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PETROLEUM EXPLORATION-EVALUATION
Chapter 10: METHODS
PETROLEUM 1.Technical and Economic Risks in Pet.
EXPLORATION- Exploration
EVALUATION METHODS 2. Exploration Elements & Objectives
3.Exploration phases of a Petroleum
1.Technical and Economic Risks in Pet. Basin
Exploration 4.Petroleum discovering and exploration
2. Exploration Elements & Objectives methods
3.Exploration phases of a Petroleum
Basin
4.Petroleum discovering and 2

exploration methods

10.1 Technical and Economic Risks in Technical and Economic Risks in Pet.
Pet. Exploration Exploration (Cont.)
• The geological setting must be accurately
• There are a number of technical and
assessed to optimize this recovery.
economic risks involved in the exploration
Furthermore, in any petroleum basin, there will
effort, such as the ability to recover the
be some traps that are too small or
petroleum and the quality of the oil or
reservoirs of too poor quality to pay back
gas.
drilling and production costs.
• Less than 60%, and sometimes as low as
• Assessors also need to be able to predict
10% of the OIIP (oil-initial-in-place) and 70%
whether the product will be oil or gas, since in
to 90% of the GIIP has proved economically
remote areas the added difficulties and
recoverable by modern technology.
3
handling costs of natural gas may be prohibitive
4

1

Technical and Economic Risks
in Pet. Exploration (Cont.)
•Similarly, it is often important to predict the
chemistry of crude oils and natural gas
mixtures, particularly in areas where the
results may be only marginally commercial.
These must all be, in part, considerations of
the exploration geologist.
5 6
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION-EVALUATION
METHODS
1.Technical and Economic Risks in Pet.
Exploration
2. Exploration Elements & Objectives
3.Exploration phases of a Petroleum
Basin
4.Petroleum discovering and exploration
methods
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Technical and Economic Risks in
Pet. Exploration (Cont.)
• At this point, the task may seem overwhelmingly
difficult, but it is important to remember that
Nature follows rules and does not randomly
distribute this petroleum beneath the earth's
surface.
• Our understanding of these rules is based on
numerous past lessons learned from the drilling
of many successful wells and many dry holes. It
is the application of these rules, to situations that
are always somewhat unique, that is the "art"
within the science of petroleum geology.
• 10.2
The Exploration
Elements ofElements
the Task & Objectives
The first objective in exploration is to
identify the geological situations
where accumulations of petroleum
are possible.
From geological studies we know that
these situations are characterized by
five features: source rock, reservoir
rock, migration path, trap, and seal
(Fig. 01).
Petroleum processes ??? 8
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What’s petroleum system? Petroleum factors

Two points of view:
• Petroleum processes
• Petroleum factors

Fig 01
9 10

Petroleum System
Processes The source rock
The task of the geophysical methods is to
reveal:
· the rock type;
Ga
as
Ca p · the volume;
Preservation Oil
EEnntrapment Water Seal Rock · the conditions of deposition;
Reservoir · the temperature/burial history; and
Rock
Accumulation
· the original organic content.
Migration
120° F
Geophysical methods can make some
contribution to all these factors except
350° F
Generation Source
the last.
Rock 2480

12

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The reservoir rock The migration path

The task of geophysical methods is to reveal:
· the type of rock;
· its thickness, extent and volume;
· the conditions of deposition and the shape (
these often define the type of body and the
direction of preferred permeability );
· the present porosity; and
· the present permeability.
Again geophysical methods can make some
contribution to all these factors except the last.
Occasionally, geophysical methods can also give
some indication of the saturantion, particularly if it is
gas 13
• This may be a permeable rock (such as the
silty rock of Figure 01 ), or a permeable zone
of fracture.
• Although geophysical methods allow no
measure of permeability, they can
sometimes indicate the likelihood of such
permeable paths.
• However, the problem is complicated by
the fact that we are asking for a permeable
path at the appropriate time in the past; it
need not be permeable now.
14

The trap
In Figure 1 we see the classical anticlinal trap, and in Figure 2
we see it filled to the spill point.
In the context of traps, therefore, the task of geophysical
methods is to reveal:
· the dip of the reservoir rock;
· the presence of trapping faults; and/or
· a three-dimensional picture of the reservoir body; by
which its shape, and so its probable stratigraphic origin,
can be determined.
The great successes of geophysical methods in the past have
been in the search for structural traps. To a smaller extent,
and with much less certainty, geophysics is now
contributing to the search for stratigraphic traps.
Fig 02
15 16

4

The Seal
The task of our geophysical methods is to reveal:
in structural traps:
· the nature of the rock above the trap;
· the risk of fracturing in that rock; and
· the risk that such a system of fractures vents,
directly or indirectly, to the surface;
in fault traps:
· the likelihood that the fault is chemically sealed; or
· the risk that the fault vents, directly or indirectly, to
the surface;
17
• Finally, we should note that it is only in an undeveloped
area that the exploration problem is really as harsh as
suggested above.
• Often we have some wells, so that the problem is
mainly one of correlating a new prospect area to
those wells; this may require no more than tracing
the continuity of known rocks into the prospect
area - which geophysics can usually do very well
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The Seal (Cont.)
in stratigraphic traps, in addition to the
above:
· the likelihood that any critical unconformity
is sealed; and
· the likelihood that lateral facies
changes represent a seal.
We shall find that geophysical methods can make
some contribution to all of these factors, but
never with the certainty we would wish.
18
• Again, we may already have a producing
field, whose geophysical response is
known; then the problem is merely to find a
geophysical analog of that field. This makes
us feel more comfortable; at least we shall
succeed some of the time.
20
5

Exploration Tools:
• In the absence of a direct method for locating
• The Tools: Models, Sections and Maps
Leases, Licenses and Concessions
• Economics Constraints
• Further, sufficient prospects must be
21
Conclusions (cont.)
• An important part of the exploration task is the
estimate of potential reward and the
minimization and assessment of the risk.
• And all this we must do deep, deep in the
earth.
• Deep in the earth when we know so little of
what is right below our feet that we stand and
watch with fascination the man digging a hole
in the road.
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Conclusions
petroleum, the exploration task is to find
prospective combinations of source, reservoir,
path, trap and seal, and to establish their
geological history. However, all this must be
done with due regard for considerations of land
and considerations of economics.
identified to allow a choice. The choice is made
by balancing potential reward and risk.
22
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION-EVALUATION
METHODS
1.Technical and Economic Risks in Pet.
Exploration
2. Exploration Elements & Objectives
3.Exploration phases of a Petroleum
Basin
4.Petroleum discovering and exploration
methods
24
6

10.3 Exploration phases of a
Petroleum Basin
• Petroleum exploration can be divided into a
series of critical information phases. With each
step, there is a progressively increasing
data base, from which to evaluate the
petroleum prospects of a region.
•
25
Fig 03
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• Phase I is the stage of early surface
mapping and reconnaissance geophysics
(Figure 03).
• It begins with the unexplored basin.
• To varying degrees, there may be some
previous knowledge of surface geology
and structures.
26
There may also have been reports of surface
indications (e.g., surface seeps, springs, asphaltic
vein-fillings, gas detected in water wells, etc.) to
encourage the exploration.
Surface evidence of petroleum has been
important in the discovery of nearly every major
onshore petroleum province in the world
(Levorsen, 1979), although there are also major
areas with abundant surface evidence that have
proven to be subcommercial (e.g., Cuba and
Morocco).
28
7

• At this stage, the geologist's role is to obtain a
more detailed knowledge of surface
structures (i.e., potential traps) and evaluate
other aspects critical to the exploration task,
such as sedimentary facies, continentality,
and possible metamorphism.
• The exploration geologist must work closely with
the geophysicist to relate the surface stratigraphy
and structures to the subsurface.
• At this stage, a geologic analog is often used to
compare the unexplored basin to other producing
"look-alike" basins which appear to have
common geologic characteristics. 29
Fig 04
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• Phase II is the stage ofseismic survey
(Figure 04) (This is the initial step, in offshore
exploration.)
• During this stage, more data is obtained on the depth
configuration of potential traps and hopefully some
knowledge of the character and volume of the
sedimentary fill is gained. It has generally been
observed that the chances of finding commercial oil
is roughly in proportion to the total sediment
volume (Levorsen, 1979), particularly if most of it lies
within the depth range of the oil and gas window
(Klemme, 1980). The volume of subsurface shale
(source potential) is also evaluated.
30
• Phase III is the stage of exploratory or "wildcat"
drilling, which establishes for the first time a detailed
sampling of the sediment character (reservoir, source and
caprock potential), maturation, and the geothermal regime
(Figure 05)
• The potential for a discovery exists at this stage, since
the most promising prospects, usually surface or
seismically detected subsurface structures, are
drilled first.
• However, even a dry hole is not necessarily a total
failure. It can supply a large amount of data (e.g.,
subcommercial shows; water-filled reservoir downdip
from a possible pinchout, etc.) that, if intelligently
studied, may lead to the placement of new wildcat
wells. 32
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• Phase IV, the discovery phase, follows the

successful completion of some wildcat wells
(Figure 06)
• At this stage, reservoirs are established and
hydrocarbon types may be linked to certain
stratigraphic units and/or trap types. Further
wildcat drilling in less developed parts of the basin
may be guided in part by the play and
petroleum zone concepts.
• A play is defined as a group of geologically
similar, "look-alike" prospects, usually at fixed
horizons sharing common stratigraphic features
Fig 05 (lithology, unconformity).
33 34

•A basin may also be divisible into discrete

petroleum zones. These are sediment
volumes whose contained pools show several
characteristics in common.
•Application of the play and petroleum zone
concepts usually causes the success ratio of
drilling (discovered fields/tested prospects; or
bbls found/thickness drilled) to improve during
the discovery stage.
•Many of the basin's largest fields will have
been discovered, and exploration for more
Fig 06 subtle traps may commence.
35 36

9

• Phase V (the production phase), begins to
provide exploration geologists with reserve
estimates and a history of the
hydrocarbon potential of the basin
• There is enough information to work out field-
size distribution patterns, which may help
guide further exploration as the area matures.
Both the field size of new discoveries and
the success rate of drilling typically tapers
off during this stage.
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•Also, shallower depths may have been thoroughly
tested and have established production, while at the
same time deeper stratigraphic horizons may be only at
the seismic survey or wildcat stages of development.
•It is significant that new discoveries are still
being made in sedimentary basins where drilling
and development have proceeded for 50 or more
years.
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•Commonly, not all of a sedimentary basin is at the
same stage of drilling and development at the
same time.
•Part of the basin may be maturely drilled, while
other areas that may have appeared initially less
geologically favored, or were less accessible, may
still be only semi-mature or untested.
38
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION-EVALUATION
METHODS
1.Technical and Economic Risks in Pet.
Exploration
2. Exploration Elements & Objectives
3.Exploration phases of a Petroleum
Basin
4.Petroleum discovering and exploration
methods
40
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i-The Role of the Geologist, ii- The Job of the Geologist

Pet. discovering and • Observe, explore
exploration methods: and record any clues
related to
-Surface geophysical survey hydrocarbons
• Reconstitute a
-Drilling survey
scenario to identify
places of oil/gas
-Mud logging
accumulations
-Wireline logging survey
• Work with other
-VSP specialists

41 42

The Job of the Geophysicist

• Initially use gravimetry and MAGNETIC METHOD,
magnetometry and later GRAVITY METHOD,
seismic surveys
RADIOACTIVE METHOD
• First 2 are regional in scale,
less costly than seismic and GEOPHYSIC METHODS
are used to identify
potentially oil-bearing
sedimentary basins
43 44

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Gravimetry Magnetometry
• Gravity surveys can be used to map the • Generally performed from
extent or depth of sedimentary basins the air (aeromagnetic survey)
or even individual hydrocarbon • Measures variations in the
prospects. magnetic field. This gives an
idea of the depth distribution
• Gravimetry - the measurement of of crystalline terrains that
gravitational acceleration over an area, have NO chance of
usually presented as a map or profile of containing any oil.
Bouguer or free-air anomalies

45 46

RADIOACTIVE METHOD Seismic Survey

• Measure the travel time of sound
waves generated by a “shock” applied
to the ground or sea
• More costly than gravimetry and
magnetometry
• But essential to discovering oil and
gas fields (especially in offshore)

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Seismic Survey Seismic exploration method

1. Signal emitted by
vibrator truck (or
vessel)
2. Reflected waves
are received by
geophones
(hydrophones)
3. Data transmitted to
laboratory truck
(vessel)

49 50

Onshore seismic exploration method Onshore seismic exploration method

SEISMIC MODELFORRECEIVING
REFLEX SURFACE

SEISMIC VIBRATION Onshore seismic exploration

52
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Off shore seismic

Offshore seismic
explorationexploration
model methods Offshore Seismic
1. Seismic
vessel
2. Hydrophones

More data obtained

offshore than
onshore

53
54

Seismic Survey in Transition Zone The Job of the Geophysicist

Shootin
Guard
Recording (cont)
g boat track Vibrat
boat or

Airgun
• Use gravimetry, magnetometry
and later seismic surveys
• Create an image of the
subsurface deposits and their
deformations, to help geologists
identify traps.
Geological boundary (reflector)
• In coordination with the geologist
Energy Source Receiver they interpret the image to
Marine: Airgun Marine: Hydrophone in extrapolate the geometry of the
Land: Vibroseis Ocean Bottom Cable
and/or Dynamite Land: Geophone trap.
55 56

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Seismic Interpretation
Arriving At The Decision
1. Isochronic lines – points on
the ground at which the
waves take exactly the
same time to be reflected /
refracted at the surface
2. 3-D Seismic Maps

Seismic profile

Depth section based on

seismic profile

57 58

overview
DRILLING METHODS Once an oil or gas prospect has
been identified, a hole is drill edto
assess the potential

The cost of drilli ng is very great.

On an offshore rig, it may cost
$10,000-15,000 for each meter
drill ed.

A company incurs vast losses

for every “ dry hole” drill ed

Production of oil starts when its

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Oil_platform.jpg en
.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Oil_platform.jpg recovery economics is confirmed

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DRIILING MODEL INTO OIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS

61

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Mud Logging An Overview

69 70

LS Mud Logging Unit

• Length = 27 feet
• Width = 8 feet
• Height = 8.5 feet
•Weight = 10 tons

71 72

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LS Mudlogging Unit Features

• Rugged skid-mounted construction
• UPS backup
• Pressurized and explosion proof
• Escape Hatch
• Dual air conditioning system
• Spacious interior with ample storage space
• Dual gas and depth system

73 74

LOGGING METHODS
Basic Mud Logging
• Basic mud logging involves:
1. Lag time determination
2. Depth and ROP determination
3. Cuttings sampling and lithological
description
4. Gas sampling analysis

76
75

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Depth Sensors Drawworks Sensor

• Crown block proximity sensors
• Drawworks proximity sensors
• Geolograph optical encoder

Drawworks Sensor Proximity Sensors

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Optical Encoder Depth Sensor Installation for Floaters

Equipment Needed To Remove and Detect Gas

Gas Logging Entrained In the Mud
• Gas Trap
• Vacuum system
• Gas detectors (THA, Chromatograph,
Cuttings Gas Analyzer)

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Gas Trap Functions of a Gas Trap

• Extract gases contained in the mud
• Sample consistently

Vacuum System

• 50 units = 1% gas methane-equivalent

Gas Unit
Definition

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THA Flame Ionization Detector Gas

• Gas chromatography is the physical
Chromatograph
separation of gases into its components.

• THA displays the methane-equivalent

(C1) HC present in the sample in units
• Calibrate once a week
y

Gas Chromatography: Equipment Gas Chromatograph

• FID Gas Chromatograph
• Integrator
• Chromatogram
• Separates and analyzes hydrocarbons in the
ditch gas sample to determine how much of
each hydrocarbon is contained in the sample
• Data output to an integrator

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Integrator Integrator
• Integrators are specifically designed to
process the output signal from
chromatographs
• The signal is plotted as a function of time,
forming a plot of symmetric peaks, known
as a chromatogram

Cuttings Gas Detector

• Recorded gas-air mixture by the • To check the amount of combustible
Chromatogram:
chromatograph /integrator system hydrocarbons in mud and cuttings
• Batch system

Definition • May give an insight into the porosity and

permeability of horizons

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Gas Show Evaluation What is a Gas Show?

• What is a gas show? • It is a significant occurrence of
• Sources of Gas Shows hydrocarbon gases detected from the mud
stream and identifiable as being the result
• Factors affecting Gas Shows
of the drilling of a specific increment of
formation
• Any deviation in gas amount or
composition from the established
background

Definitions
• True Zero Gas • A consistent gas value recorded while
– The value seen by the THA when pure air is
passed through its detector, for calibration
purposes
Background
drilling a consistent lithology

• System Zero Gas

– The value of gas seen by the THA when
circulating off-bottom under normal conditions.
Gas
This represents only contamination or recycled
hydrocarbons in the mud. This value is the
baseline above which all gas readings are taken
for drafting on the mudlog.

25

Gas Shows Type: What is a Good Gas Show?
• To decide whether a gas show is “good” or
“poor” requires a total evaluation of all
mud logging parameters plus a
consideration of many other variables
• This is the gas released from the formation
Liberated or Gas
as the bit crushes it
From Drilling
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Sources of Gas In The Mud
• Liberated or gas from drilling
• Produced or post-drilling gas
• Recycled gas
• Contamination gas
Produced or Post-drilling Gas
• It is gas which has flowed into the hole from
the formation in the same manner as if the
formation were to be produced
• 2 distinct types
– “Feed-in” gas: A negative differential pressure will
cause the fluids to flow into the hole from the
formation
– In a condition of balance or even some
overbalance there will be a continual diffusion of
fluids between the formation and the hole. This is
encouraged by the removal of filter cake by pipe
movement and by the flow of mud past the
exposed wall.
26

Recycled Gas
• Drilling fluid gas that is pumped back into
the hole
• Recycled gas will return at one
complete cycle (down time + lag time +
time to travel through the surface
equipment) after the initial show
Contamination Gas: Kelly-
cut Gas
• Kelly-cut gas is caused by air trapped in the
kelly or TDS. It arrives one lag time plus a
downtime after circulation commences
• It does not reflect increased gas concentration,
though some gas may enter the borehole when
the cut mud is pumped out of the bit, but rather
greater gas trap efficiency when the air-rich mud
reaches the surface.
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Contamination Gas
• Gas resulting from the addition of petroleum
products to the mud (ex: diesel) or from the
degradation of normally inert mud additives (ex:
lignosulfonate, soltex, resinex, lignite)
• Gas from spotting fluids pumped over previously
problem zones or formations
• Biggest culprit is diesel
• Contaminants will usually be noticed by an
increase in background gas, which will linger
after the pumps are off
Summary of Factors Affecting Gas Shows
• Formation characteristics – porosity, permeability, fluid
saturations
• Flushing effects – overbalance, water loss, formation
porosity/permeability
• Volume of formation cut – controlled by ROP and bit
diameter
• Size and nature of cuttings – controlled by bit design
• Flowrate – controlled by pump output and nozzle size
• Produced, recycled and contamination gases in mud
• Loss of mud and gas at the surface – flowline, ditch
characteristics
• Gas Trap efficiency
• Vacuum system and gas detection efficiency and
calibration
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Collecting a Sample Sampling and Cuttings Analysis

• Reasons for sample collection and
shipping
• Sample Intervals
• Sample Types
• Sample collection and preparation
• Cuttings examination
• Sample description

Reasons For Sample Collection and Shipping Sample Intervals

• Paleontological / Palynological analysis
• Geochemical analysis
• Oil company partners
• Governmental requirements
• Future reference / library samples
• Set by the client
• Common intervals: 5 feet to 30 feet
• Regardless of the sampling interval, under no
circumstances should the mudlogger neglect their
other responsibilities
• Other times that the sample interval should be
shortened:
– During coring – 1 ft or 0.5 meter intervals
– Areas of geological interest
– Changes in drilling parameters (drill breaks / reverse drill
breaks, torque changes)
– Changes in mud properties (viscosity, cut MW, chlorides,
etc)
– Changes in gas content

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Sample Types Sample Collection

• Unwashed samples • Install a sample collection board at the base of the
shaker
• Washed and dried samples
• Try to collect from the shaker with the smallest mesh
• Geochemical samples size
• Samples are taken at regular intervals specified by
• Paleontological / Palynological samples the client
• Metal shavings • Samples should be taken when changes in ROP,
background gas or any other parameter is noticed
• Mud samples • Regularly check desander and desilter for samples
• When sampling in smaller intervals than required, the
sample bags should be progressively filled up
• Clean the sample board after a sample is taken

Sample Catching Board Sample Preparation

• In clayey areas, care must be taken to wash
away as little of the clay as possible.
• When determining the sample composition, take
into account any clay that may have been
washed away
• Samples are washed through at least 2 sieves
(80 or 120 mesh at the bottom and 8 mesh on
top)
• Cuttings left on the 8 mesh sieve are considered
to be cavings
• A sample of these cavings should be placed on
the sample tray for observation

29

Cavings
• Cavings are cuttings from
previously drilled intervals
• Most removed by the
coarse seive
• Generally be recognized
as large, splintery rock
fragments that are
concave or convex in
cross-section
• Lithologically identical with
formations from higher
sections in the open hole
Catching an Unwashed Sample
1. When the sample is up, pick up the coarse sieve (No. 8),
a sample trowel and the required number of properly
marked Hubco cloth sample bags.
2. At the shale shakers, collect the sample from the
accumulated pile on the sample board. Fill up the Hubco
cloth bags and the coarse sieve. If no samples are
caught, due to lost circulation, then the sample bag
should be properly labeled with “no returns” or “no
sample”.
25/05/2017
Importance of Cavings
• An increase in the amount of cavings this
could indicate an unstable hole
• Cavings with splintery, concave
appearance may indicate increasing
formation pressure
• If the cavings are of the same lithology,
then by reviewing the mudlog, areas of
washouts or hole problems can be
pinpointed
Catching an Unwashed Sample
3. Clean the sample board to allow fresh
samples to accumulate.
4. Hang the closed cloth bags to air dry. It is
preferable that the site where the bags
would be hanged is sheltered.
5. When the samples have been sufficiently
dried, place them into a cardboard box.
6. When the box is full, write down the interval
of the samples in the box. You can also
write down the number
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Preparing Samples Where Oil Based Mud Is Used

Preparing Samples Where Oil Based Mud Is Used

1. Fill 2 containers with base drilling fluid (e.g. diesel if

mud is diesel-based)
2. Immerse sample in Bath A (initial bath) and sieve
sample
3. Immerse sample in 80 mesh in Bath B (final bath)
4. Take a representative sample to be examined under the
microscope; leave the sieves outside of the unit
5. Use a detergent degreaser to wash the sample and
then rinse with water
• NOTE: All OBM samples should be air dried outside the
logging unit
• Use rubber gloves when handling OBM samples

Preparing and Bagging a Wet and Dried Sample
1. At the sink, place the coarse sieve with the
unwashed sample on top of the fine sieve (No. 80 or
No. 120).
2. Rinse the sample with the base fluid of the mud.
Take note of the percentage of cavings (coarse
cuttings) left on the coarse sieve. Inform the
pressure engineer if there is an in crease in the
percentage of cavings.
Preparing and Bagging a Wet and Dried Sample
3. Remove the No. 8 sieve; slightly rinse
the accumulated sample in the fine sieve
of excess mud.
4. Use a metal tray to scoop a sample. Fill
the tray with sample. Leave some
sample for lithological and hydrocarbon
analyses.
5. Place a sample tag on the tray.

31

Preparing and Bagging a Wet and Dried Sample
6. Store the sample tray in the oven.
7. Remove the sample tray fro m the oven.
Samples for Lithological
Evaluation
1. After the samples in the fine sieve have been
slightly rinsed (see Step 3 of the above section),
use a metal tray to collect a sample. Rinse it again
slightly and shake the tray to get an even
distribution of the sample. The sample must be
one layer thick.
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Preparing and Bagging a Wet and Dried Sample
8. Place the tray into the plastic mud cup or similar
container. Scoop out the samples into the cup.
9. Place envelopes into marked brown Kraft clasp
envelopes.
10. Place the envelopes into the corresponding white
cardboard boxes.
Samples for Lithological
Evaluation
2. Lean the tray against the wall or splashboard of the
sink to let the excess water drain off
3. If there are cavings in the coarse sieve, include a
representative sample in the metal tray
4. Place a tag on the sample tray
32

Geochemical Samples
1. Collect composite unwashed samples. If
OBM is used the sample should be washed
free of the oil-based mud to remove the
hydrocarbon contamination
2. Place sample in a one-liter geochemical tin
can
3. After the last composite sample has been
caught for the designated geochemical
sampling interval, fill the can with clean,
fresh water up to 1.0 to 1.5 inches from the
top of the can. Try not to use saltwater.
Mud Samples
1. Use a mud cup to get a mud sample
from the possum belly or flowline
2. Fill the can or container with mud
3. Seal the can or container and ensure
that it is marked properly
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Geochemical Samples
4. Add four drops of bactericide to the can. ILO
uses Zephiran Chloride.
• If Zephiran Chloride is not available use:
– Alkylbenzyldimethylammoniumchlorid: solid
Alkylbenzyldimethylammoniumchlorid is to be
liquefied in warm water and diluted with hot water
to obtain a saturated solution (4 drops per can)
– Any algaecide or bactericide used for swimming
pools (4 drops per can)
– Copper sulfate (saturated solution), 10 ml
– Rubbing alcohol (isopropanol), 10 ml
– Chloroform, 5 ml (last choice)
Metal Shavings Samples
• Pull out the ditch magnets
• Use a non-magnetic scraper (wood or
plastic) to initially scrape the majority of
the metal shavings from the magnet/s.
Scrape the magnets clean by using one
hand with extra protective equipment,
rubber gloves and safety glasses. This
should be done slowly so as not to
cause hand injuries. Place the metal
shavings in a bucket.
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Metal Shavings Samples Cuttings Examination

3. In the unit, place Sieve no. 8 over Sieve no.
80. Put the sample into the coarse sieve.
• Samples are examined under the
microscope for:
4. Wash the samples carefully so as not to
cause cuts. All formation cuttings and mud – Lithology
are to be removed. – Oil staining
5. Collect all the metal shavings using the – Porosity
metal sample trays. • Objective:
6. Dry the metal shavings in the oven. – To depict changes of lithology and
7. When they are dried, weigh the metal appearance of new formations
shavings using the electronic balance
8. Report the weight to the company man

Cases Where
Sources of Sample Contamination Unrepresentative Samples
• Cavings • Evaporite sectionOs cdcrilulerdwith water-based
• Recycled cuttings muds
• Mud chemicals • Drilling soft clays/shales
• Cement • “Rock flour” due to high speed drilling
• Metal • “Burning” of cuttings while drilling with
• Unrepresentative samples diamond bits

34

Sample Description:
Functions
and
Description Format
Major Functions of Sample
Description
• Allows another person to understand the
components and structure of the rock and
to draw conclusions as to the source,
depositional environment and subsequent
history of the formation
• Allows another person to recognize the
rock whenever it is seen again
25/05/2017
Sample Description
• Major functions
• Porosity and Permeability
• Description format
• Describing clastic rocks
• Describing carbonate rocks
• Describing other chemical rocks
• Describing igneous and metamorphic
rocks
Porosity and Permeability
• Porosity is a measure of the volume of void
space in the rock. It determines the amount of
fluid that is present in a rock.
• Permeability is a measure of the capacity of a
rock for transmitting fluid and it is dependent on
effective porosity and the mean size of the
individual pore spaces. It has a direct bearing on
the amount of fluid that can be recovered.
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Sample Description Format Sample Description Examples

1. Rock type / Classification • Sst: lithic, lt gy-off wh, vf-f gr, occ med gr,
2. Color sbang-sbrd, mod w srtd, fri, sl arg mtx, v wk
3. Texture: Cuttings shape and parting (calcareous calc cmt, mica, glau, p-fr vis por, tr-5% blu wh
and argillaceous lithologies), Grain size, Grain
shape or roundness, Sorting, Hardness or fluor, slow strmg bl wh cut, no cut color, no
induration, Luster / Slaking / Swelling res, p oil show.
4. Cementation or matrix • CLYST: lt gy-med gy, occ dk gy, sbblky-blky,
5. Fossils and accessories mod hd, mic mica, sl calc.
6. Visual structures
7. Visual porosity
• Ls: oolitic grainstone, buff-brn, med gr, mod
8. Oil show descriptions hd, arg, Brach, glau, gd vis por, no oil show

Rock Type Color

Consists of two fundamental parts: • Rock color may be due:
– Mass effect of the colors of its constituent grains
• Basic rock name (Sandstone, claystone) – Cement or matrix color
• Proper compositional or textural classification – Staining of cement or matrix
term (lithic, quartzose, oolitic grainstone) • Use a GSA rock color chart for standardization of
color
• Observe samples when they are wet
• Dried cuttings may be viewed to allow a better
discrimination of subtle hues and color shades
• When describing color, distinguish between rock
particles, staining, matrix/cement and
accessories

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Color Color: Depositional Environment

• Rock color may occur in combination or in
Color Depositional Environment
patterns
Red and brown Oxidizing environment
• Suitable descriptions are: Green & grey Reducing environment
– Mottled Banded Spotted Dark brown Possible sourcerock
– Variegated Multicolored Speckled Black Anaerobic environment

– Iridescent

Texture Cuttings Shape

• Texture refers to the physical makeup of • Blocky Subblocky
rock--namely, the size, shape, and • Amorphous Elongate
arrangement (packing and orientation) of Platy or flaky
• Flat or Tabular
the discrete grains or particles of a
• Subplaty Subfissile
sedimentary rock
• Fissile Irregular
• Splintery

37

Parting (Shales)
• The mud logger should always distinguish
between shale, which exhibits parting or
fissility, and mudstone or claystone, which
yields fragments, which do not have
parallel plane faces.
Grain Shape
• A function of roundness and sphericity
• Use Grain Shape comparator chart
• Gives clues to:
– Mode and distance of transport
– Porosity and permeability
25/05/2017
Grain Size
• Grain size and sorting have a direct bearing on
porosity and permeability
• Size classifications are based on the Wentworth
scale
• Report weighted average
• If largest grains present are much larger than the
average, the maximum size should be reported
• If the grain size range is large and diverse, report
the minimum to maximum size (e.g. vf – vc)
• Use Grain Size comparator chart
Sphericity
• Sphericity refers to the comparison of the
surface area of a sphere of the same
volume as the grain, with the surface area
of the grain itself.
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Particle Shape: Roundness vs.

Roundness Sphericity
• Roundness refers to the sharpness of
the edges and corners of a fragment or
grain.
• 5 degrees of roundness:
– Angular
– Subangular
– Subrounded
– Rounded
– Well rounded

Supplemental Grain Shape

Descriptive Terms Sorting
Sharp Elongate Bladed • Sorting is the measure of dispersion of the
size frequency distribution of grains in a
Flat Rod-like Blocky sediment or rock. It involves shape,
Platy Conchoidal Irregular roundness, specific gravity, mineral
composition and size.
Disk Faceted Fibrous
• Along with Grain Size both have a direct
bearing on porosity and permeability
• Most difficult and subjective assessment
• A function of mean grain size
• If more than 50% of the cuttings are of the
same modal size, the sample is well sorted

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Sorting Hardness and Induration

• Hardness is a physical parameter based
on the amount of force required to break
apart the cutting using a simple probe
• Induration is the process by which a
sediment is converted into a sedimentary
rock. It is function of the type and quantity
of the cement

Hardness: Descriptive Terms Luster

Soluble Soft Firm • Describes the surface features of a cutting
Plastic Unconsolidated Friable under reflected light
Moderately Hard Hard Very Hard • Observe features with naked eye and
Brittle Loose Dense under microscope and when wet and dry
Crumbly • Rotating the sample tray under the light
source also helps in describing luster

40

Luster: Descriptive Terms
• Coated
• Vitreous, glassy, faceted
• Silky, pearly (nacreous), polished
• Frosted, dull, etched
• Pitted
• Striated
Slaking and Swelling
• Non-swelling – doesn’t break up in water
even after adding 1% HCl
• Hygroturgid – swelling in a random
manner
• Hygroclastic – swelling with irregular
pieces
• Hygrofissile – swelling into flakes
• Cryptofissile – swelling into flakes only
after adding 1% HCl
25/05/2017
Slaking and Swelling
• Marked slaking and swelling in water is
characteristic of montmorillonite (a major
constituent of bentonites) and
distinguishes them from kaolins and illites
• Add water to dried cuttings
Relationship Between Texture,
Porosity and Permeability
• Porosity (and possibly permeability) may
decrease with increased sphericity and
rounded grains.
• Permeability decreases with decreasing
grain size because pore throats are
smaller and the capillary pressure goes
up.
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Matrix Matrix Materials

• Matrix consists of small individual grains • Silt acts as a matrix, hastening
that fill interstices between the larger cementation by filling interstices
grains.
• Clay is a common matrix material
• In general, where intergranular contact
does not occur, the fill material between
grains is matrix.
• Matrix material does have cementing
qualities which holds the grains fixed
relative to each other.

Cement Cementing Agents

• Cement is a chemical precipitate • Common cementing agents:
deposited around the grains and in the – Calcite (most common)
– Silica (most common)
interstices of a sediment as aggregates of – Sulfates (Gypsum, Anhydrite)
crystals or as growths on grains of the – Clays
same composition. – Dolomite
• Minor cementing agents:
• It may be derived from, or related to, the – Siderite
rock particles, matrix, or can externally – Fe oxides
derived. – Pyrite
– Zeolites
– Phosphatic minerals

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Cementing Agents: Sulfate

Cementing Agents: Sandstones Cements
• Chemical cement is uncommon in sandstone • Anhydrite and gypsum cements are more
that has an argillaceous matrix. commonly associated with dolomite and
• Silica cement is common in nearly all quartz silica than with calcite
sandstones usu. as secondary overgrowths.
• Dolomite and calcite are deposited as crystals in
the interstices and as aggregates in voids.
(Note: both could also be found as detrital
grains)

Fossils and Accessories

• Cement is deposited chemically and • Minerals or fossils in trace quantities
Cement or
matrix is deposited mechanically. • Have great diagnostic and descriptive
value

Matrix • If the accessory mineral could not be

identified it should be carefully described

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Fossils: Estimation of
Fossils Abundance
• Used for correlation > 25% Abundant
• Common fossils and microfossils 10% – 25% Common
encountered are: foraminifera, ostracods, < 10% Trace
bryozoa, corals, algae, crinoids,
brachiopods, pelecypods and gastropods
• Presence and abundance should be
recorded

Common Accessories Crystal Structure Terminology

• Glauconite • Anhedral - no visible crystal form
• Pyrite
• Subhedral - partly developed crystal form
• Feldspar
• Mica • Euhedral - well developed crystal form
• Siderite
• Carbonaceous material
• Heavy minerals
• Chert
• Lithic fragments

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Visual Structures Visual Porosity

• Most sedimentary structures are not
discernible in sample cuttings
• Structures in individual cuttings may be
indiscernible
• Slickensided surfaces should be carefully
scrutinized
• Other structural types, which may be visible
in cuttings, are:
– Fractures (usu. w/ some type of fillings),
jointing/partings, bioturbidation, lamination
• Easier to determine with a dry sample than on a
wet one
• A magnification of 10x is frequently adequate to
establish the amount of relative visible porosity
in a dry sample.
• Samples with good porosity should always be
examined for hydrocarbon shows
• The porosity in rudaceous and arenaceous
rocks is primarily interparticle

End of Topic
Sample Description:
Clastic Rocks

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Clastic Rocks: Rock Type Clastic Rocks: Classification

Rock size Consolidated Unconsolidated
• Sandstones:
– Orthoquartzite (Qtz >75%, qtz cement)
– Greywacke (badly sorted, Qtz <75%, lithic frags >
Rudaceous Conglomerate Gravel feldspars)
Breccia Scree
– Arkose (coarse qtz and feldspars in a calcitic or
Tillite Till
ferruginous cement, Qtz <75%, feldspar > lithic frags)
Arenaceous Sandstone Sand
Siltstone Silt • Claystone / Shale:
– Difference between claystone and shale is fissility
Argillaceous Claystone Clay
Shale Clay / Mud

Clastic Rocks: Hardness and Hardness and Induration: Arenaceous Rocks: Definitions
Induration
• Common descriptions are: • Unconsolidated – cuttings fall apart or occur as
– Rudaceous and arenaceous rocks: individual grains
unconsolidated, friable, moderately hard, hard • Friable – rock crumbles with light pressure;
and extremely or very hard grains detach easily with a sample probe
• Moderately hard – cuttings can be broken
– Argillaceous rocks:
with some pressure
soluble, soft, plastic, firm, hard • Hard – grains difficult to detach; extreme
– Other descriptive terms: pressure causes cuttings to break between
brittle, dense, crumbly, loose, amorphous grains
• Extremely hard – grains can’t be detached;
cuttings will break through the grains

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Hardness and Induration: Argillaceous Rocks: Definitions

Clastic Rocks: Luster

• Soluble – readily dispersed by running water
• Soft – no shape or strength
• Plastic – easily molded and holds shape; difficult
to wash through a sieve
• Firm – material has definite structure and shape;
readily penetrated and broken by a probe
• Hard – sharp angular edges; not easily broken
by a probe
• Common terms used:
– Coated, vitreous, glassy, faceted, silky, pearly
(nacreous), polished, frosted, dull, etched,
pitted, striated
• Common terms used for argillaceous
rocks:
– Earthy, silky, waxy, velvety, soapy, resinous

Visual Porosity Table for Clastic

Clastic Rocks: Visual Porosity Rocks
• 3 types of porosity: interparticle, moldic, fracture
• The porosity in rudaceous and arenaceous Porosity Descriptive term
rocks is primarily interparticle or intergranular >15% Good
• The theoretical maximum porosity for a clastic
10% to 15% Fair
rock is about 26%.
• Never use numerical values in estimating 5% to 10% Poor
porosity, use descriptive terms <5% Trace

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End of Topic
Sample Description:
Carbonate Rocks

Carbonate Rocks: Rock Type

• Carbonate rocks are difficult to classify Rock Type Reactivity in 10% HCl

Describing
because of the complexity of sources and
types of their occurrences
Limestone

Dolomitic Limestone
Reacts instantly and violently
It will float on top of acid
Dissolve within minutes
Reacts immediately

Carbonate Rocks
Reaction is moderate but continuous
Move about in acid
Calcitic Dolomite Reacts slowly and weakly at first,but accelerates to a
continuous reaction after a few minutes
Some bobbing up and down

Dolomite Very slow and hesitant reaction

Bubbles evolve one at a time
Leave acid milky

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Aids to Carbonate Rock

Determination Dunham Classification System
• Calcimeter Rock Type Description
Mudstone (Mdst) Composed of lime mud and <10% grains. Mud
• Alizarin Red S supported.
Wackestone (Wkst) Composed of lime mud with >10% grains. Mud
– Limestone will turn deep red supported.
Packstone (Pkst) Composed of grains. >10% interstitial mud matrix and
– Dolomite is unaffected occasionally sparry calcite or pore space. Grain
supported.
Grainstone (Grst) Composed of grains. <10% interstitial mud matrix.
Grain supported.
Boundstone (Bdst) Original constituents are bound together and
supported in place by organic growth.

Crystalline (Xln) All original textures gone because of recrystallization.

Distinct crystal faces with occasional relics.

Dunham: Mudstone Dunham: Wackestone

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Dunham: Packstone Dunham: Grainstone

Dunham: Boundstone Carbonate Rocks: Color

• Of less importance than in clastics
• Variations in color may be the result of the
presence of detrital material (clay) or from
the substitution of metallic ions into the
mineral lattice
• Describe color when sample is wet

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Carbonate Rocks: Grain Shape

Carbonate Rocks: Grain Size
• Describe the size of physically transported • Terminology used for clastic rocks may be
particles (oolites, interclasts, fossils, used
pellets) and chemically precipitated
minerals (either as pore-filling cement,
primary ooze, or products of
recrystallization and replacement)

Grain Type Categories Carbonate Rocks: Sorting

Grain Type Example • Sorting in carbonates (as in clastics) is a
Detrital Grains Rock fragments, intraclasts function of mean grain size
• Very little is known about carbonate sorting
Skeletal Grains Crinoidal, Molluscan, Algal because of the varied grain types found in
Pellets Fecal Pellets, grains of mud carbonate rocks
• To describe sorting in carbonates, two
Lumps Composite grains, Algal conditions must be met:
lumps
– Particles of diverse kinds and/or sizes are present
Coated Grains Oolites, Pisolites, Encrusted in a sequence of samples
grains
– These particles are segregated into layers of
varying mean grain size

51

Carbonate Rocks:
• Same as those for clastics
Hardness or
Induration
Carbonate Rocks: Cement or Matrix
• Cementation is a result of crystallization
from an aqueous solution with
unimpeded growth into a void
• Lime mud/clay matrix is an integral part
of the deposited sediment
• Matrix recrystallization occurs at the
lattice level in the solid phase
25/05/2017
Carbonate Rocks: Luster
• The significance and terminology is the
same as used for clastic rocks
• Additional terms that are used:
– Rhombic, Sucrosic, Microsucrosic, Grainy,
Oolitic
• Use combinations where applicable
Carbonate Rocks: Cement
or Matrix
• It is not recommended that such terms as
weakly and strongly be used. Preferably use the
terms: partially, poorly, moderately, well, very
well, extremely well for intergranular cement and
pressure recrystallization at grain boundaries
• If recrystallization occurs across grain
boundaries, resulting in a total crystalline
structure, the term “cement” should not be used
52

Micrite and Sparite
• Micrite – abbreviation of “microcrystalline ooze”;
a precipitate formed within the basin of
deformation and showing no or little evidence of
transport; consists of crystals 1-4 μm diameter
occuring as matrix (dull and opaque ultra fine-
grained material that forms the bulk of
limestones and the matrix of chalk)
• Sparite cement consists of clean calcite
crystals, generally longer than micrite, forming
pore filling cement between grains and within
cavities
Carbonate Rocks: Visual
Structure
• Most significant structural features are
postlithification voids (fractures, fissures, joints,
vugs) because they have a major impact on rock
strength, porosity and permeability and are
significant in terms of reservoir potential and lost
circulation problems
• Other less prominent features: slickensides and
staining
25/05/2017
Carbonate Rocks: Accessories or
Inclusions
• Minor accessories – detrital or diagenetic
products of terrigenous rock fragments with
some mixed carbonate terrigenous diagenetic
minerals
• Elemental sulfur and metallic sulfides (as
concretions or staining on fractures) is common
• Silica (chalcedony, chert and crystalline quartz)
• Fossils
Carbonate Rocks: Visual Porosity
• Pore size can vary from one micron to
hundreds of meters
• The simplest and most common
classification of porosity is primary and
secondary
53

Porosity Classification of
Carbonate Rocks
• Intergranular – pore space between grains or
particles of a rock
• Intercrystal – pore space between crystals of a rock
• Vuggy – pore space between grains or crystals of a
rock wherein the space is equal or larger than the
size of the individual grains or crystals. It usually has
the form of irregular voids.
• Moldic – due to the leaching of soluble grains
• Fracture
Carbonate Rocks: Secondary
Porosity
• Secondary porosity is porosity formed
secondary to the rock fabric. This type is
usually not seen in cuttings, but may be
inferred.
– Ex: fractures, fissures, vugs
25/05/2017
Carbonate Rocks: Primary
Porosity
• Primary porosity is porosity formed as an
integral part of the rock fabric.
– Ex: interparticle porosity and voids within
skeletal particles and growth structures
Chalky
• A widely used surface-texture term
denoting dull and earthy in many
calcareous rocks
• Can also be applied as a porosity term
54

Oil Show Evaluation
Sample Examination Procedure For
HC Shows
1. Take a mud sample, aside from the regular
sample or bottoms up sample, when there
are significant gas shows. If a significant
gas peak arrives in between sampling
intervals, a spot sample is caught along with
a mud sample.
2. Pour mud sample into a shallow dish and
observe under UV light. If nothing is seen,
water is added to the mud and the mixture
is stirred. Again the sample is observed
under UV light.
25/05/2017
Oil Show Evaluation
• Solid Hydrocarbons and Dead Oil
• Oil show description
• Hydrocarbon Odor
• Oil Staining
• Natural Fluorescence
• Solvent Cut Fluorescence
• Other Tests
Sample Examination Procedure For
HC Shows
3. The unwashed sample is also observed
under UV light.
4. For the lithological samples, smell the
sample first before observing it under the
microscope. Observe sample under
microscope for staining / bleeding.
5. Place some oil-stained cuttings, if any, into
some of the depressions on the spot plate.
Observe under microscope.
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Sample Examination Procedure For Observing a Sample Under the UV

HC Shows Box
6. Observe sample tray under UV light.
Separate some fluorescing grains and place
them in the spot plate.
7. Observe the grains that have been selected
in Step 6 under the microscope for
stains/bleeding.
8. Use the Solvent Cut Test on the samples in
the spot plate. Observe under UV light.
9. Observe cutting samples in plain light.
10. Observe the residue.

Order of Oil Show Description Observing Mud Samples

• Mud samples are poured into a container
• Free oil in mud: amount, intensity and color
and observed under UV light
• Petroliferous odor: type and strength
• Visible oil staining/bleeding: distribution, • If no droplets of oil is seen, water may be
intensity and color added to reduce the viscosity and the
• Sample Fluorescence: percentage, intensity, solution is stirred
color
• Solvent cut: speed, character, intensity and color
• Cut color and intensity
• Cut residue (intensity and color)

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Rating Oil Shows in Mud Under UV

Light Hydrocarbon Odor
Type Characteristic • Always check the sample for petroliferous
1 1mm pops, scattered and few in number; frequently associated
with oil found in shale and sandstone containing very slight traces odor
of residual oil
2 2mm pops or larger, few in number, commonly noted in large
• Odor may range from heavy, characteristic
fractures and residual oil in sandstone; maybe dull and streaky,
associated with low gas readings
of low gravity oil, to light and penetrating,
3 Pinpoints common, along with 2mm or larger pops; frequently for condensate.
observed from sections with fair amounts of oil
4 Common and abundant pinpoint; normally associated with good to
• Use general terms for describing
fair oil show hydrocarbon odor: faint, moderate or
5 Abundant pops 2mm and larger, are frequently associated with
good shows. In higher gravity oil, the pops surface and spread strong
rapidly

Oil Staining Bleeding Core Sample

• The amount of oil staining on cuttings and cores is
primarily a function of the distribution of the porosity and
the oil distribution within the pores.
• Check all samples with oil stains under UV light and with a
cut solvent
• Check cuttings under UV light that bob to the surface
when placed in acid
• The amount, degree and color of the oil stain should be
noted
• For amount of oil stain the following:
– No visible oil stain, spotty oil stain, streaky oil stain,
patchy oil stain, uniform oil stain
• The color of the oil stain is related to the oil’s API gravity

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Natural Fluorescence Fluorescence

• The intensity and color of oil fluorescence is a
useful indicator of oil gravity and mobility
• Fluorescence checks should be done ASAP
because fluorescence tends to dull
appreciably , due to the loss of volatiles
• The degree of oil fluorescence should be
noted as: none, spotty, streaky, patchy,
uniform, any combination thereof
• Care must be taken not to confuse mineral
and contaminant fluorescence with true
formation fluorescence

Fluorescence: Indication of API

Gravity Mineral Fluorescence
Gravity (API) Color at 3600A Rock Type Fluorescence Color
Dolomite, Sandy Limestone yellow, yellowish brown
< 15 Brown Some Limestones (magnesian) brown

15 - 25 Orange Chalk, chalky limestones purple

Paper Shale yellow to coffee brown, greyish
25 - 35 Yellow to Green
Fossils yellow-white to yellow-brown
35 - 45 White
Marl, Clay Marl yellowish to brownish grey
> 45 Blue White to Violet Anhydrite grey brown, greyish, blue

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WIRELINE
LOGGING Wireline Logs (E-logs)
EVALUATING: COLLECTOR,ROCK
MECHANICAL-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES,
• An indirect
FLUID COMPOSITION IN RESERVOIR analysis of
downhole
formation
features by
REVISING, DETERMINING SUBSURFACE
STRUCTURE:DIP ANGLE, FRACTURES,
electronic
FAULTS, ROCKLAYERS, FLUIDS IN methods
RESERVOIR

233 234

Wireline Logs (E-logs)

1. Casing
2. Wireline cable
3. Downhole probe
4. First sensor
5. Second sensor
6. Third sensor…..
7. Measurements
obtained by
sensors

Halliburton’ s Logging Units

235 236

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HANDLING SYSTEM:
HH-2530
HARDWARE

The LOGIQ-B Logging System is the next generation of Data

Acquisition Systems for Halli burton Wireline Logging Services. For
Open Hole Services, the logging software runs under the new platform
on a Rack Mount based Windows 2000 environment to provide remote
controlled capabilities, real-time petrophysical data acquisition services.
237 238

TOOLPUSHER

Transport system use to Caliper Log

convey the logging tools
to the bottom of the well. • Measures the inner diameter of the
Able to log any angel borehole
well • Variations in borehole diameter are
Same log quality as
standard tools
important in wireline log interpretation
Tools always attached to
drillpipe
Mud circulation past the
tools
Able to log long intervals
Accurate depth control
239 240

60

Gamma Ray Log (GR)
• Measure radioactivity to determine what
types of rocks are present in the well
• API standard gamma ray units
• Shales contain radioactive elements, they
emit lots of gamma rays
• Clean sandstones emit very few gamma
rays
241
Spontaneous Potential Log (SP)
• Indicate relative permeabilities
• Often used to differentiate sandstones
from shales
• Can be visually interpreted to show
formation bed boundaries and thickness
243
25/05/2017
Spontaneous Potential Log (SP)
• Indicates the permeabilities of rocks in the well by
measuring the amount of electrical current
generated between the drilling fluid and the
formation water that is held in pore spaces of the
reservoir rock
• Recorded in millivolts vs. depth
• Porous sandstones with high permeabilities tend
to generate more electricity than impermeable
shales
242
Resistivity Logs
• Determines what types of fluids are present
in the reservoir rocks by measuring how
effective these rocks are at conducting
electricity
• Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity
• Resistivity is expressed in ohm-meters
• Conductivity is expressed in mhos/meter
244
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Resistivity Logs Types of Resistivity Logs

• Fresh water and oil are poor conductors of
electricity: High resistivity
• Most formation waters are salty enough:
conduct electricity with ease -> low
resistivity
• A porous and permeable formation with
very high resistivity: inferred to have
hydrocarbons
• Lateral Focus Log
– Sends a current outward to a rock
– Accurate in measuring thin beds
• Induction Log
– A current is induced in formation beds by a magnetic field
– Accurate in measuring thin beds
• Microresistivity Log
– Shows resistance very close to the wellbore
– Has 2 curves (one for filter cake resistivity and one <0.5 ft
into the formation)
– If 2 curves not equal: invasion

245 246

Sonic Logs
• Also called Borehole Compensated (BHC)
• Determine porosity by measuring how fast
sound waves travel through rocks in the
well
• In general, sound waves travel faster
through high-density shales than through
lower-density sandstones

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Density Logs
• Also called Formation Density Compensated (FDC)
or Litho Density Log (LDL)
• Bombards formation with Gamma Rays
• Denser formation (less porous): absorbs more
Gamma Rays
• Determine porosity by measuring the density of the
rocks
• Overestimate the porosity of rocks that contain gas
they result in "crossover" of the log curves when
paired with Neutron Logs
Neutron Logs
• Also called Compensated Neutron Logs (CNL)
• Determine porosity by assuming that the
reservoir pore spaces are filled with either water
or oil and then measuring the amount of
hydrogen atoms (neutrons) in the pores
• Underestimate the porosity of rocks that contain
gas they result in "crossover" of the log curves
when paired with Density logs

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The specifications for the

FMS are:
Dipmeter Logs – operates in borehole
• Determine the orientations of sandstone and environments up to
shale beds, faults and fractures in the borehole 20,000 psi and 350°F;
• Old dipmeters: measured the resistivity of rocks
– log sin 6.5-in. to 21-in.
on at least four sides of the borehole
boreholes;
• Modern dipmeters: actually make a detailed Formation MicroScanner

image of the rocks on all sides of the borehole – logs in wells up to 72° Tool and General Specifications

– Borehole scanners, USI: use sonic deviation;

– FMS (Formation microscanner) and FMI (Formation – first reading in 2.5 ft.
micro-imager): use resistivity above TD;
– STAR: uses sonic and resistivity
– must have electrically
conductive mud.
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Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) VSP method

• Utilizes technology used in the medical
field
• Measure the magnetic response of fluids
present in the pore spaces of the reservoir
rocks
• Measure both porosity and permeability,
as well as the types of fluids present in the
pore spaces

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Geometry of Seismic Methods

Surface S R R R R S R R R R

Reflector

Reflection Seismic Method Refraction SeismicMethod

Surface S

R R S

R R

R R S
Reflector

VSP (Vertical Seismic

Profiling) Crosswell Seismic method 256

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One-Way Time vs. Two Way Time

Rig location

Surface Seismic VSP TWT = OWT + TT

▪
3D-VSP example (2005)
13,400 shots
Rig location

Time ▪ Western Geco source boat

Reflection
▪ Shooting every 10 secs at 5 knots
(TWT) ▪ 3.2 km spiral
TWT
Airgun Source
▪ 3D-VSP and 7 Walkaway VSP lines in
48 hours
▪ Processing using Q-Borseis software
TT TT
▪ P-wave processing delivered in 6
TT TT
weeks

OWT OWT

Depth

Borehole Seismic Techniques Borehole Seismic Techniques

Wireline Drill Bit Seismic

■ Data acquired during a ■ Service

wireline logging introduced in the
operation. early 1990’s
–After drilli ng is ■ Uses the drill bit
completed as the energy
–During a bit trip source.
– Can be acquired ■ Acquires
inside drill pipe checkshot quality
time-depth
information in
real time.

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Borehole Seismic Techniques

LWD Seismic
LWD Seismic Principle
■ Service introduced Surface System

in 2000-2001
Surface source Source
■ Logging tool is in a Downhole receivers
drill -collar to Synchronized clocks
enable real-time MWD
Waveforms recorded in downhole
data acquisition. memory
sea floor

■ Transit-time data Downhole processing

sent up real-time Real-time check-shot via MWD
with LWD telemetry SeismicMWD
Tool
telemetry. The Memory data processing after tool
waveform data is pullout
downloaded from
memory.

LOG ANALYSIS

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WELL TESTING
• 2 surface fully work-out testing systems
supplied by Flopetrol Jonston Co. (Include:
Well head, flexible hose, choke manifold,
three phases separator, surge tank,
transfer pump, pipe work, compressor,
burner boom, hydrometer, etc.)
• 1 SubSea equipment supplied by
PowerWell Co.
• 2 DownHole equipment (DST) supplied by
Halliburton co. ( 2006 year)
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Measurement while drilling

(MWD)
Basic MWD technology was first introduced more
than ten years ago, and was initially restricted to
retrievable inserts for directional measurements
and then natural gamma ray logs.
These developments were quickly followed by
logging tools integrated into drill collars, and
over the last five years logging while drilling
(LWD) development has progressed to the stage
where most of the conventional wireline logging
tools can be effectively replaced by a LWD
equivalent. LWD and MWD can be considered
267
as synonymous. 268

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Most of the MWD applications which are

now considered standard exploit this feature
in some way, and include:
• real time correlation for picking coring and
casing points
• real time overpressure detection in
exploration wells
• real time logging to minimise 'out of target'
sections (geosteering)
• real time formation evaluation to facilitate
'stop drilling' decisions
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MWD & LWD: Measuring the properties of geological

formations and reservoir fluids has traditionally been
performed with logging tools runon an electric wireline

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EXERCISE

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