Rising From Within Gang Membership;

Risk Factors, Victimization, and Child Abuse of Young Adolescents

By

Alfonso Tardy, Asia Wallace, Diana M. Owens

Crystal Espilliat & Tracey Stephen

CAPSTONE PROJECT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Social Work
in the School of Natural and Social Sciences, Department of Social Work
Lehman College
City University of New York
2014
 COPYRIGHT
Tracey Stephen, Crystal Espaillat, Diana M. Owens, Asia Wallace, & Alfonso Tardy
All Rights Reserved
May 2014

i
 Abstract

Researchers today have focused on adolescence when gang members involvement in

crime is easier to study. Subsequently, the majority of research has neglected to provide a

developmental perspective of the risk factors, victimization, and child abuse that might lead to

the membership in a gang. Our research found that it is important to understand the mechanisms

or catalyst to the initiation, continuance, and even discontinuation into gang membership. We

found that there was a need to understand the stability and frequency, behaviors and friendships,

and the school attitudes towards gang members and non-gang members in childhood and early

adolescence

ii
 Table of Contents

Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Literature Review . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3

Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

References........16

Presentation .21

ii
 Rising From Within Gang Membership;

Risk Factors, Victimization, and Child Abuse of Young Adolescents

Problem Statement

Researchers today have focused on adolescence when gang members involvement in

crime is easier to study. Subsequently, the majority of research has neglected to provide a

developmental perspective of the risk factors, victimization, and child abuse that might lead to

the membership in a gang. It is important to understand the mechanisms or catalyst to the

initiation, continuance, and even discontinuation into gang membership. There is a need to

understand the stability and frequency, behaviors and friendships, and the school attitudes

towards gang members and non-gang members in childhood and early adolescence (Craig,

2002).

Youth gangs lean towards grouping in disadvantaged communities; this allows the

opportunity for youths of joining gangs. Some research has shown that children who were

growing up in unstable neighborhoods were at risk of joining gangs, but only if there were

existing psychopathic predispositions (Dupr, Lacourse, Willms, Vitaro, & Tremblay, 2007).

What is missing from gang literature and research is the relationship between the gang

participation and the victimization risk. Research on female gang involvement identifies the

relationship between gang participation and violent victimization (Miller, 1998). This identifies

that (1) gang participation exposes youths to victimization risk, and (2) it does so with gender as

a factor. Research suggests that more research is needed on the exposure to gang involvement

and the victimization risk maintaining and recognizing that gender does play a role (Esbensen,

Peterson, Taylor, & Freng, 2009).

1
 Recent youth gang research has produced three significant results with respect to the

effect of risk factors on the likelihood of gang membership. (1) There are five developmental

domains; peer group, family, school, individual characteristics, and community conditions, all of

which provide a sphere of influence. Researchers have found that within these risk factors,

predictors of juvenile delinquencies, violence, and gang membership can be found at several

stages of a young adolescent development. (2) Risk factors have a snowballing result, the greater

the exposure to gang activity, the greater the possibility of being involved in a gang. (3) When

risk factors are in multiple domains enhancement is the likelihood of gang membership (Howell

& Egley, 2005).

There are themes that have emerged from research studies that are notable and need

inclusion to understand further the dynamics of gang participation. The powerlessness of

teachers and educational administrators, feeling unsafe before, during, and after school, pressure

to join and avoid danger, with students feeling trapped and no one to turn with bullying a

frequent occurrence. Three important distinctions are found within middle schools with gang

problems. These include incidents of victimization being more violent towards teachers and

students, with fear pervading the environment at school. Causing some say a paralyzing effect on

efforts of addressing the problem, and the social structure of gang convoluting to what is known

as peer influence on victimization deeply rooted in gang presence, the structure of their power,

and the fear they impose on others (Forber-Pratt, Aragon, & Espelage, 2014).

After review of many research articles, there is still a void in the research regarding child

abuse and gang violence. The Center for Decease Control states that youths join gangs at the

average age of 13-15. However, most research addresses a child after joining a gang, including

2
violence, criminal behavior, and the deaths they bring to so many families. There are programs

that have been effective in intervening with young adolescents at the school level. Victimization

and risk factors that young adolescent face have not been studied adequately. Programs so that

children can receive intervention before they reach a young adolescent age needs to be

addressed. Gang-joining prevention efforts should be informed by what is known about risk and

protective factors for children of particular ages. There being a particular need for prevention

efforts to address girls risk for gang joining, which includes preventing sexual abuse and

addressing abusive intimate partner violence for girls. There needs to be an effort in protective

factors, such as academic success, positive connections, and effective parenting that can help

youth who are growing up in high-risk communities and the research that can document the

progress in the fight against gang joining for our young adolescents (Simon, Ritter, & Mahendra,

2013).

Literature Review

After many decades of research and prevention/intervention programs, youth gangs

remain a significant social problem. Researchers have shown that individuals involved in gangs

consistently engage in antisocial behavior. Behavior during adolescence leads to an increased

likelihood of adult criminal behavior, and gang involvement has been shown to increase the

severity of criminal behavior as well as the incidence of arrest. Furthermore, gang-involved

youth is more likely to engage in extreme acts of violence than their delinquent peers who are

not gang involved. Moreover, in 2010, the National Gang Center (n.d.) estimated that just over

40% of all gang members in 2008 were younger than 18 years old. According to the National

Gang Center and the National Gang Intelligence Center (2011), adolescent gang members

3
numbered between 302,000 and 560,000 (Jaggers, Church II, Tomek, Bolland, Hooper, &

Bolland, 2013).

Addressing gang violence by stating that juvenile gang violence stems from a collective

rage, which is the product of the deprivation of success and authority and was believed by some

professionals that gang violence can be stopped only by striking at the causes of the rage (Sharr,

1962). However, one important aspect is that it recognized that society must first recognize that

gangs have real assertions, and this must be the negotiating point. Societies are accepted when it

can present a rationale and a vision of the future that will provide our youth with an identity

forming ideology. Moreover, an attractive alternative to the present realities that form the gangs'

environments.

It is imperative that additional studies be conducted with adolescent 10-15 years of age.

Allowing us to identify how victimization experiences relate to becoming a member of a gang,

and how these experiences might be addressed in intervention efforts, with a focus on prevention

before it reaches them on the street. It is important to look at the history of gangs as it will

provide a basis for us to begin our fight against the victimization and child abuse of our young

adolescents

International Gangs

Since the beginning of time, youth groups or gangs have been in existence. These groups

had many negative effects on society for many years. These youth groups or gangs, as they are

commonly called, have participated in many criminal and illegal acts that have plagued society.

They have been stereotyped with such negative names as rowdies, bad kids, troublemakers, and

many other mischievous names. Some of the earliest records of gangs date

4
 back to the fourteenth and fifteenth century in Europe. Some of the activities that these

youths had been recorded as partaking in have been theft, robbery, extortion, and rape. At the

same time in London, some of the names these gangs had been the Mims, Hectors, Bugle, and

Dead Boys. (Schneider, 1999)

These gangs did many types of vandalism to the city. Some of the recorded vandalism

that had taken place, buildings with broken windows, taverns that had been destroyed by the

gangs, and assaulting the watch. Moreover, if the violence on the public was not enough, these

deviant groups also had fights with themselves. When there was a fight, the separate groups or

factions would dress up with different colored ribbons so that they could tell who was with what

faction or group. There were also other places where gang violence had been recorded. During

the middle ages in France, there were factions that started fights with other factions that were

from other places. In Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, gangs were a

part of the society. (Cummings & Monti, 1993)

Gangs did not appear to have spread to the United States until the early 1800s. Many

Europeans migrated to the United States, mainly the east coast; in seeking a better way of life.

After coming to the United States, the money that many of the Europeans had quickly became

depleted. Many of these people had to take out loans to survive with local merchants. Seeing

how many others had little to no money at all, they also had a tiny chance for any health care

whatsoever. People were dying due to poverty and disease all over. (Seelke, 2008)

Many people could not take care of their children. It was very common to see children

wandering the streets in search of food, shelter, and clothing. These youths that roamed the

streets were mainly in the New England areas like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. They

5
were seen more as a minor inconvenience instead of as a threat as they are seen today. However,

during the early 1800s, a gang that resided in New York took to call themselves the Forty

Thieves. They were labeled as professional murderers and muggers and were a menace to

society. (Cummings & Monti, 1993)

During the industrial era is when the gang problem spread out into Chicago and other

well-populated areas. Much of this had to with immigration and population shifts were reaching

very high levels. Drugs were not a problem with gangs at this time. However, after the Civil

War, many people who were hurt during the war became addicted to morphine. Gangs became

aware of the need for morphine for people and began to pedal it. During the early 1900s, drugs

and alcohol plagued the nation mainly in most populated areas. Prohibition was a big time for

gangs in the 1920s. (Schneider, 1999)

Since alcohol was not permitted in the United States, anyone who had or could get

alcohol was in high demand. Many gangs quickly profited off of this illegal scheme. Gangs were

at an all-time high during this era. Street fights that were involving just fists, brass knuckles, and

knives were now using guns. This era also produced the notorious Al Capone and John Dillinger.

In the 1800s, the east coast was the primary leader in gang violence. Now Chicago was the

center of organized crime in the United States. Special law agencies were created where the

agents had special weapons that they could have in their possession. (Schneider, 1999)

The initial war on organized crime was on. It was not until the 1930s that gang

membership began to decline. This was mainly attributed to the war. The war brought fewer

gangs to the nation, but it also brought hatred and racism to many parts of the country. In

California, many Mexicans were the target of many peoples racial slurs. It was the time when

6
the Zoot Suit Riots began to take place. After the war was over in 1945, men came home and

took the jobs back that the women had been doing. It led to an increase in unemployment and

poverty. (Short, 2006)

Many gangs that are in existence today were formed during the civil rights movement in

the 1960s. In the early nineteenth century, gangs were mainly made up of Irish, Jewish, and

Italian people. Today, these gangs are made up of everyone including African-American,

Hispanic, White, and Asian people. They are now seen more as business opportunities. During

the early part of the nation, many if not all of the gangs were made up of young people. Today

the gangs are made up of young and old alike. As technology has increased, so has the fear of

gangs. Gangs now have easier access to weapons and drugs and are more of a danger and a threat

to society than they once were. (Seelke, 2008)

United States Gangs

The Hells Angels Motorcycle Club (HAMC) formed in California during 1948, the name

inspired by daring bomber pilots of World War II. Since December 1969, they have had a

reputation for murder after stabbing a spectator at a Rolling Stones Concert. The Hells Angels

are known as one of the big four outlaw motorcycle gangs, whose members carry out

widespread violence, drug dealing, trafficking in stolen goods and extortion.

The 18th Street Gang formed in Los Angeles during the late 1960s. According to History,

the 18th Street Gang was formerly known as the Childrens Army because they initially

recruited elementary and middle school kids. This gang, in particular, has rules its members need

to abide. Failure to comply could result in threatening harm to members families when they try

to leave or failure to show proper respect for a gang leader or fellow member may result

7
in an 18-second beating, or even execution. The gangs criminal activities include auto theft,

carjacking, drive-by shootings, drug sales, arms trafficking, extortion, rape and murder for hire.

It is a diverse gang that consists of different races such as African-Americans, Asians,

Caucasians, and Native Americans.

The Latin Kings is a Chicago/New York-based street gang composed mainly of Hispanic

members. It began in the Chicago area in the 1940s, by Hispanics to protect themselves, their

neighborhoods and their families. By the 1970s, they began to engage in criminal activity, and in

particular, narcotics trafficking. The Latin Kings have since spread through all of Latin America

and into Europe, specifically Spain. In 1986, Luis Felipe, calling himself King Blood, started a

new chapter in New York while at Collins Correctional Facility. The Latin Kings grew into the

thousands by the mid-1990s.

The Mexican Mafia, also known to as La eMe, (Spanish for the letter M), was formed

in 1957 by Chicano street gang members incarcerated at the Deuel Vocational Institution in

Tracy, California. Approximately thirteen Mexican-Americans from East Los Angeles, including

gang members from the Maravilla street gang, formed the original core of the gang called

Mexikanemi, Aztec for He who walks with God in his heart. They banded together over

religion and worshiped an ancient pre-Hispanic cultural heritage. However, their main focus was

to protect themselves from African-American convicts, other inmates, and the prison staff.

Deuel was known Gladiator School by the inmates. Prisoners there honed their fighting skills

and learned the business of drug dealing. They also learned how to maim or murder with

handmade weapons. As the criminal organization evolved it involved narcotics trafficking and

murder, both inside and outside the prison system walls.

8
 MS-13 was organized during the 1980s in Los Angeles by Salvadorans after being preyed

on by Mexican gangs. The response was to band together in a mara, or posse, composed of

Salvatruchas, or street-tough Salvadorans (the 13 is a gang number associated with southern

California). MS-13s reach now extends across 42 states. The gang also now contaminates the

most unexpected turf: suburban communities unaccustomed to deal with the MS-13s ruthless

brand of violence. Membership has risen to 60,000 between the U.S. and Central America. It is

criminal activities consist of drug smuggling and sales, black market gun sales, human

trafficking, assassinations for hire and assaults on law enforcement.

Nuestra Familia was organized in Northern Californias Soledad Correction Training

Facility in 1968. Chicano inmates had grown tired of the abuse at the hand of the Mexican

Mafia. As the NF and Mexican Mafia engaged in a bitter prison war, new prisoners from

Northern California were recruited into the NF while Southern California inmates joined the

Mexican Mafia. By the late 1970s, after numerous prison riots and murders, an official dividing

point emerged between the gangs in Delano, California. Civilians of the gang living outside of

the prison are typically called Nortenos. They engage in crimes such as selling drugs and

committing murder. Their motto is blood in, blood out.

Skinheads emerged in the mid 1960s among Great Britains working class youth. Its

members dressed in steel-toe boots, straight-leg jeans, button-down shirts, and suspenders.

Many formed violent gangs with close ties to white supremacist groups like the National Front

and the British Movement, blaming non-white immigrants for economic and social problems. By

the mid-80s, American skinheads numbered in the thousands.

9
 New York City Gangs

According to the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention in the

Department of Justice, approximately 772,500 U.S. citizens are affiliated with gangs. 37% of

gang members are under the age of 18 right now. The National Center for Juvenile Justice used a

combination of police department reports and self-reporting to compile the Juvenile Offenders

and Victims: 2006 National Report. According to the information, they gathered between 1 and

2 percent of children ages 10 to 17 were gang members.

The first gangs in New York City emerged in the 18th Century. There were five main

New York Gangs. (1)The Smiths Vly gang, (2) the Bowery Boys, and (3) the Broadway Boys

(were white, mainly Irish) and the (4) Fly Boys and (5) the Long Bridge Boys (were black)

(Howell & Moore; 2010; 2)

The second period of gang growth occurred from 1880-1920 when Polish, Italian, and

Jewish immigrants arrived in New York City. The arrival of the Poles, Italians, and Jews in New

York City in the period 18801920 ushered in a second distinct period of gang activity in the

citys slums. (Howell & Moore; 2010; 3) As of 2005, there were 26000 gangs and 790000 gang

members active in the United States. (Egley, & Donnell, 2008)

There was a shift in the gang member profile over a twenty year period. Prior to the

1970s. Gang violence was usually seen by the public as some version of West Side Storys

(1961) male ethnic youths fighting with fists and knives over turf, respect, and romance. By the

1990s the movies Scarface (1983), Colors (1988), and New Jack City had popularized a

different image: cold-blooded minority gangsters shooting it out in drive-byes or disputes over

drugs. The dark foreigner replaced the dark African American or Latino. (Hagedorn;

10
1998; 366)

The purpose of gang membership has shifted Until recently, gang membership was a

common part of city boyhood and not terribly detrimental. Members left as they got married, got

a job, enlisted in the military, or simply grew out of gang behavior. But as cities have changed,

so have gangs. (Papachristos; 2005; 50-51)

Findings

History of Gang Prevention New York City

There is a lack of information regarding when gangs began to infiltrate New York City

Schools. However, research has shown that gang prevention programs have been in existence in

New York City for almost as long as gangs existed in New York City. With the increase of

gangs and gang membership, so was an increase in crime. The need to protect the community as

a whole became widespread. (Savelli, 2001)

The Citizens Crime Commission of New York City a non-partisan non-profit organization

The New York Society for the Prevention of Crime was founded in 1878. In the 1930s, A Crime

Commission was formed to support NY District Attorney Tom Deweys urge to clean up the

streets. The1950s was focused on the threat of organized crime. (Savelli, 2001)

The Citizens Crime Commission of New York City was founded in 1978 and was up and

running by June 1979. Building upon its historic mission, the Crime Commission seeks to

develop long-term solutions that address neighborhood-level crime problems. By dealing with

the question of how government, law enforcement, criminal justice, and community-based

programs can work more effectively to prevent gang and group violence. (Hagedorn, 1998)

11
 Casita Maria (1934)

Working from a small East Harlem apartment. Casita Marias goal back then was to give

children of recently arrived Hispanic families the educational support needed to thrive in their

new homeland. The young could lead their parents and their community to full participation in

the American Dream. Casita Maria moved in 1961 to the South Bronx. In the 1970s, the Bronx

began to deteriorate. Casita Maria became a place of safety and a route out of

poverty. Throughout the years, Casita Maria expanded their programs to include homeless

services, drug rehabilitation, violence prevention, gang intervention, teen pregnancy prevention,

and many other services. When people look back at this time, Casita Maria is credited with

protecting many thousands of vulnerable children and adults. (Casita Maria Center for the Arts

and Education, 2014)

New York City Youth Board (1947)

The Youth Board placed street-level gang workers called detached workers. They

worked entirely outside of traditional social service program offices in central Harlem, in the

Tompkins Park area in Brooklyn, and in the South Bronx neighborhood of Morrisania to

intervene whenever violence flared between neighborhood youth gangs. (National Gang Center,

2011)

Lower Eastside Neighborhood Association (LENA) (The 1950s)

Issues during the mid-1950s between Mayrose (a street gang made up of white youths of

varied ethnicity). Dragons (a Puerto Rican gang), and Sportsmen (African American adolescents

living in housing projects) escalated into a violent and deadly gang war in lower Manhattan. An

assortment of settlement houses, civic groups, and churches became linked together in a CAP-

12
style gang intervention network. (CAP Chicago Area Project they used local residents as

family counselors and organizers in their own neighborhoods to engage the energies of youth and

adults in projects designed to improve and strengthen social control in the community.)

In 1962, LENAs mission was broadened into a comprehensive agenda of youth development

and community organizing. Mobilization for Youth (MFY) was launched with a rich mix of

federal and city funding that enlarged the substantial stream of Ford grant dollars. Five

settlement houses located in the target area coordinated an expanded a squad of street workers

who increased intervention efforts with more than a dozen neighborhood street gangs. A slew of

job training, job placement, subsidized employment, and social service programs were

established to prevent gangs from forming by providing new channels of opportunity for

neighborhood residents. (Egley, & Donnell, 2008)

The New York City Police Department School Safety Division 1978

The School Safety force was transferred from the New York City Department of

Education to the New York City Police Department. The mission of the NYPD School Safety

Division is to provide a safe environment, conducive to learning, where students and faculty can

be free from hostility and disruptions that could negatively impact on the educational process.

(Citizens on Crime Commission of New York City, 2014)

The New York City Department of Education Gang Prevention and Intervention Unit

The Gang Prevention & Intervention Unit (GPIU) works to promote student safety and

awareness in regards to youth and gang violence and other unlawful behavior. It aims to help

schools and their communities create a safer and more secure environment by assisting them in

developing a proactive approach to gang activity and other forms of youth violence (New York

13
City Department of Education, 2012).

I. Help schools and their communities create a safer and more secure environment by

assisting them in developing a proactive approach to gang activity and other forms of

youth violence.

II. Collaborate with stakeholders in the school community, particularly Safety

Administrators, around designing and implementing interventions that address

individual and group problems related to youth violence, especially involving gangs and

bullying.

III. Respond directly to requests for training and professional development from the New

York City Department of Education and community agencies serving New York City

youth and families.

IV. Maintain current information and in-house expertise relating to all aspects of gangs and

various forms of youth violence. (Egley, & Donnell, 2008; New York City Department of

Education, 2012)

Recommendations

The current studies have found that several factors, including peer influence, self-worth,

and family cohesion, has an effect on initial gang involvement among at-risk youth. However,

only paternal warmth and gender had any significant effect on youths gang involvement across

time. Disorganization and differential association concepts provide a framework for these results.

The breakdown of essential social institutions, such as the family, provides abundant opportunity

for delinquent peers to pressure adolescents into gang activity, especially when social controls

are lacking. Family cohesion, low paternal warmth is an important factor for clinicians and

14
researchers to consider. Fathers provide and serve as a critical figure in the family system.

Paternal warmth might be a key factor for both male and female. Interventions that include the

father and father figures should be supported (National Gang Center, 2011).

It is likely that prevention and intervention strategies would be more efficient if they were

gender-specific. Considering the role that a history of abuse may have on the well-being and

emotional health of girls is essential. It is consistent with the call for trauma-informed care. It

emphasizes the need to be aware of a history of trauma and to provide a safe environment.

Where there are opportunities to rebuild control by emphasizing the strengths and resources of

girls (Jaggers, Church II, Tomek, Bolland, Hooper, & Bolland, 2013).

Furthermore, it is imperative that teachers, school officials, counselors, and other

individuals who come into contact with young girls associated with gangs. Keep in mind that

many of these girls have experienced fractured social relationships and experiences with

victimization. Therefore, it is important that those adults in a position to help not create an

additional estrangement. (Short, 2006)

No amount of law enforcement will defeat the world of gangs. Strategies at all levels

must be beyond the mere arrest and incarceration of our youths. We must address the structures

of which our children live in, the structure of the family, the structure of our educational system,

and the system of not only treating the symptom but the cause. We must address our childrens

needs and the needs of their families. If there is no family, we must step in and make sure it is

done the correct way, and not allow our children to fall into the waiting and supportive arms of

gangs. (Short, 2006; Short, 2007)

Our proposal is for the development of a program that comprehensively incorporates

15
what we already know and has been used by the professional, judicial, and governmental

organization, a program that uses a holistic model in addressing all factors that affect the

development of the young adolescents ages 10-15. After the program is developed, longitudinal

research is needed to follow the progress of the participants and the effectiveness of the program.

A collaboration of Academia around the globe is needed, the sharing of research, information

from local social services in each locality where gang violence in an issue is of great importance.

With the information from our colleagues, we can address the methods by which gangs members

spread their infusion into a society. Forever changing the landscape of our children, the lives of

their families, and the life of a community.

16
 References

Andrews, E. (2013). 7 Infamous Gangs of New York. Retrieved from

http://www.history.com/news/history-lists/7-infamous-gangs-of-new-york

Bonopartis, N. (2006). 'Partners N Crime' linked to murders, racketeering: Police hit drug gang

hard. Poughkeepsie Journal, Retrieved from

http://www.poughkeepsiejournal.com/article/20061116/NEWS05/611160348/-Partners-

N-Crime-linked-murders-racketeering

Brow, C.G., Saunders, T., Harris, S., & Castile, H. (2013). NCPEA policy brief. School safety:

Implications for policy and practice. Retrieved from

http://www.ncpeapublications.org/attachments/article/575/School%20Safety.pdf

Burnett, G. (1994). Gangs in schools. Eric Digest. Retrieved from

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED372175.pdf

Chen, X., Tyler, K.A, Whitbeck, L.B, & Hoyt, D.R. (2004). Early sex abuse, street

adversity, and drug use among female homeless and runaway adolescents in the Midwest.

J Drug Issues, 34,1-21.

Citizens Crime Commission of New York City. (2014). Gangs and group violence prevention.

Retrieved from http://www.nycrimecommission.org/gang-group-violence-prevention.php

Craig, W. M., Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., & Tremblay, R. E. (2002). The road to gang membership:

Characteristics of male gang and non-gang members from ages 10 to 14. Social

Development, 11(1), 53-68.

Cummings, S., & Monti, D.J. (1993). Gangs: The Origins and Impact of Contemporary Youth

Gangs in the United States. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

17
De La Rue, L., & Espelage, D.L, (2014). Family and abuse characteristics of gang-involved,

pressured-to-join and non-gang involved girls. Psychology of Violence,

Egbert, B. (2008). Castle Hill gang busted on drugs and murder. New York Daily News.

Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/castle-hill-gang-busted-drugs-

murder-article-1.325106

Egley, J., & O'Donnell, C. (2008). Highlights of the 2005 national youth gang survey. Retrieved

from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/fs200804.pdf

Espelage, D. & Pratt, A. F., & Aragon, S.R. (2013). The influence of gang presence on

victimization in one middle school environment. Psychology of Violence, 4(1), 8-20.

Fogelbach, J. J. (2011). Gangs, violence, and victims in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.

San Diego International Law Journal, 12(2), 417-462.

Gillibrand, K. (2014). Working to eliminate gang activity in New York. Retrieved from

http://www.gillibrand.senate.gov/agenda/working-to-eliminate-gang-activity-in-new-york

Gray, G. (2010). The New gangs of New York. Retrieved from

http://nymag.com/news/features/establishments/68516/

Hagedorn, J. (1998). Gang violence in the postindustrial era. Crime and Justice, 24, 365-419.

Howell, J.C, Egley. A, & Gleason, D.k. (2002). Modern day Youth gangs. Juvenile Justice

Bulletin. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/191524.pdf

Howell, J.C. (2012). Gangs in Americas Communities: The History of Gangs in the United

States. SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-

data/43455_1.pdf

18
Hornick. J, Macrae, L., Mellor. B., & Pauls. M. (2005). Youth Gangs in Canada: Preliminary

Review of Programs and Services. Retrieved from

http://people.ucalgary.ca/~crilf/publications/Youth_Gang_Report.pdf

Issurdatt, S. (2011). Practice Perspectives. Gangs: A Growing Problem in Schools. Retrieved

from:http://www.naswdc.org/assets/secured/documents/practice/ssw/Gangs%20in%20Sc

hools.pdf

Jeffrey, T.P. (2012). 1,183,700 Violent crimes committed at public schools; only 303,900

reported to Police. CNS News. Retrieved from http://cnsnews.com/news/article/1183700-

violent-crimes-committed-public-schools-only-303900-reported-police

Joe, K. & Chesney, M.L. (1995). Just every mothers angel: An analysis of Gender and Ethnic

Variations in Youth Gang Membership. Gender and Society, 9(4), 408-430.

Johnson, C. (2012). As Gangs Move To New York Suburbs, So Does Crime. New York Public

Radio

Koffman, S., Ray, A., Berg, S., Covington, L., Albarran, N. M., & Vasquez, M. (2009). Impact

of a Comprehensive Whole Child Intervention and Prevention Program among Youths at

Risk of Gang Involvement and Other Forms of Delinquency. Children & Schools, 31(4),

239-245.

Kelly, S., Anderson, D., Hall, L., Peden, A., & Cerel, J. (2012). The effects of exposure to gang

Violence on Adolescent Boys' Mental Health. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 33(2),

80-88.

19
Laidler, J. K, Hunt, G. (1997). Violence and social organization in female gangs. Social Justice,

24(4),148-169.

Massetti, G. M., Vivolo, A. M., Brookmeyer, K., DeGue, S., Holland, K. M., Holt, M. K., &

Matjasko, J. L. (2011). Preventing youth violence perpetration among girls. Journal of

Women's Health (15409996), 20(10), 1415-1428.

New York City Department of Education .(2011). Gang Prevention and Intervention. Retrieved

from http://schools.nyc.gov/StudentSupport/NonAcademicSupport/GangPrevention

New York State Police. (2014). Crime prevention: The reality of gangs. Retrieved from

http://troopers.ny.gov/crime_prevention/Violence/Gangs/

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2014). Working for Youth Justice and

Safety. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/index.html

Palmer, C. T., & Tilley, C. F. (1995). Sexual Access to females as a motivation for joining

gangs: An evolutionary approach. Journal of Sex Research, 32(3), 213-217.

Pyrooz, D. (2011). Structural covariates of gang homicide in large U.S. cities. Journal of

Research in Crime and Delinquency, 48,130.

Pyrooz, D. C. (2014). From Colors and Guns to Caps and Gowns? The Effects of Gang

Membership on Educational Attainment. Journal of Research In Crime & Delinquency,

51(1), 56-87.

Snchez-Jankowski, M. (2003). Gangs and social change. Theoretical Criminology, 7(2), 191-

216.

Schneider, E. C. (1999). Vampires, Dragons, and Egyptian Kings: Youth Gangs in Postwar New

York. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

20
Seelke, C. R. (2008). Gangs in Central America. Washington, DC: Congressional Research

Service, Library of Congress.

Short, J. F., Jr. (1974). Youth, gangs and society: Micro- and macro-sociological processes. The

Sociological Quarterly, 15, 319.

Short, J. F., Hughes, L.A (2006). Why study gangs? An intellectual journey. Studying Youth

Gangs. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press.

Simon, T.R., Ritter, N.M, & Mahendra, R.R. (2013).Changing Course: Preventing Gang

Membership. U.S. Department of Justice & U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services. Retrieved from https://ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/239234.pdf

Skybo, T. (2005). Witnessing Violence: Biopsychosocial Impact on Children. Pediatric Nursing,

31(4), 263-270.

Swart, W.J. (1991). Female gang delinquency: A search for acceptably deviant behavior. Mid-

American Review of Sociology, 15(1), 43-52

Tellez, K., & Estep, M. (1997). Latino youth gangs and the meaning of school. High School

Journal, 81(2), 69-81.

United States Department of Justice. (2014). Street gangs. Retrieved from

http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ocgs/gangs/street

21