Daralyn Kawamoto

Herpetology
12/6/06

Crocodylus porosus The Saltwater Crocodile

Figure 1. Saltwater crocodile

(http://library.byways.org/view_details.html?MEDIA_OBJECT_ID=53733)

Introduction

Crocodylus porosus is the largest living reptile in the world, by mass. No other reptile
matches its size, strength, or hunting abilities in the wild. C. porosus is known by many
common names, including the Saltwater Crocodile, the Estuarine Crocodile, a Saltie (in
Australia), the Rawing Crocodile, the Man-eating crocodile, and many other ethnic names,
depending on its geographic location (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/
brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm). The scientific classification of the saltwater crocodile is as
follows:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Sauropsida
Order: Crocodilia
Family: Crocodylidae
Subfamily: Crocodylinae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species: C. porosus

Distribution and Habitat

The saltwater crocodile has a wide distribution, due to its ability to travel long
distances. Individuals of this species are most commonly found on the coasts of northern
Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Crocodylus_porosus.html). However, the distribution of C. porosus can range
from Sri Lanka and the eastern coast of India in the west to the Caroline Islands in the east,
and from Burma and Southeast Asia in the north to Australia in the south (Parks and Wildlife
Service of the Northern Territory). Single crocodiles may even be found wandering in the
open ocean some distance from their usual range, like in the Sea of Japan. The saltwater
crocodile, as evident by its name, can tolerate saline environments very well, which is why it
is typically found in brackish water around coastal areas and in rivers (http://www.flmnh.ufl.
edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm). It may also be found in swamps,
freshwater rivers, and billabongs, depending on the season and the social status of the
crocodile. Between the dry and wet season, individuals will move between different habitats
and juveniles will be forced out from the freshwater rivers where they were raised to make
room for the breeding adults. During the wet season, the crocodiles are found in freshwater
swamps and rivers, while during the dry season, they are found in estuaries
(http://www.flmnh.ufl. edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm).

Figure 2. The range of C. porosus (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cst_cpor_dh_map.htm)

Appearance/Physical Characteristics

C. porosus is the largest living reptile in the world. The largest saltwater crocodile
ever recorded was found in the Norman River in Queensland, Australia, in 1957, and was 28
feet long. Today, the largest living crocodile is 23 feet long, and lives in Orissa, India. Adult
male saltwater crocodiles are usually 15.4 to 16.6 feet (4.8 to 5m) long and weigh about 1,697
pounds (770kg). Adult females are smaller, normally reaching only 8 to 10 feet (2.5 to 3m)
long.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodylus_porosus)

C. porosus has a very large head and extremely strong, powerful jaws, comprised of
thecodont teeth. An adult male crocodile can apply up to 2,125 pounds of jaw pressure with a
single bite. Short limbs, a thick, laterally compressed tail, and webbed feet enable it to swim
at high speeds during short bursts or at a leisurely pace (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Crocodylus_porosus).
 Figure 3. The powerful jaws of C. porosus
(http://www.cairnsreservations.com/gallery/pages/saltwater_crocodile_close.html)

Juveniles are lighter in color compared to adults and are typically a pale, tan color
with black stripes and spots on the tail and body. A crocodiles coloration may also depend on
its geographic location, with some animals being a very light color (hypomelanistic) and some
being very dark (hypermelanistic). Mature adults are normally dark-colored, with lighter tan
or grey areas. Adults have a creamy yellow or white-colored belly, with the exception of the
tail, which is usually grey near the tip. Their sides may have dark bands and stripes that do not
extend onto the ventral surface.
(http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm)

The shape and coloration of the scales of C. porosus depends on where they are
located on the body. Osteoderms, the bony plates or scutes forming the armor on the surface
of the crocodile, are only present on the back and on the nape of the neck (http://www.flmnh.
ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm). Scales on the sides of the body are
usually more oval in shape, while belly scales tend to be rectangular, small, and evenly
distributed. A study by Manolis et.al reported an average number of 31.2 scale rows on the
bellies of saltwater crocodiles (Isberg et. al, 2005). A finding in the Journal of Animal
Breeding and Genetics suggested that the trait for the number of scale rows on an individual
crocodile is determined way before egg size influences hatchling size (Isberg et.al, 2005).
This means that the size of a hatchling has little to no effect on the number of scale rows on
the ventral surface of the animal. Small scales on the saltwater crocodile skin are the reason
why they are so desirable for the market in leather goods.

The physiology of the crocodilian heart enables it to swim underwater for extended
periods of time. Like birds and mammals, crocodiles also have a four-chambered heart. A
valve in the crocodilian heart, called the foramen of panizza, shuts off the pulmonary
system when it dives into the water. This causes blood to be diverted from the pulmonary to
the systemic system, which increases its oxygen capacity while submerged (http://animal.
discovery.com/convergence/safari/crocs/expert/expert13.html). In a study in the Journal of
Experimental Biology, it was found that crocodiles have a heat-sensitive control mechanism
on their surface, that triggers a change in their heart rate in response to heating or cooling
before their body temperature actually changes (Franklin and Seebacher, 2003). This means
that during heating and cooling periods, their heart rate is controlled independently of their
body temperature (Franklin and Seebacher, 2003).
 The saltwater crocodile also has salt-secreting glands called lingual glands located at
the back of their throat for maintaining osmolarity. Crocodiles can conserve water by
excreting excess sodium ions through these glands instead of the kidneys. Little is known
about the control of the secretory activity of reptilian salt glands. A study in the Australian
Journal of Zoology investigated the effects of cholinergic and adrenergic stimulation of the
lingual salt glands in C. porosus (Franklin et. al, 2005). It was found that the epithelium of the
lingual salt glands is highly vascularized (with a rich network of blood vessels) and that
neurotransmitters act on the salt gland epithelium directly, to trigger secretory activity
(Franklin et. al, 2005).

Movement

C. porosus moves very fast in water, capable of swimming 12 to 15 miles per hour
during short bursts and 2 to 3 miles per hour at a leisurely pace. To swim, the crocodile folds
its limbs against its body and laterally undulates, using its tail and body to move through the
water (Pough et. al, 167). In a study published in the Journal of Herpetology examining the
effects of body size on swimming performance in juvenile saltwater crocodiles, researchers
found that a sustained swimming speed increased with longer body lengths, but the distance
that a juvenile crocodile swam decreased as body length increased (Elsworth et.al, 2003). In
addition to being an excellent swimmer, C. porosus can move quickly on land. To walk, the
crocodile places its limbs underneath its body and holds its belly high off the ground; this type
of movement is called a high walk (Pough et. al, 167). It is also capable of moving at very fast
speeds on land, by galloping, and uses a belly crawl to enter water.

Figure 4. The high walk gait; a croc swimming

(http://membres.lycos.fr/martinjanelle/images/Mvc-020f_2.jpg)

Diet & Life as a Predator

The saltwater crocodile is an opportunistic predator, meaning it feeds on a broad

variety of prey items. Juveniles tend to feed on smaller prey such as insects, amphibians,
crustaceans (e.g. mudcrabs), fish, and small reptiles (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Crocodylus_porosus). As the crocodile grows larger, it can eat a greater variety of items such
as wild boar, monkeys, domestic livestock, water buffalo, sharks, and even young elephants,
rhinoceroses, large cats, and humans (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodylus_porosus). The
acidity of their stomach allows them to digest almost anything, including the bones and shells
of prey animals. The saltwater crocodile can survive for months without food after taking a
big meal, and is hence, very lethargic. It can spend much of its day strolling around in the
water or basking in the sun.

Figure 5. A saltwater croc capturing prey; a croc eating magpie

(http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-images/Travel/Pix/pictures/2005/01/10/saltiegetty372.jpg)
(http://128.227.186.212/herpetology/brittoncrocs/images/!potm-aug05.jpg)

C. porosus is an ambush predator, so it typically hunts at night. They have several

anatomical features that enable them to hunt in the dark such as vertical, dilating pupils and a
layer of tapetum at the back of their eyes, which enable them to see at night. Crocodiles
normally cant see well underwater. Also, the eye of C. porosus is covered by three eyelids;
the third eyelid, called the nictating membrane, is transparent and protects the eye underwater,
while swimming. Finally, a secondary palate that separates the buccal and respiratory
passages allows them to eat underwater (Pough et.al, 167). The hunting strategy crocodiles
utilize is to sit and wait for its prey to approach close to the waters edge; then it strikes and
drags the prey into the water, where it is usually drowned. If there is more than one crocodile
present, the prey is normally just ripped apart. Its most deadly hunting strategy, however, is
called the Death Roll, where it grasps the animal in its powerful jaws and then rolls,
breaking the animals neck or ripping it apart (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodylus_
porosus). Crocodiles have a keen ability to sense other animals in close proximity. Dome
pressure receptors on the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the head detect surface waves in the
water, enabling the crocodile to sense any predators or prey nearby (Pough et. al, 167).

Communication and Behavior

The saltwater crocodile is one of the most intelligent reptiles, in terms of its ability to
communicate with other members within its species. They communicate through
vocalizations, or barks, each of which means something different. It is thought that the
saltwater crocodile has four different calls. The first is a distress call, which is typically
barked by juveniles when they are endangered. It consists of several highly pitched, short
barks. The second is a threat call, which is performed when it may be defending its territory,
since these animals usually compete to acquire the territory in the first place. It is heard as a
coughing or a hissing sound. The third type is a hatching call, performed by newborns; it
consists of just one short bark. The fourth is a courtship bellow, which is heard as a long, low
growl.
(http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Crocodylus_porosus.html)

In addition to vocalizations, the saltwater crocodile also uses body postures and
headslapping at the water surface to communicate with others (Pough et. al, 167). A crocodile
will mark its territory by loudly slapping its head or snapping its jaws at the surface of the
water (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Crocodilia.html).
Dominance can be displayed by the level in the water at which an individual is swimming.
For example, a dominant crocodile will swim higher in the water and the subordinate one will
swim lower in the water. Fighting between two adults for dominance typically will involve
banging of the sides of their heads together or biting (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/
site/accounts/information/Crocodilia.html). The crocodile will also secrete scents from scent
glands under the throat or at the base of the tail to communicate. For example, during
courtship, a male will rub a females head with his chin, spreading his musky scent (secreted
from glands under his throat), on top of her (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/potmdec99.html).

The saltwater crocodile is an ectotherm and spends much of its time thermoregulating
to maintain its body temperature. In response to heating or cooling, a crocodile can either
enter water or bask in the sun. Animals going from a cool to warm environment will increase
their heart rate to increase heat convection and cooling rates. Conversely, animals going from
warm to cool environments will decrease their heart rate and decrease cooling rates
(Seebacher and Franklin, 2004). A study on the effect of the cardiovascular response of C.
porosus to heat in the Journal of Comparative Physiology showed that heart rate increased
significantly with increasing body temperatures during heating and cooling, while blood
pressure did not depend on body temperature (Seebacher and Franklin, 2004). It was also
found that heart rate and blood pressure were both faster during heating than during cooling
(Seebacher and Franklin, 2004).

Reproduction & Parental Care

The saltwater crocodile typically breeds during the wet season, between November
and March, in freshwater areas. Breeding territories are marked and defended by males.
Female crocodiles reach sexual maturity before males, at 10 to 12 years old, compared to 16
years old for males (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm).
The female normally lays 40 to 60 eggs in nests made from grasses and mud, which are then
buried. Larger females typically produce larger eggs, a finding that was confirmed in a study
in the Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics. In the study, it was found that egg width is
restricted by the diameter of a females pelvic canal, which means that older (and thus, larger)
females will be able to produce larger eggs (Isberg et. al, 2005). The eggs of C. porosus
exhibit temperature-dependant sex determination (TSD), in which the sexes of the hatchlings
are directly related to the nest temperature (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/
accounts/information/Crocodylus_porosus.html). If the temperature of the nest is about 31.6
degrees Celsius, males will be produced; if the temperature is a few degrees above or below
this number, then females are born (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/
information/Crocodylus_porosus.html).

When they are ready to hatch, the young will make chirping sounds, which triggers the
female to dig the hatchlings out from the nest. This usually occurs after around 90 days. She
then carries them in her mouth to water, where they will mature and grow. Juveniles
eventually must leave the freshwater areas once they mature, to make room for the mating
pairs and the new clutches that will be laid there. There is a very high mortality rate of
saltwater crocodiles from egg to maturity; only 25% of eggs that are laid will hatch and only
54% of the young will survive to one year (Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern
Territory). Researchers studying juvenile survival of C. porosus found that there is a high
mortality rate during the first 400 days of a juveniles life (Isberg et.al, 2005). After the first
year, mortality rates decrease. Overall, only 1% of hatchlings will survive to reach maturity
(http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor. htm). Flooding is the
main cause for egg mortality, however they are also eaten by predators like turtles, other
species of crocodiles, and even males of the same species (Parks and Wildlife Service of the
Northern Territory).

Figure 6. A Female and her nest (http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/2970/s_croc.htm)

Females of C. porosus exhibit more parental care than males. For example, females
usually make the nests and then watch over it, splashing water onto it if it gets too dry (which
is uncommon). As mentioned above, females are also the ones who dig their young out from
the nest when they are ready to hatch and then carry them safely to water, where they look
after them until they learn how to swim.

Conservation Status

Currently, Crocodylus porosus is not listed as threatened under the Environmental

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Parks and Wildlife Service of the
Northern Territory). The future of this species is under no immediate threat, in part due to its
wide distribution around the world. The largest population of C. porosus occurs in the
Northern Territory of Australia. Together, the northern three states of Australia (Western
Australia, Queensland, and Northern Territory), are home to at least 100,000 to 150,000
crocodiles (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm). Other
populations of C. porosus around the world do not number so high, only reaching in the
hundreds or the few in areas like India, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Populations in some areas
have drastically declined over the years due to habitat loss from the development of coastal
areas. C. porosus may live for over 50 years, however they are often hunted for their hide,
which is very valuable, or killed out of fear (Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern
Territory).

Crocodiles are the number one cause of animal-related deaths as of 2001, with the
saltwater and Nile crocodiles posing the greatest threat to humans. For this reason, they are
often killed out of fear, when instead, people should be avoiding them in the first place.
Saltwater crocodile leather products are also very valuable, with skins fetching prices in the
thousands. The major countries that import Australian saltwater crocodile skins are France,
Japan, Singapore, and Italy (MacNamara et. al, 2003). In fact, it is not difficult to find
companies selling crocodile leather products online made from farmed crocodile skins. Farms
exist, such as the one I found in Queensland, Australia called Universal Enterprises Pty. Ltd,
specifically to raise crocodiles until they are old enough to be skinned to make leather
products. For a single crocodile that is farmed, 80% of its total product value is derived from
the sale of its skin, 15% is derived from the sale of meat, and 5% is from the sale of
byproducts such as the backstrap, head/skull, and feet (Isberg et. al, 2005). The practice of
farming remains legal, despite its obvious cruelty.

Figure 7. A crocodile skin selling for $908; crocodile skin wallets selling for $260; a mounted crocodile head
sold for $160 (http://www.univenter.com/crocodile.html)

Conclusion

Crocodylus porosus is the largest and one of the most powerful and intelligent reptile
species living today. Crocodiles, as a whole, have existed on earth for millions of years,
demonstrating that their unique physiology and hunting abilities have made them very
successful at surviving changing environmental conditions over time. Their importance to
biodiversity lies in the key role that they play as predators at the top of the food chain. The
saltwater crocodile is a true predator, which is why it may sometimes pose a risk to human
lives. Due to increasing habitat destruction, the coastal areas where C. porosus is normally
found are disappearing, resulting in the dispersion of the species to find new homes. In this
situation, it may accidentally encounter people and mistake them for predators (or even prey).
Therefore, education and awareness of this species will become increasingly important in the
future, in order to ensure the safety of both humans and crocodiles.

Although as of now C. porosus is not an endangered species, current programs and

laws to protect the saltwater crocodile already in effect, should be maintained. If populations
of the saltwater crocodile should ever start to decline, then further action such as banning
crocodile farming, should be taken. We can all do a little something to protect the future of
this species and ensure its survival for many years to come. All it takes is a little education,
making the decision not to buy crocodile skin products, and supporting conservation efforts to
protect their habitat.
 Primary Articles

Brochu, C. A. (2000). Phylogenetic Relationships and Divergence Timing of Crocodylus

Based on Morphology and the Fossil Record. Copeia, (3), 657-673.

Elsworth, P. G., Seebacher, F., & Franklin, C. E. (2003). Sustained Swimming Performance
in Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus): Effects of Body Size and Temperature. Journal
of Herpetology, 37(2), 363-368.

Franklin, C. E., Taylor, G., & Cramp, R. L. (2006, January). Cholinergic and adrenergic
innervation of lingual salt glands of the estuarine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus.
Australian Journal of Zoology, 53(6), 345-351.

Franklin, C. E., & Seebacher, F. (2003, January). The effect of heat transfer mode on heart
rate responses and hysteresis during heating and cooling in the estuarine crocodile
Crocodylus porosus. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 2003(206), 1143-1151.

Isberg, S. R., Thomson, P. C., Nicholas, F. W., Barker, S. G., & Moran, C. (2005, June).
Quantitative analysis of production traits in saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus):
I. reproduction traits. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, June 2005(122), 361-
369.

Isberg, S. R., Thomson, P. C., Nicholas, F. W., Barker, S. G., & Moran, C. (2005,
September). Quantitative analysis of production traits in saltwater crocodiles
(Crocodylus porosus): III. juvenile survival. Journal of Animal Breeding and
Genetics, 2006(123), 44-47.

Isberg, S. R., Thomson, P. C., Nicholas, F. W., Webb, G. J., Manolis, S. C., Barker, S. G., et
al. (2005, October). Quantitative analysis of production traits in saltwater crocodiles
(Crocodylus porosus): IV. number of scale rows. Journal of Animal Breeding and
Genetics, 2006(123), 48-55.

Seebacher, F., & Franklin, C. E. (2004, August). Integration of autonomic and local
mechanisms in regulating cardiovascular responses to heating and cooling in a reptile
(Crocodylus porosus). Journal of Comparative Physiology, 2004(174), 577-585.
 Other Works Cited

*Note about in-text citations: when a URL or title is placed in parentheses underneath a
paragraph, it means all of the information from that paragraph was obtained from that single
source

Britton, A. (2002). Crocodylus porosus. In Crocodilian Species List. Retrieved November 30,
2006, from http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_cpor.htm

Crocodylus porosus. (2006, December). Saltwater Crocodile. Retrieved November 30, 2006,
from Wikipedia Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodylus_porosus

On the crocodile heart. (n.d.). Ask a Croc Expert (Ferocious Crocs). Retrieved December 4,
2006, from Animal Planet Web site: http://animal.discovery.com/convergence/safari/
crocs/expert/expert13.html

Parks and Wildlife Service of the Northern Territory. (2005). Biology and Ecology. In
Management Plan for Crocodylus porosus in the Northern Territory 2005-2010 (pp.
8-9) [Brochure]. Palmerston, NT, Australia: Northern Territory Government.
Retrieved November 8, 2006, from http://www.nt.gov.au/nreta/wildlife/animals/
management/pdf/crocmanagementplan.pdf#search=%22primary%20source%20crocod
ylus%20porosus%22

Pough, F. H., Andrews, R. M., Cadle, J. E., Crump, M. L., Savitzky, A. H., & Wells, K. D.
(2004). Archosauria: crocodilians (crocodylia). In Herpetology (pp. 166-169). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wayman, E. (2002). Crocodylus porosus (estuarine crocodile). In Animal Diversity Web.

Retrieved December 1, 2006, from University of Michigan Web site:
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Crocodylus_porosus
.html