Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139 150

www.elsevier.com/locate/nucengdes

Numerical weld modeling a method for calculating

weld-induced residual stresses
S. Fricke, E. Keim, J. Schmidt *
Siemens AG, KWU NT1, Postfach 32 20, 91050 Erlagen, Germany

Received 29 March 2000; received in revised form 19 September 2000; accepted 24 November 2000

Abstract

In the past, weld-induced residual stresses caused damage to numerous (power) plant parts, components and
systems (Erve, M., Wesseling, U., Kilian, R., Hardt, R., Brummer, G., Maier, V., Ilg, U., 1994. Cracking in Stabilized
Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping of German Boiling Water Reactors Characteristic Features and Root Causes. 20.
MPA-Seminar 1994, vol. 2, paper 29, pp.29.1 29.21). In the case of BWR nuclear power plants, this damage can be
caused by the mechanism of intergranular stress corrosion cracking in austenitic piping or the core shroud in the
reactor pressure vessel and is triggered chiefly by weld-induced residual stresses. One solution of this problem that has
been used in the past involves experimental measurements of residual stresses in conjunction with weld optimization
testing. However, the experimental analysis of all relevant parameters is an extremely tedious process. Numerical
simulation using the finite element method (FEM) not only supplements this method but, in view of modern computer
capacities, is also an equally valid alternative in its own right. This paper will demonstrate that the technique
developed for numerical simulation of the welding process has not only been properly verified and validated on
austenitic pipe welds, but that it also permits making selective statements on improvements to the welding process.
For instance, numerical simulation can provide information on the starting point of welding for every weld bead, the
effect of interpass cooling as far as a possible sensitization of the heat affected zone (HAZ) is concerned, the effect
of gap width on the resultant weld residual stresses, or the effect of the last pass heat sink welding (welding of the
final passes while simultaneously cooling the inner surface with water) producing compressive stresses in the root area
of a circumferential weld in an austenitic pipe. The computer program FERESA (finite element residual stress analysis)
was based on a commercially available ABAQUS code (Hibbitt, Karlsson, Sorensen, Inc, 1997. ABAQUS users manual,
version 5.6), and can be used as a 2-D or 3-D FEM analysis; depending on task definition it can provide a starting
point for a fracture mechanics safety analysis with acceptable computing times. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.


25th MPA Seminar Safety and Reliability Integrity Verification, Component Qualification, Damage Prevention-Stuttgart, 7 and
8 October, 1999.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-9131-182530; fax: +49-9131-182911.
E-mail address: juergen.schmidt@erl1.siemens.de (J. Schmidt).

0029-5493/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 2 9 - 5 4 9 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 4 1 4 - 3
140 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150
1. Background
Residual stresses are a crucial factor in service-
induced crack formation in nuclear power plants.
Component integrity is considerably influenced by
crack formation, depth and distribution, particu-
larly if corrosion mechanisms play a role in crack
initiation and at least initial crack propagation
(e.g. intergranular stress corrosion cracking in
austenitic pipes, or the core shroud in the reactor
pressure vessel, or strain-induced corrosion crack-
ing in ferritic pipes in BWR plants). Weld residual
stresses are initially caused by the heat used to
create a fusion zone and, thereafter, by cooling
processes, which produce areas of local deforma-
tion in the weld region.
Established test techniques are available for
measuring weld-induced residual stresses. These
include X-ray examination or strain gauge mea-
surements. Analytical or simpler numerical tech-
niques (2-D FEM) are also used to confirm test
results. However, the fact remains that measure-
ments always contain geometrical singularities,
crack initiation is always a local phenomenon,
and the residual stress condition is by no means
rotationally symmetrical. In this respect, great
Fig. 1. Mesh configuration for simulation of welding process (DN 200).
importance is attached to a method of represent-
ing relationships, which realistically simulates the
boundary conditions in the actual component, i.e.
3-D modeling.
The computer program FERESA is a company-
internal adaptation and application of the com-
mercially available ABAQUS code, as no tool
earlier in the market could meet sufficiently all of
the requirements described above. The following
discussion reports on applications to date and
their results.
2. Description of the technique
The objective was to perform realistic weld
simulations which would provide additional infor-
mation not-affected by tolerances with respect to
the welding process, pipe dimension, residual
stress measurements and methods, and allow ver-
ification of that information.
The welding of a circumferential weld in a
DN1006.3 mm (austenitic) pipe was, therefore,
simulated under the most realistic conditions pos-
sible using the 3-D finite element method. The
mesh configuration is shown in Fig. 1.
 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150
To ensure realistic results, 8 node elements with
an integration order of 2*2*2 were used. For
reasons of computer capacity (the calculations
were performed on an HP-J210 UNIX workstation
with 1 GB of RAM), it is not currently possible
(because of the long computing time required) to
use the more suitable 20 node elements, which
could supply even more accurate information on
highly localized phenomena such as root forma-
tion. For the time being, however, the results
obtained with the eight node 3-D elements serve
as a good approximation of the welding process.
The problem was treated as an uncoupled ther-
mal and mechanical problem; first the tempera-
ture field was calculated (element type DC3D8 per
(Hibbitt et al., 1997)), and stresses and displace-
ments were then deduced from these results (ele-
ment type C3D8). The austenitic material was
assumed to exhibit characteristic elastic-plastic be-
havior. All requisite material characteristic data
(for base and weld metal, based on tensile tests),
including their temperature dependency, were en-
tered in the FE model. While, this is essential for
accuracy, it substantially increases computing
time.
The model size can best be described by the
number of nodes, elements, and degrees of
freedom
Number of nodes 3108
Number of elements 2220
Number of degrees 3108 (temperature field
of freedom calculation)
9324 (stress displacement
fields)
It was not possible to use a symmetrical model,
because one of the problems faced was the calcu-
lation of the dwelling time of heat-affected zone-
elements in the temperature range between 500
and 800C and this time duration is depending on
the layer-sequence of weld build-up. These hold-
ing times provide important information for de-
termining weld-induced sensitization; every
individual weld bead was modeled on the basis of
conventional weld geometry using realistic weld-
ing parameters. The element density in the region
141
of the heat-affected zone was increased to a mini-
mal element width of 0.2 mm, to obtain higher
accuracy in that area, which is critical for crack
initiation.
3. Simulation and results
3.1. Con6entional weld geometry in DN100 and
DN200 pipes
In the initial applications, welds with conven-
tional weld geometry and with narrow gap ge-
ometry were simulated in DN100 pipes (and to a
limited extent in DN200 pipes) as realistically as
possible and compared with test measurements. It
was possible to verify the calculated shrinkage,
the resultant residual stresses and the heat input
both qualitatively and quantitatively by compari-
son with the test results:
The calculated residual stresses are tensile at the
weld root (Fig. 2), and compressive at the outer
surface of the weld. The stress profile across the
wall thickness is approximately linear (the sym-
bols in Fig. 2 represent the results of the finite
element analysis). This fact is confirmed by
numerous measurements on relatively thin-
walled components, which exhibited also a
nearly linear distribution for axial residual
stresses (NUREG-1061, vol. 1). The residual
stress distribution (axial stress S33) in the weld
region at the ID surface forms a M-configura-
tion with a local minimum in the middle of the
weld, and local maxima in both heat affected
zones (Fig. 3). The maximum (calculated) resid-
ual stress value is greater than the yield stress
(205 MPa) determined in the (single-axis) ten-
sile test. The increased residual stresses seem
plausible given the actual restrained transverse
expansion; they also coincide quantitatively
with test values typically obtained for this
material.
The results of calculations (Fig. 4, DN 100 pipe
weld) confirmed by test measurements (Fig. 4,
DN 450 pipe weld) show that residual stress
distribution (axial stress at the ID-surface) is by
no means constant around the pipe circumfer-
142 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150

Fig. 2. Axial stress through wall thickness (DN 100 middle of weld).

ence. It exhibits considerable variation (which region of the fusion line) is a stress raiser (stress
might be dependent on the pipe dimensions) concentration factor), and because elements
but this appears essentially to be a function of which can promote the corrosive attack can be
the starting point of welding: peak residual concentrated in this fold. In addition, the mate-
stresses occur at the weld starting point but this rial has undergone strain hardening in this area
could be avoided in practice by offsetting the as a result of shrinkage and has also
starting point for every subsequent weld bead been subjected to the greatest heat input. All of
(a numerical simulation of this scenario has yet these factors contribute to the fact demon-
to be performed). In the case of conventional strated in comparative studies (Zimmer and
weld geometry, the maximum axial stress level Kilian, 1998) that the IGSCC attack ob-
is located at the ID-surface and is diagonally served in stabilized, austenitic piping almost
opposing to the last weld bead deposited (Fig.
5); this means that the final pass also has a
considerable impact on total residual stresses.
In both qualitative and quantitative terms, the
results for axial (Fig. 6) and radial shrinkage
obtained from the numerical simulation also
compare well with measurements on actual
components. Weld shrinkage affects the level
and the distribution of residual stresses in the
root area; however, shrinkage ultimately also
determines the occurrence and geometry of
mash folds in the weld root (Fig. 7), The
greater the axial shrinkage, the more likely the
occurrence of a mash fold, and the deeper this
mash fold will be. This factor is important if
intergranular stress corrosion cracking is to be
reliably prevented because the mash fold (in the Fig. 3. Axial stress with distance from weld zone.
 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150

Fig. 4. Residual stresses (around circumference) due to pipe welding experimental/numerical analysis.
143
144 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150
Fig. 5. Residual stresses due to pipe welding (convent/narrow gap) experimental/numerical analysis.
invariably originates in mash folds. Calculated
weld shrinkage increases with the number of
passes, confirming expectations: smaller pipe
dimensions, therefore, tend to be less at risk
than pipes with larger dimensions assuming
identical weld geometry.
Greater attention has recently been directed in
welding practice to maintaining/checking the
preheat temperature during welding of
austenitic materials. The results of the com-
puter simulation confirm the expediency of this.
As can be seen in Fig. 8, the interpass tempera-
ture would increase steadily to more than some
400C without intermediate cooling after every
welding pass. Total heat input consequently
increases drastically due to the slower rate of
cooling for every individual (temperature) cycle.
Greater importance has, therefore, to be at-
tached to interpass cooling, particularly with
regard to possible material sensitization caused
by the welding process.
The effect of heat input in terms of a possible
sensitization of the material has already been
mentioned. It is a fact that the potential sensi-
tization of austenitic materials (to a certain
extent undoubtedly a function of the particular
chemical composition) occurs as a result of heat
input in the temperature range between 500 and
800C (Schmidt et al., 1986). The interesting
time period in this respect is when a solid
element in the bulk of the material is in this
temperature range. The total holding time in
this temperature range is calculated from the
temperature cycles for every individual weld
bead. As shown in Fig. 9, the values from the
computer simulation agree very well with the
values obtained from test welds. The calculated
cumulative holding time serves as a measure for
heat input and, therefore, in the case of
austenitic materials, a measure of postulated,
segregation-induced sensitization. This holding
 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150 145

time in the critical temperature range is com- ness because of the increased number of passes
paratively longer in parts with larger wall thick- (number of weld beads).

Fig. 6. Axial shrinkage during pipe welding experimental/numerical analysis.

Fig. 7. Importance of the contraction fold.

146 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150

Fig. 8. Transient temperature 0.2 mm beside the fusion line in HAZ DN 100/DN 200 weld simulation.

Fig. 9. Total keeping time at sensitizing temperature due to welding experimental/numerical analysis.
 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150
Modeling of a circumferential weld in an
austenitic DN1006.3 mm pipe on the worksta-
tion used for these studies required a com-
puting time of around 9 h for the temperature
field calculation and a further 53 h for calculating
deformations and stresses. Computing time in-
creased to around 4 weeks for a circumferential
weld on a DN20011 mm pipe with elements of
comparable size. Soon to be available computers
are likely to shorten these computation times by a
factor of 20, so that tasks of this nature will
assume acceptable dimensions.
3.2. Comparison of con6entional weld with
narrow-gap weld
The results (Fig. 5) confirm, for example, the
advantages of the narrow-gap weld in comparison
with conventional weld geometry with regard to
shrinkage, residual stresses and cumulative heat
input (Schmidt et al., 1986),
The mean residual stress level is significantly
lower in comparison with conventional weld
geometry.
Also, in the simulation process it is necessary,
like in practical performance to overlap the
starting point of welding by a defined amount
to exhibit the advantages of narrow-gap
welding.
Fig. 10. Postweld heat treatment last pass heat sink welding (LPHSW).
147
3.3. The effect of last pass heat sink welding
(LPHSW)
The results of residual stress measurements on
austenitic pipes, which had undergone post-weld
treatment for stress redistribution purposes are
presented in (Schmidt et al., 1995). The results
published here included measurements of welds
on which, an additional overlay weld, and also
welds which had been subjected to the LPHSW
process, i.e. rewelding of the last pass (after first
machining away weld bead material) or welding
of additional passes with a relatively high heat
input while simultaneously, cooling the weld root
with water (Fig. 10). At that time, it was demon-
strated that the process of LPHSW converts ten-
sile stresses at the weld root to compressive
stresses. Over the wall thickness stresses are grad-
ually reversed, in other words, axial stresses at the
outer surface of the weld are tensile.
A subsequent calculation using a 3-D finite
element analysis fully confirms these measure-
ments (Fig. 11, the axial stresses are the most
relevant stress components, because possible flaws
are assumed to originate in the HAZ of this
circumferential weld, oriented in circumferential
direction, therefore, the figure is focused on the
axial stresses). As mentioned above, distribution
is quite irregular around the circumference. Since,
148 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150
Fig. 11. Contour plot of stress values in the welding region 12:00 h position before and after LPHSW.
passes 16 are each welded in two steps, a singu-
larity is obtained in 06:00 (starting point of weld-
ing) and 12:00 h position (end of first half of
welding). An interesting feature of the calculation
results is that peak residual stresses occur at the
key location (laterally approximately 0.2 mm
away from the fusion line (HAZ) on the inner
surface of the pipe) while the root pass (bead 1 in
Fig. 12) is being welded. There is a steady reduc-
tion in residual stresses during welding of the
subsequent passes. Residual tensile stresses never-
theless prevail at the weld root until the weld gap
has been filled. Compressive axial stresses do not
occur at the weld root until LPHSW is simulated;
these compressive stresses persist over a consider-
able distance from the weld and the entire area,
which is potentially susceptible to weld sensitiza-
tion is consequently affected favorably by com-
pressive residual stresses.
3.4. Operational influences
The results of residual stress measurements on
circumferential welds in austenitic pipes which
had been removed from a reactor plant after
many years in service were also presented in
(Schmidt et al., 1995). As was to be expected,
these welds exhibited a lower residual stress level
on the average than similarly welded piping joints
in their as-welded condition. It can be postulated
that this stress reduction is the result of settling
processes (precursor to relaxation).
For the numerical simulation, plant operation
was modeled so as to simulate start-up, and shut-
down repeated several times with corresponding
heating and cooling rates, and a short holding
time at operating temperature (ten cycles in total).
The simulation included thermal stratification;
this stratification was achieved by inserting a plate
 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150 149

Fig. 12. Axial stress at the inner side (0.2 mm positive direction from fusionline) after cooling to interpass temperature.

Fig. 13. Axial stress (inner surface, 0.2 mm from fusionline) after welding sequence, aging 1st/10th cycle, and final stage.
150 S. Fricke et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 206 (2001) 139150
into the pipe in such a way, that the two inlet
mass flows were separated into cold and hot water
regions.
The results of the computer simulation are
given in Fig. 13 for a representative weld that has
been improved by LPHSW. Here too, peak resid-
ual stresses near the starting point of welding are
initially symptomatic, a weld in the vertical up
position was simulated in this case, i.e. the heat
source did not move continuously around the
circumference of the pipe; instead the welding
process was performed in two steps, both steps
beginning at 06:00 h, and ending at 12:00 h with
one half moving through the 03:00 h position, and
the other through the 09:00 h position. The solid
line indicates stresses in the as-welded condition
(measured after welding). The dotted line (after
simulation of one cycle), and the broken line
(after simulation of ten cycles) indicate the weld
condition with allowance for heating and internal
pressure. A comparison of the continuous line
(after welding), and the dotted and dashed line
(final stage), both plotted in a weld no longer
under service conditions, clearly indicates the ef-
fect of operational stress reduction. In the final
stage (dotted and dashed line) peak stresses have
been reduced in both the tensile and the compres-
sive range.
4. Outlook
The technique presented here is a useful tool
which can be used not only to predict/recalculate
weld-induced residual stresses in austenitic materi-
als but also, with appropriate further develop-
ment, to validate the calculations of
manufacturing-related residual stresses (following
forming, heat treatment). Present computers have
sufficient capacity to simulate individual manufac-
turing conditions. The tool is above all useful as a
means of expanding investigations (parameter
variation), and yields essential input for safety
analyses on components which require rigorous
determination of manufacturing-related residual
stresses.
References
Hibbitt, Karlsson, Sorensen, Inc, 1997. ABAQUS users man-
ual, version 5.6.
Schmidt, J., Wei, E., Pellkofer, D., 1986. Avoiding IGSCC in
Austenitic Piping System of BWR Nuclear Power Plants
from the Standpoint of Welding Technology, Proceedings
of the American Power Conference, Chicago.
Schmidt, J., Pellkofer, D., Wei, E., 1995. Alternativen bei der
Nachbehandlung von austenitischen Rohrleitungsnahten
zur Erhohung der Betriebssicherheit von SWR-Anlagen,
21. MPA-Seminar, Stuttgart, October 1995.
Zimmer, R., Kilian, R., 1998. Neuronale Netze zur
Beurteilung von Einflugroen auf die interkristalline
Spannungsrikorrosion, VGB Konferenz, Forschung fur
die Kraftwerkstechnik 1998, Essen, February 1998, TB
233.
NUREG-1061, vol. 1, Report of the US Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Piping Review Committee Investigation and
Evaluation of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Piping of
Boiling Water Reactor Plants.