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A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is an structural element that transmits,
through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. For the purpose
of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression
members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to
support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a
structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative
element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are "engaged with", that is to say form part of a wall.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Structure
o 2.1 Nomenclature
o 2.3 Extensions
o 2.4 Foundations
3 Classical orders
4 Solomonic
5 Notable columns
6 See also
7 References
[edit]History
[hide]
As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material properties is increased in magnitude, this
ideal column passes through three states: stable equilibrium, neutral equilibrium, and instability. The straight column
under load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral force, applied between the two ends of the column, produces a small
lateral deflection which disappears and the column returns to its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the
column load is gradually increased, a condition is reached in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes so-called
neutral equilibrium, and a small lateral force will produce a deflection that does not disappear and the column remains
in this slightly bent form when the lateral force is removed. The load at which neutral equilibrium of a column is
reached is called the critical or buckling load. The state of instability is reached when a slight increase of the column
load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections leading to complete collapse.
For an axially loaded straight column with any end support conditions, the equation of static equilibrium, in the form of
a differential equation, can be solved for the deflected shape and critical load of the column. With hinged, fixed or free
end support conditions the deflected shape in neutral equilibrium of an initially straight column with uniform cross
section throughout its length always follows a partial or composite sinusoidal curve shape, and the critical load is
given by
where E = elastic modulus of the material, Imin = the minimal moment of inertia of the cross section, and L = actual
length of the column between its two end supports. A variant of (1) is given by
Table showing values of K for structural columns of various end conditions (adapted from Manual of Steel Construction, 8th edition,
where r = radius of gyration of [column]cross-section which is equal to the square root of (I/A), K = ratio of the longest
half sine wave to the actual column length, and KL = effective length (length of an equivalent hinged-hinged column).
From Equation (2) it can be noted that the buckling strength of a column is inversely proportional to the square of its
length.
When the critical stress, Fcr (Fcr =Pcr/A, where A = cross-sectional area of the column), is greater than the proportional
limit of the material, the column is experiencing inelastic buckling. Since at this stress the slope of the material's
stress-strain curve, Et (called the tangent modulus), is smaller than that below the proportional limit, the critical load at
inelastic buckling is reduced. More complex formulas and procedures apply for such cases, but in its simplest form
the critical buckling load formula is given as Equation (3),
A column with a cross section that lacks symmetry may suffer torsional buckling (sudden twisting) before, or in
combination with, lateral buckling. The presence of the twisting deformations renders both theoretical analyses and
practical designs rather complex.
Eccentricity of the load, or imperfections such as initial crookedness, decreases column strength. If the axial load on
the column is not concentric, that is, its line of action is not precisely coincident with the centroidal axis of the column,
the column is characterized as eccentrically loaded. The eccentricity of the load, or an initial curvature, subjects the
column to immediate bending. The increased stresses due to the combined axial-plus-flexural stresses result in a
reduced load-carrying ability.
Column elements are considered to be massive if minimal side dimension is equal or more than 400 mm. Massive
columns have ability to increase concrete strength during long time period (even during exploitation period). Taking
into account possible loads onto structure increase in future (and even threat of progressive failure - terroristic
attacks, explosions etc.) - massive columns have advantage comparing with not ones. A little economy today has no
sense as usual for future. Moreover relatively small sections are not technological for reinforced structures during
their production. Balance between economy, mass of structures and so called "sustainable" construction is
necessary.
[edit]Extensions
When a column is too long to be built or transported in one piece, it has to be extended or spliced at the construction
site. A reinforced concrete column is extended by having the steel reinforcing bars protrude a few inches or feet
above the top of the concrete, then placing the next level of reinforcing bars to overlap, and pouring the concrete of
the next level. A steel column is extended by welding or bolting splice plates on the flanges and webs or walls of the
columns to provide a few inches or feet of load transfer from the upper to the lower column section. A timber column
is usually extended by the use of a steel tube or wrapped-around sheet-metal plate bolted onto the two connecting
timber sections.
when e<12 then it is known as short column
[edit]Foundations
A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer the load without overstressing the
foundation material. Reinforced concrete and masonry columns are generally built directly on top of concrete
foundations. A steel column, when seated on a concrete foundation, must have a base plate to spread the load over
a larger area and thereby reduce the bearing pressure. The base plate is a thick rectangular steel plate usually
welded to the bottom end of the column.
[edit]Classical orders
Main article: Classical order
The Roman author Vitruvius, relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the
ancient Greeks believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood in which the earlier
smoothed tree trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder.
[edit]Doric order
Main article: Doric order
The Doric order is the oldest and simplest of the classical orders. It is composed of a vertical cylinder that is wider at
the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a detailed capital. It is instead often topped with an inverted frustum of
a shallow cone or a cylindrical band of carvings. It is often referred to as the masculine order because it is
represented in the bottom level of the Colosseum and the Parthenon, and was therefore considered to be able to hold
more weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 8:1. The shaft of a Doric Column is always fluted.
The Greek Doric, developed in the western Dorian region of Greece, is the heaviest and most massive of the orders.
It rises from the stylobate without any base; it is from four to six times as tall as its diameter; it has twenty broad
flutes; the capital consists simply of a banded necking swelling out into a smooth echinus, which carries a flat square
abacus; the Doric entablature is also the heaviest, being about one-fourth the height column. The Greek Doric order
was not used after c. 100 B.C. until its rediscovery in the mid-eighteenth century.
[edit]Tuscan order
Main article: Tuscan order
The Tuscan order, also known as Roman Doric, is also a simple design, the base and capital both being series of
cylindrical disks of alternating diameter. The shaft is almost never fluted. The proportions vary, but are generally
similar to Doric columns. Height to width ratio is about 7:1.
[edit]Ionic order
Main article: Ionic order
The Ionic column is considerably more complex than the Doric or Tuscan. It usually has a base and the shaft is often
fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). On the top is a capital in the characteristic shape of a scroll, called
a volute, or scroll, at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 9:1. Due to the more refined proportions
and scroll capitals, the Ionic column is sometimes associated with academic buildings. Ionic style columns were used
on the second level of the Colosseum.
Ionic capital
[edit]Corinthian order
Main article: Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, to which it was connected in the period. However,
according to the architectural historianVitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably
an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital
was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC. It is sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the
Colosseum and holding up the least weight, and also has the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Height to width
ratio is about 10:1.
[edit]Composite order
The Composite order draws its name from the capital being a composite of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. The
acanthus of the Corinthian column already has a scroll-like element, so the distinction is sometimes subtle. Generally
the Composite is similar to the Corinthian in proportion and employment, often in the upper tiers of colonnades.
Height to width ratio is about 11:1 or 12:1.
[edit]Solomonic
Two of Constantine's Solomonic columns in their present day location on a pier in St Peter's, Rome. Part of Bernini's Baldachin, inspired by
A Solomonic column, sometimes called "barley sugar", begins on a base and ends in a capital, which may be of any
order, but the shaft twists in a tight spiral, producing a dramatic, serpentine effect of movement. Solomonic columns
were developed in the ancient world, but remained rare there. A famous marble set, probably 2nd century, was
brought to St Peter's, Rome by Constantine I, and placed round the saint's shrine, and was thus familiar throughout
the Middle Ages, by which time they were thought to have been removed from the Temple of Jerusalem.[1] The style
Buckling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[hide]
E
Materials failure modes
In science, buckling is a mathematical instability, leading to a failure mode. Theoretically, buckling is caused by
a bifurcation in the solution to the equations of static equilibrium. At a certain stage under an increasing load, further
load is able to be sustained in one of two states of equilibrium: an undeformed state or a laterally-deformed state.
In practice, buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high compressive
stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stresses that
the material is capable of withstanding. For example, during earthquakes, reinforced concrete members may
experience lateral deformation of the longitudinal reinforcing bars. This mode of failure is also described as failure
due toelastic instability. Mathematical analysis of buckling makes use of an axial load eccentricity that introduces a
moment, which does not form part of the primary forces to which the member is subjected. When load is constantly
being applied on a member, such as column, it will ultimately become large enough to cause the member to become
unstable. Further load will cause significant and somewhat unpredictable deformations, possibly leading to complete
loss of load-carrying capacity. The member is said to have buckled, to have deformed.
Contents
[hide]
1 Columns
o 1.1 Self-buckling
3 Flutter instability
5 Bicycle wheels
6 Surface materials
7 Energy method
8 Flexural-torsional buckling
9 Lateral-torsional buckling
10 Plastic buckling
11 Dynamic buckling
14 See also
15 References
16 External links
[edit]Columns
A column under a concentric axial load exhibiting the characteristic deformation of buckling
The eccentricity of the axial force results in a bending moment acting on the beam element.
The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross section is called
the slenderness ratio (sometimes expressed with the Greek letter lambda, ). This ratio affords a means of classifying
columns. Slenderness ratio is important for design considerations. All the following are approximate values used for
convenience.
A short steel column is one whose slenderness ratio does not exceed 50; an intermediate length steel column
has a slenderness ratio ranging from about 50 to 200, and are dominated by the strength limit of the material,
while a long steel column may be assumed to have a slenderness ratio greater than 200.
A short concrete column is one having a ratio of unsupported length to least dimension of the cross section not
greater than 10. If the ratio is greater than 10, it is a long column (sometimes referred to as a slender column).
Timber columns may be classified as short columns if the ratio of the length to least dimension of the cross
section is equal to or less than 10. The dividing line between intermediate and long timber columns cannot be
readily evaluated. One way of defining the lower limit of long timber columns would be to set it as the smallest
value of the ratio of length to least cross sectional area that would just exceed a certain constant K of the
material. Since K depends on the modulus of elasticity and the allowable compressive stress parallel to the
grain, it can be seen that this arbitrary limit would vary with thespecies of the timber. The value of K is given in
most structural handbooks.
If the load on a column is applied through the center of gravity of its cross section, it is called an axial load. A load at
any other point in the cross section is known as an eccentric load. A short column under the action of an axial load
will fail by direct compression before it buckles, but a long column loaded in the same manner will fail by buckling
(bending), the buckling effect being so large that the effect of the direct load may be neglected. The intermediate-
length column will fail by a combination of direct compressive stress and bending.
In 1757, mathematician Leonhard Euler derived a formula that gives the maximum axial load that a long, slender,
ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal column is one that is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from
initial stress. The maximum load, sometimes called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state of
unstable equilibrium; that is, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the column to fail by buckling. The
formula derived by Euler for columns with no consideration for lateral forces is given below. However, if lateral forces
are taken into consideration the value of critical load remains approximately the same.
where
= modulus of elasticity,
= column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of the
column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), = 1.0.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, = 0.699....
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, = 2.0.
Examination of this formula reveals the following interesting facts with regard to the
column. The closer together the inflection points are, the higher the
resulting capacity of the column.
A demonstration model illustrating the different "Euler" buckling modes. The model shows how the
boundary conditions affect the critical load of a slender column. Notice that each of the columns are
as to increase the moment of inertia. This can be done without increasing the
weight of the column by distributing the material as far from the principal axis of the
cross section as possible, while keeping the material thick enough to prevent local
buckling. This bears out the well-known fact that a tubular section is much more
Another bit of information that may be gleaned from this equation is the effect of
length on critical load. For a given size column, doubling the unsupported length
quarters the allowable load. The restraint offered by the end connections of a
column also affects the critical load. If the connections are perfectly rigid, the critical
load will be four times that for a similar column where there is no resistance to
Since the moment of inertia of a surface is its area multiplied by the square of a
length called the radius of gyration, the above formula may be rearranged as
follows. Using the Euler formula for hinged ends, and substituting Ar2 for I, the
slenderness ratio.
impossible to obtain an ideal column, the Euler formula on its own has little
practical application for ordinary design. Issues that cause deviation from the
agree with test data, all of which embody the slenderness ratio. For design,
appropriate safety factors are introduced into these formulae. One such
formula is the Perry Robertson formula which estimates of the critical buckling
load based on an initial (small) curvature. The Rankine Gordon formula is also
based on experimental results and suggests that a strut will buckle at a load
modulus , and radius , will buckle under its own weight if its
area of the beam cross section, and B is the first zero of the Bessel
loading.
Fig. 2: Elastic beam system showing buckling under tensile dead loading.
recently Zaccaria, Bigoni, Noselli and Misseroni (2011) [4] have shown
presence of the slider, the junction between the two rods, allowing
[edit]Flutter instability
instabilities which are not of the buckling type and therefore are not
a follower load (the force P remains always parallel to the rod BC), exhibiting flutter
and divergence instability. The two rods, of linear mass density , are rigid and
divergence ( ),
where and .
growth.
collapse.
configuration.
[edit]Bicycle wheels
[edit]Surface materials
Sun kink in rail tracks
[edit]Energy method
structural analysis.
result.
In this method, there are two equations used (for
conservation yields:
[edit]Flexural-torsional
buckling
[edit]Lateral-torsional
buckling
buckling.
[edit]Plastic buckling
[edit]Dynamic buckling
buckle wavelength is
cylindrical shells of
thickness .[8]
[edit]Bucklingof thin
cylindrical shells
subject to axial loads
analysis, which is in
from experiments. So it is
buckling load.
[edit]Buckling
of pipes
and pressure
vessels subject to
external
overpressure
subject to external
buckling due to
vessel codes.
[edit]See also
Wood method
[edit]References
1. ^ Kato, K. (1915).
"Mathematical
Investigation on the
Mechanical Problems
of Transmission
Mechanical
2. ^ Ratzersdorfer, Julius
(1936). Die
Knickfestigkeit von
Stben und
Stabwerken. Wein,
Austria: J. Springer.
pp. 107109.
Maeve McCarthy
the Tallest
554.
4. ^ D. Zaccaria, D.
D. Misseroni Structures
dead load.
Proceedings of the
467, 1686-1700.
5. ^ D. Bigoni and G.
Noselli, Experimental
divergence instabilities
Journal of the
22082226.
6. ^ "Buckling of Bars,
Robert M. Jones
7. ^ "Observations on
eigenvalue buckling
element context" by
Christopher J. Earls
Florence, A.
Buckling, Martinus
Nijhoff Publishers,
298.
McGraw-Hill, 1961.
Nenezich,
M., Thermoplastic
Continuum Mechanics,
Journal of Aerospace
Structures, Vol. 4, 2004.
Equilibrium by W. T.
Koiter, PhD Thesis, 1945.
Maekawa (October
2002). "Reinforcement
Cover Concrete in
Reinforced Concrete
Members. [1]
Willian T. Segui (2007).
[edit]External links
example experimental
at http://lindberglce.com/t
ech/buklbook.htm
Modeling of Structures
and Photoelasticity
(University of Trento,
Italy)
http://www.midasuser.co
m.tw/t_support/tech_pds/f
iles/Tech%20Note-
Lateral%20Torsional%20
Buckling.pdf
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The slenderness ratio is the ratio between the height or length of a structural element (such as
a column, or strut) and the width or thickness of the element.
For example, if a rectangular column is 6m high, and 400mm by 600mm in cross-section, then
its slenderness is 6000/600 = 10 in one direction and 6000/400 = 15 in the other direction.
The higher the slenderness ratio, the more slender the structural element is. How slender a
structural element is allowed to be depends upon the material it is made from. Steel can be
more slender than concrete, for example.
The effective length of an element is determined by how it is fixed at its ends. The effective
length is the length of the column that will form half a sine wave if it buckles. If it is "pinned",
or has hinged ends, the effective length is the true length of the element. If it is a cantilever
(fixed at one end but free at the other), the effective length is twice the true length. If it is
fully fixed at both ends the effective length is 0.7 times the true length, but this is in reality
very difficult to achieve, so often a real structural element is considered to be only nominally
fixed and the effective length is taken to be 0.85 times the true length. See
http://www.corusconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching_resources/architectural_studio_refe
rence/elements/design_of_columns_and_struts/column_end_fixity/ for some photos and
further explanation.
Lecture 30:
The radius of gyration (r) describes the way in which the area of a cross-section is
distributed around its centroidal axis. If the area is concentrated far from the
centroidal axis it will have a greater value of r and a greater resistance to buckling. A
cross-section can have more than one radius of gyration and most sections have at
least two. If this is the case, the section tends to buckle around the axis with the
smallest value. The radius of gyration is defined as:
r = sqrt (I/A)
where
r = radius of gyration
I = moment of inertia
A = area of the cross section
All things being equal, a circular pipe is the most efficient column section to resist
buckling. This is because it has an equal radius of gyration in all directions and it has
the its area distributed as far away as possible from the centroid.
The steel columns shown below all have areas of 3-1/8 in2. The safe loads for an 8 ft
length are shown. The only difference between them is the way in which the cross-
sectional area is distributed about the centroid.
Buckling
Buckling is very similar to bending. Thus, the shape of the cross-section is very
important. The shape of the column also effects the way in which it will buckle.
Imagine for a moment a single sheet of paper (A4 or 8.5 x 11). If one would try to
simply stand it on edge it would be impossible unless the paper was folded. This
simple act of folding the paper actually increases the cross-sectional moment of
Inertia and thus the stiffness of the newly formed column. The stiffness of another
paper column could be futher increased by taking the paper and taping the long
edges together to create a tube. Now, the paper will be very stiff since the material
of the paper is distributed evenly as far away from the neutral axis as possible.
The load at which a column will begin to buckle is known as the Critical Buckling
Load (or critical load). A number of qualities of the column must be known in order to
determine this value. The Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (1707 - 1783) derived a
formula in 1744 (known as the Euler Buckling Formula) to determine the load at
which a perfect column will buckle. It was a very important step in the history of
technology and remains important for column design today. The equation is only
accurate for columns which approach the perfect conditions for which he derrived the
equation.
Ncr = 2E I / (lk2)
This equation can be modified by dividing both sides by the area of the column so
that the stress at which the column will buckle can be determined:
= 2 E /(lk/r)2
Lambda, or the slenderness ratio is a value with which one can gage the relative
resistance of a column cross-section to buckling. Or, stated otherwise, the relative
ease in which a column WILL buckle. It is defined as
lambda = lk / r
Where lk is the buckling length and r is the radius of gyration.
fcr= 2 E / (lambda)2
The buckling length of a column depends on its physical length and its end
conditions. Euler discovered that if a column is hinged at both ends it will buckle in
the form of a sine curve with the inflection points at the hinges. This would be the
case in which the buckling length of a column is identical to its length. This is not the
case if the ends of the column are both fixed. The determination of the buckling
lengths for various column end conditions and frames is given below:
The magnitude of the internal forces is important to know in order to size a column. A
small amount of tensile stress has little effect on a wood or steel column, but could
cause problems in a concrete or masonry column.