COAL is one of the most useful fossil fuels.

It has many applications such as producing heat for households, firing industrial
generators, manufacturing cast iron, etc. It can also be produced in the industry to obtain products like coke, tar and coal gas.
These by-products are beneficial to us too. Coke: Coke is a high-carbon product obtained by the destructive distillation of coal.
The amount of carbon content in coke is so high that it is said to be an almost-pure form of carbon. Coke is grayish-black in colour
and is a hard, porous solid. Uses:
The most common use of coke is as a fuel for stoves, furnaces and blacksmithing. It is sometimes preferred over coal because
burning coke produces very little smoke.
It is also used to produce iron in a blast furnace.
Coke is used to manufacture steel and many other materials.
Coal tar: It is obtained as a byproduct in the process of making coke. Though its colour is the same as coke, tar is a highly viscous
liquid. It also has an extremely unpleasant smell. Uses:
Coal tar is widely used to manufacture paints, perfumes, synthetic dyes, photographic material, drugs and explosives.
It can be utilized to make insecticides and pesticides. Naphthalene balls that are commonly used to keep moths away are made
from tar.
Coal tar is an ingredient of anti-dandruff and lice-repelling shampoos, soaps and ointments.
Coal gas: This is also obtained as a byproduct while producing coke, and again, just like tar, its smell is not very pleasant. It is a
highly flammable gas as the main component of it is methane. Thus, if not regulated carefully, it can form mixture with air
resulting in explosions. Uses:
It is mainly used as a fuel in industries situated near coal processing plants.
Earlier, it was used as a source of light. In the year 1820, it was used in London for the first time as street lighting.
Now, it is more commonly used to provide heat for domestic and industrial purposes.
Refining of petroleum
The crude petroleum oil is a complex mixture of solid,liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons.
So before petroleum can be used for specific purpose,it has to be refined or purified.
The process of separating crude petroleum oil into more useful fractions is called refining.
The refining of petroleum into different fractions is based on the fact that the different fractions of petroleum have different
boiling point.
The refining of petroleum is carried out in an oil refinery.
The crude petroleum oil extracted from oil wells is taken to the oil refinery through pipes.In the oil refinery,crude petroleum is oil
is refined into different useful fractions.
The separation of petroleum into different fractions is done by fractional distillation.The various useful fractions obtained by the
refining of petroleum are:Petroleum gas,petrol,kerosene,diesel,lubricating oil,paraffin wax,Bitumen.
Various fraction of petroleum and their uses
1)Petroleum gas:It is used as a fuel in homes and industry.It is used as a fuel as such or in the form of Liquified petroleum
gas(LPG)
2)Petrol:It is used a fuel in light motor vehicles.It is also used as a solvent for dry cleaning.
3)Kerosene:It is used as a fuel in wick stoves and pressure stoves to cook food.It is used in lanterns for lightning purpose.
4)Diesel:It is used as a fuel in heavy motor vehicles.It is also used to run pump sets for irrigation in agriculture and in electric
generators.
5)Lubricating oil:It is used for lubrication in machines and engines.
6)Paraffin Wax:It is used for making candles,vaseline,ointments,wax paper and grease.
7)Bitumen:It is used for road surfacing.It is also used for water-proofing the roofs of building.It is used in making black paints.
The most common fuel used in homes is liquified petroleum gas(LPG).The petroleum gas which has been liquified under pressure is
called liquified petroleum gas.It consist mainly ofbutane.Thus the domestic gas cylinders like Indane contain mainly butane.
The gas used for domestic cooking is called liquified petroleum gas because it is obtained from petroleum and it is liquified by
compression before filling into the gas cylinders.When we turn on the knob of the gas cylinder,the pressure is released,due to
which the highly volatile LPG is converted into gas.Gas goes into the burner of LPG stove.When a lighted matchstick is applied to
the burner,the gas burns with a blue flame producing a lot of heat.
Liquified petroleum gas is a good fuel because:
1)LPG burns easily.
2)It has high calorific value.Due to this,a given amount of LPG produces a lot of heat.
3)It burns with smokeless flame and hence do not cause air pollution.
4)It does not produce any poisonous gas.
5)It does not leave behind any solid residue on burning.
Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation differs from distillation only in that it separates a mixture into a number of different parts,
called fractions. A tall column is fitted above the mixture, with several condensers coming off at different heights. The column is
hot at the bottom and cool at the top. Substances with high boiling points condense at the bottom and substances with low boiling
points condense at the top. Like distillation, fractional distillation works because the different substances in the mixture have
different boiling points.
Fractional distillation of crude oil
Because they have different boiling points, the substances in crude oil can be separated using fractional distillation. The crude oil
is evaporated and its vapours allowed to condense at different temperatures in the fractionating column. Each fraction contains
hydrocarbon molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms.
Oil fractions
The diagram below summarises the main fractions from crude oil and their uses, and the trends in properties. Note that the gases
condense at the top of the column, the liquids in the middle and the solids stay at the bottom.

Fractional Distillation separates crude oil into fractions containing Alkanes of similar boiling points.
This is because molecules of a similar length have similar strength intermolecular forces, and the stronger the intermolecular
forces the higher the temperature needed to make them boil.
So, the shortest molecules have the lowest boiling points.
Viscosity is a word used to describe how well a liquid flows.
Viscous liquids are thick and sticky.
So the shorter molecules with weaker intermolecular forces that don't stick together well should flow easily.
Longer molecules with stronger intermolecular forces that do stick together well should flow poorly - they are viscous.

Short Molecules Long Molecules

Weak Intermolecular forces Strong Intermolecular forces

Low Boiling Point High Boiling Point

Low Viscosity (flow well) High Viscosity (flow poorly)
Molecules exiting the top are Refinery Gases (LPG) - very short, and easy to boil. These are mostly used for cooking and heating.
The next fraction is Gasoline (Petrol) - these molecules are a little longer but still evaporate easily, flow well and have little colour.
Naphtha is sometimes extracted between the Gasoline fraction and the Kerosene (Paraffin) fraction - it's used to make new
substances and is not usually used as a fuel.
Kerosene is thicker, darker and harder to light but contains more energy. It is jet-fuel.
Diesel is thicker, darker and even harder to light but the extra energy makes it a good fuel for trains and trucks.
Fuel Oil is so thick that it's only useful for burning in the huge engines of ships or for heating purposes since it contains so much
energy.
Bitumen is too thick to burn as a fuel, but it is good for tarring roads.

This means crude oil can be separated by physical methods, in this case by fractional distillation, because they have different
boiling and condensation points.
The liquids must also be completely soluble in each other, that is they must all be miscible liquids.
When the temperature is high enough, the kinetic energy of a particular hydrocarbon molecule will be sufficient for it to escape
the intermolecular forces in the liquid and become a gas.
The intermolecular forces are much weaker than the strong carbon - carbon bonds in the hydrocarbon molecule, so it vaporises
without decomposes.
At the bottom of the fractionating column the crude oil is heated to vapourise it (evaporated or boiled) and the vapour passed into
the fractionating column a large construction of many levels and pipes, see the 'simple' diagram below!
A fractionating column acts in the same way as a fractional distillation apparatus in the school/college laboratory but on an
industrial scale!
In an oil refinery the fractionating columns are very tall with huge surface area to give the best chance of separating the dozens
of hydrocarbons in the crude oil (see diagram on the left.
This is a continuous process (not a batch process). The fractionating column works continuously with heatedvapourised crude oil
piped in at the bottom and the various fractions condensed and constantly tapped off from various levels, each with a different
condensation temperature range.
Up the fractioning column the temperature gradually decreases (temperature gradient), so the highest boiling (least volatile)
molecules tend to be at the bottom and the lowest boiling (most volatile) hydrocarbons go to the top. The rest of the hydrocarbon
molecules then condense out in narrow temperature range i.e. the different fractions condense out in a gradual way from top to
bottom depending on their boiling point.
In other words the most volatile fraction, i.e. the molecules with the lowest boiling points (shortest hydrocarbon molecules), boil or
evaporate off first and go higher up the column and condense out at the higher levels in the fractionating column at the lowest
temperature.
The higher the boiling point (the higher the condensation point) the lower down the column the hydrocarbon condenses.
So all of the hydrocarbon molecules separate out according to their boiling/condensation point so that the highest boiling fraction,
i.e. the less volatile molecules with higher boiling points (longest hydrocarbon molecules), tend to condense more easily lower down
the column, albeit at the higher temperatures.
The process is perhaps more correctly called fractional condensation but it is still referred to as fractional distillation.
The bigger the molecule, the greater the intermolecular attractive forces between the molecules, so the higher the boiling point or
condensation point(see physical property trends).
This is an important rule to know since the intermolecular forces (intermolecular bonding) affect the physical properties including
melting point and viscosity too, and this has a bearing on how each fraction is used, see below.
Note: Covalent chemical bonds like CC or CH are not broken in the process, only the intermolecular force of attraction is
weakened to allow the initial evaporation or boiling and this.
The fractions are then further processed to produce fuels and chemical feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
These include fuels such as liquified petroleum gas, petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil which are all non-renewable fossil
fuels, as is methane from natural gas.
From the chemical feedstock and petrochemical industry we produce many useful materials on which our modern life depends e.g.
solvents, lubricants, medicines, polymers, detergents etc.
The fractions are listed below with the approximate boiling point ranges and approximate number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

USES of the
fraction
Many are useful
names of
fuels - alkane
fractions at the Number of C
The approximate hydrocarbons, but
THE FRACTIONAL different atoms in the
boiling range in oC of they are non-
DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL condensation hydrocarbon
the fraction renewable fossil
levels (% in crude molecule fraction
fuels - specific use
oil)
depends on physical
properties (see
later)

methane
CH4 (domestic
heating),
ethane
another gaseous
C 1 to 4 fuel, C34 easily
A simplified diagram of a fractionating Fuel Gas, LPG, mainly propane and liquefied petroleum
column used in the fractional refinery gas butane gases which < 25oC gas, portable energy
distillation of crude oil (12%) can be compressed source e.g. bottled
or liquified gas for heating and
cooking (butane),
higher pressure
cylinders (propane),
feedstock for other
organic chemicals

easily vaporised,
highly flammable,
Gasoline petrol
C 5 to 7 25 to 75oC easily ignited, car
(?%)
fuel petrol
molecules

no good as a fuel, but

valuable raw material
source of organic
Naphtha chemicals to make
C 6 to 10 75 to 190oC
(2040%) other
things, cracked to
make more petrol
and alkenes

less volatile, less

The decrease and increase trends for flammable than
the hydrocarbon molecules are given on Paraffin, kerosene petrol, domestic
C 10 to 16 190 to 250oC
the left of fractionating column (1015%) central heating fuel,
(paraffin) aircraft
jet fuel (kerosene)
 less volatile than
petrol, diesel fuel
for some cars and
larger vehicle like
Diesel oil, gas oil haulage trucks,
C 14 to 20 250 to 350oC
(1520%) trains, central
heating fuel,
also cracked to make
more petrol and
alkenes

not so easily
evaporated, not as
flammable, safe to
store, liquid fuel oil
Heavy fuel oil,
for power stations
heating oil,
C >20 to ~30 >350oC and ships, quite
lubricating oil,
viscous (sticky) and
greases
can also be used for
lubricating oils
(lubricants, 'mineral
oils') and greases.

Low melting solids

used as candle wax,
clear waxes and
polishes (can be
dyed) AND the
biggest molecules
make
high boiling liquids or
RESIDUE fuel oil, bitumen/asphalt
low melting solids,
lubricating oils, low melting solid
C >30, maybe up to that boil over 350oC
waxes used on roads as it
several hundred bitumen components
AND bitumen forms a thick, black,
boil over a 500oC -
(4050%) tough and resistant
700oC range
adhesive surface on
cooling, used as a
roofing
waterproofing
material (it sticks
rock chips on roofs
or road surfaces)

In general, the fate of the wax molecules is this: the heat of the candle flame first melts the wax, and it rises up the candle wick
by capillary action. Farther up the wick, the greater heat vaporizes the wax molecules, which move from the wick into the
surrounding space. The heat of the flame and reactive molecules (free radicals) in the flame break apart the wax molecules, in
particular stripping hydrogen atoms from the carbon-chain backbone. Some of the carbon chains fragment into gaseous carbon
(C2) and into small (typically two-carbon atom containing) molecules and molecular fragments. The hydrogen atoms stripped from
the wax molecules eventually combine with oxygen atoms from the air to form water molecules. The carbon atoms eventually
combine with oxygen to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, but first many of them combine to form very large (as far as
molecules are concerned) clumps of carbon-rich solid material, called soot. Some of this soot burns to make carbon dioxide in the
candle flame, and sometimes some of it escapes the flame.
* Several zones of a candle flame can be seen with the eye. At the bottom is a region that gives off blue light. This light is
actually molecular emission from gaseous carbon, C2. Further up the flame is a region that is substantially opaque and which gives
off yellow light. This is known as the "incandescent region", and is where hot soot particles glow, giving off light like the filament
of a light bulb. The inside part of the flame, near the wick, is oxygen-deficient, and most of the reactions that occur are heat-
induced fragmentations and rearrangements. In the outer regions, where oxygen can enter from the surrounding air, the
fragments combine with oxygen, eventually forming water and carbon dioxide.
Many factors that affect the BURNING OF A CANDLE. Most of them are of the type that are difficult to vary, such as the air
pressure, concentration of oxygen, thermal conductivity of air, and the buoyancy of the hot reaction products. One factor that is
easy to vary, however, is wind. A good breeze, or even a person's breath, can blow the hot flame gases away from the source (the
candle and wick), interrupting the process and extinguishing the flame.
Zone 1 (Non-Luminous Zone) - Fuel on the wick evaporates. There is insufficient oxygen for fuel to burn. Temperature is about
600C near the wick.
Zone 2 (Blue Zone) - There is a surplus of oxygen and the flame burns clean and blue. Temperature is around 800C. In a candle
the heat from this zone melts nearby wax to allow for wicking.
Zone 3 (Dark Zone) - Pyrolysis (cracking) of the fuel begins due to the shortage of oxygen creating minute carbon particles. The
temperature is about 1,000C.
Zone 4 (Luminous Zone) - This area is bright yellow. There is still insufficient oxygen for complete burning so pyrolysis continues
and larger carbon particles are produced. The temperature is around 1,200C.
Zone 5 (Veil) - There is oxygen surplus in this non-luminous zone and carbon particles burn faster and more completely at the
boundary between Zone 4 and Zone 5. The temperature is around 1,400C. If a draft lowers the temperature below 1,000C, soot
particles cease burning and end up on your pot or in your lungs.
GLANDS IN HUMAN BODY:
Based on the way of secretion: Glands are two types based on secretion as
1. Exocrine glands: They secrete into a location or region of the body through a duct and their secretions are
called enzymes mostly while some are non enzymes.
Types of exocrine glands and their secretions include
Salivary gland: In the buccal cavity secrete saliva. This saliva has many functions.
Pancreas: Secretes enzyme amylase, trypsin and lipase. These enzymes digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats respectively.
Sperm: Sperms produce Hyaluronidase an enzyme which helps it swim in the uterine tissue to reach ova.
sweat glands: secrete sweat which acts to regulate body temperature and also excretion.
Sebaceous gland: secrete sebum.
Lachrymal glands: In eye secrete water to moisten the eye.
2. Endocrine glands: Secrete into blood flowing through them, so as to let the secretion function at distant parts of the body from
the gland. They are ductless glands. Their secretions are called as hormones.
Based on their location there are broadly two types of endocrine glands viz.
a) Pituitary Gland (of hypothalamus): This is a gland located below the hypothalamus in the brain.
For more about anatomy refer to pituitary structure.
The gland is differentiated as anterior and posterior gland and has definite secretions for each type i.e.
i) Anterior pituitary gland: Located in the front part of pituitary
Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in mothers.
Somatotrophin: A hormone which regulates growth of the body and tissues.
leutinising hormone: Stimulates ovulation (egg formation) in females and testosterone production in males.
Thyroid stimulating hormone: Stimulates thyroid gland to produce T3 & T4 hormones.
Adreno corticotrophic hormone: Stimulates secretion of glucocoticoids and mineralo corticoid hormones.
Follicle stimulating hormone signals formation of estrogen and progesterone by female reproductive system.
ii. Posterior pituitary Present behind the front part of pituitary as shown in diagram above.
vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone) It controls water loss from kidneys. So minimises urine formation and saves water in the body.
Oxytocin It signals uterus for delivery in pregnant women after period of gestation. It also stimulates milk secretion in mother.
b) Thyroid gland: Produces thyroid hormones T3 & T4.

credit: Adam-endocrinesurgery.ucla.edu
c) Parathyroid gland: Produces parathormone.
Both thyroid and parathyroid glands are examples for types of glands in the neck.
d) Adrenal gland: located on the two kidneys. It has outer cortex and inner medulla regions.

credit;estrellamountain.edu
Cortex: secretes gluco-corticoids and mineralo-corticoids.
Medulla: secretes nor-adrenalin. This is one of the neurotransmitters and is called as flight or fight hormone.
e) Pancreas: Pancreatic gland has both exocrine and endocrine functions. It secretes multiple hormones which control body glucose
metabolism. Its endocrine function release secretions like insulin, glucagon, somatostatin.
f) Kidneys: produce Renin angiotensin (controls blood pressure).
g) Pineal gland: Located inside the brain and called as body natural clock. One ca see jet-lag effects due to its secretions.
Melatonin (sleep hormone).
Sex hormones
h) Testes: Secrete Testosterone. Produced only in males to large extent and to very small extent in women. Signals male
characters like beard, muscles etc.
i) ovaries: Produce Estrogen, progesterone. Secreted only in women and regulate reproduction cycle.

THE GLANDS AND THE HORMONES THEY PRODUCE

The following section explains the location of each gland and which hormones they produce. It also explains
what each hormone does and what can go wrong with it. If too much of a hormone is produced it is known
as hypersecretion; too little is known as hyposecretion.
Pituitary Gland
Location
Situated at the base of the brain, sitting in a cup-shaped depression of the skull called the sella turcica. It is
closely connected to the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland has 2 hormone-secreting lobes, the anterior and
posterior.

Anterior Lobe Hormones

Hormone: Human growth hormone (HGH)

Function: It regulates height and growth. Along with genes it is the main controller of final height of a person.
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion causes gigantism (in children) or acromegaly (in adults). Hyposecretion causes
dwarfism.

Hormone: Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Function: Stimulates production of the brown pigment melanin in the skin.

Hormone: Thyrotrophin (TSH)

Function: Controls the thyroid gland.
Malfunctions: Go to thyroid gland.

Hormone: Adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH)

Function: Controls the adrenal cortex.
Malfunction: Go to adrenal cortex.

Hormone: Prolactin or lactogenic hormone (LTH)

Function: Production of milk during lactation.

Hormone: Gonadotrophins (gonad/sex organ hormones)

Function: Controls sexual development and organs (ovaries and testes)

Hormone: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Function: Stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen and to ovulate (release an egg for fertilization).

Hormone: Luteinizing hormone (LH), also known as lutropin or lutrophin

Function: Stimulates ovaries to produce the corpus luteum (for ovulation) from ruptured follicle.

Hormone: Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)/luteinizing hormone in men

Function: Stimulates sperm production and secretion of testosterone.
Malfunctions (of gonadotrophin): Polycystic ovarian syndrome, endometriosis and uterine fibroids.

Posterior Lobe Hormones

Hormone: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)

Function: Regulates amount of water absorbed in the kidneys.
Malfunctions: Hyposecretion causes diabetes insipidus and hypersecretion: edema (swelling).

Hormone: Oxytocin (the love hormone)

Function: Studies show that raised levels of oxytocin help human bonding and trust (hence the
term love hormone). It simulates the secretion of breastmilk for feeding and tells the muscles of uterus to
contract for childbirth.

Thyroid Gland
Location: The thyroid gland is shaped like a bow-tie and is positioned at the front of the neck, just below the
larynx (voice box).

Hormones: Thyroxin, and triiodothyronine (produced in response to TSH from anterior lobe of Pituitary
Gland).
Functions: Stimulate tissue metabolism and maintains BMR (basic metabolic rate).
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion known as Graves disease or thyrotoxicosis; hyperthyroidism (increase in
metabolic rate, heart rate, anxiety, intolerance of heat plus raised temperature, frequent bowel action).
Hyposecretion: causes the body systems to slow below normal speed (hypothyroidism), cretinism (at birth) or
myxedema (disorder caused later in life by untreated cretinism), goiters (enlarged thyroid).

Hormone: Calcitonin
Function: Maintains calcium and phosphorus balance in the body.
Malfunction: Hypersecretion causes lowering of blood calcium level by preventing loss of calcium from bone. Is
this good or bad? Scientists don't really know. To date they can find no adverse reaction when levels are high
or low.

Parathyroid Glands
Location: There are 4, two either side behind the thyroid gland.
Hormone: Parathormone
Functions: Maintains calcium level in blood plasma. Stimulates calcium reabsorption by the kidneys and
activates Vitamin D.
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion causes hyperparathyroidism (symptoms include depression, bone pain, feeling
tired and kidney stones). It also softens the bones leading to spontaneous bone fractures. Hyposecretion
causes hypoparathyroidism: abnormally low blood calcium levels; tetany (spasms in hands and feet caused by
over-contraction in muscles) and convulsions (from over-stimulated nerves).

Adrenal Glands
Location: There is one sitting on top of each kidney. Each gland is split into 2 parts: the adrenal cortex and
the adrenal medulla.

Adrenal Cortex

Hormones: Mineralocorticoids - aldosterone (steroids)

Function: Regulates salts in body, especially sodium chloride and potassium.
Malfunctions: Hypersecretion causes kidney failure, high blood pressure, too much potassium in blood causing
abnormal heart beat (heart arrhythmia). Hyposecretion can cause Addison's disease, muscular atrophy and
weakness; and body systems slow down.

Hormones: Glucocorticoids (steroids) (cortisol and cortisone)

Functions: Produced in response to ACTH (from pituitary gland). It metabolizes carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.
Malfunctions: Stunted growth. Hypersecretion causes Cushing's syndrome, hypertension, moon-shaped face,
muscular atrophy and diabetes.

Hormones: Female sex hormones (steroids): estrogen and progesterone (men have small levels). Male sex
hormones: testosterone (small amounts also secreted in the ovaries in women).
Functions: Help the body sexually develop and mature; ovulation; hair growth in pubic and under arm areas.
Malfunctions: Lots of problems! Including hirsutism, amenorrhea (hypersecretion of testosterone in women);
muscle atrophy and breast growth (hypersecretion of estrogen in men). Hyposecretion can cause Addison's
disease.

Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla functions to support the sympathetic nervous system.
Hormones: Adrenaline and noradrenaline
Function: Usually called the stress hormones, they prepare the body for 'fight or flight' by speeding up heart
rate, slowing digestive system and urinary system, increasing blood pressure and blood sugar level. Adrenaline
is a powerful vasoconstrictor - that means it constricts blood vessels in order to increase blood pressure.

Pancreas
Specifically in the islets of Langerhans, specialized cells that form part of the pancreas.
Location: Slightly below and behind the stomach.
Hormones: Insulin and glucagon
Function: Tells the cells to open and accept glucose in, thus regulating blood sugar levels.
Malfunctions: Hyposecretion: diabetes (high blood sugar level and high urine production); symptoms of
diabetes include fatigue; weight loss; coma. Hypersecretion can lead to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar level)
including symptoms of hunger and sweating; in serious cases may lead to coma.
Ovaries
Location: There are 2 ovaries, one on each side of the womb (uterus).
Hormones: Estrogen and progesterone (female sex hormones, although male testes also produce small
amounts)
Functions: Responsible for female sexual characteristics - breast growth, widening of hips, pubic and
underarm hair.
Malfunctions: Cause unknown. In women can lead to polycystic ovarian syndrome (also known as Stein-
Leventhal syndrome). In men it can lead to muscle atrophy and breast growth.

Testes
Location: Inside the scrotum behind the penis.
Hormone: Testosterone (male sex hormone, although ovaries produce small amounts in women).
Functions: Responsible for male sexual characteristics thus sperm production, changes at puberty voice
breaking, pubic, facial and underarm hair growth, increased muscle mass.
Malfunctions: Low levels of testosterone is normal in women. Hypersecretion on the other hand can lead to
virilism, hirsutism and missed periods.

Pineal Gland
Location: Also called the pineal body. It is located at the center of the brain.
Hormone: Melatonin (derived from serotonin)
Function: Controls body rhythms (our internal clock, tells us when to sleep and wake up). It responds to
sunlight.
Malfunctions: Jet-lagged feeling; depression and seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

Thymus Gland
Location: In the upper part of the chest (thorax).
Hormone: Thymic Factor (TF), thymic humoral factor (THF), thymosine, thymopoietin
Functions: Part of immune system, appears to promote development of T Lymphocytes in the thymus gland.
These fight infections in the body.
Malfunction: Lowered resistance to infections and/or stress.

What Is The Role Of The Sex Hormones?

Puberty
Puberty is the age at which the internal reproductive organs of boys and girls reach maturity and become
functional. Although the effect on these organs cannot be seen, the effect on the rest of the body can, in
the form of secondary sexual characteristics. Puberty starts about the age of 9 or 10 for girls (between
12 and 14 for boys) and lasts roughly 5 years. See, the development of the female body to read more
about puberty.
Menstrual Cycle
One of the most important functions of hormones is to prepare the body for reproduction. In a male this
involves sperm production. In a female, it involves producing ova (eggs) and preparing the womb so that a
fertilized egg can grow into a baby. Whether an egg is fertilized or not, the process of preparing a
woman's body for having a baby happens every month. This is known as the menstrual cycle. The start of
menstruation (for the first time) is called the menarche. Every 28 days from puberty to menopause
(approximately 35 years) the body will prepare itself for a baby and if fertilisation does not take place
the body will undo its preparations before starting again a few weeks later.

There are 3 stages:

- First menstrual phase
- Second proliferative phase
- Third secretory phase.

First Menstrual Phase

This lasts for approximately 5 days. Progesterone produced by the corpus luteum enters the bloodstream
and the pituitary gland responds by producing less luteinizing hormone. But less luteinizing hormone means
the corpus luteum begins to break down, the progesterone level falls which stops the endometrium from
holding fluid and it starts to breakdown as well. Menstruation begins as a result of the breakdown of the
endometrium (the lining of the womb). Menstrual flow contains:
- Mucus
- Cells from the lining of the womb
- Blood from broken capillaries in the endometrium
- Unfertilized egg.

Second Proliferative Phase

This lasts for approximately 7 days. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced in the anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland and this stimulates the follicles of the ovaries to produce estrogen. These follicles are
small structures on the surface of the ovary. The estrogen then stimulates the endometrium, promoting
the growth of new blood vessels and mucus-producing cells (hence the name proliferative, meaning
reproduction and growth). At the end of this stage ovulation occurs: a mature Graafian follicle ruptures
releasing a single egg which then travels along the Fallopian tube to the uterus.

The Secretory Phase

This lasts for approximately 14 days. Luteinizing hormone (LH), secreted in the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland, stimulates the ruptured follicle lining to grow into corpus luteum - a temporary structure
formed by the effect of this hormone on the ruptured ovarian follicle. The corpus luteum produces
progesterone thus stimulating the endometrium to retain fluid and produce mucus, which makes it easier
for sperm to pass through the reproductive tract. After ovulation, the egg can only be fertilized during
the next 12 to 48 hours. If it is not fertilized, the first menstrual phase begins. As soon as progesterone
levels drop (a result of the collapse of the corpus luteum and endometrium), the pituitary gland starts the
production of FSH again, and thus stimulates the ovaries to produce another follicle and then another
ovum. The cycle begins again.