Emotional Equanimity

Emotional Capability, Emotional Intelligence, and Radical Change
Author(s): Quy Nguyen Huy

Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 24, No. 2 (Apr., 1999), pp. 325-345
Published by: Academy of Management
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/259085
Accessed: 13-11-2017 06:29 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
Academy of Management is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access
to The Academy of Management Review
This content downloaded from 129.94.8.126 on Mon, 13 Nov 2017 06:29:47 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
? Academy of Management Review
1999, Vol. 24, No. 2, 325-345.
EMOTIONAL CAPABILITY, EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE, AND RADICAL CHANGE
QUY NGUYEN HUY

INSEAD
I present a multilevel theory of emotion and change, which focuses on attributes of

emotional intelligence at the individual level and emotional capability at the organ-
izational level. Emotional intelligence facilitates individual adaptation and change,
and emotional capability increases the likelihood for organizations to realize radical
change. I also present a mesolevel framework relating emotion-attending behaviors
to three dynamics of change: receptivity, mobilization, and learning. These behaviors,
which I term emotional dynamics, constitute the organization's emotional capability.
In the past decade, change has become a cen- link between various change dynamics and emo-
tral focus of strategic management research. tional processes at both the individual and the
There is a growing school of thought that inter- organizational levels and use a meso framework
nal organizational capabilities, rather than ge- to bridge these two levels. Figure 1 summarizes
neric positions or tactics, constitute the real graphically the multilevel relationships that I
source of sustainable competitive advantage. present in this article.
However, theoretical attempts to link large- More specifically, I discuss how various at-
scale organizational change to changes in intra- tributes of "emotional intelligence" (Goleman,
organizational processes of thought, feeling, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990) can facilitate
and action have been modest. Change scholars change and social adaptation at the individual
have tended to focus on microcognitive pro- level, and how attributes of "emotional capabil-
cesses at an individual or group level, whereas ity" can facilitate radical change at the organi-
they have undertheorized linkages with radical zational level. Radical (or second-order) change
organizational change. In a recent review of the has been defined as a discontinuous change in
literature on managerial and organization cog- the basic philosophy of one person-at the indi-
nition, Walsh (1995) concludes that we know vidual level-or of the shared identity of mem-
very little about the social and emotional bases bers of the organization-at the organizational
of change. How do they relate to each other? level (Reger, Gustafson, DeMarie, & Mullane,
In this article I respond to the call to explore the 1994). This change is analogous to a "paradigm
interaction of emotion and strategic action by pro- shift" in scientific revolutions (Kuhn, 1970).
posing a model that conceptually links the influ- At the individual level, Salovey and Mayer de-
ence of emotion to three dynamics underpinning fine emotional intelligence as "the subset of social
radical change: receptivity, mobilization, and intelligence that involves the ability to monitor
learning. Based on the insights of organization one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to
theory and the literature on change, I show that discriminate among them and to use this informa-
these change dynamics critically impact the over- tion to guide one's thinking and actions" (1990: 189;
all change process and outcome. Focusing on emphasis in original). An emotionally intelligent
emotion illustrates how attention to microdynam- individual is able to recognize and use his or her
ics can generate macro changes. Here, I propose a
own and others' emotional states to solve prob-
lems and regulate behavior.
I thank the Special Issue Editors and three anonymous At the organizational level, emotional capabil-
reviewers for their guidance and constructive reviews. This ity refers to an organization's ability to acknowl-
article has greatly improved thanks to their suggestions. My edge, recognize, monitor, discriminate, and attend
appreciation also goes to Ann Langley, Charles Galunic,
to its members' emotions, and it is manifested in
Robert Cooper, Frances Westley, Veronika Kisfalvi, Yves
Doz, Marla Tuchinski, the McGill University Faculty of Grad- the organization's norms and routines related to
uate Research, and the Social Sciences Human Research feeling (Schein, 1992). These routines reflect organ-
Council of Canada. izational behaviors that either express or evoke
325
326 Academy of Management Review April
FIGURE 1
A Multilevel Framework
Emotional Radical
capability change
0
U A (Emotional capability theory)

0i
0
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
z ~~~~dynamics Chdyamics
Emtioa Chang
Propos it ion.s
_ | ~~~Emotional l
U ~~~~state Personal
r ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~adaptation
'> . 4 | > | & change l
Emotionally
intelligent (Emotional intelligence theory)
behavior
certain specific emotional states, and these be- I stress that emotional capability' represents
haviors I term emotional dynamics. I describe six a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for or-
emotional dynamics to illustrate the emotional ca-
pability concept and graphically summarize the
relationships between the emotional dynamics
and various change dynamics in Figure 2. Al-
though these six emotional dynamics constitute 1 Although there are conceptual similarities between
the core of emotional capability, they may not be emotional intelligence and emotional capability, I deliber-
exhaustive. Unlike emotional intelligence, emo- ately use two different terms to avoid anthropomorphism
and to underscore important differences. Emotional intelli-
tional capability is not even partly innate, can be
gence is essentially individual and can be partly innate.
developed over time, and does not necessarily
Emotional capability manifests itself at the organizational
require a large number of emotionally intelligent level and refers to acquired and organized behavioral rou-
individuals in influential positions. tines.
1999 Huy 327
FIGURE 2
How Emotional Dynamics Influence Change Dynamics
u rposed chang
Experiencing Pi +
(empathy) k1
Reconciliation Display
(sympathy) P2 + ... Identification freedom
Receptivity (love) (authentic)
Identification
(love) P3a
Learning
Encouragement Playfulness
(hope) ' Mobilization
ganizations to realize radical change.2 The individual (Lazarus, 1993) and organizational
model I present here is grounded in a social (Dutton & Duncan, 1987; Dutton & Jackson, 1987)
interactionist perspective (Hochschild, 1979), levels, I highlight in this article three critical
where I assume that human beings can effect processual challenges related to the realization
radical change in organizations. The proposed of radical change: receptivity, mobilization, and
model addresses emotional issues that are en- learning. Figure 3 encapsulates the interplay
gendered by change at the organizational level, between the three change dynamics and the
as opposed to emotions produced by intragroup proposed change and its outcome. I emphasize
conflicts (Jehn, 1997). Finally, development of the that these three dynamics may not be exhaus-
model has required eclectic borrowing from dis- tive. My purpose here is to propose some theo-
parate literature streams, such as neurology, so- retical underpinnings as to why, how, and when
ciology, psychology, and political science. In emotions play a role in shaping the process of
concert with more conventional organizational radical change.
culture and power theories, strategy research,
and the prescriptive change literature, I attempt
to expose an emotion-based, conceptual founda-
tion for explaining why radical change is so Receptivity
difficult to realize, and how such difficulties
At the individual level, receptivity denotes a
might be attenuated.
person's willingness to consider change. Analo-
I organize the article into four distinct parts.
gously, at the organizational level, receptivity
First, I define the three change dynamics and
refers to organization members' willingness to
show how they can be both cognitive and emo-
consider-individually and collectively-pro-
tional, individual and organizational. Second, I
posed changes and to recognize the legitimacy
explain why emotional dynamics are important
of such proposals. Receptivity is both a state
in the context of radical change. Third, I discuss
and a process. At any fixed point in time, recep-
the multilevel implications of the relationships
tivity denotes an interpretive, attitudinal state
between emotional dynamics and change dy-
(both cognitive and emotional) to accept the
namics within a mesolevel framework, and I
need for the proposed change. Receptivity as a
elaborate upon each of the six emotional dy-
process shapes and is shaped by the continuous
namics that form the core of the proposed emo-
sensemaking and sensegiving activities con-
tional capability concept and relate them to
change dynamics. Figures 1, 2, and 3 graphi- ducted among various members of the organi-
cally represent the model at different levels of zation. Individuals seek to develop a meaning-
detail. Fourth, I end by discussing implications ful framework to understand the nature of the
for future research. The Appendix contains a proposed change and to influence each other
more elaborate discussion of the nature of emo- toward a preferred redefinition of the organiza-
tion both at an individual and an organizational tional reality (Gioia & Chittipeddi, 1991). A pro-
level. posal for radical change-a fundamental
change in identity or basic philosophy-often
triggers strong emotional responses, which af-
CHANGE DYNAMICS
fect how the change is cognitively construed, as
One can better understand how emotion af- well as the nature of ensuing actions.
fects a radical change if the change process is Receptivity to change can be characterized by
divided into its various components. Based on varying gradations of willingness to accept the
the interpretation-action models related to the proposed change, from resigned, passive accep-
creation of momentum for change, both at the tance to enthusiastic endorsement. Resistance
to change represents the alter ego to receptivity
and can range from moral outrage, which can
2 Other factors could be involved, such as availability of
translate into such extreme actions as vandal-
skills, resources, and time to cope with change pressures
ism and sabotage, to quiet cynicism and with-
(Ledford, Mohrman, Mohrman, & Lawler, 1989); organization-
al size and diversity (Barker & Duhaime, 1997); appropriate drawal behavior. Some degree of receptivity to
vision or strategy (Gioia & Chittipeddi, 1991); and executive change is necessary for mobilization and learn-
team characteristics (Boeker, 1997). ing to occur.
1999 Huy 329
FIGURE 3
Change Dynamics Model
Proposed
change J
Receptivity A <
(cognition & emotion)J
4 ~~~~Learning
\ ~~~(from changing)
A
Mobilization
(action)J
Radical ......
change
outcome
Mobilization
mobilization refers to the process of rallying and
At the individual level, mobilization refers to propelling different segments of the organiza-
the concrete actions taken by a person in the tion to undertake joint action and to realize com-
direction of change. At the organizational level, mon change goals. The ability to mobilize
hinges on the availability of adequate resources tion are necessary to achieve distinctive compe-
(e.g., finances, time, and human resources), sup- tence and success (Miller, 1993).
port structures, and systems but, most impor- How does receptivity and mobilization inter-
tant, the necessary commitment and skill sets to act? Lazarus's (1993) stress theory clarifies the
cooperate during the change process. relationship between an individual's receptivity
Mobilization involves collaborative know- to change and mobilization. Individuals go
how-that is, the organization-wide capacity to through a two-stage appraisal process. Through
implement change that cuts across depart- primary appraisal they evaluate the signifi-
ments, individuals, and time (Simonin, 1997) and cance of a new event for their own well-being. If
requires active collaboration among team mem- change recipients evaluate the potential conse-
bers that goes beyond simple agreement or com- quence as harmful (arousing negative emo-
pliance. Adherence to the spirit of the change tions), they are likely to be nonreceptive to the
goals, rather than just to the letter, is necessary proposed change, but if they construe it as an
to overcome unforeseen complications, and this opportunity or a challenge (positive emotions),
necessitates deep understanding of the change they will be better attuned.
rationale and commitment that minimizes in- Through secondary appraisal individuals
consistencies in operationalization (Amason, evaluate their own resources and capability for
1996). Mobilization requires organizational com- dealing with the stressor. Coping responses de-
mitment and effort devoted to change actions, pend on how individuals construe their ability
which is contingent on adequate receptivity to to respond: if they believe they have adequate
the proposed change (Dutton & Duncan, 1987). resources to deal with this new event, they are
Wide acceptance of the proposed vision accel- likely to respond more actively. Individuals are
erates the change process (Larwood, Falbe, motivated to act only if they perceive they can
Kriger, & Miesing, 1995). bridge the discrepancy between goals and per-
Mobilization during radical change requires formance (Westen, 1985). Thus, primary ap-
significant emotional energy. In contrast to first- praisal determines the extent to which an indi-
order change, such as change in formal struc- vidual is receptive to change, whereas
tures, which often requires the action of a mi- secondary appraisal determines the extent to
nority in the dominant coalition, radical change which the individual mobilizes for change.
that alters core perspectives and values often An analogous process occurs at the organiza-
necessitates wide mobilization. Noting that the tional level. A proposal for radical change trig-
main challenge for organizations is often not a gers an iterative process called "strategic issue
problem of choosing cognitively but of taking diagnosis," which includes a cognitive and an
organized action, Brunsson asserts that action emotional component (Dutton & Duncan, 1987).
calls for "irrationality" (1982: 36-42). Strong mo- Influential organization members are more re-
tivations and commitments promote strong ef- ceptive of major change if they interpret signif-
forts to complete the action in spite of great icant implications for the long-term viability of
difficulties. their organization. High receptivity increases
Radical change often involves major uncer- the likelihood for mobilization, which results
tainty; the consequences of different alterna- from two major interpretations: (1) the urgency of
tives are difficult to evaluate fully. During such taking action on the issue as it relates to organ-
periods, too much analysis may breed increas- izational performance or survival and (2) the fea-
ing doubt and paralysis; warm emotionality has sibility of dealing with the issue, which relates
to supersede cold rationality to enable coherent to perception of issue understanding and capa-
collective action. An important change requires bility (e.g., availability of adequate resources).
a leap of faith into the unfamiliar (Kanter, 1983), The emotional dimension is involved when de-
and an emotionally unifying purpose serves to cision makers make evaluative appraisals
minimize large divergences among groups (Bar- about the significance of the change proposal
nard, 1968). Having people committed to realiz- and label it an "opportunity" or a "threat" (Dut-
ing a vision is more important for its success ton & Jackson, 1987: 82). These "hot" cognitive
than a well-thought-out strategy (Pascale, 1984), labels have been called "affective tags" (Fiske &
because concentration and passionate dedica- Taylor, 1984).
1999 Huy 331
Learning components of organization receptivity (inter-

pretation) and collective mobilization (action)
Beyond receptivity leading to mobilization, in-
previously discussed. Dissatisfaction with or-
dividuals and organizations also can learn from
ganizational outcomes can arouse uncomfort-
the outcomes of the changes they enact, and
able feelings, leading to further assessment and
learning provides a feedback loop from the out-
learning. Radical change of core beliefs and
comes of behavioral change back to receptivity.
At the individual level, a person learns by think- values often starts with exposing and challeng-
ing and then acting, using the outcome of action ing deep-rooted assumptions. Single-loop learn-
to revise his or her belief system (Kim, 1993; ing occurs when the error is corrected by chang-
Weick, 1979). Neurologists have discovered that ing the behavior; double-loop learning requires
interactions between emotion and cognition are change in the underlying assumptions, which
closely intertwined (Damasio, 1994). Emotion will then lead to change in behaviors, and this
provides the primary feedback mechanism that activates strong emotions (Argyris, 1993). Organ-
alerts the person that various set goals are not izational learning and change, therefore, can be
being achieved, and this, in turn, motivates be- facilitated by the enactment of specific emo-
havior (Westen, 1985). Emotion arouses dissatis- tional dynamics, and this constitutes the subject
faction with the current state of affairs when a of the second half of this article.
person compares the newly perceived reality These change dynamics are analogous at the
with the template of prior expectations and individual and the organizational levels. Bal-
finds there is a negative mismatch-that is, ance is imparted to the change model with the
finds that reality is worse than prior expecta- introduction of the feedback learning process.
tions. This mismatch stimulates learning and When people take action (i.e., mobilize), they
change (Hochschild, 1983). The desire to mini- may find that the outcomes of their actions are
mize uncomfortable feelings and maximize pos- not as they had hoped. Ideally, under these cir-
itive ones affects information processing cumstances, people (1) appraise and learn from
(Westen, 1985).
such outcomes; (2) grow receptive to alternative
At the organizational level, an analogous pro-
courses of action; and (3) remobilize, taking ac-
cess takes place according to the organizational
tion along a different and more promising
goal-action-outcome-learning feedback frame-
course. This continual learning process is nec-
work suggested by Cyert and March (1992). An
essary, because radical change is by nature
entity learns when it can be shown that the
risky and unpredictable; the presence of learn-
repertoire of its potential behaviors has evolved
ing dynamics helps to improve the chance of its
through information processing (Huber, 1991).
realization.
Organizational learning takes place when suc-
Balance is addressed in that mobilization
cessful individual learning is transferred to an
deals with the assumed certainty of the present,
organization's shared belief system, which in-
whereas learning deals with the perceived un-
cludes the subtle interconnections of know-how
and know-why that various members have de- certainty of the future. Continuous balancing is
veloped among themselves. As old organization- necessary, because secondary effects of present
al routines are replaced and new ones executed, actions often induce future imbalances. Mobili-
the shared mental model contains not only the zation may improve current action focus, but it
new routines but also knowledge about how the may also reduce the range of search behavior; or
routines fit with each other (Kim, 1993). Organi- it may induce optimism that will evolve into
zational learning internalizes and routinizes complacency, escalating commitments, and
lessons drawn from a variety of individual and eventual disaster (Miller & Chen, 1996). To
collective experiments (Simonin, 1997). Radical counter this pressure toward organizational
change often involves a collective, interactional, simplicity, organization members must balance
and emergent process of learning and sense- mobilization with learning-from-changing dy-
making (Bartunek, 1984; Gioia & Chittipeddi, namics that introduce variation and adjustment.
1991). Effective learning processes capture early mis-
The emotional dimension of organizational takes and rectify them before they become in-
learning arises from the interaction of affective surmountable.
These three change dynamics are influenced (Festinger, 1957; Reger et al., 1994). If the threat
by the emotion-attending behaviors I call emo- is perceived as benign, challengers of core
tional dynamics, which I describe next. identity are considered lunatics and are ignored
(Nadler & Tushman, 1990). In any event, per-
ceived disagreement on important issues pro-
EMOTIONAL DYNAMICS vokes intense emotions (Jehn, 1997), and, unfor-
Radical Change and Strong Emotional tunately, these negative emotions tend to
Responses spread more rapidly than positive ones3 (Staw,
Sutton, & Pelled, 1994).
Why is radical change likely to arouse strong
emotional responses? Radical (or second-order)
change refers to a fundamental, qualitative
change in the firm's philosophy or core perspec- The Emotional Dynamics
tive/identity, which may also affect the pattern
My focus here is on organizational behaviors
of strategic relationships outside the firm. Core
that seek to address or arouse certain specific
identity has been defined as the central, endur-
emotions triggered by radical change or that are
ing, and distinctive characteristics of the organ-
necessary to effect such change. These behav-
ization that a large number of members feel
iors, or emotional dynamics, become organiza-
proud of and have identified with personally
(Albert & Whetten, 1985; Dutton & Dukerich,
tional routines over time. I present exemplars of
1991). This deep change in core identity often these emotional dynamics and how they facili-
requires concurrent shifts in all other organiza- tate change in the next section.
tional dimensions, such as structure, systems, These behaviors can, in part, be operation-
and personnel, to preserve alignment. alized by the resources (e.g., people, organized
Thus, a radical change is often deep and large activities, expertise, budget, and time) that an
scale (Ledford et al., 1989). The change causes organization devotes to their enactment. The de-
not only a major and pervasive redistribution of gree of an organization's ability to execute ef-
resources and power, which is already highly fectively these various emotional dynamics de-
upsetting in itself, but, by definition, demands a termines its level of emotional capability and,
paradigm shift that challenges members' most therefore, its likelihood of realizing radical
basic assumptions about the nature of the or- change. Table 1 illustrates that three dynamics
ganization (Bartunek, 1984; Reger et al., 1994). are self-directed (i.e., expressing emotions) and
These assumptions define the domain of so- three are other directed (evoking emotions). By
cially constructed reality and provide a pat- and large, these emotional dynamics also mirror
terned way of dealing with ambiguous, uncon- the behaviors of an "emotionally intelligent"
trollable events (Schein, 1992). Organization
individual; thus, there is relative isomorphism
members have "emotionally invested" in these
between the individual and the organizational
nonnegotiable assumptions that shape their
levels.
cognitive structures for sensemaking and mean-
ing giving. Challenging this source of cognitive
and emotional stability is tantamount to attack-
ing core identity and, thus, could trigger strong
defense mechanisms, such as anxiety and de- 3 One anonymous reviewer has brought to my attention
fensiveness (Schein, 1992). that it may be conceivable that not all instances of radical
Advocates of personal construct theory (Kelly, change evoke strong negative reactions. Sometimes the sit-
uation is so desperate and the imperatives to change the
1955) predict a similar emotional response to
organizational identity so clear that a proposed change to
radical change. To the extent that the proposed core identity may be greeted with positive emotions. I agree
change is perceived as being in opposition to that such situations exist, and I would expect radical change
esteemed core values, the individual's negative to be realized relatively smoothly. Such instances, however,
affect can be more intense than the affect seem to be thinly reported in systematic empirical research
on radical change in organizations. They do not represent
aroused by lack of cognitive understanding of
the central focus of this article, in which I aim at exploring
the proposed change. Opposing concepts are and addressing the difficulties of realizing radical change in
likely to trigger feelings of anger, threat, or fear large organizations.
1999 Huy 333
TABLE 1 through bridging propositions, and these multi-

Emotional State Expressed or Evoked by level propositions aggregate the effects of low-
Emotional Dynamic er-level variables and relate them to higher-
level variables (cf., House, Rousseau, and
Emotional Dynamic
Thomas-Hunt, 1995). Thus, I treat micro and
(Organizational-Level Emotional State
macro processes jointly, and I examine their in-
Behavior) (Individual Level)
teractions to provide a more comprehensive un-
Experiencing Expresses empathy derstanding of the behavior in and of organiza-
Reconciliation Expresses sympathy tions.4
Identification Expresses love
Figure 1 provides a simplified sketch of the
Encouragement Evokes hope
multiple levels of analysis discussed in this ar-
Display freedom Evokes authentic feelings
Playfulness Evokes fun ticle. At the individual level, the model suggests
that an individual's emotional intelligence is
positively related to the individual's ability to
change and adapt personally. At the organiza-
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EMOTIONAL
tional level, the model suggests that an organi-
DYNAMICS AND CHANGE DYNAMICS
zation's emotional capability is positively related
Examination of various works in the literature to its ability to change. The more emotionally ca-
related to emotion and change reveals six emo- pable an organization, the more successful will be
tional dynamics that act as antecedents to the its change efforts.
change dynamics. Figure 2 shows the emotional Linking the parallel organizational-level and
dynamics that constitute emotional capability individual-level models are two meso con-
and how each construct influences a particular structs: (1) emotional dynamics (e.g., reconcilia-
change dynamic. These emotional dynamics tion that expresses sympathy and encourage-
constitute only exemplars and are not meant to ment that evokes hope) and (2) change dynamics
be exhaustive. Each emotional dynamic ex- (receptivity, mobilization, and learning). The
presses or evokes a specific emotion, which can model suggests that individuals and organiza-
be a state and a process, that is relevant in the tions that enact these emotional dynamics are
context of radical change. receptive to change, effective in mobilizing for
change, and able to learn from the results of
their initial change efforts and, thereby, to ad-
Link Between the Individual and the
just their course if necessary. Emotional dynam-
Organizational Levels: A Mesolevel Framework
ics and change dynamics are meso constructs
In this model I construe organizations as pat- because they are equally applicable to individ-
terns of coordinated activities of interdependent uals and organizations. To use House et al.'s
parts, including people. An emotionally capable (1995) terminology, emotional dynamics and
organization does not necessarily require that change dynamics are isomorphic.
most of its members be emotionally intelli- Indeed, I have previously argued that the
gent-not even the individuals in influential po- change dynamics as processes are isomorphic
sitions. Indeed, to the extent that people in or- at both the individual and the organizational
ganizations are trained and encouraged to levels. Similarly, emotional dynamics constitute
enact emotion-attending behaviors, the likeli- attributes of an organization's emotional capa-
hood of realizing radical change is increased. bility and are enacted through a specific set of
Organizational behaviors are, in part, depen- organizational routines, and, on a smaller
dent on what organizations expect, reward, and scope, they also mirror individual or group be-
support, and together these behaviors arouse haviors that arouse specific emotional states
certain kinds of emotional states in situated
contexts that can facilitate or hinder receptivity
to change, mobilization, and learning. 'A meso perspective analyzes causal mechanisms at sev-
A mesolevel theory involves at least two lev- eral levels. It views organizations as multilevel social enti-
ties. It is possible to accumulate knowledge in a more par-
els of analysis-one relating to the individual or
simonious and integrated framework, because certain
group variables and the other to the organiza- variables share common properties and relationships at var-
tional variables. These two levels are linked ious levels of analysis (House et al., 1995).
conducive to change. The same propositions to emotional intelligence at the individual level,
characterize equally an "emotionally intelli- emotional capability incorporates a locally con-
gent" person and an "emotionally capable" or- tingent quality: a sense of appropriateness.
ganization of persons. Moreover, these variables As with the cognitive perspective, the sum
act as "bridges" between the micro and macro total of emotionally intelligent individuals
levels. The propositions are multilevel within a might produce an emotionally handicapped or-
meso paradigm because they link two meso con- ganization. To the extent that these individuals
structs-change dynamics and emotional dy- attempt to use their emotional intelligence as
namics-and the proposed relationships are ap- private tools to further their self-interests, each
plicable to both the individual and the might try to outsmart, or rather to "out feel," the
organizational levels. other through emotional manipulation. The net
The vertical arrows in Figure 1 depict the mul- result could well be complete mistrust, cyni-
tilevel effects. Emotional dynamics induce cer- cism, or alienation at the organizational level.
tain emotional states at the individual level. At Cooperative actions would suffer as a result,
the same time, the enactment of emotional dy- and change for the better would be unlikely. In
namics shapes emotional capability at the or- addition, not all individuals or groups necessar-
ganizational level (left up-arrow) through the ily feel the same emotions or use similar coping
creation of emotional states conducive to emo- mechanisms. As a result, they may not progress
tionally intelligent behaviors (left down-arrow). at the same pace, and this lack of synchroniza-
Similarly, change dynamics characterize the tion could generate unpredictable dynamics.
process of personal adaptation at the individual The range, timing, duration, and pace of situ-
level (right down-arrow), while, at the same ated emotion-focused behaviors need to vary in
time, the multitude of individual adaptation pro- consequence. Thus, internal harmonious inte-
cesses shapes the change dynamics that influ- gration of emotional dynamics is a necessary
ence the outcome of radical change at the or- condition for the organization's emotional capa-
ganizational level (right up-arrow). bility in the movement from the individual to the
At least two conditions are necessary for ef- organizational level.
fective enactment of emotional dynamics and In the remainder of this part, I describe exem-
change dynamics at the collective level: appro- plars of emotional dynamics that arouse certain
priateness and harmonious integration. It is emotional states conducive to change. For rea-
possible that not every individual or group in a sons of parsimony, the stated multilevel propo-
large organization feels the same type of emo- sitions apply both at the individual and the or-
tion with the same intensity at the same time in ganizational levels; thus, the respective actors
response to the same event. As a result, different are implicit. Because I construe radical change
groups may have different emotional responses, as an iterative process linking three change dy-
needs, or coping mechanisms that need to be namics (as shown in Figure 3), any emotional
diagnosed and attended to according to the de- dynamic that affects one particular change dy-
mands of the specific situation. namic will also exert a rippling effect on all the
Too much or too little of a good thing can be others. For example, since the learning change
equally ineffective. Too long or too much griev- dynamic is linked to receptivity, which, in turn,
ing over the abandoned values that a particular is linked to mobilization, the emotional dynamic
subgroup did not care much for anyway breeds of experiencing that affects receptivity will also
cynicism. The same emotional state does not have a subsequent impact on the mobilization
need to exist at the same intensity among all and learning change dynamics.
individuals in the organization, nor is it neces-
sary to expend organizational resources evenly
Empathy and the Dynamic of Experiencing
on everyone to achieve a particular change ob-
jective. An emotionally capable organization At the individual level, empathy represents a
understands the relationships between emotion central attribute of emotional intelligence. It is a
and change, institutionalizes routines that at- person's ability to understand someone else's
tend to emotions in situated contexts, and selec- feelings and to re-experience them. Empathy de-
tively devotes appropriate resources to achieving termines the success of social support and is a
organizationally relevant objectives. Analogous motivator for altruistic behavior (Salovey &
1999 Huy 335
Mayer, 1990). It is demonstrated, in part, through underground. Change resisters then could adopt
heedful behaviors related to others' feelings. In a facade of rationality by invoking alternate
turn, others are more likely to be more receptive reasons that appear more legitimate. Once un-
in considering one's proposal for change as a derground, this resistance to change is no
spirit of sharing is established. longer controllable; deeds may be quite differ-
At the organizational level, emotional experi- ent from professed intentions, thus creating se-
encing refers to the quality of an organization's rious obstacles for the progress of change.
efforts to identify the variety of emotions Acting on this emotional experience implies
aroused during radical change, to accept and attending to small details and projecting a
internalize them, and to act on a deep level of sense of honesty, fairness, justice, and respect
understanding. These experiencing behaviors for those affected by change (Brockner, 1992).
can involve organized activities, such as train- The organization can establish anxiety-reduc-
ing and coaching all organization members, and tion mechanisms-for example, informal com-
especially change agents, to experience the munication structures to foster dialogue and
same or other appropriate emotions in response sensemaking during this threatening period.
to others' feelings and to communicate or act on Emotional support structures, such as psycho-
this internal experience (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). logical counseling services, self-help groups, T-
Organization members can be trained on the groups, and single- and double-loop learning
"ability to accurately 'read' the subtle social interventions, may help organization members
cues and signals given by others in order to come to grips with the new reality. And emo-
determine what emotions are being expressed tional release can be effected through displace-
and understanding the perspective of the other ment of aggression tactics, such as by insulting
individual" (Schmidt, 1997: 10). Demonstration of the objects of anger in safe places or by joking.
care and concern for one another constitutes the If these programs are made widely available in
basis for affect-based trust and is found to lead the organization (and the more varied they are
to better work performance, possibly owing to the better), the more likely it will that the inten-
better coordination under discontinuous condi- sity of emotional pain will be attenuated.
tions (McAllister, 1995). Focus on affective inter- Emotional experiencing also translates into
personal cues is essential for quality of decision sensitivity to the impact of the timing, pacing,
making and implementation solidarity among and sequencing of the various change actions
team members (Amason, 1996). so that adequate emotional equanimity is main-
These emotion-attending behaviors become tained among those affected. As mutual respect
salient during radical change, especially for and emotional sharing set in, organization
change recipients, because change is "disturb- members will be more likely to open themselves
ing when it is done to us, exhilarating when it is and listen more constructively to a proposed
done by us" (Kanter, 1983: 63). Change agents change.
who have at least partly experienced the recip-
ients' emotions are more aware that their Proposition 1: The higher the level of
change program can threaten the psychological emotional experiencing, the higher
and social defenses of the change recipients. the level of receptivity to a proposed
They are conscious that painful or bad feelings change will be.
can be projected onto change agents (negative
transference; Berg, 1979; Kets de Vries & Miller,
1984).
Sympathy and the Dynamic of Reconciliation
Even the most sincere change recipients can At the individual level, sympathy is a less
be ambivalent because of the tension caused by demanding emotional process than empathy,
contradictory motives and their discomfort in since it refers to the ability of an individual to
airing them openly. Their sense of inner self- feel for the general suffering of another, with no
identity and ego integrity are being challenged. direct sharing of that person's experience (Gole-
Emotional pain can become harmful if it is de- man, 1995). Sympathy is a precursor to the de-
nied or derogated as insignificant (Brockner, velopment of empathy, but unlike empathy, the
1992)-dismissing emotional states as "irration- person can retain his or her private feelings
al" or illegitimate can drive change recipients while understanding those of someone else.
Sympathy is partly demonstrated by concilia- rich (1984) prescribe a model of organizational

tory behaviors. change inspired by the work of Bridges (1980) on
At the organizational level, emotional recon- individual change. "Endings" come first, fol-
ciliation refers to the process of bringing to- lowed by "neutral zones," and finally "new be-
gether two seemingly opposing values people ginnings."
feel strongly about. Genuine efforts expended The outcome of change is most critical in the
toward achieving a new synthesis and under- neutral zone, when "individuals feel discon-
standing increase receptivity to proposals for nected from people and things of the past and
change. Reconciling apparent opposites under- emotionally unconnected with the present"
lies Albert's (1984) conceptualization of change (Bridges, 1986: 249). This second phase is marked
as a juxtaposition of additions and deletions. by disorientation (the past is no longer appro-
The more the proposed change can be framed priate, but the future direction is not yet clear)
and accepted by the recipients as an addition or and frightening disintegration (everything is
an expansion of existing values, the easier it is collapsing). At the extreme, letting go of all the
for them to accept the proposed change, and the attributes of the organizational identity is equiv-
more continuity is perceived to exist between alent to death and nothingness.
the past and the future, the less the change is Passage from one phase to another is not au-
perceived as radical. However, the portion of the tomatic. Managing actively the transition be-
valued elements of the past that must be "delet- tween the ending phase and the neutral zone is
ed" should be mourned to facilitate transition. important. In order to pass through this phase
With regard to handling additions, Schein successfully, organization members need suffi-
(1992) observes that it is unlikely that one can cient time to reflect on the past and to develop
initiate cultural change by dismissing a basic new perspectives for the future. They have to
constituent assumption as wrong. A new synthe- come to terms with such issues as what went
sis has to be found that will retain both the old wrong and why it needs changing now, and they
and the new. This establishes a form of partial need to think about new beginnings.
stability to allow change to occur. Cultural The mourning period is curvilinear, and the
change and personal transformation are co- time allotted should be adequate-neither too
dependent and are akin to religious conversion; long nor too short. The organization has to en-
the shift to new values is mediated by the bridg- courage shared meaning construction about the
ing role of metaphor, "when for an instant a proposal for change, and it should help people
parallel is seen between the familiar and the find their new roles in the new order and pro-
unfamiliar experiences" (Westley, 1990: 289- vide them with the means to develop newly re-
292). A cultural graft articulates and incorpo- quired competencies. Inclusion of all members
rates some positive elements of the old culture should be encouraged, and mistakes and losses
with the new assumptions. openly acknowledged (Bridges, 1984). Emotional
This new synthesis, subsuming the proposed release heals as it leads to greater awareness of
change as an addition, has to be accepted as repressed feelings and gradually brings resolu-
meaningful by the organization's members. A tion and renewed receptivity. Change agents
process of reconciliation that bridges feelings who rush the rest of the organization through
about new and old values has to be conducted. this meditative mourning phase risk a backlash
Emotional conversations between change (Moses, 1987), for denying the emotional impact
agents and their targets to co-construct a new of the pain and bypassing the catharsis and
meaning gradually increase understanding and mourning phase may lead to an organization
receptivity to seemingly controversial change paralyzed by survivor sickness and devoid of
proposals. creative energy (Noer, 1993).
Beyond addition, change may also require de- In summary, when organization members per-
letion of certain cherished values, so the un- ceive change as an addition, reconciliation pro-
freezing technique (Lewin, 1951) may be helpful. cesses increase their receptivity to the extent
Mourning of these past, abandoned values has that they can jointly develop a meaningful
to be organized (Albert, 1984). Thus, one of the bridge. When they perceive change as a dele-
first steps toward achieving full emotional rec- tion, receptivity is more likely to increase if
onciliation is adequate grieving. Tichy and Ul- members are allocated adequate time and re-
1999 Huy 337
sources to work through their emotional grief. In and to influence the organization's norms and
juxtaposition, the effectiveness of various recon- standards (Berg, 1979; Van Mannen & Kunda,
ciliation processes hinges on an artful combina- 1989).
tion of activities addressing various addition Identification with salient organization char-
and deletion components that can coexist in a acteristics shaping organization identity sup-
proposed radical change. plies the stable structures to contain anxiety-a
commonly shared emotion (Jaques, 1974). Anxi-
Proposition 2: The higher the level of ety is "an emotion without a defined object"
emotional reconciliation, the higher (Hochschild, 1983: 209) and serves as a signal for
the level of receptivity to a proposed the avoidance of a dangerous situation. Pro-
change will be. posed major changes to identity can arouse in-
tense anxiety, especially when a meaningful
new identity is not present or not yet proven. The
Love and the Dynamic of Identification
stronger the significance of the current identity,
At the individual level, the ability to love is a the more intense the emotions. Moreover, the
sign of emotional intelligence; the process more members positively value that identity
whereby emotions are accepted and recipro- and evaluate the proposed change as incongru-
cated is attunement, and this process begins ent with it, the more negative their emotional
early between parents and children (Goleman, reaction will be (Harquail, 1998). Group behavior
1995). can exhibit childlike characteristics when mem-
At the organizational level, the emotional dy- bers are facing uncomfortable situations (Bion,
namic of identification refers to the collective 1959). In order to build a strong team spirit, they
behavior whereby organization members ex- unconsciously activate splitting defenses by
press their deep attachment to salient organiza- idealizing the qualities of the team members
tion characteristics (Dutton, Dukerich, & Har- while projecting undesirable characteristics
quail, 1994). These organization characteristics onto people outside the team. Humans tend to
can include a number of dimensions, such as avoid, dismiss, and deny warnings that increase
core values, beliefs, myths, leaders, or any other anxiety and fear by practicing selective atten-
element that is deemed meaningful to particular tion and various forms of information distortion;
individuals or groups. Identifying is analogous this is known as "defensive avoidance" (Janis &
to "falling in love"-that is, to the extent that Mann, 1977).
one's expectations are fulfilled and recipro- Thus, paradoxical as it may seem, change re-
cated, the initial attraction ripens into a deep quires a certain level of stability: emotional
and abiding attachment. This identification pro- equanimity-a state of evenness of mind-has
cess is both cognitive and affective (Ashforth, to be present. In order to maintain a sense of
1998: 9). identity, individuals have to feel a basic level of
Members in a collectivity stay together be- security and comfort, which is achieved by be-
cause there are mutual benefits; among the ing strongly attached to symbolic objects that
most important of these are the emotional bonds bridge a person's internal and external worlds
that develop over time in relation to self- (Winnicot, 1965). In the same way, a strong or-
identified and shared organization characteris- ganizational culture allows its members to af-
tics. Individuals will be motivated to identify firm their sense of identity and personal security
more strongly when their organization identities within it. Therefore, proposed major changes
evoke positive affect, and to disengage if they tend to be perceived as highly threatening to at
produce negative affect (Harquail, 1998). Identi- least some elements of their personal core iden-
fication aggregates personal feelings of attach- tity. Proud identification with an organization is
ment toward the organization and translates separate from attachment to power and prestige
into such attachment behaviors as loyalty, de- and partly explains the slow rate of change in
fense of the organization's name and reputation established institutions (Bartunek, 1984; Chan-
even outside work boundaries, or abstention dler, 1990). Receptivity to proposed change is
from demanding immediate compensation for less likely to be achieved quickly or easily, and
extra efforts. Indeed, emotional bonds have more time and resources will be needed to in-
been found to determine, in part, work structure crease receptivity.
Proposition 3a: The higher the level of belief that one has both the will and the way to
identification with the organization, accomplish one's goals, whatever they may be.
the lower the level of receptivity will Snyder et al. (1991) have found that hope sets
be to any proposed change perceived apart the academic achievements of students of
to threaten the organization's identity; equivalent intellectual aptitude. It buffers peo-
thus, more resources will be required ple against apathy and depression, and it
to increase receptivity. strengthens their capacity to withstand defeat
and persist in adversity (Goleman, 1995). Brock-
Emotional identification often translates into
ner suggests that most of us are motivated by
resilient loyalty to the organization. Employees
the "psychology of hope: the expectation and
who experience positive identification are more
wish that our future work situation will be better
likely to stay longer with the organization. Influ-
than (or at least as good as) the present one"
ential members may delay leaving an organiza-
(1992: 26).
tion not out of material self-interest but from a
At the organizational level, the emotional dy-
more altruistic concern that the organization
namic of encouragement refers to the organiza-
might go from bad to worse if they leave (Hirsch-
tion's ability to instill hope among all of its
man, 1970). Some members may postpone exit
members during a radical change effort. Hope
and suffer in silence, hoping that the situation
propels people into taking actions that could
will soon improve.
improve their lot, it fuels their persistence, and,
Organizations with a high turnover rate, how-
thus, it sustains mobilization efforts. One means
ever, have difficulty accumulating learning,
of engendering hope is by establishing change
since their experience base is eroding continu-
goals that are meaningful for all members. Suc-
ally. This happens because much of the organi-
cessful leaders emotionally inspire followers
zation know-how and know-why is tacit and in-
through communication of vivid images that
volves understanding and operationalization of
give flesh to a captivating vision so as to moti-
the subtle interconnections between routines
vate them to pursue ambitious goals. When peo-
that have been developed among various mem-
ple believe that their actions will lead to posi-
bers (Kim, 1993). The organizational memory
tive results, they will be more likely to initiate
contains idiosyncratic knowledge shared
difficult and uncertain tasks: optimism promotes
among veteran members; this collective yet dis-
persistence (Staw et al., 1994). Other encourage-
tributed memory enables revisions to existing
ments can include symbolic actions, such as
routines and the addition of new ones, thereby
frequent dialogue between change leaders and
enabling organizational learning.
organization members, attention demonstrated
To the extent that radical change does not
through allocation of quality time and organiza-
require a complete destruction of the past in-
tional resources, or such uplifting ritual devices
volving organizational memory and distinctive
as rousing speeches and reward ceremonies to
competence, veteran members who remain loyal
celebrate partial success.
to the organization can help operationalize new
The prescriptive and autobiographical litera-
knowledge faster. Emotionality does not always
ture on strategic change suggests that mobiliza-
impair cognitive processing and group perfor-
tion can be achieved via charismatic or trans-
mance.
formational leadership (e.g., Nadler & Tushman,
Proposition 3b: To the extent that rad- 1990; Tichy & Ulrich, 1984). During periods of
ical change does not require a com- turmoil, people crave a charismatic leader ca-
plete destruction of the past, the stron- pable of fulfilling their emotional need for psy-
ger the level of identification with the chological safety-they crave assurance of a
organization and the longer the organ- safe path to the future (Conger, 1989). The fol-
ization members' tenure, the higher lowers' anxieties are projected onto the leader
their level of learning will be. in exchange for hope (Kets de Vries, 1990). In
turn, these leaders often use intense emotional
expressivity to capture their audience (Gole-
Hope and the Dynamic of Encouragement
man, 1995). Starbuck, Greve, and Hedberg (1978)
At the individual level, hope is another at- contend that the most important work for top
tribute of emotional intelligence, referring to the managers is "managing ideology"-not "strate-
1999 Huy 339
gy making." Managers can shape an ideological (Morris & Feldman, 1996), since negative displays
setting that encourages enthusiasm, nurtures could be interpreted as cynicism or detachment
courage, reveals opportunities, and, thus, brings (Van Maanen & Kunda, 1989). Such restricted emo-
new hope and life to their organization. tional sharing and expression limit the high level
of learning required during periods of radical
Proposition 4: The higher the level of
change.
encouragement, the higher the level
A body of research does exist that associates
of mobilization to a proposed change
will be. negative emotional display with poor group per-
formance (cf., Jehn, 1997). This form of control
might be viable in a slow, evolutionary change
Authenticity and the Dynamic of Display environment, since it might facilitate first-order
Freedom change-speeding up execution by muting
At the individual level, emotional authenticity doubting critics. However, the collective learn-
refers to a person's ability to acknowledge, ex- ing necessary during radical change could be
press, and be sincere about his or her feelings. It impaired by this type of control.
is an attribute of emotional intelligence. Individ- Duck (1993) suggests that the content of emo-
uals who lose this ability bury their real self, tions (negative versus positive) is not as impor-
and a false self emerges (Hochschild, 1983). The tant as how leaders deal with them. Leaders
term alexithymia refers to psychiatric patients who deny emotionality in the workplace will
who are unable to appraise and express their also block the emergence of new ideas from the
emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). base of the organization at a time when creativ-
At the organizational level, the emotional dy- ity and contextual knowledge are most needed
namic of display freedom refers to the organiza- to realize radical change. Organization mem-
tion's ability to facilitate the variety of authentic bers should be encouraged to express their full
emotions that legitimately can be displayed (and range of emotions, without fear of reprisal. As
felt) in the organization during a radical change their capacity to make sense breaks down, dis-
process.5 The converse is an alexithymic organi- enchantment and hurt should be allowed ex-
zation, which controls the types or intensity of pression, and the leadership should deal with it
emotions that can be expressed and felt through in an open and honest fashion (Bridges, 1984).
the oppressive use of culture and power. What- Controlling the variety of emotions expressed
ever the type organization, power can be subtly in the organization during discontinuous transi-
coercive when the organization exerts influence tion periods may well lead to emotional acting,
on sensemaking and meaning interpretation risk aversion, cynicism, and covert resistance to
(Lukes, 1974). Values and preferences are shaped the proposed change. Cynical members might
so that organization members cannot visualize withhold the tacit knowledge necessary for or-
any better alternative than the status quo, and ganizational learning. The more covert the re-
learning and exploration of alternatives are sistance, the more chaotic the change process
bounded. The organization maintains order partly will be, as resisters become indistinguishable
through emotional underpinnings such as fear, from friends or the loyal opposition.
guilt, or embarrassment. Also, a failure to engage
Members who are forced to continually enact
play-acting skills and to display representative
a narrow range of prescribed emotions are
emotions is read as an act of insubordination or a
likely to experience emotional dissonance,
sign of incompetence in strong cultures (Flam,
which reflects the internal conflict generated
1993). As a result, employees privately may feel
between genuinely felt emotions and emotions
trapped and fearful. In front of powerful persons,
required to be displayed. This, in turn, can result
individuals are likely to restrict the range of dis-
in emotional exhaustion, leading to burnout,
played emotions to mainly positive expressions
which Morris and Feldman (1996) define as a
state of depleted energy caused by excessive
emotional demands made on individuals. The
5 Display freedom represents a specific organizational be-
havior distinct from emotional experiencing or reconcilia- resulting emotional numbness alleviates stress
tion, although all imply acceptance of organization mem- by reducing access to feelings-the central
bers' emotions and attention to them. means of interpreting the world around us
(Hochschild, 1983)-and leads to low sensitivity set in. Action may still occur as decision makers
to new ideas and experimentation. choose what seems to be the least objectionable
This situation can degenerate into a vicious cy- course of action and proceed to exaggerate its
cle. As the workload pressure increases because positive consequences and minimize its negative
of burnout or downsizing, more and more employ- ones. Or decision makers may simply decide to
ees will become tired from trying to compensate procrastinate and shift decision-making responsi-
for work not done, which further reduces the self- bility to others (Lebow, 1981). At best, they will
reflection time that is necessary for deep learning. pursue their prior course of action in an incremen-
This frustrating state could be interpreted as a tal and satisficing manner.
failure in change that depresses further efforts at To counter this tendency toward fear and paral-
collective learning and change. ysis, Weick and Westley (1996) argue that humor
facilitates organizational learning. Laughter rep-
Proposition 5: The higher the level of resents a form of emotional release that comes
freedom for organization members to from the juxtaposition of paradoxes. Playfulness
display authentic emotions during allows safe experimentation and, like jokes, insti-
radical change, the higher the level of tutionalizes disorder within order, expression of
learning will be. taboo issues within a legitimate form, and surfac-
ing of the repressed without extreme discomfort.
Emotional playfulness induces a state of relative
Fun and the Dynamic of Playfulness
emotional equanimity to juggle tensions between
At the individual level, fun as an emotional foolishness and cold rationality.
state and process relates to the motivated search Playful moments in a process, thus, are en-
for pleasant experiences and aesthetic apprecia- acted to foster learning and creativity. Playful-
tion, and this constitutes another trait of emotional ness, which influences and is influenced by the
intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Intrinsic mo- perceived feasibility of unfettered experimenta-
tivation is one of the necessary preconditions for tion, increases the likelihood of collective learn-
creativity, for it distinguishes what an individual ing. Playful organizations induce playful activ-
can do from what he or she will do (Amabile, 1988). ities that legitimize random, uncensored trial
From a neurophysiological perspective, a feeling and error. As unfettered experimentation be-
of elation permits the rapid generation of multiple comes feasible, creativity emerges from playful
images so that the associative process is richer; a actions (Starbuck et al., 1978). However, in situ-
happy person indulges more often in creative and ations where there is perception of limited or no
exploratory behavior. In contrast, sadness slows possible playful experiments, because of fear of
image evocation (Damasio, 1994). undue risk (e.g., nuclear war accident) or re-
At the organizational level, the dynamic of source constraint, it is more likely that decision
playfulness refers to the ability of an organiza- makers are going to be affected by cognitive
tion to create a context that encourages experi- closure. Resource availability and context,
mentation and that tolerates mistakes during therefore, moderate this relationship.
radical change. A relatively safe and protective
Proposition 6: The higher the level of
work environment has to be created to allow
playfulness, the higher the likelihood
experimentation and to test new organization
of learning will be.
identities without premature lock-in (Ashforth,
1998). Yet, work-oriented organizations tend to
have a low tolerance for play, associating play- RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS AND
ful work with nonserious activities. CONCLUSIONS
During radical change, if organization members
Potential Contributions to Multilevel Theory
perceive a major threat and see a risk of serious
Research
loss associated with any possible action, stress
may instill in them a paralyzing fear. If it is no Until recently, there has been relatively little
longer realistic to hope that a better solution is study of behavior in organizational contexts and
feasible, decision makers will terminate their its effect on macro phenomena (House et al.,
search and lapse into the defensive avoidance 1995). The proposed multilevel emotional capa-
mode (Janis & Mann, 1977): cognitive closure has bility theory here suggests how micro theories of
1999 Huy 341
emotion and organizational behavior can be rel- activated to facilitate the realization of radical
evant at the macro strategy level, and how micro change.
forces can result in macro effects. General so- In order to test the propositions, one can opera-
cial-psychological theories are enhanced tionalize emotional dynamics in both objective
through their link to strategic implementation and subjective terms. For instance, emotional
issues. The meso perspective I adopt in this ar- experiencing and encouragement can be mea-
ticle proposes additional insights over and sured by the proportion of organizational re-
above what can be contributed by microlevel or sources allocated to emotion-attending activi-
macrolevel theories by articulating how some of ties, such as budget, specialized support groups,
the variables interact at the micro and macro emotion training, or executive time. Emotional
levels. These interactions span at least two lev- identification can be measured with the turn-
els: the individual (through emotional intelli- over rate of workers past a certain level of ten-
gence theory) and the organizational (through ure and with various measures of culture. And
emotional capability theory). emotional reconciliation can be measured by
This article illustrates one possible way to observing the time organization members spend
build a multilevel theory. As depicted in Figure in the grieving process, by directly recording or
1, both macro-organizational and microindi- asking them about the time they spend together
vidual phenomena are specified within the in order to develop a cultural graft, and so on.
same framework. The framework defines two The overt nature of the emotion-focused be-
meso variables at the intersection of these two havioral interactions lends itself more easily to
levels to couple the macro and micro variables outsider and peer observation and assessment
through bridging propositions. Beyond coupling via private interviews, survey methods, and eth-
the macrolevels and microlevels, the stated nographic research in natural settings. Recep-
propositions apply at both the individual and tivity to the proposed change can be measured
organizational levels. The proposed theory de- by the time it takes to convince organization
serves further scrutiny to map out the boundaries members to participate constructively in accept-
of the suggested meso processes regarding iso- ing the proposed change. The proposed con-
morphisms, discontinuities, and interlevel rela- structs lend themselves to multimethod re-
tionships (see House et al., 1995, for elaboration). search and triangulation, thus enhancing
Future empirical studies will help to identify the validity and reliability.
applicability and limitations of this multilevel The precise boundaries of this theory remain
claim in more clearly articulated contexts. to be mapped. Most of the propositions are spec-
ulative and need to be tested empirically. At this
stage, it is unclear which of the six suggested
Extending Research on Emotion and Change
emotional dynamics are preeminent in which
There are concerns among researchers as to contexts, whether some may naturally cohere
whether emotions can be studied with rigor. Tra- with others in certain parsimonious configura-
ditional research on emotion tends to focus on tions, or what the moderating and mediating
personal affective disposition or specific types factors are. Certain emotional dynamics may
of emotion, such as joy or anxiety, or to split provoke undesirable effects in other cultural set-
them into positive or negative groups; another tings. In future research scholars could start to
stream emphasizes emotional expressions explore the effectiveness of various emotional
(Hochschild, 1983; Staw et al., 1994). Reliability dynamics in different situations, as well as their
and validity of introspective self-report data are unintended side-effects.
difficult to establish, because it is relatively ar- In this article I have presented a multilevel
duous to check the veracity of such reports. This theory of emotion and change. At the individual
has forced a number of researchers to focus on level, researchers have found emotional intelli-
expressed emotions, because they are easier to gence to facilitate social adaptation and learn-
study and observe than internal feelings ing. At the organizational level, I have proposed
(Rafaeli & Sutton, 1989). The emotional capabil- an analogous concept, defining it as emotional
ity model advances the concept of emotional capability. Drawing on the insights of a wide
dynamics, such as reconciliation or playfulness, variety of literatures, I have attempted to fill
as emotion-arousing behaviors that need to be part of the gap in our understanding of large-
scale strategic change by explaining why radi- meaning for the individual. Emotions can be dis-
tinguished from the closely related concept of
cal changes are arduous and how such chal-
mood in that emotions are shorter and generally
lenges might be addressed by theorists and more intense (1990: 186).
practitioners. Organizations that are emotion-
ally capable are more likely to realize deep The root of the word emotion is motere, the Latin
changes. Emotional capability represents a nec- verb to move, suggesting that emotion triggers
essary, although not sufficient, antecedent for an impulse to act. Emotion is dualistic inasmuch
radical change. as it reflects an innate character related to phys-
Those with a resource-based view of the firm iological and psychodynamic processes, as well
have focused strategic management thinking on as social structures. Thus, the same physiologi-
an organization's internal capabilities. Sustain- cal arousal can be assigned different emotional
ability of competitive advantage requires re- labels, such as "joy" or "fury," depending on the
sources that are idiosyncratic and not easily cognitive evaluation of the socially embedded
transferable or replicable-there is value in tac- situation (Schachter & Singer, 1962).

itness (Grant, 1991). Emotional capability consti- I concentrate mainly on the social-interac-
tutes one dimension of the organization's inter- tional aspects of emotion. The interactional
nal capacity, which is difficult to imitate model contends that social factors enter not just
because it is embedded in the idiosyncratic so- "before and after but interactively during the
cial web of organizational interactions. It is dif- experience of emotion."6 In this interactional
ficult to imagine an internal capability that is perspective, "social factors enter into the very
more tacit and idiosyncratic than the emotional formulation of emotions, through codification,
energy of loyal members. Emotional capability management, and expression" (Hochschild,
taps the organization's emotional energy, which 1983: 207).
represents one of the most poorly understood From recent neurological research on emotion
and underexploited internal capabilities. and feelings and from the works of certain psy-
For too long, emotional energy has been chologists and sociologists, it appears that there
treated as irrational or nefarious to sound or- is an emerging consensus on the following
ganizing. This article exposes an alternative ideas. Emotion is essential to sensible, "ration-
view: far from being an impediment to learning al" choice in the social domain. It allows hu-
and change, emotional capability theory pre- mans to face uncertainty and to set long-term
dicts that well-channeled emotional dynamics goals; it permits choice among incommensura-
can lead to the realization of radical, or second- ble alternatives, such as values, to visualize a
order, change. Unattended, suppressed, or dis- desirable future, to speed up decision making,
dained emotional energy can frustrate the ca- and to make the leap of faith into the unknow-
reers of many change agents. For firms faced able (Damasio, 1994; Westen, 1985; Zajonc, 1980).
with an increasingly dynamic environment, Emotions provide the bridge between rational
emotional energy represents a largely unex- and nonrational processes (Damasio, 1994). They
ploited, yet ready, resource. Well tapped, it will reflect the individual's sense of self-relevance of
enable organizations to realize strategic stretch. a perceived situation and facilitate social adap-
tation and individual change (Hochschild, 1983).
APPENDIX The Organizational Nature of Emotion and Its

EMOTION AND RADICAL CHANGE Relation to Change
Organizational feelings are distinct from per-

The Individual Nature of Emotion and Its
sonal feelincs to the extent that rnrnorcrte actors
Relation to Change
Salovey and Mayer define emotions as

6 For example, a man can become "violently angry when
organized responses, crossing the boundaries of insulted. What, in his cultural milieu, constitutes an insult?
many psychological subsystems, including the As his anger rises, does he really codify the reality to which
physiological, cognitive, motivational, and expe- he responds? Does some feature of the social context aid or
riential systems. Emotions typically arise in re- inhibit him in doing this? Simultaneous to his outburst, does
sponse to an event, either internal or external, he react with shame or with pride at the anger?" (Hochs-
that has a positively or negatively valenced child, 1979: 212).
1999 Huy 343
are required to display some emotions and to Argyris, C. 1993. Knowledge for action: A guide to overcom-
ing barriers to organizational change. San Francisco:
suppress others (Flam, 1990). The former are spe-
Jossey-Bass.
cific emotions deemed necessary for effective
collective action. Certain representative emo- Ashforth, B. E. 1998. Becoming: How does the process of
identification unfold? In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey
tions have to be displayed to sustain the image
(Eds.), Identity in organizations: Developing theory
of the organization. For instance, bankers have through conversations: 7-22. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
to display reserve and discretion, and they must
Barker, V. L., III, & Duhaime, I. M. 1997. Strategic change in
inspire trust and confidence.
the turnaround process: Theory and empirical evidence.
Emotion can be used effectively as a tool of Strategic Management Journal, 18: 13-38.
social influence in a variety of organizational Barnard, C. I. 1968. (First published in 1938.) The functions of
roles, especially in front-line service functions the executive. Boston: Harvard University Press.
(Rafaeli & Sutton, 1989). For example, different
Bartunek, J. M. 1984. Changing interpretive schemes and
feeling rules can be prescribed for Disneyland organizational restructuring: The example of a religious
entertainers or funeral parlor workers. Organi- order. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29: 355-372.
zations impose certain specific emotional habits Berg, P. 0. 1979. Emotional structures in organizations: A
in the selection and retention of their members. study of the process of change in a Swedish company
These organizational emotions belong to the (2nd ed.). Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur.
performance of particular roles and should not Bion, W. R. 1959. Experiences in groups. New York: Basic
be confused with individual emotions (Albrow, Books.
1992). Boeker, W. 1997. Strategic change: The influence of manage-

Thus, organization members can either share rial characteristics and organizational growth. Acad-
the same authentic emotion or be required to emy of Management Journal, 40: 152-170.
display or act out a "legitimate" emotion in re- Bridges, W. 1980. Making sense of life's transitions. New York:
sponse to certain organizational events, such as Addison-Wesley.
the sudden death of the company's founder, Bridges, W. 1986. Managing organizational transitions.
which may trigger a radical change in the phi- Organizational Dynamics, 15(Summer): 24-33.
losophy of the firm. These feeling rules and dis- Brockner, J. 1992. Managing the effects of layoffs on survi-
playing or acting out of emotions all can be vors. California Management Review, 34(Winter): 9-27.
subsumed under emotional behaviors. Organi- Brunsson, N. 1982. The irrationality of action and action
zations are repositories of shared emotions that rationality: Decision, ideologies and organizational
are also enacted in terms of visible emotion- actions. Journal of Management Studies, 19: 29-44.
attending behaviors. These behaviors become Chandler, A. D. 1990. (First published in 1962.) Strategy and
organizational routines that enact cultural structure: Chapters in the history of the industrial enter-
prises. Boston: MIT Press.
norms related to feelings about change (Schein,
1992). Conger, J. A. 1989. The charismatic leader. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Cyert, R. M., & March, J. G. 1992. (First published in 1963.)

REFERENCES A behavioral theory of the firm. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Albert, S. 1984. A delete model for successful transitions. In
Damasio, A. R. 1994. Descartes' error emotion, reason, and
J. Kimberly & R. Quinn (Eds.), Managing organizational
the human brain. New York: Putnam.
transitions: 169-191. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
Duck, J. D. 1993. Managing change: The art of balancing.
Albert, S., & Whetten, D. 1985. Organizational identity. In L. L.
Harvard Business Review, 71(November-December):
Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organization-
109-118.
al behavior, vol. 7: 263-295. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Dutton, J. E. & Dukerich, J. M. 1991. Keeping an eye on the
Albrow, M. 1992. Sine ira et studio-or do organizations have
feelings? Organization Studies, 13: 313-329. mirror: Image and identity in organizational adaptation.
Academy of Management Journal, 34: 517-554.
Amabile, T. M. 1988. A model of creativity and innovation in
organizations. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Dutton, J. E., Dukerich, J. M., & Harquail, C. V. 1994. Organi-
Research in organizational behavior, vol. 10: 123-167. zational images and member identification. Administra-
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. tive Science Quarterly, 39: 239-263.
Dutton, J. E., & Duncan, R. 1987. The creation of momentum for

Amason, A. C. 1996. Distinguishing the effects of functional
and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: change through the process of strategic issue diagnosis.
Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Acad- Strategic Management Journal, 8: 279-295.
emy of Management Journal, 39: 123-148. Dutton, J. E., & Jackson, S. 1987. Categorizing strategic issues:
Links to organizational action. Academy of Manage- Kets de Vries, M. F. R. 1990. Prisoners of leadership. New
ment Review, 12: 76-90. York: Wiley.
Festinger, L. 1957. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evan- Kets de Vries, M. F. R., & Miller, D. 1984. The neurotic organ-
ston, IL: Row, Peterson. ization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. 1984. Social cognition. Reading, Kim, D. H. 1993. The link between individual learning and
MA: Addison-Wesley. organizational learning. Sloan Management Review.
35(Fall): 379-500.
Flam, H. 1990. Emotional "man": II. Corporate actors as emo-
tion-motivated emotion managers. International Sociol- Kuhn, T. S. 1970. The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd
ogy, 5: 225-234. ed.). New York: Wiley.
Flam, H. 1993. Fear, loyalty and greedy organizations. In Larwood, L., Falbe, C. M., Kriger, M. P., & Miesing, P. 1995.
S. Fineman (Ed.), Emotion in organizations: 58-75. Lon- Structure and meaning of organizational vision. Acad-
don: Sage. emy of Management Journal, 38: 740-769.
Gioia, D. A., & Chittipeddi, K. 1991. Sensemaking and sense- Lazarus, R. S. 1993. From psychological stress to emotions: A
giving in strategic change initiation. Strategic Manage- history of changing outlooks. Annual Review of Psychol-
ment Journal, 12: 433-448. ogy, 44: 1-21.
Goleman, D. 1995. Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Lebow, N. 1981. Between peace and war. Baltimore: Johns
Books. Hopkins University Press.
Grant, R. M. 1991. The resource-based theory of competitive Ledford, G. E., Jr., Mohrman, S. A., Mohrman, A. M., Jr., &
advantage: Implications for strategy formulation. Cali- Lawler, E. E., III. 1989. The phenomenon of large scale
fornia Management Review, 33(Summer): 114-135. organizational change. In A. M. Mohrman, Jr., S. A.
Mohrman, G. E. Ledford, Jr., T. G. Cummings, E. E. Lawler
Harquail, C. V. 1998. Organizational identification and the
III, and Associates (Eds.), Large-scale organizational
"whole person": Integrating affect, behavior and cogni-
change: 1-32. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
tion. In D. A. Whetten & P. C. Godfrey (Eds.), Identity in
organizations: Developing theory through conversations: Lewin, K. 1951. Field theory in social science: Selected theo-
23-37. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. retical papers. New York: Harper & Row.
Hirschman, A. 0. 1970. Exit, voice, and loyalty: Responses to Lukes, S. 1974. Power: A radical view. New York: Macmillan.
decline in firms, organizations, and states. Cambridge, McAllister, D. J. 1995. Affect- and cognition-based trust as
MA: Harvard University Press.
foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organiza-
Hochschild, A. 1979. Emotion work, feeling rule, and social tions. Academy of Management Journal, 38: 24-59.
structure. American Journal of Sociology, 85: 551-575. Miller, D. 1993. The architecture of simplicity. Academy of
Hochschild, L. E. 1983. The managed heart: Commercializa- Management Review, 18: 116-138.
tion of human feeling. Berkeley, CA: University of Cali- Miller, D., & Chen, M. 1996. The simplicity of competitive
fornia Press.
repertoires: An empirical analysis. Strategic Manage-
House, R., Rousseau, D., & Thomas-Hunt, M. 1995. The meso ment Journal, 17: 419-439.
paradigm: A framework for the integration of micro and Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. 1996. The dimensions, ante-
macro organizational behavior. In B. M. Staw & L. L. cedents and consequences of emotional labor. Academy
Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, of Management Review, 21: 986-1010.
vol. 17: 71-114. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Moses, J. L. 1987. A psychologist assesses today's AT&T man-
Huber, G. P. 1991. Organizational learning: The contributing agers. Teleconnect, March: 32-36.
processes and the literatures. Organization Science, 2:
88-115. Nadler, D. A., & Tushman, M. L. 1990. Beyond the charismatic
leader: Leadership and organizational change. Califor-
Janis, I., & Mann, L. 1977. Decision making: A psychological nia Management Review, 32(Winter): 77-97.
analysis of conflict, choice and commitment, New York:
Free Press. Noer, D. M. 1993. Healing the wounds. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
Jaques, E. 1955. Social systems as a defense against perse-
Pascale, R. T. 1984. Perspectives on strategy: The real story
cutory and depression anxiety. In M. Klein, P. Heimann,
behind Honda's success. California Management
& R. E. Money-Kyrle (Eds.), New directions in psycho-
Review, 26(Summer): 47-72.
analysis: 277-299. London: Tavistock.
Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, R. I. 1989. The expression of emotion in
Jehn, K. 1997. A qualitative analysis of conflict types and
organizational life. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw
dimensions in organizational groups. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 42: 530-557.
(Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, vol. 11: 1-42.
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Kanter, R. M. 1983. The change masters. New York: Simon and
Schuster. Reger, R., Gustafson, L., DeMarie, S., & Mullane, J. 1994.
Reframing the organization: Why implementing total
Kelly, G. 1955. The psychology of personal constructs. New quality is easier said than done. Academy of Manage-
York: Norton. ment Review, 19: 565-584.
1999 Huy 345
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. 1990. Emotional intelligence. Imag- Managing organizational transitions: 240-264. Home-
ination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3): 185-211. wood, IL: Irwin.
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. E. 1962. Cognitive, social, and Van Maanen, J., & Kunda, G. 1989. Real feelings: Emotional
physiological determinants of emotional state. Psycho- expression and organizational culture. In L. L. Cum-
logical Review, 69: 379-399. mings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational
Schein, E. H. 1992. Organizational culture and leadership behavior, vol. 11: 43-104. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
(2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Walsh, J. P. 1995. Managerial and organizational cognition:
Schmidt, D. 1997. Organizational change and the role of Notes from a trip down memory lane. Organization Sci-
emotional intelligence. Paper presented at the annual ence, 6: 280-321.
meeting of the Academy of Management, Boston.
Weick, K. 1979. The social psychology of organizing. Reading,
Simonin, B. L. 1997. The importance of collaborative know- MA: Addison-Wesley.
how: An empirical test of the learning organization.
Weick, K., & Westley, F. 1996. Organizational learning: Af-
Academy of Management Journal, 40: 1150-1174.
firming an oxymoron. In S. R. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. Nord
Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies: 440-458. Lon-
Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Lan- don: Sage.
gelle, C., & Harney, P. 1991. The will and the ways:
Westen, D. 1985. Self and society: Narcissism, collectivism
Development and validation of an individual-differ-
and the development of morals. Cambridge, MA: Cam-
ences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 60: 570-585. bridge University Press.
Starbuck, W. H., Greve, A., & Hedberg, B. L. T. 1978. Respond- Westley, F. 1990. The eye of the needle: Cultural and per-
ing to crisis. Journal of Business Administration. 9(2): sonal transformation in a traditional organization.
111-137. Human Relations, 43: 273-293.
Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H. 1994. Employee Winnicot, D. W. 1965. The maturational process and the
positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the work- facilitating environment. New York: International Uni-
place. Organization Science, 5: 51-71. versity Press.
Tichy, N. M., & Ulrich, D. 1984. Revitalizing organizations: Zajonc, R. B. 1980. Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no
The leadership role. In J. R. Kimberly & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), inferences. American Psychologist, 35: 151-175.
Quy (Francis) Nguyen Huy is an assistant professor of strategic management at

INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France. He received his Ph.D. in strategy from McGill Uni-
versity. His research interests include dynamics of large-scale change; nonspatial
dimensions, such as emotion and time; organizational learning and innovation; and
roles of middle management and consulting firms in strategic change.

Emotional Equanimity

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Emotional Equanimity

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Emotional Capability, Emotional Intelligence, and Radical Change

Author(s): Quy Nguyen Huy

EMOTIONAL CAPABILITY, EMOTIONAL

QUY NGUYEN HUY

I present a multilevel theory of emotion and change, which focuses on attributes of

U A (Emotional capability theory)

Learning components of organization receptivity (inter-

TABLE 1 through bridging propositions, and these multi-

Sympathy is partly demonstrated by concilia- rich (1984) prescribe a model of organizational

transferable or replicable-there is value in tac- situation (Schachter & Singer, 1962).

APPENDIX The Organizational Nature of Emotion and Its

Organizational feelings are distinct from per-

Salovey and Mayer define emotions as

1992). Boeker, W. 1997. Strategic change: The influence of manage-

Cyert, R. M., & March, J. G. 1992. (First published in 1963.)

Dutton, J. E., & Duncan, R. 1987. The creation of momentum for

Quy (Francis) Nguyen Huy is an assistant professor of strategic management at

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi