Project & Report (AENG-601)

Report Title:
Design, Cost Estimation and development of Guidelines for
the construction of Rain Water Harvesting Pond
Submitted by:
Muhammad Qamar Riaz (13-Arid-3890)
M. Umer (13-Arid- 3893)
Rehan Zaib (13-Arid-3899)
Abdul Momin (13-Arid-3863)
Submitted to:
Engr. Muhammad Usman
Lecturer (FAE&T)

Faculty of Agricultural Engineering & Technology

PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi

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 CERTIFICATION

I hereby undertake that we have worked on the project Rain Water harvesting as a part
of final year project. This report is an original one and no part of this Report falls under
plagiarism. If found otherwise, at any stage, We will be responsible for the consequences.

Group Members:
1) Muhammad Qamar Riaz 13-Arid-3890
2) Muhammad Umer 13-Arid-3893
3) Rehan Zeb 13-Arid-3899
4) Abdul Momin 13-Arid-3863

Certified that we have submitted our final year project entitled Design, Cost Estimation and
development of Guidelines for the construction of Rain Water Harvesting Pond The
contents and format of report have been checked, found satisfactory and recommended to be
processed for further evaluation.

Supervisor: __________________________
(Engr. Muhammad Usman)

Dean FAE&T: _______________________

(Dr. Muhammad Yasin)

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IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, THE MOST BENEFICENT
AND MERCIFUL

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 Table of Contents

Chapter No. Description Page No.

1 Introduction 7
1.1 Rain water harvesting in Pakistan 7
1.2 Problem statement 9
1.3 Scope of project 9
1.4 Objectives 10
2 Review of Literature 11
2.1 Terminologies 11
2.2 Types of water harvesting 12
2.2.1 Surface Runoff harvesting 12
2.2.2 Rooftop Water harvesting 13
2.3 Advantages & Disadvantages 15
2.4 Storage & control of water 16
2.4.1 Objectives 16
2.4.2 Functions 16
2.4.3 Types of Pond 17
2.5 Basic Component of Storage structure 17
2.6 Determination of Runoff 19
2.7 Prevention/common problems in in Storage structure 20
2.8Treatment of stored water 26
2.9 Operation and Maintenance 27
2.10 Management of RWH system 28
3 Study Area Description 30
3.1 Geography of potohar plateu 30
3.1 Survey 31
3.1.1 Selection of site 31
3.1.2 Catchment Area 32
3.1.3 Vegetative cover 33
3.1.4 Command Area 33
3.2 Data Collection 33
3.2.1 Rainfall Data 33
3.2.2 Soil Type investigation 34
4 Materials & Methods 36
4.1 Runoff Estimation Methods 36
4.2 Pond Design 37
4.3 Pond Maintenance 39
5 Master Plan 40
5.1 Planning of Rain Water harvesting 40
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 5.2 Catchment Area Calculations 41
5.3 Rainfall at koont farm 43
5.4 Soil Properties/Investigation 44
5.5 Pond location 45
5.6 SCS Curve Number 49
5.6.1 Hydrologic grouping of soil 49
5.6.1 Curve Number For Catchment 50
5.6.2 Weighted curve number for catchment 52
5.7 Storm Runoff Estimation 55
5.8 Peak discharge Rate Estimation 56
5.8.1 Time of Concentration 56
5.8.2 Longest flow path 57
5.8.3 Peak Discharge Rate Calculations 59
5.9 Channel Design 60
5.10 Catchment Area Development 65
5.10.1 Erosion Control Measures 65
5.10.2 Seepage Control Measures 66
5.10.3 Siltation control Measures 66
5.11 Cost Estimation 67
6 Development of Guidelines 69
6.1 Guidelines for Pond Design 69
6.2 Guidelines for Runoff Estimation 70
6.3 Guidelines for Maintenance 72
7 Summary 74

8 References 76

9 Appendix 77

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Allah Almighty, the eternal of this universe. The most beneficent, Merciful, Gracious and

compassionate whose bounteous blessing gave me potential, Thoughts, Talented Teachers,

Helping friends and opportunity to make this humble effort and enabled me to pursue and

perceive higher ideas of life.

All praise and respect to Holy Prophet Hazarat Muhammad (S.A.W) whose blessings and

exhalations flourished my thoughts in the form of this write up.

The work presented in this report was accomplished under the inspiring guidance,

generous assistance and obligated supervision of Engr. Muhammad Usman, Lecturer Faculty

of Agriculture Engineering and Technology. He had given us guidance and advice with great

patience. His criticism and suggestions had been much of value during writing of this report.

I deem it utmost pleasure in expressing my gratitude with profound thanks to the

Dr. Yasin, Dean FAE&T for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing

necessary information regarding the project & also for the support in completing it.

I offer my profound obligations to my parents, brothers and sister for their

encouragement and cooperation which helped me in the completion of the project.

I also thanks to my colleagues (classmates) and people who willingly helped me with

their abilities.

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Rain Water Harvesting in Pakistan:

Water is a valuable gift from God which has been given prime importance in the Holy
Quran. It is one of the three important things that every human is blessed with freely: grasses
providing pasture for cattle, water, and fire without which existence of life on earth is
impossible. In the Quran Allah says: "We sent down water from the sky in measure and lodged it
in the ground. And we certainly are able to withdraw it. Therewith for you we gave rise to
gardens of palm-trees and vineyards where for you are abundant fruits and of them you eat"
surah 23, verses 18 and 19. These Quranic verses remind us the Islamic perspective of water
harvesting and its importance in agriculture.
Pakistan is a valuable gift of ALLAH. It receives an annual rainfall ranging from 1000
mm to 1500 mm but it was our ignorance that Pakistan is now facing the problem of water
shortage, , as in many countries worldwide. Per capita water availability in Pakistan has fallen
from 5600 m3 in 1947 to about 1000 m3 currently. Both availability (quantity) and quality of
water are declining, due to agricultural expansion, population growth, urbanization and
industrializing. The potohar region is the most affected region of Pakistan due to shortage of
water. Agricultural productivity in these areas is very low as a result of shortage of soil moisture,
mismanagement of runo, soil erosion, small and fragmented landholdings, and low level of
inputs.
The potohar region of Pakistan is located in semiarid region with annual precipitation
ranges from 200mm to 700 mm. The climatic characteristic of the study area shows that that
major portion of rainfalls happens between late winter and during summer season. Monthly and
seasonal rainfall distribution is shown in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1.

Table 1.1 Long terms Average of precipitation of potohar region

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Precipitation 56.4 73.1 87.5 58.6 35.6 56.3 267.3 308.4 110.8 30.6 17.7 34.1
(mm)

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 350 200
precipitation(mm)

300

Precipitation (mm)
250 150
200
150 100
100
50 50
0
0
Feb

July

Sep

Dec
Jan

Nov
Apr

Aug
Mar

May

Oct
June
Autmn Spring Summer Winter
Month Seasonal

Fig 1.1 Monthly and seasonal precipitation of potohar region

Potohar region of Pakistan doesnt have significant surface and underground water
resources that could be reliable for future development. Within the last two decades, potohar
region has been continuously facing water shortage. Water experts have determined that the
present amounts of available surface and groundwater supplies will not be able to meet future
water demand. Water conservation and development of alternative water supplies is necessary to
meet our growing demand for fresh water.

Rainwater harvesting is an alternative water supply approach that captures, diverts, and
stores rain water for later use and is available to anyone. Captured rainwater is often used as a
potable water source. Another popular use is for attracting and providing water for wildlife, pets,
and livestock. Rainwater is also used for landscaping because the water is free of salts and other
harmful minerals. Rainwater does not have to be treated with chemicals that have residual
influences for most non-potable uses.

Implementing rainwater harvesting techniques directly benefits our country by reducing

the demand on the municipal and public water supply, along with reducing run-off, erosion, and
contamination of surface water (Zameer-A- somroo et al 2009).
Rainwater harvesting can also help prevent flooding and erosion, turning storm water problems
into water supply assets by slowing runoff and allowing it to soak into the ground. This also
helps decrease the contamination of surface water with sediments, fertilizers, and pesticides in
rainfall runoff.

Rainwater harvesting can be used in both small-scale residential landscapes and in large-
scale landscapes, such as parks, schools, commercial sites, parking lots, and apartment
complexes. It can also be used in homes for commodes and clothes washing or, with more
filtration and treatment; it can be sanitized enough for all in-home uses.
On Large scale, Rainwater harvesting can be done by constructing water harvesting pond.
Government has also implement some water harvesting project in potohar region e.g with the
collaboration of H.E.C, arid agriculture university has construct five water harvesting pond at its
research farm chakwal. The 80-acre feet of water are stored in these ponds. Earthquake

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Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA) have also installed rain water harvesting
system in Battgram district of Hazara division.
Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA) has also installed five
rain water harvesting project in Bagh district of Azad Kashmir.
ADP has also install some pilot projects in tharparkar district, Sindh. These are some of
the pilot projects that were installed by government in Pakistan. However these projects should
be implanted all over the country in order to meet the increasing demand of food and to
overcome the problem of water shortage.

1.2. Problem statement:

In the Northern Punjab, rivers and canals have literally no significant role in irrigation
and the availability of surface water is not in abundance as compared to other parts of Punjab. To
cope with water demand, there needs to be an effective water management in place. The water
scarcity trends are now clear in the Pothwar plateau and there are chances that it might result into
water crisis in the near future. Experts are of the opinion that water crisis are already there, as the
country is not effectively managing the available resources. The crisis is basically due to lack of
management of water under scarcity so that basic needs for domestic and food purposes can be
met (Munir 2002). The water scarcity is now reality and in future new water resources are harder
to find, therefore new water resources would largely come from the saving of existing losses
through effective management of the available resource (Ahmad 2008a)
Water management becomes necessary for ensuring the long-term availability of clean
water for the domestic use and for meeting the demand for food. The Water Apportionment
Accord does not cover the Northern Areas and Pothwar plateau, therefore, the people of Barani
areas are deprived from having access to river flows from the Indus Basin Irrigation System
(Ahmad 2008b). The water rights on the non-perennial floodwater streams are not precisely and
sharply defined and any large scale water development in these areas sometime create conflicts
among the community. Moreover proper infrastructure to harness potential from non-perennial
stream is also lacking.
Thus an alternative water source in potohar Area of Pakistan is rain water harvesting.
But unfortunately information regarding technical (volume of water, area to be irrigated) and
socioeconomic issues such as the costs and benefits of using this system is not available.
Therefore, the aim of this study is to provide technical guidelines, which are very important for
the construction of the water harvesting schemes and for the proper management of the water
resources and then the use of harvested water for increasing agricultural productivity in potohar
region of Pakistan and also to the surrounding areas.

1.3. Objectives
The main objectives of this Project are
i) To study the technical aspects of water harvesting pond.
ii) To calculate the total volume of water produced by runoff contributing water to the pond.
iii) To develop guidelines for catchment and command area development.

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 iii) To develop technical guidelines for the construction and management of water harvesting
pond.
1.4 Scope of project:
Water shortage or inferior water quality is a severe problem for the people of potohar
area of Pakistan (as well as elsewhere) and a hindrance to get better crop yield. Much of rainfall
water is lost every year in the form of runoff, which could potentially irrigate substantial areas.
Even in places with less serious water shortages, demand for additional water is dominant. There
is a need to focus on this issue.So the people of the potohar region are looking for an alternate
solution that how they can use the available water sources effectively and how they can increase
their crop yield.
Rainwater harvesting is the ideal solution to the water crisis that is going to arise in a few
years from now in the study area. The groundwater deterioration has been fast in this region and
immediate recharge measures should be taken to address the problem. This can be possible only
with the help of rainwater harvesting techniques.
This report will help land owners, graduates and contractors in planning rainwater harvesting
(RWH) systems. This report contains technical guidelines for the construction and management
of water harvesting pond. It also address the popular and useful distribution of water for
landscapes, pets, wildlife, livestock, and private non-potable and potable in-home rainwater
systems.
The farmers of potohar region will be able to manage their water resources i.e rainfall water after
studying this report. By adopting useful water distribution techniques at their farm i.e Drip
irrigation, Sprinkler irrigation etc, the farmer can increase their crop yield.

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Chapter 2

Review of Literature
Water is a prerequisite for life and without it there will be no living thing. The
significance of fresh water is well recognized and the easy access to water remained a serious
issue in both urban and rural areas in developing as well as developed countries. Particularly, its
importance is further enhanced in earthquake prone, hilly, and rural areas where access to water
is difficult, expensive and tiresome. Water is the basic right for all human beings. It is frequently
asserted that quality of life depends on the quality of water being used. Beside its importance and
necessity, fresh water is becoming a scarce commodity on earth. Water demand has increased in
the last few decades, whereas the availability of fresh water has decreased in this era. This is due
to the higher population and industrial growth, intensive agriculture production, and rapid
urbanization. This surge in water demand is putting tremendous pressure on existing water
supply sources which put serious impact on environment. A number of water harvesting schemes
have been initiated by governments and international agencies for collecting water to meet the
demand of the water of this era in which one of them is rain water harvesting scheme.

2.1 Important terminologies:

2.1.1 Water harvesting: It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run
off and taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to
take place in the catchment (R.s Suresh et al).

Therefore, water harvesting can be done through a variety of ways

Capturing runoff from rooftops
Capturing runoff from local catchments
Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams
Conserving water through watershed management

2.1.2 Runoff: Runoff can be described as that part of the Rain that flows over land as surface
water instead of being absorbed into groundwater or evaporating (R.s Suresh et al).
2.1.3 Vegetative cover: vegetative Cover is generally referred to as the percentage of
ground surface covered by vegetation.
2.1.4 Runoff Coefficient: Runoff coefficient is a dimensionless factor that is used to convert
the rainfall amounts to runoff. It represents the integrated effect of catchment losses and
hence depends upon the nature of land surface, slope, degree of saturation, and rainfall
intensity

2.1.5 Rainfall: Rain is liquid water in the form of a droplets that have condensed from
atmospheric water vapor and then precipated that is become heavy to fall under gravity.

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2.1.6 Rainfall Intensity: Rainfall intensity is the ratio of the total amount of rain
(Rainfall depth) falling during a given period to the duration of the period It is expressed
in depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour (mm/h).
2.1.7 Collection efficiency: The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the
rainwater falling over an area cannot be effectively harvested, because of evaporation,
spillage etc.
2.1.8 IDF Curve: The Rainfall intensity duration frequency curves can be used to derive
rainfall intensities for the Rational Method.

2.2 Types of water harvesting:

Rainwater can be harvested in a variety of ways:
Directly from roof tops and stored in tanks.
Monsoon run off and water in streams during the Monsoon can be stored in
underground tanks/ponds.
Water from flooded rivers can be stored in small ponds.\

Two major types of water harvesting are described below.

2.2.1 Surface Runoff harvesting:

It refers to the harvesting of runoff resulted from bare and sparsely vegetated areas
and its recycling for irrigating the cropped areas. The runoff harvesting include a) sheet flow
harvesting in which rain water in the form of sheet is collected from gently sloping land
surface to such a point from where it can be easily used for irrigation. And b) concentrated
runoff in which runoff is collected from narrow channels such as foot path.
A RWH systems consists of three major components such as
1) Catchment as a main source for collection runoff produced by rainfall. Rainwater
catchment can be an unused land with natural drainage path or a piece of
artificially shaped and manipulated ground surface in order to enhance runoff
generation.
2) Storage to collect and save runoff -in excess of direct utilization- for consequent
dry period or before the next rain to come. There exists a wide range of alternative
for runoff storage including soil profile, small tanks or embankment dams.
3) Target area where collected water can be used for different purposes such as
drinking, irrigation and sanitary

2.2.2 Roof top water harvesting:

Rooftop water harvesting is the method of direct harvesting of rainfall from the roofs.
This stored water can be used for domestic or livestock usage. Roof water harvesting system
mainly comprises of the following components.
Roof
Gutter
Filter
Water storage tank

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 Roof: The best catchment systems have hard, smooth surfaces such as metal roofs or
concrete areas. The amount of water harvested depends on the quantity of rainfall, the
size of the surface and the slope of the catchment area.
Gutters: It is a channel which carries the runoff water from the roof surface to the
storage tank. It should have following features.
The gutters should characteristics have the following
It should be cheap.
It is fully capable for catching the surface runoff.
It should be capable of capturing and delivering the surface runoff to the storage
tanks.
It should be durable.
Filter: Filters are used to remove large and small particles from the water. Carbon filter
are installed before storage tanks.
Storage tanks: Storage tank is the most expensive component of a rainwater harvesting
system. Storage can be aboveground or underground. To inhibit the growth of algae,
storage tanks should be opaque and preferably placed away from direct sunlight. The
tanks should also be placed close to the area of use and supply line to reduce the distance
over which the water is delivered. storage tank should also place on an elevated area to
take advantage of gravity flow. The tank should always be placed on a stable and level
area to prevent it from leaning and possibly collapsing.
RRWH system is simple, economical and easy to install. Local people can easily
install such system. Construction material is readily available and system is convenient in the
sense that it provides water at the point of consumption, and family members have full
control of their own system. Water collected from roof catchments is usually of as acceptable
quality as from other available water sources.

2.3 Advantages& Disadvantages

2.3.1 Advantages of Rain water harvesting:
Rain water harvesting has following advantages.

2.3.1.1 Promotes Conservation of Water: Rain water harvesting contributes to

meet the increasing water demand. Thus it provides self-sufficiency for
water availability.

2.3.1.2 Conserve energy: It also reduces the energy consumption for pump[ing
the ground water.

2.3.1.3 Recharging of ground water: Due to excessive pumping of the ground

water for irrigation purpose and for domestic purpose, water table is
reducing day by day. Rain water harvesting also help in recharging of the
ground water.

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 2.3.1.4 Other benefits: Since runoff is captured which helps in reducing erosion
problems. It also prevents blocking of drains since run off is collected
before it starts flowing in the drainage channels.

2.3.2 Disadvantages of Rain water harvesting:

The main disadvantages of rain water harvesting are given below.

2.3.2.1 Health problems: After falling the rain water on the ground surface, rain
water start flowing the ground surface. Different types of pollutant are
present on the ground surface. These pollutants get mixed with the rain
water. Thus harvested water contains lot of pollutants which creates health
problems for human being.

2.3.2.2 Detrition of water quality: Surface runoff contains different types of

pollutants like cadmium, iron lead etc. Also bacterial contamination leval
in runoff water is high. Thus these pollutants and microbial contamination
deteriote the quality of the water.

2.4 Storage and Control of water

2.4.1 Objective:

The main objectives of storage control structure are given below.

smooth out variations in supply
provide water security in case of supply interruptions or disaster
To store excess water during excess rainfall or during periods of flood

2.4.2 Function
Ponds play a vital role in storing the surface runoff. This water also contains
nutrients, like carbon and nitrogen, which are mixed with the surface runoff when it flows
on the ground and thus recycled in the form of liquid.
Changes in weather conditions demands that runoff during rainfall period should be
stored in a pond so that it can be used during dry as an alternate water source. Also natural
flow of streams and rivers vary greatly with time. Periods of excess flows
and valley flooding may alternate with low flows or droughts. The role of water-storage
reservoirs, therefore, is to impound water during periods of higher flows, thus
preventing flood disasters, and then permit gradual release of water during periods of
lower flows. Simple storage reservoirs were probably created early to provide water for
drinking and for irrigation.
2.4.3 Farm Pond

There are two types of Farm ponds which are described below:

2.4.3.1 Embankment Type:

These type of farm ponds are constructed across the stream or water course and
consist of an earthen dam. Dimension of embankment are determined based on the

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 required storage. These ponds are suitable for areas having gentle to moderately steep
slope and also where stream valleys are sufficiently depressed to permit a maximum
storage volume with least earth work.

2.4.3.2 Excavated or Dugout Ponds

These types of farm ponds are small dug out structures with well-defined shape
and size. These structures have provision for inlet and outlet. Farm ponds are constructed
at lower portion of the farm and generally stored water is used for irrigation. In some
places farm ponds are used for recharging groundwater. However, for recharging
groundwater, high capacity structures located in the highly permeable soil are more
suitable. These structures are also called percolation tank.

2.4.3.3 General Classification of Pond

Based on the method of construction, location and purpose of use, the farm ponds are
divided into several types. A general classification of farm ponds is discussed below:
1. Dugout pond
2. Surface pond
3. Spring or creek fed pond
4. Off-stream storage pond
5. Seepage pond
6. Pump-fed pond and
7. Embankment pond

2.5 Basic components of a RWH and storage system

Rainwater harvesting systems are orderly schemes in which organized
components and techniques harness and make rainwater available for human
consumption and environmental conservation. Thus, the planning and design of
rainwater harvesting and storage in various structures should be based on water supply
for multiple uses. This is because communities in the target areas may use the water
not only to grow crops, but also for domestic use, livestock watering, as well as
industrial and commercial purposes.
Thus, a good quality RWH system is planned to provide communities with
access to an on-site water supply, if possible at home, or near their homesteads, or at
locality that is easy to access. Ideally, the RWH collection system should involve basic
construction techniques, be inexpensive to maintain, and have a long functional life
span. If the system is designed well, it should provide a good safe source of water at a
relatively low cost when compared to the conventional methods such as river diversion
or ground water pumping.
In order to determine whether or not rainwater catchment systems are an
appropriate choice of water supply in any given situation it is necessary to estimate the
potential rainwater yield to check that it can meet the required demand. The reliability
of the systems along with technical, socioeconomic and environmental considerations
must be compared with all alternative forms of supply.

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 Rainwater catchment system consists of a number of components. These
include:
a) Rainfall potential (in amounts and intensities to generate runoff)
b) A catchment surface where the rainwater runoff is collected
c) A storage reservoir where the rainwater is stored until required
d) A delivery system for transporting the water from the catchment to
the storage reservoir e.g. delivery pipes, gutters or drains, down pipes
e) Extraction device to take the water from the reservoir e.g. piping or
pump.
f) Other auxiliary structures such as filters, sedimentation basins, foul
flush systems, covers, spillways and safety features.

2.5.1 Rainwater harvesting potential

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is
called the rainwater endowment of that area. Out of this, the amount that can be
effectively harvested is called the water harvesting potential. Among the several
factors that influence the rainwater harvesting potential of a site, climatic conditions
specially rainfall and the catchment characteristics are considered to be the most
important.

2.5.2 Rainfall Characteristics:

The amount of water that can be harvested depends on the rainfall amounts,
seasonal patterns and intensities. Thus rainwater can be harvested in both wet and dry
zones, and actually, it should be more cost-effective in the wet areas where structures
can be made smaller. In the arid, semi-arid or sub-humid zones rainfall is characterized
by low amounts of up to 700mm per annum. Further, it is erratic with periodic
droughts and unreliable patterns. Inter-annual rainfall varies from 50100% in the arid
zones with averages of up to 350 mm. In the semi-arid zones, inter-annual rainfall
varies from 20-50% with averages of up to 700 mm. Thus it is necessary to gather
rainfall data and its characteristics.
In order to determine the potential rainwater supply for a given catchment,
reliable rainfall data are required preferably for a given period of at least 10 years.
Ideally if accurate local historic rainfall data for the past few decades are available a 20
or 30-year rainfall series is preferable especially in drought prone climates.

2.5.3 Water Demand:

Water demand is the volume of water requested by users to satisfy their needs.
A simplistic interpretation considers that water demand equals water consumption.
However, conceptually, the two terms cannot be equated because, in some cases,
especially in rural parts of Africa, the theoretical water demand considerably exceeds
actual consumptive water use.

2.5.4 Types of catchment surfaces

A catchment surface is the part of a RWH system that receives rainfall and
drains the water into a storage facility through a conveyance system. The size of a
catchment surface varies from simple roof tops to bigger systems where large

16
catchments drain water to dammed reservoirs from which water is either gravitated or
pumped to treatment plants.
Generally, the desirable characteristics of a good catchment includes
impermeability in order to be able to generate adequate runoff and some slope to direct
flow to the storage structure. Another important requirement of catchments is that they
should not contaminate water seriously with dangerous chemicals or microorganisms.
There are many types of catchment surfaces, such as roofs, rocky areas,
hillsides, roads, home compounds, built up areas, open grasslands and valleys.
Generally, water harvesting at household level makes use of roof catchments, with the
storage being a tank located within the home compound.
Ground catchment system is a general term describing all systems, which use
the ground surface as a catchment area. These include natural, treated and covered
surfaces. Cement or tarmac covered surfaces such as roads, runways, pavements, car
parks and courtyards. Ground catchment systems are cheaper than roof catchments and
are normally employed where suitable roof surfaces are not available. The main
advantage of the ground catchment surface is that water can be collected from a larger
area. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low rainfall. The main disadvantage
is that the water supply can easily become contaminated and since it can only be stored
below the surface it is generally less convenient to withdraw.
Roads, paths, railway lines and other paved surfaces provide catchments which
can also be used for RWH. The runoff coefficient for such surfaces is quite high and
the water can be diverted and stored using simple diversion structures directing surface
water into ponds, check-dams and other storages. The water so stored can be used for
livestock watering or supplemental irrigation of crops. There is huge potential for
RWH from road surfaces since the catchments can be relatively large. Catchments for
water harvesting can also be created artificially, such as paved areas, concrete surfaces,
plastic sheet coverings or treated ground surfaces. The material used for paving should
not contaminate the water.
Dew, snow and fog collection systems: Rainwater probably accounts for more
than 99% of all precipitation harvested directly for domestic use. Nevertheless, dew
fog and snow are also harvested and in certain arid localities provide essential sources
of water.

2.6 Determining water storage volume

The volume of rainwater that can be harvested over a given period depends
upon the amount of rainfall in that period, the catchment area and the runoff
coefficient. The characteristics of the catchment area determine the storage conditions.
Rainwater yield varies with the size and texture of the catchment area. All calculations
relating to the performance of rainwater catchment systems involve the use of a runoff
coefficient to account for losses due to spillage, leakage, infiltration, catchment surface
wetting and evaporation, which will all, contribute to reducing the amount of runoff.
This is determined as follows:

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Runoff

coefficient or Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Collection efficiency

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 The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over
an area cannot be effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. Factors
like runoff coefficient.

2.6.1 Runoff Coefficient

Runoff coefficient is the factor which accounts for the fact that all the rainfall
falling on a catchment cannot be collected. Some rainfall will be lost from the
catchment by evaporation and retention on the surface itself. The Runoff coefficient
(Cr), for any catchment is the ratio of the volume of water that runs off a surface to the
volume of rainfall that falls on the surface. It is calculated as follows:
Runoff coefficient (Cr) = Volume of runoff/volume of rainfall
The Runoff coefficient accounts for losses associated with leakage, evaporation and
overflow for a roof catchment system. It is normally taken to be 0.8 for metal roofs,
but can have higher values if the roofs and gutters are well constructed. It has lower
values for most other types of roofing material. For natural ground catchments, it is
less than 0.3 and actual figures depend on various characteristics of the catchment.
Some typical values are given in table 2.1

Table 2.1 Runoff Coefficient for various Catchment surface

2.7 Prevention/ control of common problems in storage structures

Sometime, We have to face different kinds of problems in a storage structure.
Common problems, we face in storage structure are discussed below.

2.8.1 Water-borne diseases

Rainwater storages usually hold stagnant water which can attract various
pathogen, disease vectors and pollution. For instance, mosquitoes breed in rainwater
storages and they are vectors of serious diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue
fever and filariasis. Careful use of the water is also necessary. For instance, reservoirs
constructed for storing domestic water should not be used by livestock unless off-take
facilities are provided. The livestock can contaminate the water with zoonotic diseases
and dip chemicals. In addition, if high levels of nitrates e.g. as fertilizer effluents
should not be allowed into reservoirs as the cause pollution.

18
 Several approaches to mosquito control have been tried with some success.
These include the addition of small amounts (5ml per 1000 litres) of domestic
kerosene, and various forms of biological control such as using fish and dragonfly
larvae to consume mosquito larvae. Although insecticides are sometimes sprayed on
open water breeding sites, these should not be applied to rainwater stored for
consumption.

2.8.2 Cracking
The development of cracks in any form of water retaining structure can have
serious repercussions. This happens in concrete structures and may be caused by poor
concrete mixes, bad workmanship and incompatibilities between the phases of cement
paste, sand and reinforcement, during construction. It may also be due to fatigue
caused by repeated loading, or induced stress caused by shrinkage.

2.8.3 Evaporation Losses

The water that is lost to the air from the surface of the pond is called evaporation. The
amount of water lost by evaporation depends largely on local climate conditions. High air
temperatures, low humidity, strong winds and sunshine will increase evaporation.

2.8.2.1 Reduction of Evaporation Loss from Pond

It is observed that the evaporation loss during summer months of May and June is
2-5 times more than that during winter months of December and January. Depending on
location and prevailing climatic conditions, the maximum evaporation rate during
summer is 8% per day. This value comes out the analysis of the evaporation Data.
Evaporation is a surface phenomenon and hence, the first step to reduce
evaporation loss can be achieved by reducing the surface area of the pond or the
reservoir. For example, a pond with greater depth of stored water and lesser surface area
would evaporate less as compared to a shallow pond with large surface area subject to
both the ponds having same volume of stored water.

2.8.2.2 Vegetative Shade

An attempt to develop shade on the water surface by growing vegetation over the
open surface of the water body is called vegetative shading. In this practice, the open
surface of the pond is covered with canopy of creepers like bottle gourd (lagenaria
siceraria), pumpkin, bitter gourd and cucumber etc. such that the surface water is shaded
and prevented from the direct contact of sun light. The creepers are planted on the
embankment and allowed to creep towards the center of the pond on a wooden platform
laid across the pond. The platform is made of hardy plants like bamboo tied in a criss-
cross manner. When the canopy growth covers the entire open surface of the pond, a
shade is formed over the water surface and the sunlight coming onto the water is reflected
back due to the albedo effect of the green leaves. Thus, the driving force for causing
evaporation i.e. solar radiation is deflected and evaporation loss is reduced. This method
of growing creepers on platform over the open surface of the pond is better than the
attempt of reducing evaporation loss by growing floating aquatic plants as in case of
latter the plants consume a lot of water from the pond to meet their transpiration
requirements.

19
2.8.2.3 Monomolecular Film
It is a film of one molecule thick also called as monolayer. Chemicals either in the
form of powder or solution is spread over the water surface which deflects the energy
input of the sun as a result of which evaporation is reduced. Alcohols such as ethyl
alcohol [CH3 (CH2)15OH] also called as hexadecanal and stearyl alcohol (octodecanol)
are used to form a monomolecular film on contact with water which is sufficiently
enduring in field conditions. The invisible film is non-toxic in nature and reduces
evaporation by 50-60% at an average wind speed of 16.55 km/hr. The advantage of this
film is that it is not opaque and so, does not restrict the path for movement of rainwater,
oxygen and sun light through the water surface. However, the limitation of these
monomolecular films is that they get diluted in water quickly and then become
ineffective to reduce the evaporation of water.

2.8.2.4 Wind Breaks

Increased turbulence on the water surface is one of the factors to accelerate
evaporation loss from the water body. Wind action is solely responsible for such
turbulence on water surface. Hence, continuous wind or wind at high speed over the pond
or reservoir is likely to increase the evaporation loss. In such cases, developing wind
breaks, a physical barrier to oppose the wind blow, by growing tall trees at close spacing
around farm pond is expected to minimize the turbulence effect and reduce the
evaporation loss. But these wind breaks are useful only for small ponds. It is found out
that a reduction of wind velocity by 25% can reduce the pond evaporation loss by only
5%. It indicates that the measure is not very much effective in reduction of evaporation
loss.

2.8.2.5 Covering Pond Water with Shading Materials

Like vegetative shading, many other artificial materials or sheets can be used as
effective barriers to prevent the direct sun light coming onto the water surface and
thereby, reduce the evaporation loss. Such shading materials may be plastic films,
thatches, paddy straw, sugarcane trash etc. When they are used to cover the water surface,
the sun light cannot penetrate through and consequently, the evaporation loss is
reduced. However, the effectiveness of the shading material in reducing evaporation
from the pond depends on its quality and the percentage cover of the open surface area of
the pond. Evaporation loss is likely to come down to minimum under complete coverage
(100%) of the open surface and thus, partial coverage would have reduced effect on
evaporation rate of the pond.
Some other shading materials used for reduction of evaporation loss are dye
mixed with pond water, plastic mesh and sheet, polystyrene beads and sheet, white
spheres and white butyl sheet etc. Out of these materials, polystyrene raft, plastic sheet
and foamed butyl rubber are the best ones since they are reported to reduce the
evaporation loss by more than 90%. However, these materials are very expensive and
unlikely to make the project cost effective. Therefore, these materials are not applied for
reducing evaporation loss from on-farm ponds instead they are used in drinking water
projects to reduce evaporation loss.

20
2.8.3 Seepage Losses
Water that is lost vertically through the bottom of the pond, horizontally through the
dikes by infiltration, and through the drainage system of the pond is called seepage water. If the
dikes of pond are well built and well maintained and if the drainage system is watertight, the
amount of seepage water lost horizontally will be very small. Water seepage will be greater from
a new pond when it is filled for the first time. The soil structure of the pond will still be good and
water will be lost.
Harvested water in on-farm ponds in water scarce areas is a precious commodity and care
should be taken to conserve it for a longer period with minimum loss. Two major means of the
loss of harvested water from such ponds are evaporation and seepage. Most of the ponds used for
irrigation purpose are unlined and without any measure to reduce evaporation loss. However, the
loss due to seepage is more pronounced than that due to evaporation. A study reveals that
seepage loss in unlined ponds accounts for about 45% of the total storage and the evaporation
loss accounts for only 25% (Guerra et al., 1990). This loss is significant when the pond is
underlain by porous strata or when the bed material of the pond consists of coarse textured soil.
Small farm ponds constructed in coarse texture soils; especially in arid and semi-arid regions are
found to get dry completely just after the withdrawal of monsoon. However ponds constructed in
heavy soils are found to have less seepage losses. In general the seepage loss in unlined small
farm ponds depends upon the water table position below the ground surface, soil type at the site
of excavation and hydraulic gradient available between the pond water level and water level of
adjacent areas. It is observed that the seepage loss in newly constructed pond is very high and it
decreases gradually with progress of time as silt deposition takes place in the pond.

2.8.3.1 Methods to Reduce Seepage Losses

Seepage loss from farm ponds can be reduced broadly by two ways. They are (i)
reducing wetted surface area of the pond and (ii) using a cost effective sealant.

2.8.3.1. Reducing Wetted Surface Area of Pond

Seepage from the pond increases with increase in wetted area of a pond. Hence,
special considerations must be given to minimize the wetted area per unit of storage
capacity during design of the pond. This may be achieved by making the side slopes steep
and/or decreasing the depth of the pond. In case of large ponds, division of the pond into
two or more compartments also helps in reduction of seepage loss. By doing so the
wetted area and top water surface area of the pond are considerably reduced resulting in
reduction of seepage and evaporation loss, respectively, to a great extent.

2.8.3.2. Use of Sealants

A newly constructed pond has self-sealing property by deposition of silt. The
runoff of the catchment carries some silt and clay which gets deposited in the side and
bottom of the pond and clogs the pore spaces of the soil. Consequently, the flow through
the side and bottom of the pond is reduced and seepage loss is checked. seepage from a
newly dug out pond reduced to a very low rate due to silting in a period of 8 years. Silting
also reduces seepage rate in brick lined pond.

21
2.8.3.3. Clay Lining
Natural clay can be used for lining with varying degree of efficiency, especially
when lower cost is desirable. Clay lining can be applied in two methods:(i)by placing a
blanket of relatively impervious clay of 15-30 cm thick over or within the permeable bed
and slides of the pond and(ii)by dispersing clay in the water to form clay mud and filter it
out to seal off the pores in the permeable sides and bottom of the pond. Alkali soils
having poor infiltration rates, if available in the vicinity of the pond can be preferred for
lining to control seepage in farm ponds. Burnt clay tiles can also be used as lining
material for reducing seepage loss. Percentage of saving of water due to seepage by these
tiles is about 98.8% more than the earthen materials. Studies reveal that a lining of soil
cement plaster at ratio 5:1 is ideal from the points of cost and efficiency. For good results,
the mixture of soil and cement should be mixed well, laid out and compacted. It should
be cured for seven days with moist soil cover. The limitation of this lining material is
that,
it is not weather resistant
its life is comparatively short and
Repair and maintenance cost is relatively higher.
2.8.3.4. Cement Concrete Lining
Cement concrete lining to reduce seepage loss is stronger and more stable than
any other lining material. Though the initial investment for such lining is more, its repair
and maintenance cost is very less and it gives long service. Concrete mixture usually
recommended for lining is 1:3:4 (cement: sand: gravel) with 45 cm thickness. The sides
and bottom of the structure should be compacted at suitable moisture content. When
concrete hardens, it shrinks resulting in development of cracks. Apart from adequate
curing, joints must be provided at a distance of 2 m in order to localize and control the
cracks. Cement concrete lining can withstand higher velocity of flow (>2.5 m/sec)
because of its greater resistance to erosion and is therefore preferred to any other type of
lining.
2.8.3.5. Asphalt Lining
Asphalt also known as bitumen is sticky, black in color and highly viscous liquid
or semi-solid form of petroleum. It acts as a binding material in road construction. When
it is mixed with sand and gravel, it forms asphalt concrete and this is used as a lining
material in ponds. Asphalt concrete lining is cheaper than cement concrete lining. Its life
span ranges from 10-20 years. There are two types of prefabricated asphalt melts found to
be promising in seepage control. They are (i) Gunny (coarse sack cloth made of jute)
reinforced asphalt melt and (ii) Synthetic cloth reinforced asphalt melt. Between the two,
the former has proved to be a better lining material in terms of reducing seepage loss
from ponds.

2.8.3.6. Brick Lining

In brick lining, the bricks are joined together with soil cement plaster. It requires
relatively less investment as compared to cement concrete ling. Brick lining is easier to
construct and requires less technical knowledge. It requires less cement as compared to
concrete lining and can be laid out without use of any machinery. However, it is not that
effective in seepage control as compared to cement concrete lining.

22
2.8.3.7. Bentonite Lining
Bentonite is fine textured colloidal clay with as much as 90 per cent of
montmorillonite. There are two types of bentonite; high swelling and low swelling. While
sodium is the main constituent in high swelling bentonite, calcium makes it for low
swelling one. When exposed to water, dried bentonite absorbs several times its own
weight of water; at complete saturation, it swells as much as eight to twenty times its
original dry volume. The dry bentonite is mixed with the top 15 cm soil layer thoroughly
at a rate of 5 15 kg/m2. The advantages of bentonite lining are its low cost, easy
installation procedure and long lasting solution to excessive seepage. Main disadvantages
of this lining are listed below:
it is more laborious to apply than a butyl membrane
it can be disrupted by cattle or eroded by running water
burrowing animals such as crayfish or crabs can make rupture in such
lining
bentonite treatment is not advisable in highly alkaline soils

2.8.3.8. Alkali Soil Lining

Application of alkali soil lining in small ponds is observed to be an effective
lining material to reduce seepage loss. In this practice, a layer of alkali soil of about 5 cm
thickness is spread on the sides and bottom of the pond for effective seepage control.

2.8.3.9. Soil DE flocculants

A deflocculant is a chemical additive to prevent a colloid from coming out of
suspension. It is used to reduce viscosity or prevent flocculation and is sometimes called
a dispersant. Soil deflocculants like sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, and tetrasodium
polyphosphate and sodium tripolyphosphate are used for reducing permeability of pond
surfaces. Sodium chloride and sodium polyphosphate perform effectively up to 6 and 8
months, respectively.

2.8.3.10. Gleization
When the pond bottom is too permeable, it is required to create an impervious
biological plastic layer in the bottom and on the sides of the pond in order to reduce
seepage loss. Such an impervious layer is called a gley, and the process of its formation is
called gleization. Step by step procedure of gleization is as follows:
The pond bottom is prepared by clearing it of all vegetation, sticks, stones,
rocks and filling all cracks, crevices and holes with well-compacted
impervious soil.
Cleaned surface is completely covered with moist animal manure spread in
an even layer about 10 cm thick.
The manure is covered completely with a layer of vegetal material,
preferably broad leaves of banana. Dried grass, rice straw, soaked
cardboard or paper, etc. can be used for this purpose.
A layer of soil about 10 cm thick is placed over the vegetal cover.
All the materials are moistened and compacted properly.
Fill up the pond with water slowly.

23
 2.8.3.11. Chemical Sealants
U.S Bureau of Reclamation studied many chemicals including resins, silicones,
linings but none was found suitable in seepage control. Even cationic asphalt emulsion,
petroleum emulsion and resinous polymers were tested and found to be short lived and
affected by wetting, drying and erosion.

2.8.3.12. Polythene Lining

However, it is important to note that before using any lining materials for seepage
control in the pond, the economic analysis relating to the life of the pond and cost of
lining materials must be taken into account. At the same time, the amount of irrigation
water saved by reduction of seepage loss and use of the same in increasing the crop
production and other associated benefits must also be considered to assess the economic
feasibility of the technology.

2.8.4 Siltation
Siltation is caused by various factors including cultivation and poor land use in
the catchment. The design of the structure can also contribute to siltation. It is
important to make a good estimate of the sediment load in the water to be harvested. A
factor called sediment trap efficiency of the reservoir can then be used to predict
siltation rate. This data is necessary for designing dead storage and for estimating the
life span of the reservoir. Silt accumulation in a reservoir can be reduced by careful
site selection to avoid highly erodible areas. Also, sediment traps should be
constructed at the entry point of runoff into the structure.

2.8 Treatment of stored rainwater

While rainwater quality will not always match WHO or national drinking water
standards when compared with most unprotected, traditional water sources rainwater
from well-maintained roof catchments usually represents a considerable improvement
and is generally safe to drink without treatment.
1. Rainwater from ground catchment systems is not recommended for
drinking unless first boiled or treated.
2. Except in heavily urbanized and industrialized areas or regions adjacent
to active volcanoes, atmospheric rainwater is very pure and any
contamination of the water usually occurs after contact with the
catchment.
3. The chemical and physical quality of stored rainwater is normally high.
Care should be taken to avoid any possible sources of lead or other
heavy metals e.g. from lead-based roof paints.
4. A degree of chemical and microbiological contamination of roof
rainwater runoff is inevitable, but this will not generally cause a
problem if the roof gutters and storage tank are properly maintained and
regularly cleaned and inspected.
5. Reports of disease outbreaks linked to roof water sources are rare. A
few cases of gastrointestinal illness linked to large quantities of bird or
animal droppings on the roof have been reported and appropriate
measures should be taken to reduce any risks.

24
 6. Rainwater tanks can provide breeding sites for mosquitoes, which in
some areas act as vectors for diseases such as dengue fever, yellow
fever and malaria. It is therefore essential that any openings to the tank
are fully screened.
7. To protect water quality good system design operation and maintenance
are essential. Water quality will generally improve during storage
provided light and living organisms are excluded from the tank, and
fresh inflows do not stir up any sediment.
8. The use of filters and foul flush diverts can further improve the
rainwater quality. Further treatment through boiling exposure to
sunlight or ultraviolet radiation and chlorination can be undertaken if
there are concerns over the water quality.

2.9 Operation and maintenance of RWH systems

Proper operation and maintenance of RWH infrastructure is an important part
for the success of the system. It affects the efficiency, effectiveness and durability of
the structures and ensures water is available and utilized as planned. Proper
maintenance is an important aspect in the management of RWH systems and needs to
include, among others, the following activities.
1. Inspection, regular cleaning and minor repair of the whole RWH
system: the catchment, the conveyance, the pond and the various pond
components such as tap.
2. Removal of branches of trees over hanging on roofs. Not only leaves
vand debris, but also the droppings of birds and small animals
contaminate rainwater. Dust and other such dirt also need to be cleaned
regularly from the catchment/roof.
3. Cleaning and minor repair of the conveyance system (gutters and
downpipes/gutters) at least once a year;
4. Inspection of water quality in the pond/tank, testing from time to time
and treating/disinfecting regularly.
5. There should be no opening that allows small animals to enter into the
storage structure; it is therefore necessary to inspect, clean and
repair/replace screens and filters. Screens and filters unless cleaned
regularly can themselves be a source of water contamination.
6. Clean/wash-out accumulated sediment and sludge when necessary; take
the opportunity to clean the pond/tank when it is empty.
7. There should be no tree growing within 10 m from the tank to protect
the foundation from damage/crack by roots searching for moisture
underneath.

2.11 Management of rainwater harvesting systems

Once a rainwater harvesting system is planned and designed properly,
and built with good construction material and workmanship, it is ready to
provide the services expected and aimed at meeting the objectives set for it in a
sustainable manner. This however requires certain arrangement in terms of
putting in place a management system/mechanism that is capable of ensuring

25
the proper operation, maintenance and repair of the RWH system. This is
necessary not only for RWH systems, but for any development work and
infrastructure.

Whenever possible, the management of RWH systems is done by the

users themselves, unlike design and construction which in many cases are
initiated and implemented by qualified professionals. The users of RWH
systems could be individual households, institutions such as schools, or
communities for whom the RWH systems are built for communal use. In case
where a household individually owns and uses a RWH system, the
management is straight forward; the household itself assumes the direct
individual responsibility. In cases where a system is owned by an institution,
usually a work unit that provides general services or a person/committee is
entrusted with the task. In RWH systems that are built for communal use by a
community, a water users committee is elected for the management with a
trained technician/tap attendant assigned for the day to day work.

The communal management of RWH systems is generally more

difficult and complicated owing to the communal nature of ownership. It is
therefore important that bylaws are developed for such systems with clear
guidelines for their management. It would also be useful if the management
have links with organizations that are capable and willing to extend support in
situations where external assistance needed. The guidelines/bylaws to be
prepared for the management of RWH systems need to lay out clear duties and
responsibilities in respect of the following items.
1. The management arrangement/system and responsibilities,
2. Physical safety and protection of the RWH system,
3. Maintenance and control of water quality,
4. Regulation of water abstraction rates, time and appropriate use,
5. Operation, maintenance and repair of the system; and
6. Allocation/collection of water fees/budget for operation
maintenance and repair; and the management of finance and other
properties.

Water storage systems operate at a larger scale than runoff farming

systems, often on a watershed scale, and thereby necessitate addressing issues
like ownership, local institutions and land tenure. They require relatively high
capital and labor investments (often too high for individual households) and are
relatively complicated systems to design. Service-giving institutions, generally,
have very little capacity to disseminate and assist in design of storage water
harvesting systems.

As with any other technology, it is vital when planning and

implementation of rainwater harvesting systems is viewed holistically beyond
the technical issues. It is necessary to consider the broader aspects in terms of
economic environmental, health and social factors. A key factor in project

26
success is community involvement at every stage from inception to long-term
maintenance and operation. Involvement in planning and construction phases
will not only help to build skills and a sense of self-reliance within
communities but also prepare the community better for any future maintenance
or repair work.

27
Chapter 3

Study Area Description

Water resources development and management in Potohar plateau is somewhat different
from rest of the country. The rainfall, runoff and ground water are the three major sources of
water. Water stored in small and mini dams is used for irrigation, domestic and stock water
needs. Unfortunately, there is no technical guidelines are available for the construction and
management of Ponds. So this report cover the technical guidelines and after studying this report
the students and land owners will be able to construct their pond and then manage this pond
properly.

3.1 Geography of Potohar Plateau

Potohar plateau lies parallel to the outer Himalayas and between the rivers Jhelum and
Indus. It includes whole of the Attock and Rawalpindi districts and parts of the Murree zone are
included, besides 75% of Chakwal district, 15% of Jhelum district and 20% of Mianwali district.
It is about 250 km long and 100 km wide with elevations ranging from 200 m along River Indus
to about 900 m in the hills north of Islamabad with an average elevation of 457 m. The climate of
Pothwar is arid in the south-west to humid in the north-east. Two seasonal Rivers Haro and Soan
flow from east to the west and after crossing the region in the north and in the middle
respectively, fall in the Indus. River Kanshi traverses the eastern part of the plateau from north to
south and drains into the River Jhelum.

Fig 3.1 Map of Potohar plateau

These rivers and other hill torrents have cut deep valleys and are of little use for
irrigation. Agriculture is thus almost entirely dependent on rainfall and stored runoff in small and
mini dams built across the streams (Munir 2002).
There is a spatial variability in mean annual rainfall which is around 250-1500 mm, also
there is temporal variability in mean seasonal rainfall, and during Rabi rainfall in Islamabad
varies from 125-650 mm. Rainfall during Kharif season is 60% of annual rainfall in July to
September (Ahmad 1993; 2008a).
The mountains have steep to moderately steep slopes, while the plateau has level to
undulating topography, with isolated gullies here and there. The area is subject to active water

28
erosion and, at places; streams have cut very deep gullies and gorges through the land and rock
strata.
The soils of Pothwar tract have developed over the years from wind and water laid
deposits and sedimentary rocks. Soils developed by wind deposited materials are dark brown to
dark yellowish brown in color, having medium to fine textures and are very deep. Most of them
have well developed profiles containing lime concretions at varying depth. Some are subject to
considerable erosion by water from the upland areas and from local runoff. Water laid deposits
contains variety of soils, the characteristics of which are primarily dependent on the age and
origin of the materials and their mode of deposition. The soils of the piedmonts have weakly
developed profiles and consist of very deep, well-drained and brownish soils of varying textures.
The area is predominantly used for dry farming at subsistence level. The texture of these
agricultural soils mostly varies from sandy to silt loam and clay loam comprising from poor to
fertile lands. The plateau has a flat to gently undulating surface broken by gullies and low hill
ranges (Nizami et.al 2004). About 60 percent of the land area has been highly eroded leaving the
rest as a flat land which constitutes the main cultivated area.
The major crops grown in the Pothwar are wheat, chickpea, groundnut, millets, sorghum,
oilseeds and fodders. Maize and sunflower are grown on higher rainfall areas. Vegetables and
orchards are grown where access to cities and irrigation water from dams and tubewells are
available. (Khan 2002).
Water resources development and management in Pothwar plateau is somewhat different
from rest of the country, as there is no formal canal irrigation system available. Rainfall, runoff
and groundwater are the main sources of water. Runoff from watersheds is stored in ponds which
then can be used for the multiple purposes.

3.2 Survey:
For the design of the pond, we have to conduct a survey of the area. We have to observe the
different characteristics of the catchment area.

3.2.1 Selection of suitable site:

Selecting a suitable site for the pond is important, and preliminary studies are needed
before final design and construction.

These are some of the parameters which must be kept in mind while selecting a
suitable site pond construction.
1. For ponds where surface runoff is the main source of water, the contributing
drainage area must be large enough to maintain water in the pond during droughts.
2. For economy, locate the pond where the largest storage volume can be obtained. A
good site generally is one where the side slopes are steep, and the slope of the
valley floor permits a large area to be used as catchment. Avoid large areas of
shallow water because of excessive evaporation and the growth of noxious aquatic
plants.
3. If farm ponds are used for watering livestock, make a pond available in or near each
pasture or grazing unit. Forcing livestock to travel long distances to water is
detrimental to both the livestock and the grazing area.

29
 4. If pond water is used for irrigation, locate the pond as close to the field. Conveying
water is expensive and, if distance is excessive, the intended use of the water may
not be practical.
5. Avoid pollution of pond water by selecting a location where drainage from
farmsteads, feedlots, corrals, sewage lines, mine dumps, and similar areas does not
reach the pond. Use permanent or temporary measures, such as diversions, to
redirect runoff from these sources to an appropriate outlet.
6. Be sure that no buried pipelines or cables cross a proposed pond site. They could be
broken or punctured by the excavating equipment, which can result not only in
damage to the utility, but also in injury to the operator of the equipment. If a site
crossed by pipelines or cable must be used, you must notify the utility company
before starting construction and obtain permission to excavate
7. Avoid sites under power lines.

These are some of the points which should be kept in mind while deciding a suitable
site the construction of the pond.
We have visit the koont Research Farm which is located in Chakwal and is currently
working under Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi. On the basis
of these points, we have select the suitable site for pond construction. The following
Diagram is the GIS image of the Koont Farm which shows the location of the pond.

3.2.2 Catchment Area:

For ponds where surface runoff is the main source of water, the contributing area must be
large enough to maintain water in the pond during droughts. However, the area should not be so
large that expensive overflow structures are needed to bypass excess runoff during large storms.
The amount of runoff that can be expected annually from a given watershed depends on many
factors. The physical characteristics that directly affect the yield of water are soil infiltration,
plant cover, and surface storage. Storm characteristics, such as amount, intensity, and duration of
rainfall, also affect water yield. These characteristics vary widely throughout the Area. Each
must be considered when evaluating the watershed area conditions for a particular pond site.
The total Area of the catchment is Acre for the pond we are going to design for the given area.
Fig 3.2 shows the catchment area for the pond.

Figure 3.2 Catchment area of the pond

30
3.2.3 Vegetative cover:
Vegetative cover is also one of the most important factor that influence the runoff.
So we also have to take it in to account for the determination of the runoff.
We conduct a survey of the koont farm and observe the vegetative cover of the
catchment area. Table 3.1 shows the vegetative cover of the different areas of the catchment area.

Area Cover Type Treatment Hydrologic

No. Condition
A0 Fallow Bare Soil -
A1 Row Crop Straight Row Poor
A2 Fallow Crop Residue Poor
A3 Row Crop Straight Row Poor
A4 Fallow Bare Soil -
A5 Fallow Crop Residue Poor
A6 Brush-mixture - Good
A7 Broadcast - Good
A8 Row Crop Straight Row Poor
A9 Fallow Bare Soil -
A 10 Grass Land - Poor
A 11 Fallow Bare Soil -
A 12 Meadow- - Fair
Continuous
Grass
A 13 Broadcast - Good
A 15 Fallow Bare Soil -

Note: Area No. are shown in Fig. 5.14.

3.2.4: Command Area:

Command area can be defined as the area in which water of canal or pond can be used
efficiently. Command area of the pond will approximately be same as the catchment area of the
pond.

3.3 Data Collection:

3.3.1 Rainfall Data:
As we know that agriculture of potohar region totally depends upon rainfall.
During the dry period, plant may face shortage of moisture/water as there is no rainfall due to
which yield of a crop may be affected. So rainfall is one of the most important data when we
are designing a rain water harvesting pond.
For designing a pond, we need rainfall data of potohar region for the last 30 years. We get
this rainfall data from Pakistan Metrological department. PMD provides us a data of last 50
years of potohar region.
From this data, we will select the peak rainfall and then we will design pond on the basis of
this peak rainfall. The graphs shows the trend of the rainfall which occur in potohar region
during the last 20 years from 1980 to 2000.

31
 The values in x-axis from 1 to 21 shows the years from 1980 to 2000.

2000
1800

Precipitation (mm) 1600

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Years from 1980 to 2000

Fig 3.2 Annual Precipitation per year

This graph shows that most of the rainfall occurs in 1994 that was approximately
1700mm/year.
3.3.2 Soil type investigation:
The soil of the catchment area must have the following properties for better water
harvesting techniques.
High runoff coefficient
In cultivated areas, soil depth should be deep
Soil should be in the nature of fertile loam
Catchment have a soil which have low infiltration rate
Soil should not be of sodic/saline in nature.

We have also observe/test the soil of the koont farm using quick field test. The step by step
procedure for testing soil type is given below.
1st Method:
Following procedure is adopted for the determination of the soil type.
Take a handful of moist soil and squeeze it into a ball.
Throw the ball into the air about 50 cm and then catch it.
If the ball falls apart, it is poor soil with too much sand.
If the ball sticks together, it is probably good soil with enough clay in it.
2nd Method:
Take a handful of soil and wet it, so that it begins to stick together without
sticking to your hand.

32
 Squeeze it hard, then open your hand.
If the soil retains the shape of your hand, there is probably enough clay in it.
If the soil does not retain the shape of your hand, there is too much sand in it.
After conducting these tests, we observe that the soil of the koont farm is sandy clay loam.
We have also collect soil data of university koont research farm, from soil science department,
Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi. Some other features of the soil of the koont farm are
given below.

Soil Type = Sandy Clay Loam

Infiltration rate = 17 cm/h
Soil Order = Aridisols
Bulk Density =1.44 mg/m3
Fertility:
Nitrogen 3.99 ppm, Phosphorus 3.26 ppm, Potassium 123 ppm

33
Chapter 4

Materials & Methods

The amount of precipitation, whether it occurs as rain or snow, is the potential source of water
that may run off small watersheds. The kind of soil and the type of vegetation affect the amount
of water that runs off. Terraces and diversions, along with steepness and shape of a watershed,
affect the rate at which water runs off.

4.1 Runoff estimation method:

Different Methods are available for the estimating the surface Runoff. We use Rational
method and curve number method for the determination of surface runoff as these method is
simple and any one can easily use to find runoff for his area.

4.1.2 Rational Method

The Rational Method (Water Pollution Control Federation, 1969) is used for predicting
the peak runoff rate. The Rational Method is an appropriate method of runoff analysis when only
the peak runoff rate is needed, especially for applications such as the design of channels,
culverts, slope drains, temporary diversions, etc. The Rational Method is an old method of
estimating the peak runoff rate expected from a watershed.
The Rational Method is a simple formula often referred to as the rational formula:
Qp = CiA
Where Qp is the peak runoff rate in cubic feet per second (cfs),
C is the runoff coefficient,
i is the design rainfall intensity in inches per hour (inch/h),
A is the watershed area in acres.

4.1.3 Rainfall Intensity:

The rainfall intensity, i in the Rational Method is often referred to as the design rainfall
intensity. The design rainfall intensity is more properly defined as the uniform rainfall intensity
that has a duration equal to the watersheds response time (or time of concentration). This design
rainfall intensity is a function of three parameters; (1) the watershed's time of concentration, (2)
the watershed's location and (3) the return period for which the peak runoff rate is desired.
To determine the design rainfall intensity for use in the Rational Method, first determine
the watershed's time of concentration, tc using kirpich method. One of the important assumptions
upon which the Rational Method is based is that the rainfall duration is assumed to be equal to
the watershed's time of concentration. Second, determine the return period that will limit the risk
of a larger event to an acceptable level. Third, read the design rainfall intensity from the best
available Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) information to determine the design rainfall
intensity for the rainfall duration and return period.

34
4.1.4 Time of concentration:
Different method are available for the computation of the time of concentration. In thi s
manual kirpich formula is used for the computation of the time of concentration.

Kirpich Method
Kirpich (1940) developed a formula for predicting time of concentration from seven
rural watersheds in Tennessee. The watersheds had well defined channels and steep (3 to 10%)
slopes. The Kirpich formula is
Tc = [L3/H]0.385/128
where tc is the time of concentration in minutes, L is the length of the longest flow path from the
most remote point in the watershed to the point-of-interest, in feet and H is the elevation
difference between the most remote point and the point of interest in feet. The Kirpich Method
yields very conservative or short times of concentration that result in high peak runoff rates,
especially from the Rational Method. The Kirpich Method has, more than any other method,
become associated with the Rational Method.

Example 1. The watershed supplying runoff to a culvert has an area of 3 acres, a longest flow
path of 400 ft, and a slope of 5% (H = 0.05(400) = 20 ft). Use the Kirpich Method to estimate
this watersheds time of concentration.
Solution:
L = 400 ft and H = 20 ft. Therefore, tc can be
Tc = [L3/H]0.385/128
= 2.5 min
4.1.5 Average watershed slope
The average watershed slope (Y) is the slope of the land and not the watercourse. It can
be determined from soil survey data or topographic maps. Hillside slopes can be measured with a
hand level, lock level, or clinometer in the direction of overland flow. Average watershed slope
is an average of individual land slope measurements. The average watershed slope can be
determined using equation 2:
Y =100CI/A
Where: Y = average slope, % C = total contour length, ft I = contour interval, ft A = drainage
area, ft2
4.1.6 Flow length:
Flow length (l) is the longest flow path in the watershed from the watershed divide to the
outlet. It is the total path water travels overland and in small channels on the way to the outlet.
The flow length can be determined using a map wheel, or it can be marked along the edge of a
paper and converted to feet.
After determining the time of concentration we can find the value of rainfall intensity
using of Lubbock County formula,

Table 4.1 Showing values of Lubbock Country Formula

35
4.2 Pond Design:
After determining the runoff, we have to select the type of the pond. There are two types of
pond. These are:
i) Excavated pond
ii) Embankment pond

We have select first type of pond for our site.

4.2.1 Excavated ponds

Excavated ponds are the simplest to build in relatively flat terrain. They are best suited to
locations where the demand for water is small. Because excavated ponds can be built to expose a
minimum water surface area in proportion to their volume, they are advantageous in places
where evaporation losses are high and water is scarce. The ease with which they can be
constructed, their compactness, their relative safety from flood flow damage, and their low
maintenance requirements make them popular.
Two kinds of excavated ponds are possible. One is fed by surface runoff and the other is fed by
ground water aquifers, usually layers of sand and gravel. Some ponds may be fed from both of
these sources.
The general location of an excavated pond depends largely on the purpose or purposes for
which the water is to be used. The specific location is often influenced by topography. Excavated
ponds fed by surface runoff can be located in almost any kind of topography. They are, however,
most satisfactory and most commonly used in areas of comparatively flat, but well-drained
terrain. A pond can be located in a broad natural drainage way or to one side of a drainage way if
the runoff can be diverted into the pond. The low point of a natural depression is often a good
location. After the pond is filled, excess runoff escapes through regular drainage ways.
Excavated ponds fed by ground water aquifers can be located only in areas of flat or nearly flat
topography. If possible, they should be located where the permanent water table is within a few
feet of the surface.
4.2.2 Soils
If an excavated pond is to be fed by surface runoff, enough impervious soil at the site is
essential to avoid excess seepage losses. The most desirable sites are where fine-textured clay
and silty clay extend well below the proposed pond depth. Sites where sandy clay extends to
adequate depths generally are satisfactory. Avoid sites where the soil is porous or is underlain by
36
strata of coarse-textured sand or sand-gravel mixtures. Avoid soil underlain by limestone
containing crevices, sinks, or channels.
The performance of nearby ponds that are fed by runoff and in a similar soil is a good
indicator of the suitability of a proposed site. Supplement such observations of existing ponds by
boring enough test holes at intervals over the proposed pond site to determine accurately the kind
of material there. we can get some indication of permeability by filling the test holes with water.
The seepage indicates what to expect of a pond excavated in the same kind of material.
If an excavated pond is to be fed from a water-bearing sand or a sand-gravel layer, the layer must
be at a depth that can be reached practically and economically by the excavating equipment. This
depth seldom exceeds 20 feet. The water-bearing layer must be thick enough and permeable
enough to yield water at a rate that satisfies the maximum expected demand for water and
overcomes evaporation losses.
Thoroughly investigate sites proposed for aquifer-fed excavated ponds. Bore test holes at
intervals over the site to determine the existence and physical characteristics of the water-bearing
material. The water level in the test holes indicates the normal water level in the completed pond.
The vertical distance between this level and the ground surface determines the volume of
overburden or excavation needed that does not contribute to the usable pond capacity, but may
increase the construction cost considerably. From an economic standpoint, this vertical distance
between water level and ground surface generally should not exceed 6 feet.
Check the rate at which the water rises in the test holes. A rapid rate of rise indicates a
high-yielding aquifer. If water is removed from the pond at a rapid rate, as for irrigation, the
water can be expected to return to its normal level within a short time after removal has ceased.
A slow rate of rise in the test holes indicates a low-yielding aquifer and a slow rate of recovery in
the pond. Check the test hole during drier seasons to avoid being misled by a high water table
that is only temporary.
4.2.3 Estimating the volume of soil excavation:
After selecting the dimensions and side slopes of the pond, estimation of the volume of
excavation is required. This estimate determines the cost of the pond.
The volume of excavation required can be estimated with enough accuracy by using the
prismoidal formula:

V = [(A+4B+C)/6] x D/27

Where: V = volume of excavation (yd3) A = area of the excavation at the ground surface (ft2),
B = area of the excavation at the mid-depth (1/2 D) point (ft2), C = area of the excavation at the
bottom of the pond (ft2), D = average depth of the pond (ft2), 27 = factor converting cubic feet to
cubic yards

4.3: Pond Maintenance:

4.3.1 Sealing the pond

Excessive seepage in ponds is generally because the site is poor; that is, one where the
soils in the impounding area are too permeable to hold water. Selecting a poor site is often the
result of inadequate site investigations and could have been avoided. In some places no
satisfactory site is available, but the need for water is great enough to justify using a site that is
somewhat less than satisfactory. In this case the original pond design must include plans for

37
reducing seepage by sealing. In some places excessive removal of the soil mantle during
construction, usually to provide material for the embankment, exposes highly pervious material,
such as sand, gravel, or rock containing cracks, crevices, or channels. This can be avoided by
carefully selecting the source of embankment material.
To prevent excessive seepage, different methods are available which are discussed in
chapter 2.
We use following methods for preventing seepage of the pond.
4.3.2 Compaction
Some pond areas can be made relatively impervious by compaction alone if the material
contains a wide range of particle sizes (small gravel or coarse sand to fine sand) and enough clay
(10 percent or more) and silt to effect a seal. This is the least expensive method and it can be
done easily.
4.3.3 Lining of the pond:
Lining of the pond can be done with PVC sheet and with geo-membrane sheet. These
sheet are spread at the bottom of the pond and at the bank of the pond. As these materials are
locally available so we can also use these materials in order to avoid seepage of the pond.

4.3.4 Establishing vegetation

Trees, shrubs, grasses, and forbs should be planted during or soon after construction.
Their functions include erosion control, screening, space definition, climate control, and wildlife
habitat. The vegetation should be able to survive under prevailing conditions with minimum
maintenance. Native varieties are preferred for new plantings.
In many areas the exposed surface of the dam, the auxiliary spillway, and the borrow
areas as well as other disturbed surfaces can be protected from erosion by establishing a
vegetative community of appropriate species. Prepare a seedbed as soon after construction as
practicable. This is generally done by disking or harrowing. Fertilize and seed with mixtures of
perennial grasses and forbs appropriate for local soil and climatic conditions. If construction is
completed when the soils are too dry for the seeds to germinate, irrigate the soils to ensure
prompt germination and continued growth. Mulching with a thin layer of straw, fodder, old hay,
asphalt, or one of several commercially manufactured materials may be desirable. Mulching not
only protects the newly prepared seedbed, seeds, or small plants from rainfall damage, but also
conserves moisture and provides conditions favorable for germination and growth.
Soil bioengineering systems should be employed to establish woody vegetation where
appropriate on the shorelines of ponds. The systems best suited to these conditions include live
stakes, live fascines, brush mattresses, live siltation, and reed clumps. Additional information
about these and other soil bioengineering
Trees and shrubs that remain or those planted along the shoreline will be subject to
flooding, wave action, or a high water table. The ability to tolerate such drastic changes varies
greatly among species. Flood tolerance and resistance to wave action depend on root density and
the ability to regenerate from exposed roots.

38
Chapter 5
Master plan
5.1 Planning of rain water harvesting project
5.1.1 Key elements:
General
Understand the problems and the specific needs of beneficiaries.
Keep project designs flexible and aim for realistic project durations.
Identify the scale at which WH will be implemented.
Identify and build on existing WH technologies.
Keep WH technologies simple and manageable.
Promote technologies that have worked in similar conditions.

Technical feasibility
Rainfall: amount, intensity, duration, distribution, runoff-generating events,
evapotranspiration rates.
Land topography: slope gradients, length of slopes, size and shape of the catchment.
Soil type: infiltration rate, texture, structure.
Land use for catchment and application area: cultivated, uncultivated or partially
cultivated, under pasture or forests, etc.
Level of mechanization required during establishment and maintenance.
Availability of local material (stone/ earth etc.) when structural measures are applied.
Alternative water sources.
Assurance of good long-term maintenance and management of Water Harvesting
system.

Economic viability: economic and financial criteria

Evaluate and analyse effectiveness, cost efficiency and benefit to cost ratio.
Consider benefits and disadvantages of incentives.
Assess availability of labour.
Assess access to markets for specific WH inputs and products.
Take into account if crop to be grown is process-able to justify for WH investments.
(IFAD Learning Note No. 10)

39
5.2 Area of the catchment:
Catchment area is very important for the designing of the rain water harvesting pond. If
area of catchment is more, more runoff will be generated from the Area and we need large area
for the storage of the water.
i) Area: Area of Koont Farm = 245 acre = 1960Kanal

Fig 5.1 Koont Farm Top view

40
Fig 5.2 Koont Farm Isometric View with elevation

41
 Fig 5.3 Topographic Features of Koont farm Chakwal
ii) Rainfall:
Rainfall Data is one of the most important factor for designing a Rain Water harvesting
pond. We must have at least last 30 years rainfall data for designing a pond. We have get this
Data from National Agriculture Research center (NARC). Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 shows the Rainfall
trend of district Jhelum and Islamabad for the last 30 years. Fig 5.1 and 5.2 shows that peak
rainfall in district Jhelum occur in 1995 that was approximately 240 mm and in Islamabad, peak
Rainfall was 150 mm in 1995.

300

250
Rainfall (mm)

200

150

100

50

0
1973

1977

1981

1985

1989

1993

1997
1970
1971
1972

1974
1975
1976

1978
1979
1980

1982
1983
1984

1986
1987
1988

1990
1991
1992

1994
1995
1996

1998
1999
2000
Years

Figure 5.4 Peak Rainfall for one day Monsoon season, Jhelum.

42
 250

200
Rainfall (mm)

150

100

50

0
1975

1982

1989

1996
1971
1972
1973
1974

1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981

1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

1997
1998
1999
2000
Years

Figure 5.5 Peak Rainfall for one day Monsoon season, Islamabad.

So 1995 peak rainfall value for chakwal district after interpolation comes out to be 176.6mm in
one day.

5.3 Rainfall at Koont Farm (Chakwal Data):

Rainfall for Monsoons July 1995 = 472.9 mm
Peak Rainfall for 24-hours in July 1995 = 176.6 mm = 7 in

Total Volume available for Water Harvesting at Koont Farm = 245 acre x 7 in = 1715 acre-in =
142.91 acre-ft
Volume available after losses assuming 40% loss = 1029 acre-in = 85.75 acre-ft
Volume Accumulating:
Pond 1 = 2.46 acre (Depth =10 ft)
Pond 2 = 0.50 acre (Depth = 7 ft)
Pond 3 = 0.31 acre (Depth = 7 ft)
Pond 4 = 0.31 acre (Depth = 7 ft)
Pond 5 = 2.11 acre (Depth = 11ft)
Volume Accumulating = 24.60 + 3.50 + 2.17 + 2.17 + 23.21 = 55.65 acre-ft.
(Data collected from admin office Koont Farm)
Volume Losing/ Volume Available for Water Harvesting = Total Volume Volume
Accumulating
= 85.75 - 55.65 = 30.1 acre-ft
5.4 Soil Properties:
Soil is also one of the important factor for designing a pond and channel. As the slopes of
the channel and pond will be according to the soil type. If the soil is sandy, slope will be more
and if the soil is clayey, slope will be less.
The soil of the selected site will be sandy clay loam. We have also collected a sample of
the soil from the site and after experiment we find it that it is clayey loam. The following are the
characteristics of the soil.

43
 Fig 5.6 Soil Texture at Koont farm Chakwal

Fig 5.7 Soil Texture Triangle

(USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service)

Soil Type = Sandy Clay Loam

Infiltration rate = 17 cm/h
Soil Order = Aridisols
Bulk Density =1.44 mg/m3
Fertility:
Nitrogen 3.99 ppm, Phosphorus 3.26 ppm, Potassium 123 ppm

44
 Fig 5.8 a & b. Showing Type of Soil

5.5 Location of the pond:

Following Parameters must be kept in mind while selecting a suitable site for the pond.
(U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook Number 590)

Pond is located where surface runoff is the main source of water, the contributing
drainage area must be large enough to maintain water in the pond during droughts.
Pond is located where the largest storage volume can be obtained. A good site generally
is one where the side slopes are steep, and the slope of the valley floor permits a large
area to be used as catchment. Avoid large areas of shallow water because of excessive
evaporation and the growth of noxious aquatic plants.
Pond is located close to the major water use as practicable as conveying water is
expensive for irrigation.
Pond location is selected where drainage from farmsteads, feedlots, corrals, sewage lines,
mine dumps, and similar areas does not reach the pond. Measures are used, such as
diversions, to redirect runoff from these sources to an appropriate outlet.
Pond location is selected where failure of the dam could not cause loss of life; injury to
persons or livestock; damage to homes, industrial buildings, railroads, or highways; or
interrupted use of public utilities.
It is made sure that no buried pipelines or cables cross a proposed pond site. They could
be broken or punctured by the excavating equipment, which can result not only in
damage to the utility, but also in injury to the operator of the equipment.

45
Area Available at Koont farm at Selected Basin = 50.662 acre
Selected Area for Catchment of Pond = 50.662 acre

Volume generating from selected catchment at peak design 24-hrs = Rainfall x Area
Volume = 7 in x 50.662 acre = 354.634 acre-in = 29.552 acre-ft
Volume after losses = 29.552 acre-ft x 40% = 17.731 acre-ft

Fig 5.9 At site survey Drainage Area

46
 Fig 5.10 Drainage Area categorized as land cover
Land Topography:

47
 Fig 5.11 Contours Drainage Area with Terrain

Fig 5.12 Contours Drainage Area without Terrain

48
Size and shape of the catchment = Rectangular or Quadrilateral.

Fig 5.13 Topographic Survey of Catchment Area

5.6 SCS Curve Number Method:

(Natural Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-55 June
1986)
5.6.1 Hydrologic Grouping of Soil:
Soils are classified in four hydrologic groups according to infiltration and transmission rates:
AThese soils have a high infiltration rate. They are chiefly deep, well-drained sand or gravel.
The runoff potential is low.
Bthese soils have a moderate infiltration rate when thoroughly wet. They are chiefly
moderately deep, well-drained soils of moderately fine to moderately coarse texture.
Cthese soils have a slow infiltration rate when wet. These moderately fine to fine texture soils
have a layer that impedes downward movement of water.
Dthese soils have a very slow infiltration rate. They are chiefly clay soils that have a high
swelling potential, soils with a permanent high water table, soils with a clay pan at or near the
surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious material. The runoff potential is high.

49
 Table 5.1

(Adapted from USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service)

The soil of Koont farm falls under Hydrologic Group B according to its Soil type.

5.6.2 Curve Number for Catchment:

The runoff curve number (also called a curve number or simply CN) is an empirical parameter
used in hydrology for predicting direct runoff or infiltration from rainfall excess. The curve
number method was developed by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, which
was formerly called the Soil Conservation Service or SCS. The runoff curve number was
developed from an empirical analysis of runoff from small catchments by the USDA. It is widely
used and is an efficient method for determining the approximate amount of direct runoff from a
rainfall event in a particular area.
The runoff curve number is based on the area's hydrologic soil group, land use, treatment and
hydrologic-condition.

Table 1 of the appendix shows numerical runoff ratings for a range of soil-use-cover complexes.
Because these numbers relate to a set of curves developed from the SCS runoff equation, they
are referred to as curve numbers (CN).

Condition of Land Cover According to area: We have divide our area into different parts
according to the vegetative cover for the computation of the weighted curve number. Fig. 14
shows the area which are divided according to the vegetative cover and table 5 shows the
condition of the land and their curve number.

50
 Fig 5.14 Area Categorized according to land cover

Table 5.2
Area Cover Type Treatment Hydrologic Curve Area (acre)
No Condition Number
A0 Fallow Bare Soil - 86 2.122
A1 Row Crop Straight Row Poor 81 2.398
A2 Fallow Crop Residue Poor 85 4.035
A3 Row Crop Straight Row Poor 81 2.076
A4 Fallow Bare Soil - 86 1.240
A5 Fallow Crop Residue Poor 85 2.499
A6 Brush-mixture - Good 48 0.589
A7 Broadcast - Good 72 2.421
A8 Row Crop Straight Row Poor 81 0.968
A9 Fallow Bare Soil - 86 0.969
A 10 Grass Land - Poor 79 1.548
A 11 Fallow Bare Soil - 86 8.299
A 12 Meadow- - Fair 58 6.251
Continuous
Grass
A 13 Broadcast - Good 72 1.591
A 15 Fallow Bare Soil - 86 12.832
51
5.6.3 Weighted Curve No:
1. Calculate the percent of the subdivision area in each hydrologic group
2. Multiply the curve number for each hydrologic group by the area percent to get area-
weighted curve number =CN.
3. Add the area weighted curve number for all hydrologic groups to find the area weighted
average curve number for the whole subdivision (CNtotal)

A = Total Area of Catchment, acre

Ai = Area of field, acre
CN = Curve Number

(811.8)+(854.5)+(812.1)+(861.2)+(862.5)+(480.5)+(862.2)+(772.4)
+(810.95)+(810.9)+(791.9)+(868.3)+(586.2)+(8612.832)
CN =
50.662

Weighted Curve Number of Catchment for Rabi Season = CN = 79

Above mentioned data is taken during winters(January), at that time much land was unused as
Fallow crop residue cover or as Bare soil due to which Curve Number thus obtained is much
higher than it should be for agricultural land but during monsoon season and normal cultivation,
curve number for cultivated land will be 66.
We will proceed Fallow cover as cultivated land for better run-off estimation for monsoon
season
Weighted Curve Number Kharif season = CN = 66
(Natural Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-55 June
1986)

52
Fig5.15 Crop Residue Cover at Drainage Area

Fig 5.16 Fallow Bare Soil at Drainage area

53
Fig 5.17 Bajra cover at drainage area

Fig 5.18 Wheat cover at Drainage area

54
 Fig 5.19 Unused Land/Bare Soil POND Site

5.7 Volume of storm runoff:

Often knowing how much water runs off from a big storm as well as the rate at which it flows is
good. The volume is needed to compute needed storage as well as the peak discharge rate.
V=DxA
V = Volume, acre-in
D = Runoff Depth [from table 3 of (Appendix)], inch
A = Drainage Area, Acre
(Natural Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-55 June
1986)
From Data:
Rainfall Depth = 7 in, CN =66, From table 1 (Appendix): D = 3.2 in
A = 50.662 acre
V = 3.2 in x 50.662 acre = 162.12 acre-in = 13.5 acre-ft
For Gallons: V x 27,152
V = Volume, Acre-in
V = 162.12 x 27152 = 44010838.79 gallon

55
5.8 Peak Discharge Rate: The slope of the land above the pond affects the peak discharge rate
significantly. The time of concentration along with the runoff curve number, storm rainfall, and
rainfall distribution are used to estimate the peak discharge rate.

5.8.1 Time of concentration: Time of concentration (Tc) is the time it takes for runoff to travel
from the hydraulically most distant point of the watershed to the outlet.

(U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook Number 590)

Data:
Y = 2.9 %, CN = 66, Flow Length = 2187.7 ft
Tc = 0.86 hr
Average watershed slope: The average watershed slope (Y) is the slope of the land. We have
measured it using GIS techniques l Digital Elevation Models and confirmed the land
topography of catchment using surveying techniques Levelling. Average watershed slope is an
average of individual land slope measurements.
Elevation at starting point of watershed E1 = 522 m
Elevation at pond E2 = 510 m
Distance between E1 and E2 = 426.58 m
Y = 2.9 %

Total Flow Lines: Using digital elevation model of Aster Satellite and by using spatial analyst
tool we have calculated total flow lines in Watershed.

56
 Fig 5.20 Flow Line Without Terrain

Fig 5.21 Flow Lines with Terrain

5.8.2 Longest Flow Path: Flow length (l) is the longest flow path in the watershed from the
watershed divide to the outlet. It is the total path water travels overland and in small channels on
the way to the outlet. The flow length here is measured using GIS technique by using Stream
Order tool.
57
 Fig 5.22 Longest Flow Path

Flow length/Longest Flow path = 666.8 meters = 2187.7 ft

5.8.3 Ia/P ratio: Ia is the initial abstraction or the amount of water before runoff, such as
infiltration, or rainfall interception by vegetation; historically, it has generally been assumed for
agricultural land as
Ia = 0.2 S
Ia = Initial Abstraction
S = is the potential maximum soil moisture retention after runoff begins

Ia can also be obtained from table 4 given in the appendix.

The watershed CN is used to determine the initial abstraction (Ia) from table. Ia/P ratio is a
parameter that indicates how much of the total rainfall is needed to satisfy the initial abstraction.
The larger the Ia/P ratio, the lower the unit peak discharge (qu) for a given Tc.
(Natural Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-55 June
1986)
From Data:
CN = 66 so from table 1(Appendix), Ia = 1.030, Rainfall Depth = 7 in
Ia/P = 1.030/7 = 0.15

58
5.8.4 peak discharge rates calculations:
The unit peak discharge (qu) is obtained from figure 2(Appendix) depending on the
rainfall type. Tc and Ia/P values are needed to obtain a value for qu from the exhibit. The peak
discharge (qp in ft3/s) is computed as the product of the unit peak discharge (qu in ft3/s/ac-in), the
drainage area (A in acres), and the runoff (Q in inches).

qu = unit peak discharge (ft3/s)

qp = peak discharge rates (ft3/s)
A = Area (acre)
Q = Runoff (inches)
(Natural Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-55 June
1986)
From Data:
Drainage Area = 50.66 acre
Longest Flow Path L = 2187.7 ft
Watershed Slope Y = 2.9 %
30-year, Peak 24 hr Rainfall = 7 inches
Runoff Curve Number = 66
Tc = 0.86hours
Ia/P = 0.15
Runoff CN-66 = 3.2 inches
From Figure Storm Distribution:
qu = 0.55
From Equation:
qp = 0.55 x 50.66 x 3.2 = 89.16 ft3/s

qp = Peak discharge for a single channel.

Pond Area

Fig 5.23 Isometric View of Drainage Area and Pond

59
5.9 Channel Design:
As we know that as a result of peal rainfall that occur in 1995, creates a runoff of
approximately 89.16 ft3/s. So we will design a channel which will carry this discharge without
causing the problem of scouring. In order to avoid scouring of the channel, the velocity of water
in a channel should not exceed 4.5 ft/s (FAO Standards). if velocity of flowing water is more
than 4.5ft/s, it create erosion problems in a channel.
Now we will design a channel whose carrying capacity is equal to or more than 89 ft3/ s.
After hit and trial method, rectangular channel with side slopes are proposed.
Peak discharge for a single channel has been calculated but according to size, shape and
topography of catchment we design several water conveyance channels to Pond for economical
purpose. Thus we calculate discharge for different region of catchment area as shown in map.

For Channel 1:
Table 5.3
Sr Catchment Area of Peak Cumulative Discharge Channel
No Name Catchment Discharge (ft3/s) Length
3
(Qp ft /s) (L)
1 Q1 15.05 acre 26.48 26.48 474.32 ft
2 Q2 6.0 acre 10.56 37.04 375.55 ft
3 Q3 18.06 acre 31.78 68.83 215.56 ft

Fig 5.24 Showing Area Contributing to each designed channel

60
 Fig 5.25 Isometric View: Showing Channel Connected to Pond

Q1:
For concrete lining channel permissible Discharge must be between 4 to 4.5 ft3/s.
For Q1 peak discharge = 26.48 ft3/s
By Trial Method we design a channel for discharge more than or equal to 26.48 ft3/s.
By Trial Method for trapezoidal channel:

Fig 5.26 Trapezoidal channel for Q1 at 32 ft3/s

Area of cross-section of channel = 8 ft2

Discharge = 32 ft3/s

61
Q2:
For Q2 peak discharge = 37.04 ft3/s

Fig 5.27 Trapezoidal channel for Q2 at 40 ft3/s

Area of Cross-section = 10 ft2

Discharge at 4 ft/s = 40 ft3/s
Q3:
For Q3 peak discharge = 68.83 ft3/s

Fig 5.28 Trapezoidal channel for Q3 at 72 ft3/s

Area of Cross-section = 18 ft2

Discharge at 4 ft/s = 72 ft3/s
Volume of Excavation of Channel:
V = A x L
A = cross sectional area, ft2
L = Length of channel, ft.
V = Volume of excavation of channel

62
A = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 8 + 10 + 18 = 36 ft2, L = 1065.43 ft.
V = 38355.48 ft3

Volume of Channel Lining:

For calculating cost we calculate volume of channel lining.
Depth of lining = 0.25 ft. or 3 in
L = 1065.43 ft.
Table 5.4
Sr Catchment Area at Bed (ft2) = Vol of Bed (ft3) Area at slope Vol of Slope
No name bed length x Depth = (ft2) (ft3)
of material area of bed x
length of
channel
1 Q1 2 x 0.25 = 0.5 532.715 1.415 1507.5
2 Q2 3 x 0.25 = 0.75 800.0 1.415 1507.5
3 Q3 3 x 0.25 = 0.75 800.0 2.12 2258.7
Total 2132.7 5273.7

Surrounding Area of POND:

Simple Concrete pipes can be used to collect run-off from surrounding fields.
Pipe Diameter used will be selected as 1.5 ft. Pipe diameter is based on the factor to avoid
clogging in pipes.
No of Pipes Required = No of Field around Pond
No of Concrete Pipes Required = 6

Volume of Water that can be stored/Volume of excavation of Pond Required:

After we have selected the dimensions and side slopes of the pond, estimating the volume of
excavation required. This estimate determines the cost of the pond and is a basis for making
payment if the work is to be done by a contractor.
The volume of excavation required can be estimated with enough accuracy by using the
prismoidal formula:

63
(U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook Number 590)

Fig 5.29 CAD Diagram of pond Dimensions Top View

Fig 5.30 Pond Area and its location

64
A = 251.2 x 294.2
4B = 4 (241.2 x 284.2)
C = 231.2 x 274.22
D = 10ft
Side Slope 1:1
V = 15.74 acre-ft
Since Volume of excavation is obtained for rectangular pond so we deduct the remaining area
outside from the Pond according to pond shape i.e.
Volume of excavation required = 15.74 1.67 = 14.07 acre-ft = 612888.29 ft3
As we know Run-off generating from peak rainfall after losses = 13.5 acre-ft

And Volume of excavation = Volume of Water that can be stored in pond

So, our dimension of pond satisfies the Peak Run-off to collect in pond.

5.11 Catchment Area Development:

The development of catchment area inludes the following.

5.11.1 Slope adjustments:

Slope of the catchment area should be adjusted so the runoff from different areas will
flow start flowing towards channels.
Excavated soil from pond will now be used for grading of land to adjust slope for collection of
water to channel of pond.

5.11.2 Erosion Control Measures:

Erosion can be controlled by adopting following techniques. (USDA-NRCS AL Guide
Sheets No. Al 655 Erosion Control on Forest Land & Yoo, K. H. and C. E. Boyd. 1994.
Hydrology & Water Supply, New York.)
I) Erosion on watersheds can be controlled by providing vegetative cover, eliminating
gully erosion, and using diversions to route water from areas of high erosion potential.
II) Provide grass cover on sides of pond dams or embankments and grass or gravel on tops
of dams or embankments.
III) Eliminate steep slope
IV) Use 3:1 or flatter side slopes for pond embankments with sandy soil

5.11.3 Seepage Control Measures:

To prevent excessive seepage, reduce the permeability of the soils to a point at which losses are
insignificant or at least tolerable. The method depends largely on the proportions of coarse-
grained sand and gravel and of fine-grained clay and silt in the soil.
We will use two measures for seepage control from channel as well Pond.
i) Compaction: Pond areas will be made relatively impervious by compaction alone as the
material contains a wide range of particle sizes (small gravel) and enough clay and silt to
effect a seal. This is the least expensive method. Its use, however, is limited to these soil
conditions as well as by the depth of water to be impounded.
Make the compacted seal no less than 12 inches thick where less than 10 feet of water is

65
 to be impounded. Because seepage losses vary directly with the depth of water
impounded over an area.

ii) Waterproof linings: Waterproof linings is another method used for reducing excessive
seepage in both coarse-grained and fine grained soils. Polyethylene will be used for
linings for ponds because they virtually eliminate seepage if properly installed.
Thin films of these materials are structurally weak, but if not broken or punctured they
are almost completely watertight. Black polyethylene films are less expensive and have
better aging properties than vinyl. (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture
Handbook Number 590)

5.11.4 Conveyance Channel Lining:

Cement Concrete lining will be used for water conveyance. Since concrete can bear maximum
velocity of 1.5m/s for scouring. (FAO-Chapter 4 Drainage Design)

5.11.5 Siltation Control Measures:

Providing a siltation channel before pond to collect silt from water.

Fig 5.31 Siltation Basin at NARC Islamabad

5.11.3 Scouring Control Measure at pond:

We will make concrete blocks at inlet of Pond to dissipate velocity gained by volume of water to
inlet of pond for no scouring at surface of pond.

66
 Fig 5.32 Velocity dissipating structure at NARC Islamabad

5.12 Cost
5.12.1 Components of determining Cost:
Pond Excavation
Pond Lining
Pond Compaction
Channel Excavation
Conveyance Channel Lining
RCC Pipes
Labor Cost

67
 Engineer Estimate of Civil Works of POND
Sr Item Description Unit Composite Quantity Total Rate in
No Code Pakistani
. Rupee
1 45-b Cutting and removing Each 1,359.60 2 2719.2
trees. (760 to 1800 mm)
girth
2 7-i Earthwork excavation in 1000 4,236.85 11430.1 48427.62
upto 5'-0" (1.5 m) storm Cft. Cft
water channels, drains,
dressed to designed level
and dimensions &
excavated material
disposed of and dressed
within 50 ft. (15 m) lead:-
Ordinary Soil
3 8-i Earthwork excavation 1000 4,678.70 612888.2 2867520.442
5.01 ft. (1.5 m) to 10.0 ft. Cft 9 Cft 423
(3.0 mm) depth for storm
water channels, dressed
to designed level and
dimensions, removal of
surface water from
trenches, back filling and
excavated material
disposed of and dressed
within 100 ft. (30 m)
lead: Ordinary Soil
4 24-b- Compaction of earthwork 1000 500.95
ii with road roller Cft.
5 10 (a) Channel Lining: Bed 100 Cft 15785.50 2132.7 336657.35
Cement concrete lining,
using washed screened
and 20.1, 28.1 graded
stone aggregate: ratio
1:3:6
6 10 (b) on slope: ratio 1:3:6 100 Cft 16490.40 5273.7 869654.22
7 Pond lining Per Sft 3.4 73903 251270.20
Sft.
8 Concrete Pipes 6 Depends of
Local Rates
Total 4,376,249.03
Rs.

68
Chapter 6
Development of Guidelines

6.1 Guidelines for pond design:

Step by step procedure for the construction of the pond is given below.
6.1.1 Pre visit of site:
Observe the following features in the pre visit of the site.
Land use
Land cover
Pond area/location
Soil type

6.1.2 Detail survey of the site:

Observe the following features in the visit of the site.
Topographic features of the site i.e undulations etc .
Calculation of the Slope of site using dumpy level, theodolite, G.I.S
software etc.

6.1.3 Rainfall Data collection from Pakistan Metrological Department

As rainfall data is one of the most important data for the design of a rainwater
harvesting pond, so we will collect rainfall data from the Pakistan metrological
department.
Analysis/Interpolation of rainfall data
Determination of peak Rainfall.
6.1.4 Determination of Catchment area
6.1.4 Determination of water potential of the site using formula.
After collecting rainfall data and determination of the catchment area, we will
determine the water harvesting potential of the site using formula.

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Area of catchment x Runoff coefficient

6.1.5 On the basis of this potential, we will decide area of the pond.

69
 On the basis of the total water harvesting potential of the area, we will decide
the area of the pond. For example, if water harvesting potential comes out to be
10 cumec, then we have to design a pond which can store this water.

6.2 Guidelines for Runoff estimation:

Different methods are available for the estimation of the runoff. We can calculate peak
discharge by any of the method.
Rational method
Curve number method
Using unit hydrograph
By infiltration method
By empirical formulae
In this manual, curve number method is used for the determination of the runoff. We have to
collect following data for the computation of the peak discharge using this method.

i) Hydrologic Soil Group

We can determine the soil type of the catchment area using quick field tests. We can
determine the soil type by following two methods.
1st Method:
Following procedure is adopted for the determination of the soil type.
Take a handful of moist soil and squeeze it into a ball.
Throw the ball into the air about 50 cm and then catch it.
If the ball falls apart, it is poor soil with too much sand.
If the ball sticks together, it is probably good soil with enough clay in it.
nd
2 Method:
Take a handful of soil and wet it, so that it begins to stick together without
sticking to your hand.
Squeeze it hard, then open your hand.
If the soil retains the shape of your hand, there is probably enough clay in it.
If the soil does not retain the shape of your hand, there is too much sand in it.

ii) Weighted Curve Number Calculation

For the determination of the weighted curve number, first we have to observe the field
conditions. We have to divide our area into different parts according to the vegetative cover
and then on the basis of the vegetative cover, we have to take the value of curve number from
table 1 given in the appendix.
After observing the values of the curve number from table, we can calculate the weighted
curve number using following formula.
Weighted curve number = (CN*A1+CN*A2+CN*An)/(A1+A2+An)

70
iii) Volume of Run-off:
The volume of runoff can be computed using following formula.
V=DxA
V = Volume, acre-in
D = Runoff Depth [from table 3 of (Appendix)], inch
A = Drainage Area, Acre

iv) Peak Discharge

The unit peak discharge (qu) is obtained from figure 2(Appendix) depending on the
rainfall type. Tc and Ia/P values are needed to obtain a value for qu from the exhibit.
The peak discharge (qp in ft3/s) is computed as the product of the unit peak discharge
(qu in ft3/s/ac-in), the drainage area (A in acres), and the runoff (Q in inches).

a. Time of Concentration (Slope, Longest Flow Path)

Time of concentration can be calculated using formula:

Where watershed slope can be calculated using Theodolite, Ranging Rod and by
using Arc G.I.S.

b. Initial Abstraction:
Ia is the initial abstraction. It has generally been assumed for agricultural land
as
Ia = 0.2 S
Ia = Initial Abstraction
S = is the potential maximum soil moisture retention after runoff begins

Ia can also be obtained from table 4 given in the appendix.

71
6.3 Guidelines for Management of pond:
I. Seepage Control
II. Soil Erosion Controls
I) Seepage Control Measures:
Seepage losses through pond can be controlled by adopting any of the following method.
All these methods are discussed in chapter 2.
Reducing Wetted Surface Area of Pond
Use of Sealants
Clay Lining
Asphalt Lining
Cement Concrete Lining
Bentonite Lining
Alkali Soil Lining
Soil Deflocculants
Brick Lining
Chemical Sealants
Gleization
Polythene Lining
Compaction of pond

II) Soil Erosion Controls

Erosion can be controlled by adopting following techniques.
I) Erosion on watersheds can be controlled by providing vegetative cover, eliminating
gully erosion, and using diversions to route water from areas of high erosion
potential.
II) Provide grass cover on sides of pond dams or embankments and grass or gravel on
tops of dams or embankments.
III) Eliminate steep slope
IV) Use 3:1 or flatter side slopes for pond embankments with sandy soil

72
 Summary
Water is a prerequisite for life and without it there will be no living thing. The
significance of fresh water is well recognized and the easy access to water remained a serious
issue in both urban and rural areas in developing as well as developed countries. Particularly, its
importance is further enhanced in earthquake prone, hilly, and rural areas where access to water
is difficult, expensive and tiresome. Water is the basic right for all human beings. It is frequently
asserted that quality of life depends on the quality of water being used. Beside its importance and
necessity, fresh water is becoming a scarce commodity on earth. Water demand has increased in
the last few decades, whereas the availability of fresh water has decreased in this era. This is due
to the higher population and industrial growth, intensive agriculture production, and rapid
urbanization. This surge in water demand is putting tremendous pressure on existing water
supply sources which put serious impact on environment. A number of water harvesting schemes
have been initiated by governments and international agencies for collecting water to meet the
demand of the water of this era in which one of them is rain water harvesting scheme.

Rain water harvesting is a system by which, the rainwater that flows on the ground in the
form of runoff is stored in a pond. The collected water can be used for domestic purpose, for
irrigation and for recharging of the groundwater water. Rainwater can be harvested in a variety
of ways:
Directly from roof tops and stored in tanks.
Monsoon run off and water in streams during the Monsoon can be stored in
underground tanks/ponds.
Water from flooded rivers can be stored in small ponds.

This report helps land owners, graduates and contractors in planning rainwater harvesting
(RWH) systems. This report contains technical guidelines for the construction and management
of water harvesting pond. It also addresses the popular and useful distribution of water for
landscapes, pets, wildlife, livestock, and private non-potable and potable in-home rainwater
systems.

On the basis of this report, we the student of final year of B.sc Agri. Engineering, have
designed a rain water harvesting pond at university koont research farm chakwal. The step by
step procedures we follow for pond designing are as follow.
First we go to the site and observe the following features.
Land cover
Land use
Pondage area
After observing these features we have calculated the value surface runoff using curve
number method. The value of weighted curve number comes out to be 66.
We also get rainfall from Pakistan metrological department. From this data we select the value of
peak rainfall. On this value, we design the rainfall. The peak rainfall value that comes out to be

73
was 180mm for chakwal. We get this value for chakwal district from the interpolation of the
rainfall data for last 50 years of Islamabad and Jhelum district.

After determining the value of peak rainfall, we determine the value of time of
concentration. The value of time of concentration comes out to be 0.8 hour.
After determining these values, we calculate the value of runoff. The value of peak runoff comes
out to be 105 cusec. We have also calculated the value of slope using G.I.S. The value of slope
comes out to be 3%.

On the basis of the rainfall, we have calculated the water potential of the site. The total
potential of the area comes out to be 15 Acre feet. On the basis of the potential, we select the
area of the pond. The total area of the pond for storage of this potential comes out to be 1 Acre
and its depth is 10 feet. The side slopes are 1:2.

We have also compacted the bottom surface of the pond in order to avoid pond seepage.
After this, we have also place geo membrane in the pond in order to avoid seepage losses.
In order to prevent erosion of the bank or sides of the pond, Vegetation is done on it. The total
cost of the structure comes out to be..

I as well as my group member learnt a lot from our teacher especially Engr. Muhammad Usman
during the preparation of this report. After successful completion of this project, we are now able
to design, construct and manage the rain water harvesting pond. We are able that how to use the
stored water efficiently. In short, this project was much informative for us.

74
References

1. Khan. S R A. 2009. Pothwar's agricultural potential, Pakistan Agriculture overview

2. Munir. S 2002. Protection of Water Resources in North Punjab.
3. Ahmad, S. 1993. Viability of agriculture resource base: A critical appraisal. In
agricultural Strategies in the 1990s: Issues and options. Pakistan Association of
Agricultural Social Scientists, Islamabad. p. 449466
4. Ahmad, S. 2008a. Land and water resources of Pakistan A critical appraisal. Paper
presented in 23rd Annual General Meeting & Conference of Pakistan Society of
Development Economists (PSDE). Broad theme of Natural Resource Management:
Issues and Challenges. Islamabad, Pakistan
5. Ahmad, S. 2008b. Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord: Water Entitlements and Key
Issues National and Baluchistan Perspectives. Vol. (4), No. (4), TA-4560 (PAK),
Quetta, Pakistan.
6. Nizami M.M.I., M. Shafiq, A. Rashid, M. Aslam, 2004, The Soils and their Agricultural
Potential in Pothwar, A research report of WRRI.
7. Sidra Majeed, Irfan Ali, Sumia Bint Zaman, Dr. Shahid Ahmad, 2010, Productivity of
Mini Dams in Pothwar Plateau: A Diagnostic Analysis, Volume (2) , No (13)
8. Schwab, G.O., Fangmeier, D.D., Elliot, W.J.T. and Frevert, R.K. 1981. Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. New York, John Wiley & Sons. Third edition.
9. IFAD Learning Note No. 10
10. USDA-NRCS AL Guide Sheets No. Al 655 Erosion Control on Forest Land.
11. Yoo, K. H. and C. E. Boyd. 1994. Hydrology & Water Supply, New York.
12. Composite schedule of rates Punjab 2016
13. FAO-Chapter 4 Drainage Design
14. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook Number 590
15. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service- Soil conservation service.
16. Natural Resources Conservation Service, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, TR-
55 June 1986

75
 Appendix
Table 1: Runoff curve numbers for agricultural land

76
Table 2: Runoff curve numbers for urban areas:

77
 Table 3. Runoff depth, in inches

Figure 1. Time of concentration (Tc) Nomograph

78
Table 4: Ia values for runoff curve numbers

79
 Figure 2:Unit peak discharge (qu):

Type I storm distribution Type II storm distribution

Type IA storm distribution Type III storm distribution

80