9/25/2013

Overview
Sampling
Speech and Audio Signal Processing

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ECE554

Nikesh Bajaj
nikesh.14730@lpu.co.in
Asst. Prof. DSP, SECE
Lovely Professional University
2 By: Nikesh Bajaj

CODING OF SPEECH SIGNALS

SpeechCoding
Ba Speech Quality V Bit Rate for Codecs
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WaveformCoding HybridCoding AnalysisSynthesisor
Vocoders
Waveform Coding: an attempt is made to preserve the original waveform.
Vocoders: a theoretical model of the speech production mechanism is considered.

Hybrid Coding: uses techniques from the other two. 4

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Sampling Theorem
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Theorem: If the highest frequency contained in an analog

signal xa(t) is Fmax = B, and the signal is sampled at a frequency
Fs > 2B, then the analog signal can be exactly recovered from
its samples using the following reconstruction formula:

xa t
T t nT
sin
x nT
n
a
T t nT
Note that at the original sample instances (t = nT), the
reconstructed analog signal is equal to the value of the original
analog signal. At times between the sample instances, the
signal is the weighted sum of shifted sinc functions.
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Sampling Theorem(1920) Reconstruction of Signal

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Sampling
Prove the Theorem
Fs = 2*Fc
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TYPICAL SAMPLING FREQUENCIES IN

SPEECH RECOGNITION Problems
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8 kHz: Popular in digital telephony. Provides Sampling theorem for bandlimited signals
coverage of first three formants for most speakers and How to change the sample rate of a signal?
most sounds. How this can be implemented using time
16 kHz: Popular in speech research. domain interpolation (based on the Sampling
Sub 8 kHz Sampling: Theorem)?
How this can be implemented efficiently using
digital filters?
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PCM

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Speech Probability Density
Function
Probability density function for x(n) is the same as for xa(t) since
x(n)=xa(nt) the mean and variance are the same for both x(n) and xa(t).
Need to estimate probability density and power spectrum from speech
waveforms
probability density estimated from long term histogram of amplitudes
Ba

Measured Speech Densities
Distribution normalized so mean
is 0 and variance is 1(x=0, x=1)
Gamma density more closely
approximates measured
distribution for speech than
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Laplacian
good approximation is of a gamma distribution of the form:
Laplacian is still a good model
and is used in analytical studies
Small amplitudes much more
Simpler approximation is Laplacian density, of the form: likely than large amplitudes by
100:1 ratio.

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Correlation of Speech PCM

Sampling and Quantization
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Can estimate long term

autocorrelation and power
spectrum using time-series
analysis methods
where L is a large integer
Separating the processes of sampling and quantization.
Assume x(n) obtained by sampling a bandlimited signal at
a rate at or above the Nyquist rate.
8kHzsampledspeechforseveral
speakers Assume x(n) is known to infinite precision in amplitude.
highcorrelationbetweenadjacent
samples
Lowpassspeechmorehighly
Need to quantize x(n) in some suitable manner.
correlatedthanbandpassspeech

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Quantization and Encoding n-bit Quantization

Use n-bit binary numbers to represent the quantized
Coding is a two-stage process samples => 2n quantization levels

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quantization process: x( n)x (n) Information Rate of Coder: I=n FS= total bit rate in
bits/second
encoding process: x (n) c(n)
n=16, FS= 8 kHz => I=128 kbps
where is the (assumed fixed) quantization step size
n=8, FS= 8 kHz => I=64 kbps
Decoding is a single-stage process
n=4, FS= 8 kHz => I=32 kbps
decoding process:c(n) x(n)
Goal of waveform coding is to get the highest quality at a
if c(n)=c(n), (no errors in transmission) then x(n) =x(n) fixed value of I (kbps), or equivalently to get the lowest
x(n) x(n) coding and quantization loses information.
value of I for a fixed quality.
Since FS is fixed, need most efficient quantization methods
to minimize I.
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Quantization Basics

Assume |x(n)| Xmax (possibly )

For Laplacian density (where Xmax=), can show that

Ba Quantization Process
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0.35% of the samples fall outside the range -4x x(n)

4x => large quantization errors for 0.35% of the samples.

Can safely assume that Xmax is proportional to x.

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Mid--Riser and Mid--Tread

Uniform Quantizer Quantizers
The choice of quantization range and levels chosen such that signal can easily be
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processed digitally Mid-riser

origin (x=0) in middle of rising part of the staircase
same number of positive and negative levels
symmetrical around origin.
Mid-tread
origin (x=0) in middle of quantization level
one more negative level than positive
one quantization level of 0 (where a lot of activity occurs)
Code words have direct numerical significance (sign-magnitude representation for
mid-riser, twos complement for mid-tread).
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Quantizer Uniform Quantization and SNR

Uniform Quantizers characterized by:
number of levels2n (n bits)
quantization step size-.

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if |x(n)| Xmax and x(n) is a symmetric density, then
2n =2Xmax
= 2Xmax/ 2n
if we let
x(n)=x(n) + e(n)
with x(n) the unquantized speech sample, and e(n) the
quantization
- /2 e(n) /2
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Quantization Noise Model Ba
quantization noise is a zero-mean, stationary white noise
process.
E[e(n)e(n+m)]=2e, m=0
= 0 otherwise
SNR for Quantization Ref:5.3.1
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quantization noise is uncorrelated with the input signal
E[x(n)e(n+m)]=0 m
Distribution of quantization errors is uniform over each
quantization interval
pe(e)=1/ - /2 e /2 =0, 2e = 2/12
=0 otherwise
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Instantaneous Companding [R:5.3.2] - Law : Companding/Exp.

LOG Pseudo Logarithmic
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Not Practical
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- Law : Companding/Exp.
Cases
y(n) =0 for x(n) =0

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If = 0 then y(n) = x(n)

For large
SNR Smith[10]

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- Law : Example
= 40 and L=8
Ba A-Law
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Delta Modulation
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At high sampling rate, signal samples are

highly correlated.
Autocorrelation
.

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Linear Delta Modulation Linear Delta Modulation

Coder Decoder

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Characteristics ??

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Linear Delta Modulation

Optimum Prediction Gain
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LDM
Slope overload
Avoid
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Slope overload
distortion (noise)

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LDM
When input is zero or constant
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Noise with peak to peak variation (Qnoise)

Granular Noise

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LDM Adaptive Delta Modulation

Bit Rate:?? Encoder
Advantages

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Simplicity
No sync. Req.
Simple circuit cond.

Bit-Pattern
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Adaptive Delta Modulation

Decoder
Ba Characteristics?
Adaptive DM
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ADM Comparison
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Parameters P, Q, Dmn, Dmx

Ratio Dmx/Dmn = large for high SNR

PQ <=1

Another Continuously variable slope delta

modulation (CVSD)

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DPCM ADPCM: Adaptive Quan.

Quantize difference rather than sample Adaptive step size
DM is 1-bit DPCM Coder: Feed Forward

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6dB improvement on SNR 5 dB + 6dB improvement
No single predictor can be optimal
Need of Adaptive DPCM

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ADPCM
Decoder
Ba ADPCM -Feedback
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ADPCM: Adaptive Predictor ADPCM: Adaptive Predictor

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ADPCM

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PCM Speech(2)
Companding Example: 5-bit per sample(1-bit polarity, 2-bit segment code,
& 2-bit quantization code)

Linear
quantization
intervals
11
10
01
00
+V signal
Ba 11
PCM Speech(3)
Companding Example: 5-bit per sample(1-bit polarity, 2-bit segment code,
& 2-bit quantization code)

Linear
quantization
intervals
11
10
01
00
+V signal
Polarity: 1

Polarity: 1
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Segment 10 10
01 Segment 10 10
01
00 00
codes(+) 11 codes(+) 11
01 10
01 01 10
01
00 00
11 11
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00 10
01 00 10
01
00 00
-V 00
01 +V
00
01
10 00 10 00
11 11
00 00
Polarity: 0

Polarity: 0
Narrower 01
10 01 Wider 01
10 01
intervals 11
Segment intervals 11
Segment
for smaller 00
for smaller 00
01
10 codes(-) 01
10 codes(-)
amplitude 10
11 amplitude 10
11
00 00
01 01
10 11 10 11
11 11
-V -V
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