Ec6361 Electronics Lab Manual

EC6361 ELECTRONICS LABORATORY Page 0
EC6361 ELECTRONICS LABORATORY

Lab Manual
Dr.NGP.IT/EEE/LM/V 2.4
Dr. NGPIT2015. All rights reserved.

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Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Release History
Release
Sl.No Regulation Released by Approved by
Date
1 V1.1 AUCB-2008 Mr. S. Vivekanandhan Mr. P. Selvakumar
2 V1.2 AUCB-2008 Mr. S. Vivekanandhan Dr. K. Porkumaran
3 V1.3 AUCB-2008 Mr. M. Manojkumar Dr. K. Porkumaran
4 V1.4 AUCB-2008 Ms. G. Saranya Dr. V. Kumar Chinnaiyan
5 V2.1 AUCH-2013 Ms. N. Mynavathi Dr. V. Kumar Chinnaiyan
6 V2.2 AUCH-2013 Ms. D. Nirmala Dr. G. Naveen Babu
7 V2.3 AUCH-2013 Ms. R. Santhiya Dr. S. Jaganathan
8 V2.4 AUCH-2013 Ms. R. Santhiya Dr. S. Jaganathan
Ratification by
Version Represented by Date Signature

Mr. J. Sathish/AP
V2.4 Dr. M. Gopinath/Asso.Prof
Dr. S. Jaganathan /HoD

Table of Contents
Contents.. . . ...Pg No
STUDY OF CRO FOR FREQUENCY AND PHASE MEASUREMENTS .......................... 8
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE .................................................................................... 12
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE .......................................................................................................... 18
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER ..................................................................................................................................... 24
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER ..................................................................................................................................... 30
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION ................. 31
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION ......... 37
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION......................... 43
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE ........................................................................................................... 49
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO TRANSISTOR ............................................................................................. 53
CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET............................................................................................................................. 61
DESIGN AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMMON EMITTER
AMPLIFIER .............................................................................................................................................................. 71
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR ........................................................................................................................ 75
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR ..................................................................................................................................... 79
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER USING FET ........................................................................................................ 83
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR .............................................................................................................................. 87
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR .................................................................................................................... 91
STUDY OF CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS ........................................................................................... 95
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE USING VIRTUAL LAB ................................................................ 99
HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT........................................................................................................................... 103

INDEX
PAGE
S.NO. DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT MARKS SIGNATURE
NO



EC6361 ELECTRONICS LABORATORY LTPC 0032
OBJECTIVES:
To enable the students to understand the behavior of semiconductor device based on experimentation
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Characteristics of Semiconductor diode and Zener diode
2. Characteristics of a NPN Transistor under common emitter, common collector and common
base configurations
3. Characteristics of JFET (Draw the equivalent circuit)
4. Characteristics of UJT and generation of saw tooth waveforms
5. Design and Frequency response characteristics of a Common Emitter amplifier
6. Characteristics of photo diode & photo transistor
7. Study of light activated relay circuit
8. Design and testing of RC phase shift, LC oscillators
9. Single Phase half-wave and full wave rectifiers with inductive and capacitive filters
10. Differential amplifiers using FET
11. Study of CRO for frequency and phase measurements
12. Astable and Monostable multivibrators
13. Realization of passive filters
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Ability to understand and analyze, linear and digital electronic circuits.

C I R C U I T D I A GR A M:
FIG 1.1 BASIC STRUCTURE OF CRO FIG 1.2 CRO FRONT PANEL
CRO
1F
+ -
+
Fun.
Gen ~- 1k CRO
Fig 1.3 CONNECTION DIAGRAM

M OD E L GR A P H:
T A B U L A T I O N:
Amplitude Time Time

S.No. Signal
(Volts) (Sec) Delay
1. Across R
2. Across C

Ex. No.: STUDY OF CRO FOR FREQUENCY

Date: AND PHASE MEASUREMENTS
AIM:
To measure amplitude, time period frequency and phase for given waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No APPARATUS NAME QUANTITY

1 CRO 1 No
2 Function Generator 1 No
3 Resistor 1k 1 No
4 Capacitor 1micro Farad 1 No
THEORY:
The Device consists of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode, anode, grid, X & Y plates,
and a fluorescent screen as shown in fig 1. When cathode is heated by applying a small potential
difference across its terminals, it emits electrons. Having a potential difference between the cathode
and anode, the electrodes accelerate the emitted electron towards the anode, forming an electron
beam which passes to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced.
The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing through
it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X & Y plates are responsible for
deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A Sweep generator is connected to the X Plates, which moves the bright spot horizontally
across the screen and repeats that a certain frequency as the source of the signal. The voltage to
be studied is applied to the Y Plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages produce a graph showing
the variation with time as shown in model graph.
APPLICATIONS OF CRO:
1. Measurement of current
2. Measurement of voltage
3. Measurement of power
4. Measurement of frequency
5. Measurement of phase angle
6. To see transistor curves
7. To trace and measuring signals of RF, IF and AF in radio and TV.
8. To trace visual display of sine waves.
PROCEDURE:
1. Understand the significance of each and every knob on the CRO.
2. From the given function generator pr o duc es a sinusoidal wave and adjust the time base knob
and the amplitude knob to observe the waveform as a function of time.


3. Measure the time period and amplitude (peak to peak) of the signal. Find the frequency and
verify if the same frequency is given from the function generator.
4. Observe two waveforms simultaneously on the two channels of a CRO and find phase and phase
difference.
5. Repeat the above steps for pulse and triangular waveforms.
6. Report the readings and the waveforms taken.
MEASUREMENTS:
Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.
Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Time/div.
Frequency=(1/T) Hz
Phase Difference=360*Time Delay/Time period
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the operation and measurement of various signals using CRO were studied.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. How do you measure frequency using the CRO?
2. Can you measure signal phase using the CRO?
3. Suggest a procedure for signal phase measurement using the data from CRO.
4. Can you comment on the wavelength of a signal using CRO?
5. How many channels are there in a CRO?
6. Can you measure DC voltage using a CRO?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

FIG 2.1 FORWARD BIAS
FIG 2.2 REVERSE BIAS

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Date:
AIM:
To observe and obtain the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a semiconductor diode.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 PN Diode - IN 4007 1
2 Resistor - 1k 1
3 RPS - (0 -30)V 1
(0-30) mA 1
Ammeter MC
4 (0 -500) A 1
(0-1)V 1
Voltmeter MC
5 (0-30)V 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting Wires - - As Required
THEORY:
A PN junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are
curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero,
circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current
is zero. When P-type (Anode) is connected to +ve terminal and n- t ype (cathode) is connected to ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode
is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier all together is
eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to
be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to + ve terminal & P - Type (Anode) is connected ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction
increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse
saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current
is due to minority charge carriers.

M OD E L GR A P H:
FORWARD BIAS:
Vf If
S.No RPS Voltage ( ) ( ) ( )

PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For forward bias, the RPS + ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS ve is
connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch ON the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of 2V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Tabulate the reading of voltage and current of the diode.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vf) and current (If).
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. For reverse bias, the RPS + ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of 2 V.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vr) and current (Ir).

REVERSE BIAS:
RPS Vr Ir
S.No
Voltage( ) ( ) ( )
(Volts)

INFERENCES:
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70
RESULT:
Thus the forward and reverse bias characteristic for a semiconductor diode were obtained
and the graph was plotted.
Cut in Voltage = Break down Voltage =
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define depletion region of a diode.

2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes.
5. What are the applications of a P-N diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode.
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

FIG 2.1.1 FORWARD BIAS
FIG 2.1.2 REVERSE BIAS

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE
Date:
AIM:
To observe and obtain the forward and reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a Zener
diode.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1 Zener diode 1z 5.1 1

2 Resistor 1k 1
3 RPS (0-30)V 1
4 Ammeter MC (0-30) mA 1
(0-500) A 1
5 Voltmeter MC (0-1)V 1
(0-30)V 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As Required
THEORY:
A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when it is reverse biased. But if
the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called Break down Voltage. High current is passed through the diode can permanently damage
the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode
starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the
current through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS ve is
connected to the cathode of the diode.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode

M O D E L GR A P H:
TA B U L A T I O N:
FORWARD BIAS:
RPS Vf If
S.No Voltage( ) ( ) ( )
(Volts)

for each and every step of the input voltage.

6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vf) and current (If).
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
6. Plot a Graph between voltage (Vr) and current (Ir).

REVERSE BIAS:
RPS Vr Ir
S.No Voltage ( ) ( ) ( )
(Volts)

INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the forward and reverse Bias characteristic of a Zener diode is obtained and the
graph was plotted.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion layer width is affected.
2. Does the dynamic impendence of a Zener diode vary?
3. Explain briefly about avalanche and Zener breakdown.
4. Draw the Zener equivalent circuit.
5. Give an application of zener diode
6. Differentiate a PN junction diode and zener diode.
7. Justify Zener as a voltage regulator.
8. What is mean by depletion region?
9. Define the transition capacitance of a diode.
10. Define the diffusion capacitance of a diode
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

M OD E L GR A P H: IN P U T WA V E F O R M
OU TP U T WA VE F O R M

Ex. No.:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Date:
AIM:
To obtain the ripple factor of a half- wave rectifier with and without filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Diode BY 127 1
2 Resistor 470 1
3 Capacitor 470 F 1
4 Step down Transformer (12 - 0 - 12)V 1
5 CRO 1
6 Bread Board 1
THEORY:
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the
load resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and
there is no current through the circuit. i.e, the voltage across R1 is zero. The net result is that
only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the
half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter. For practical circuits,
transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier thus preventing shock hazards in
the secondary circuit.

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR:-
WITHOUT FILTER:-
Vrms =Vm/2
Vm =2Vrms
Vdc =Vm/
Ripple factor r= (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 1.21,
V = ( V 2- V 2
ac rms dc
WITH FILTER:-
Ripple factor, r=1/ (23 f C R )
Where f =50Hz
C =470F
RL=470
PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor with out Filter =
Ripple factor with Filter =
TABULATION:-
WITHOUT FILTER:
r = Vac/ Time
Vm( ) Vac( ) Vdc( ) Period ( )
USING Vdc
CRO
WITH FILTER
Time
USING V m( ) Vdc( ) Vac( ) r = Vac/ Vdc Period ( )
CRO



PROCEDURE:
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the
rectifier input.
3. By using the CRO, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier, ac and dc voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula,
Vdc=Vm /
Where,
Vm= 2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)
The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula
r = AC output voltage / DC output voltage.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the Ripple factor for the Half-Wave Rectifier with and without filters was measured.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?

2. What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
3. What is a rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full wave Rectifier?
5. What is the output frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What do you mean by ripples?
7. What is the function of the filters?
8. What is the peak factor? Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

A K
A K
M OD E L GR A P H:

Ex. No.:
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
Date:
AIM:
To find the Ripple factor of a Full-wave Rectifier with and without filter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1 Diode - BY 127 2
2 Resistor Wire Wound 470 1
3 Capacitor Electrolyte 470 F 1
4 Step down Transformer Wire Wound 230V/(12-0-12)V 1
5 CRO - - 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting Wires - - As Required
THEORY:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2. During
positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased. The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During
negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts
and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction.
There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half
cycles and will get unidirectional current. The difference between full wave and half wave
rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during
the entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half
cycle (180 degree).

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
Vrms = Vm/ 2
Vm =Vrms2
Vdc =2Vm/
WITHOUT FILTER:
Ripple factor, r = ( Vrms/ Vdc ) 2 -1 = 0.482
WITH FILTER:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (43 f C RL)

where
f =50Hz C = 470F RL= 470
PRACTICAL
CALCULATIONS: WITHOUT
FILTER:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor, r=Vac/Vdc
WITH FILTERS:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor=Vac/Vdc
TABULATION:
WITHOUT FILTER
Vm( ) Vac( ) Vdc( ) r= Vac/ Vdc Time Period

USING
( )
CRO
WITH FILTER
Time Period
USING Vm( ) Vac( ) Vdc( ) r= Vac/ Vdc
( )
CRO



PROCEDURE:

2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the
rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc = 2Vm/
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and
Vdc at the output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated. From
the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The practical
values are compared with theoretical values.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
The ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier (with filter and without filter) was calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier.
2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV). And write its value for Full-wave rectifier.
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get.
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the full wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is meant by ripple and define ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor
.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

C I R C U I T D IA G R A M:
MODEL GRAPH:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON
Date: EMITTER CONFIGURATION
AIM:
1. To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common Emitter configuration.
2. To find of the given transistor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1 Transistor BC 547 1
2 Resistor 1K 2
3 RPS (0 -30)V 2
4 Ammeter MC (0 10) mA 1
(0 500) A 1
5 Voltmeter MC (0 -30)V 2
6 Bread Board 1
THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device with the terminals emitter, base, and
collector. In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter
terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter
terminal is common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is expected
since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared to CB
arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher
than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector
current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost
constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes
with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor is always operated in the region above Knee
voltage, where IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
= IC/IB

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
VCE = VCE =
S.NO VBE( ) IB( ) VBE( ) IB( )
OUT PUT CHARACTARISTICS:
IB = IB =
S.NO VCE( ) IC( ) VCE( ) I C( )

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and
for different values of VBE, Note down the values of IB.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 10A and for
different values of VCE note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75A and100A and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB.


INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the transistor were plotted and the value of
of the given transistor is calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics.
4. What is the relation between and ?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration.
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor.
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

MODEL GRAPHS:

Ex. No.:
Date: COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
AIM:
To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common collector configuration and to determine its h parameters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No Nameof the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

2 Resistor 1K 2
3 RPS (0 -30)V 2
5 Voltmeter MC (0 -30)V 2
6 Bread Board 1
THEORY:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal (Emitter, Base, Collector) device. There are
two types of transistors namely NPN and PNP. It consists of two P N junctions namely emitter junction
and collector junction.
In Common collector configuration the input is applied between base and collector terminals and
the output is taken from collector and emitter. Here collector is common to both input and output and hence
the name common collector configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage taking output voltage
as parameter. It is plotted between VBC and IB at constant VCE in CC Configuration. Output
Characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current. It is plotted between VCE and
IE at constant IB in CC Configuration.
The various h parameters are given below:
1. Input impedance (hie) = VBC / IB
2. Forward current gain (hfc) = IE / IB
3. Output admittance (hoc) = IE / VEC
4. Reverse voltage gain (hrc) = VBC / VEC

VCE = VCE =
S.NO VCB( ) IB( ) VCB( ) IB( )
IB = IB =
S.NO VCE( ) IC( ) VCE( ) I C( )

PROCEDURE:

2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and
for different values of VCB, Note down the values of IB.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VBC and IB for constant VCE.
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 2mA and for
different values of VCE note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 5mA and10mA and tabulate the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB.
INFERENCES:


RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the transistor were plotted and the various h
parameters of the given transistor is calculated.
1. Input impedance (hie) =
2. Forward current gain (hfc) =
3. Output admittance (hoc) =
4. Reverse voltage gain (hrc) =
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of CC Configuration?
2. Compare the voltage gain and input and output impedances of CE and CC configurations.
3. BJT is a current controlled device. Justify.
4. Why CC Configuration is called emitter follower?
5. Can we use CC configuration as an amplifier?
6. What is the need for analyzing the transistor circuits using different parameters?
7. What is the significance of hybrid model of a transistor?
8. Is there any phase shift between input and output characteristics in CC Configuration?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

MODEL GRAPH:

Ex. No.:
Date: BASE CONFIGURATION
AIM:
1. To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in
common base configuration.
2. To find of the given transistor.
2 Resistor 1k 2
3 RPS (0 30)V , (0-10)V 1 Each
6 Bread Board 1
THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In
CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and output (collector). For normal
operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. In CB
configuration, IE is +ve, IC is ve and IB is ve. So,
VEB=f1 (VCB,IE)
and
IC=f2 (VCB, IB)

With an increasing reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the output
junction increases and the effective base width W decreases. This phenomenon is known as
Early effect. Then, there will be less chance for recombination within the base region. Wit h
increase of charge gradient within the base region, the current of minority carriers injected across
the emitter junction increases. The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given by,
= IC/ IE

VCB = VCB=
S. No
VEB( ) IE( ) VEB( ) IE( )
IE= IE=
S. No
VCB( ) IC( ) VCB( ) I C( )

PROCEDURE:
2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCB is kept constant at 0.5V and for
different values of VBE note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V, and 6V and tabulate the readings.
4. A graph is drawn between VBE and IE for constant VCB.
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE is kept constant at 10 mA and for
different values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA and tabulate the
readings.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and IC for constant IE.


INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the transistor were plotted and the value of
of the given transistor was calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration.
3. Identify various regions in output characteristics.
5. What are the applications of CB configuration?
6. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration?
7. Define (alpha).
8. What is EARLY effect?
9. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP tra nsistor.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE
Date:
AIM:
To obtain the distance vs photocurrent characteristics of a photodiode.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1 Photo Diode 1
2 Regulated power supply (0-30)V 1
3 Ammeter MC (0-500)A 1
4 Bread board 1
5 Connecting wires As Required
THEORY:
A photodiode iscapable ofconverting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the
mode of operation. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a
large area photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they
may b e either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical
fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to increase the speed
of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
PROCEDURE:
2. Set the input voltage, Vary the scale of photodiode light Source towards bulb and note
down the corresponding diode current ID.
3. Plot the graph for current ID(A) Vs Distance (cm)

TABULATION:
INPUT VOLTAGE =
S.No. Distance( ) Current( )

INFERENCES:
RESULT
Thus the following characteristics of the photo diode were obtained and the corresponding graph
was drawn.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How does photo diode work?
2. Give two applications of photo diode.
3. Which biasing is suitable for photo diode application?
4. What is meant by dark current?
5. What is meant by dark resistance?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

M OD E L GR A P H :

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO TRANSISTOR
Date:
AIM:
To obtain the characteristics of a phototransistor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Phototransistor. - 1
2 Regulated power supply - (0 30)V 1
3 Ammeter MC (0 500)A 1
4 Bread board - 1
5 Connecting wires - As Required
THEORY:
Photo transistor is a bit like a photo diode in the fact it detects light waves, however
photo transistors, like transistor are designed to be like a fast switch and is used for light wave
communications and as light or infrared sensors. The most common form of photo transistor is
the NPN collector and emitter transistor with no base lead. Light or photons entering the base
replace the base emitter current of normal transistors.
PROCEDURE:
2. Set the input voltage, Vary the scale of photodiode light Source towards bulb and note
down the corresponding diode current ID.
3. Plot the graph for current ID(A) Vs Distance (cm)

TABULATION:
S.NO DISTANCE( ) CURRENT( )

INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the following characteristics of the photo transistor were obtained and the
corresponding graph was drawn.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a phototransistor?
2. How is it different from photo diode?
3. Give the applications of phototransistor.
4. List the advantages of Photo transistors
5. List the disadvantages of Photo transistors.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

FIG 6.1 L OW P A S S F I L T E R FIG 6.2 H I G H P A S S F I L T E R
M OD E L GR A P H:
VOUT VOUT
Low Pass High Pass

F F
L OW P A S S F I L T E R HI G H P A S S F I L T E R

Ex. No.:
REALIZATION OF PASSIVE FILTERS
Date:
AIM:
To design and observe the frequency response characteristics of passive filters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1. Function Generator - 1
2. Decade Resistance Box - 1
3. Decade Capacitance Box - 1
4. Voltmeter (0 10) V MI 1
5. Bread board - 1
6. Connecting wires - As required
THEORY:
Filters are electric circuits that pass, reject, and attenuate signals at various frequencies. Common
types of filters are:
1. Low pass Filter: It allows low frequencies and rejects high frequencies.
2. High pass Filter: It allows high frequencies and rejects low frequencies.
3. Band Pass Filter: It allows some particular range of frequencies and reject other frequencies outside
that band.
4. Band Rejection Filter: It rejects a range of frequencies and pass all other frequencies.
PASSIVE FILTERS:
Passive filters use RLC elements to achieve the desired filter. The half power frequency is the same
as the break frequency (or corner frequency) and is located at the frequency where the magnitude is 1/2 of
its maximum value. The resonance frequency f0 is also referred to as the center frequency. The passive
filters can be designed appropriately by using the below formula.
F=1/2RC

TABULATION:
LOW PASS FILTER HIGH PASS FILTER

Frequency=
Frequency =
Output Output
Frequency in Frequency
Voltage in S. No Voltage in
S. No ( ) in ( )
( ) ( )

INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the frequency response characteristics of passive filters were designed and the results were
observed.
V IV A Q U E S T I O N S:
1. What are the applications of Passive filters?
2. Distinguish between Active and passive filters.
3. What are the limitations of passive filters?
4. What is half power frequency?
5. Define the design parameters of pas sive filters.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

M OD E L GR A P H:
D R A I N C HA R A C T E R I S T I C S TR A N S F E R CH A R A C T E R I S T I C S

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET
Date:
AIM:
a). To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.
b). To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor () and Tran conductance (gm) of
the given FET.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. FET BFW 10 1
2. Resistor 1k 2
3. Regulated power supply (0-30)V 2
4. Ammeter MC (0 -10)mA 1
(0 -10)V 1
5. Voltmeter MC
(0 -30)V 1
6. Bread board 1
7. Connecting wires As Required
THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and
less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET Is always reverse biased. In response to small
applied voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current
increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and
the channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to
remain constant. The VDS at this instant is called pinch of voltage.
If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the direction to provide additional
reverse bias, the pinch off voltage is decreased. In amplifier application, the FET is always used
in the region beyond the pinch-off.
FDS=IDSS(1-VGS/VP)2

TABULATION:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
VGS= VGS=
S.NO VDS( ) I D( ) VDS( ) ID( )
TRANSFER CHARACTYERISTICS:
VDS = VDS=
S.NO VGS ( ) I D( ) VGS ( ) I D( )

PROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V and tabulate all the
readings.
5. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
6. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
7. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V and tabulate all the
readings.
8. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd) by using the
formula
rd = VDS/ID
9. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (gm). By using the
formula
Gm = ID/VDS
10. Amplification factor () = dynamic resistance. Tran conductance
= VDS/VGS

PIN DIAGRAM OF BFW 10:

INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the drain and transfer characteristics of a FET were observed and the followings
parameters were calculated.
The dynamic resistance (rd) =
Amplification factor () =
Transconductance (gm) =
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of FET?
2. Differentiate between FET and BJT.
3. Explain different regions in V-I characteristics of FET.
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET.
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

C I R C U I T D I A GR A M :
M OD E L GR A P H:

Ex. No.:
CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT
Date:
A IM :
To obtain the characteristics of UJT and to observe the pinch off Voltage.
A PP AR ATU S REQ U IRED :
S.No. APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1 UJT 2N2646 1
1k 1
2 Resistor 2.2 k 1
220 1
(0-100) mA 1
4 Ammeter
MC (0-10)mA 1
6 Bread board 1
7 Connecting wires As Required
T H E O R Y:
A Uni junction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one
junction. The Uni junction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals which are emitter (E) and two
bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic
contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The
resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance. The
original uni junction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type
semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length.
The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.
The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential
drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven, approximately one diode
voltage rises above the voltage and the current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base
region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in
the base region) causes conductivity which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base
between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the
emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is
a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in
simple oscillator circuits. When the emitter voltage reaches Vp, the current starts to increase and

VB1B2 =
VB1E
S. No. IE ( )
( )

the emitter voltage starts to decrease. This is represented by negative slope of the characteristics
which is referred to as the negative resistance region beyond the valley point.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.

2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input voltage corresponding
emitter current values are noted down.
3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.
4. All the readings are tabulated & Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is calculated using = (Vp-VD)/VBB
5. A graph is plotted between VBB and IE for different values of VBE.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of UJT are observed and the pinch off value was calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Draw the symbol of UJT.
2. Draw the equivalent circuit of UJT.
3. What are the applications of UJT?
4. Write the formula for the intrinsic standoff ratio.
5. What does it shows the direction of arrow in the UJT?
6. What is the difference between FET and UJT?
7. Can UJT be used as an oscillator? How?
8. What is the name of resistance between B1and B2 ?
9. What is its value of resistance between B1 and B2?
10. Draw the characteristics of UJT.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70


Ex. No.:
DESIGN AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
Date: OF A COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
AIM:
To find the voltage gain of a CE amplifier and to find its frequency response

2 Resistor 1k 5
3 Signal Generator 1
4 Voltmeter MI (0 -30)V 1
5 CRO (0-20)MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
THEORY:
The CE amplifier is a small signal amplifier. This small signal amplifier accepts low voltage
ac inputs and produces amplified outputs. A single stage BJT circuit may be employed as a
small signal amplifier; has two cascaded stages give much more
amplification.
Designing for a particular voltage gain requires the use of a ac negative feedback to
stabilize the gain. For good bias stability, the emitter resistor voltage drop should be much
larger than the base -emitter voltage. And R e resistor will provide the required negative
feedback to the circuit. CE will provide necessary gain to the circuit. All bypass capacitors should be
selected to have the smallest possible capacitance value, both to minimize the physical size of the
circuit for economy. The coupling capacitors should have a negligible effect on the frequency
response of the circuit.

TABULATION:
Input voltage (Vi) =
Output Gain in dB
S.NO Frequency Gain Av=Vo/Vi
Voltage( ) 20 Log Gain
MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

2. Give l00Hz signal and 20mv p-p as Vs from the signal generator.
3. Observe the output on CRO and note down the output voltage.
4. Keeping input voltage constant and by varying the frequency in the range 100Hz-1MHz, note down the
corresponding output voltages.
5. Calculate gain in dB and plot the frequency response on semi log sheet
INFERENCES:
RESULT: Thus the voltage gain of a CE amplifier and its frequency response was obtained.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics.
5. Define current gain in CE configuration.
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor.
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE Configuration?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
Amplitude Time Period Theoretical Practical

S.No. % Error
( ) ( ) Frequency ( ) Frequency ( )

Ex. No.:
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
Date:
AIM:
To construct a RC Phase shift oscillator and to calculate the percentage error.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistor 22k,2k, 4.7k, 560,6.8k 1,1,1,1,3
3 Capacitor 2.2F, 2.2pF, 0.01F 2,1,3
4 CRO 30MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires As required
FORMULA :
f=1/2 RC (6+4K) where, R1=R2=R3=R,
C1=C2=C3=C and
K=RC/R.
THEORY:
In the RC phase shift oscillator, the combination of RC provides self-bias for the amplifier.
The phase of the signal at the input gets reverse biased when it is amplified by the amplifier. The
output of amplifier goes to a feedback network consists of three identical RC sections. Each RC section
provides a phase shift of 600. Thus a total of 1800 phase shift is provided by the feedback network.
The output of this circuit is the same phase as the input to the amplifier.

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The amplitude and time period of the output waveform are noted.
3. Theoretical value of frequency is calculated using the RC values and compared with the practical
values.
4. The graph is plotted using the amplitude and frequency values.
5. Percentage error is calculated by finding the difference between the theoretical and practical values.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the frequency of phase shift oscillator was determined and its error was calculated.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. How does an oscillator differ from an amplifier?
2. What is Barkhausan criterion?
3. What are the types of sinusoidal oscillator? Mention the different types of sinusoidal oscillator?
4. Name two low frequency Oscillators.
5. What are the advantages of RC phase shift Oscillator?
6. List the disadvantages of RC phase shift Oscillator.
7. What is meant by resonant Circuit Oscillators?
8. Why RC phase shift is needed in a RC phase shift Oscillator?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
Amplitude Time Period Theoretical Practical

S.No. % Error
( ) ( ) Frequency ( ) Frequency ( )

Ex. No.:
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
Date:
AIM:
To design a Colpitts oscillator and to measure the frequency of oscillations.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistor 27k,4.7k ,1k 1,1,1
3 Capacitor 0.01 F 3
4 Inductor 2mH, 30mH 1,1
5 Decade Inductance Box (0-1000) H 1
6 CRO 30 MHz 1
7 Regulated power supply (0-30) V 1
8 Bread Board 1
9 Connecting Wires As required
THEORY:
In the Colpitts oscillator shown in fig 1, Z1, and Z2 are capacitors and Z3 is an inductor. The resistors
R and R2 and RE provide the necessary DC bias to the transistor. CE is a bypass capacitor CC1 and CC2 are
coupling capacitors. The feedback network consisting of capacitors C1 and C2 , inductor L determine the
frequency of the oscillator.
When the supply voltage +Vcc is switched ON, a transient current is produced in the tank circuit, and
consequently damped harmonic oscillations are setup in the circuit. The current in tank circuit produces AC
voltages across C1 and C2 . As terminal 3 is earthed, it will be at zero potential.
If terminal is at positive potential with respect to 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will be at negative
potential with respect to 3 at the same instant. Thus the phase difference between the terminals 1 and 2 is
always 1800. In the CE mode, the transistor provides the phase difference of 1800 between the input and output.
Therefore the total phase shift is 3600. The frequency of oscillations is
f = 1/2LC where 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2.
PROCEDURE:
1 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The amplitude and time period of the output waveform is measured.

MODEL GRAPH:

3. The Theoretical frequency of the circuit is calculated by using the formulae and compared with the
practical frequency.
4. The difference in the theoretical and practical frequencies are calculated and noted as % error.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
The frequency of Colpitts oscillator was practically observed and the % error was calculated
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of crystal Oscillators over other Oscillator?
2. What are the essential parts of an Oscillator?
3. What did you understand by the term stability of an Oscillator?
4. Name two high frequency Oscillators.
5. What is piezo electric effect?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Ex. No.:
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER USING FET
Date:
AIM:
To design and obtain the characteristics of a differential Amplifier using FET.
1 FET - BFW 10 2
2 Resistor - 1k /5.6 k 3
3 Power Supply - (0-30)V 3
4 Bread Board - 1
5 Multimeter - 1
6 Connecting Wires - As Required
THEORY:
A differential Amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two
voltages but does not amplify the particular voltages. The differential amplifier operates in two modes. They
are common mode and differential mode.
At common mode, the two voltage followers cooperate with each other working together on the
common high resistive emitter load. They all together increase or decrease the voltage of the common emitter
point. As a result the output collector voltages do not change.
At differential mode, the two voltage followers oppose each other. One of them tries to increase the
voltage of the common emitter point and the other tries to decrease it. As a result the common quiescent current
increases between the two transistors and the output collector voltages changes.

TABULAR COLUMN:
VG1 VG2 V0=VG1-VG2

S.No
( ) ( )

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram
2. Then the same voltage or different voltage is applied to the gate terminal.
3. When same input voltage is given, CMRR can be calculated
4. Output can be collected from the source terminals.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the differential amplifier is designed using FET and its output is obtained.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1.Which mode of differential amplifier will have negative feedback? And why?
2.What is CMRR ratio?
3.Give some applications of differential amplifier.
4.State some of the components by which you can construct differential amplifier.
5.What are the drawbacks of differential amplifier?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
MODEL GRAPH:

Ex. No.:
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Date:
AIM:
To construct and study the operation of astable multivibrator using transistors and to observe the
response of the transistors.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Transistor BC107 2
2. Resistors 5.6 k, 470 2,2
3. Capacitors 0.02 F 2
4. CRO 30 MHz 1
5. RPS (0-30)V 1
6. Bread board 1
7. Connecting wires As required
THEORY:
Multivibrators are electronics circuits that are used to generate non-sinusoidal waveform. A
multivibrator have two states if these states are semi stable states it is called an astable multivibrator. Astable
multivabrator is called free running multivibrator. This vibrator changes its state from one to another on its
own without any application of external trigger .The duration of each of the two semi stable state is dependent
upon two RC times constants within the multivibrator circuit.
Depending upon the hfe value we can confirm which transistor is in ON position. Higher value of h fe
is first switched ON, here consider Q2 enter into saturation and Q1 is in cut-off when Q2 is conducting, C2
changes to VCC as Q1 is off C2 cannot force its voltage on to the base of the Q2. Base of Q2 gets sufficient
bias voltage to operate in saturation through base resistor of Q2. Therefore, Q2 continues to conduct even
though C2 is charged to VCC. but when Q2 is conducting +ve plate of the C1 is grounded though short circuited
Q2 . C1 is already charged to VCC thus ve plate is connected to base of Q1, which reverse biases NPN
transistor and therefore Q1 remains in cut-off.
Now capacitor starts charging through base resistor of Q1 and short circuited Q2 from VCC to +VCC.
When charged voltage on C1 becomes 0v, the base of Q1 starts getting +ve potential from C1 and it enters
into saturation. When Q1 is short circuited as it is ON, +ve plate of the C2 is effectively grounded and its ve
plate is connected to the base of T2. Therefore Q2 comes out of saturation and it becomes OFF. When Q2 is
OFF, C1 which is at this time charged to +ve VCC is not connected to the base of Q1 and required base drive
for

TABULAR COLUMN:
Ton Toff
S.No Amplitude in Volts Frequency in Hz
( ) ( )
Vc1
Vc2
Vb1
Vb2

Q1 be in saturation is obtained from base resistor of Q1. Capacitor C2 which starts charging from
VCC to +VCC through base resistor of Q2 and short circuited Q1. When charge on C2 becomes 0v, Q2 starts
conducting and therefore ve plate of C1 is connected to the base of Q1, so Q1 comes out of saturation.
T1 = 0.69Rb1*C1
T2 = 0.69Rb2*C2
When Rb1 =Rb2 and C1=C2 (for square wave)
T = T1 + T2.
PROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The different voltages are measured at base and collector points of two transistors with respect to ground
as VC1, VC2, VB1 and VB2.
3. All the waveforms are plotted on the graph sheet, the amplitudes and time periods are noted down.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the astable multivibrator using transistors was constructed and operation was studied. The
response at base and collector points of the transistors was also observed.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a multivibrator?
2. What is the purpose of multivibrator?
3. Why is an astable multivibrator called so?
4. What is an astable multivibrator?
5. Give some examples of multivibrator.
6. Mention the applications of multivibrator.
7. What is the disadvantage of an astable multivibrators?
8. What is Schmitt trigger?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MODEL WAVEFORMS

Ex. No.:
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Date:
AIM:
To construct and study the operation of monostable multivibrator using transistors and to observe the
response at base and collector points of the transistors.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1 Transistors BC547 2Nos.
2 Resistors 1 k, 17.6 k, 7.8 k, 3.6 k 2,1,1,1
3 Capacitors 0.01 F, 0.1 F 2,1
4 CRO 30 MHz 1
5 RPS (0-30) V 1
6 Bread board 1
7 Connecting wires As required
THEORY:
In the monostable multivibrator one state is stable and the other is semi or quasi stable state. So it is
called Monostable multivibrator. It requires an external force to change from stable state to semi stable state.
Where as on its own after a small duration it changes its state from semi stable state to stable state. This
duration of staying in semi stable state completely depends upon timing elements resistor and capacitor with
in the circuit.
When no trigger pulse is applied to the base of Q2 transistor Q1 is OFF and transistor Q2 is ON.
During this stable state of this circuit capacitor C charges through resistor R to VCC. This charging will not
affect the base drive of Q2 as Q1 is opened and the charged voltage as Q1 is open and the charged voltage Vcc
is not w.r.t ground. Due to Q2 is conducting, the collector voltage Q2 is very small , which is applied through
potential R1&Rb1 cannot drive Q1 into saturation, Thus Q1 remains in cut-off during stable state.
When a negative triggering pulse is applied to the base of ON transistor Q2, which decreases base
drive and Q2 becomes OFF. Due to this collector voltage of Q2 rises to VCC in turn this increases base drive
of Q1. Now Q1 becomes ON. Due to Q1 becomes short circuit, the +ve plate of charged capacitor C is
effectively connected to the ground. The ve plate is connected to the base of Q2.

MODEL GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN:
Ton Toff Voltage

Input/Output
( ) ( ) ( )
Vc1
Vc2
Vb1
Vb2

Charged capacitor C provided the ve voltage to the base of Q2. To turn on Q2 it requires a +ve drive
as it is an npn transistor.
The capacitor C starts charging from VCC to +VCC through resistor R. When the charging on capacitor
reaches 0 volts base of Q2 starts getting +ve base drive and it turns ON the Q2. Depending upon RC constant,
circuit returns to its stable state. When Q2 is ON, the collector voltage of it falls to Vce(sat) and there by
Q1becomes OFF. This stable state exists as long as again external triggering voltage is applied to the base of
Q2.
PROCEDURE:
1 All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Different voltages are measured at base and collector points of two transistors with respect to ground as
VC1, VC2, VB1 and VB2.
3. All the waveforms are plotted on the graph sheet, the amplitudes and time periods are noted down.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the monostable multivibrator using transistors was constructed and operation was studied. The
response at base and collector points of the transistors was also observed.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Why is an monostable multivibrator called so?
2. What is a monostable multivibrator?
3. What is the purpose of monostable multivibrator?
4. Give some examples of multivibrator.
5. Mention the applications of multivibrator.
6. What is the principle of monostable multivibrator?
7. How does a monostable multivibrator work in terms of the astable multivibrator?
8. What are the different types of multivibrator circuits?
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig: 1 Clipper Circuit
Fig: 2 Clamper Circuit

Ex. No.:
STUDY OF CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS
Date:
AIM:
To study clipper and clamper circuits using diodes.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Function Generator.
2. Oscilloscope.
3. DC Power Supply.
4. Breadboard, Diodes, Capacitors and Resistor
THEORY
This experiment studies the applications of the diode in the clipping & clamping operations.
1. Clipping Circuits:
The biased clipper, for the diode to turn in the input voltage must be greater +V, when Vm is greater than
+V , the diode acts like a closed switch (ideally) & the voltage across the output equals +V , this output stays
at +V as long as the input voltage exceeds +V. when the input voltage is less than +V , the diode opens and
the circuit acts as a voltage divider, as usual , RL should be much greater than R, in this way , most of input
voltage appears across the output. The output waveforms of Figure (1) summarize the circuit action. The biased
clipper removes all signals above the (+V) level.
2. Clamping Circuits:
A clamper does is adding a DC component to the signal, The input signal is a sinewave, the clamper pushes
the signal upward, so that the negative peaks fall on the 0V level. As can see, the shape of the original signal
is preserved, all that happen is a vertical shift of the signal. We described an output signal for a positive
dampen- On the Figure (2) shown represents a positive clamper ideally here how it is works. On the first
negative half cycle of input voltage, the diode turns on. At the negative peak, the capacitor must charge to Vp
with polarity shown. Slightly beyond the negative peak, the diode shunts off.

MODEL GRAPH
CLIPPER CIRCUIT
INPUT WAVEFORM OUTPUT WAVEFORM
CLAMPER CIRCUIT
INPUT WAVEFORM OUTPUT WAVEFORM

PROCEDURE
Clipping Circuit:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure (3).
2. Ensure that the variable DC is at minimum and the source is at 10VP.P.
3. Observe and Sketch the input and output waveforms.
4. Increase the variable DC voltage to 4V, and notice to what voltage are the positive peaks
chopped off, sketch the waveforms.
Clamping Circuit:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure (4).
2. Ensure the variable DC is at minimum.
3. Set the sine wave generator frequency to 1KHz and its output amplitude to 10VP.P.
4. Observe and sketch the input waveform with the variable DC at minimum, Sketch the output
waveform.
INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus clipper and clamper circuits using diodes was studied.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What happened if the DC voltage in the clamping circuit is replaced by an a.c source?
2. What is the relationship between the clipping level and the DC voltage?
3. If the variable DC source is reversed, how does this affect the clipping?
4. If the input voltage 10VP.P, sketch the output of the circuit shown below.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Ex. No.: CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

Date: USING VIRTUAL LAB
AIM:
To draw the static current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a zener diode.
APPARATUS:
Diode, resistor, variable DC power supply, milliammeter, voltmeter, Rheostat and wire.
THEORY:
A diode, in electronics, is a two terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer
characteristics, with low resistance to current flow in one direction and high resistance to current flow in the
other direction. A semi-conductor diode is the most common type diode, which is a piece of semi-conductor
material with a p-n junction connected to two terminals.
A diode allow electric current to pass in forward direction and block current in reverse direction. The
behaviour of a diode in a circuit is given by its I-V characteristics. The shape of the curve is determined by the
transport of charge carriers through the depletion layer that exist at the p-n junction. When a p-n junction is
first cretaed, diffusion of holes and electrons take place through the junction. As recombination proceeds, more
ions are created at the junction and a built-in potential is developed at the depletion zone.
If a voltage of same polarity as that of built-in potential is applied across the junction, depletion zone
acts as an insulator, preventing significant current flow through the junction. This is the reverse bias
phenomenon. Controls
Insert Key Button:This is used to insert key on the switch connected with battery. This key is only activated
when the connection is perfect.
Choose Zener Diode: This combo box is used to select different zener diodes having different zener voltage
Series Resistance: Value of the Series Resistance can be directly input here.
SLIDER
Rheostat value: Rheostat can be controlled by using this slider
Load Resistance: Value of load resistance can be set or change by using this slider
BUTTON
Reset Button: To reset all the connections
PROCEDURE:
Using the circuit diagram, identify the connections in the given platform. Connections are made as shown in
the below diagram.


INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of zener diode was obtained.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Ex. No.:
HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT
Date:
AIM:
To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
APPARATUS:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus (which
consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).
THEORY:
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential difference will
generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called
Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an important tool to characterize the materials especially
semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.
Procedure:
Controls
Combo box
Select procedure: This is used to select the part of the experiment to perform.
1) Magnetic field Vs Current.
2) Hall effect setup.
Select Material: This slider activate only if Hall Effect setup is selected. And this is used to select the material
for finding Hall coefficient and carrier concentration.
Button
Insert Probe/ Remove Probe: This button used to insert/remove the probe in between the solenoid.
Show Voltage/ Current: This will activate only if Hall Effect setup selected and it used to display the Hall
voltage/ current in the digital meter.
Reset: This button is used to repeat the experiment.
Slider
Current : This slider used to vary the current flowing through the Solenoid.
Hall Current: This slider used to change the hall current
Thickness: This slider used to change the thickness of the material selected.
PROCEDURE FOR DOING THE SIMULATION:

To measure the magnetic field generated in the solenoid
Select Magnetic field Vs Current from the procedure combo-box.
Click Insert Probe button
Placing the probe in between the solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.
Using Current slider, varying the current through the solenoid and corresponding magnetic field is to be noted
from Gauss meter.

TABULATION:
S.No. Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

INFERENCES:
RESULT:
Thus the carrier concentration of a semiconductor material was found.
Preparation 30
Viva 10
Performance 30
Total 70

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EC6361 ELECTRONICS LABORATORY Page 0

EC6361 ELECTRONICS LABORATORY

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Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Version Represented by Date Signature

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Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

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EC6361 ELECTRONICS LABORATORY LTPC 0032

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Fig 1.3 CONNECTION DIAGRAM

Amplitude Time Time

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Ex. No.: STUDY OF CRO FOR FREQUENCY

S.No APPARATUS NAME QUANTITY

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FIG 2.1 FORWARD BIAS

FIG 2.2 REVERSE BIAS

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1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

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Cut in Voltage = Break down Voltage =

1. Define depletion region of a diode.

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FIG 2.1.1 FORWARD BIAS

FIG 2.1.2 REVERSE BIAS

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S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Zener diode 1z 5.1 1

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for each and every step of the input voltage.

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

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S. No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

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THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS FOR RIPPLE FACTOR:-

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Vm= 2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)

The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula

r = AC output voltage / DC output voltage.

1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?

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S. No Name of the Apparatus Type Range Quantity

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Ripple factor, r = 1/ (43 f C RL)

Vm( ) Vac( ) Vdc( ) r= Vac/ Vdc Time Period

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Dr.N.G.P Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering