 BoundedSequence
131 ExplicitSequence
133 LimitofaSequence
132 MonotonicSequence
131 RecursiveSequence
132 SqueezeTheorem
131 TypesofSequences
134,221 Series
149 Abel'sConvergenceTest
151 AbsoluteConvergence
145 ComparisonTest
151 ConditionalConvergence
145 ConvergenceTests
134 Definition
148 DirichletsConvergenceTest
138 EstimatingtheValueofSerieswithPositiveTerms
137 GeometricSeries
145 IntegralTest
135 KeyProperties
156 MaclaurinSeries
135 n thTermConvergenceTheorems
139 p Series
134 PartialSums
135 PowerSeries
146 RatioTest
147 RootTest
155 SummaryofConvergence/DivergenceTests
156 TaylorSeries
136 TelescopingSeries
151 TermRearrangement
41 ShapeofaCurve
103,106 ShellMethodsVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
70 SineIntegralSi(x)

Calculus Handbook
Index
Page Subject
114 SlopeFields
103 SolidsofRevolution
47,101,126 Speed
215 Spiral
102 SurfaceofRevolution
68 TabularMethodofIntegrationbyParts
156 TaylorSeries
190 TheoremsSummary
80 TrapezoidMethod(RiemannSum)
19,53 TrigonometricFunctions
208 TrigonometryFormulas
125 TripleProductsofVectors
59,87 u Substitution
16 UnboundedBehaviorofLimits
127 VectorField
120 Vectors
120 Components
123 CrossProduct
129 Curl
128 Divergence
122 DotProduct
127 Gradient
130 Laplacian
121 Properties
120 SpecialUnitVectors
125 TripleProducts
46,126 Velocity
103 VolumesofSolids
103,104 WasherMethodVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
139 ZetaFunction

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iscontinuousif exists. Exponents

iscontinuousif exists. Roots

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Note:aremovablediscontinuityexistsat whetherornot exists.

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Limitsmayexistapproaching fromeithertheleft lim

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Techniques for Finding Limits

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lim 0 and lim 0 lim and lim

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Indeterminate Forms of Limits

Example 1.8: Form

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Example 1.9: Form

Then, since ln 0, we get

Example 1.10: Form

Then, since ln 0, we get

Example 1.11: Form

let: lim 1 sin 4

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When Limits Fail to Exist

Note:inthiscase,wemaywrite: lim ln| |

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Basic Rules of Differentiation

Note:Intheserules, isaconstant,and and arefunctionsdifferentiablein .

Basic Derivative Rules

Product Rule (two terms)

Product Rule (three terms)

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Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 0, 1

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Derivatives of Special Functions

Trigonometric Functions (repeated from prior page)

sin cos sin cos

cos sin cos sin

tan sec tan sec

cot csc cot csc

sec sec tan sec sec tan

csc csc cot csc csc cot

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Development of Inverse Trig Derivatives

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Generalized Product Rule

Product Rule (four terms)

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Generalized Product Rule

Generalized Product Rule (n terms) 1. Takethederivativeofeach

Original Derivative of Original Remaining Functions

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Inverse Function Rule

If and areinversefunctionsand 0,then

Example2.3:Let 3.Findtheslopeof atthepoint 7, 2 .

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