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TO DETERMINE

THE DENSITY OF SOLIDS USING


ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
A PROJECT REPORT

ABSTRACT

In this paper we discuss the design and fabrication of an apparatus to

determine the density of solid aluminium. Density can indicate a change in

the composition of a material, or a defect in a product, such as a crack or a

bubble in cast parts (known as voids), for instance in sanitary ceramics or in

foundries in the iron and steel industries. There are many principles to

determine the density of solids. Among those, Archimedes principle is the

basic and precise one. As a result, we have designed and fabricated an

apparatus which works completely based on Archimedes principle (i.e.) the

upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether

fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body

displaces. This reduced the cost of manufacturing and improved the

precision and accuracy.


LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE


NO NO

3.1 Concept evaluation

8.1 Cost report

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE


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1.1 Level method

1.2 Overflow method

1.3 Suspension method

2.1 Archimedes principle

4.1 Main stand model

4.2 Beaker stand model


4.3 Sample carrier model

6.1 Implemented image

7.1 Buoyancy effect

8.1 Beaker stand Photograph

8.2 Main stand with sample carrier Photograph

8.3 RS 232 Connector

8.4 Arduino processor

LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH TITLE PAGE


NO NO

7.1 Density Vs Temperature (water)

7.2 Density Vs Temperature (ethanol)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE


NO NO

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES v
1 INTRODUCTION

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Principle

2.2 Density determination based on the

Archimedes principle

3 OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY


OF THE WORK
3.1 Objective
3.2 Methodology
3.3 Timeline
3.4 Concept evaluation

4 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
5 LAYOUT OF THE PROJECT WORK

6 IMPLEMENTATION

7 DESIGN CALCULATION

7.1 Error correction factors

8 FABRICATION PROCESS

8.1 Cost Report

9 ADVANTAGES

10 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
1. INTRODUCTION

Density is used in many areas of application to designate certain


properties of materials or products. In conjunction with other information,
the density of a material can provide some indication of possible causes for
alterations in product characteristics. Density determination is among the
most often used gravimetric procedures in laboratories. Density can indicate
a change in the composition of a material, or a defect in a product, such as a
crack or a bubble in cast parts (known as voids), for instance in sanitary
ceramics or in foundries in the iron and steel industries.

 In aluminium foundries, the melt quality is monitored by taking two


samples: one under air pressure and one under, for example, 80 mbar
pressures.
 Once they have set and cooled, the density of the samples is
determined. The ratio of both density values provides information on
the purity of the melt.
 With porous materials, the density is affected by the quantity of pores,
which also determines certain other qualities of the material.
The density of products also plays an important role in the average
weight control of pre-packaged products, in those cases where a package is
filled by weight but must carry a label indicating the contents in volume.
Density of solids can be determined by some sophisticated methods
such as by using Ultrasonic waves or X-rays. Such devices are readily
available in market.

But the cost of those machines is very high when compared to our
device. This is mainly due to the principle we chose. There are three
methods namely, the level method, the overflow method and the suspension
method by which Archimedes principle can be used to determine the density
of solids.

An advantage of this technique is that any electronic balance can be


used there is no need for any special attachments to the balance, nor does it
require the use of an under-pan hook.

1.1. Level method


We came to know that density can be measured by determining the
volume of liquid displaced when a solid is immersed in it. The volume of
displaced liquid is measured by the increase in its level in the beaker. This is
done using a level sensor and the output from the sensor is used to calculate
the final volume. From the measured volume, the density of immersed solid
can be determined as the mass of solid is already a known value.
Fig 1.1 Level Method

Advantages
 Suitable for almost all sample types
 Flexible with regard to sample size
 Weighing instruments already available
 Quick process

Disadvantages
 Could not measure the volume of sample accurately
 Less precise
 It requires costly sensors

1.2. Overflow method


In this method, a beaker with a hole on its surface is used. When the
solid is immersed in it, the liquid overflows through the hole. From the mass
of the displaced liquid, its volume can be determined which is equal to the
volume of the solid immersed.
Fig 1.2 Overflow method

Advantages
 Cheap
 Number of components are less
Disadvantages
 Number of steps are more
 Less accurate

1.3. Suspension method


The technique described in this article is a slightly simpler version of
the classic hydrostatic weighing method. Rather than weighing an object in
air and then in water it involves suspending the object in a container of water
placed on an electronic

Fig 1.3 Suspension method


Advantage
 Suitable for almost all sample types
 Flexible with regard to sample size
 Weighing instruments already available

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

From the patent titled “Differential level hydrometer (US 5900547


A)” by Luke Bartkiewicz, we came to know that density can be measured by
determining the volume of liquid displaced when a solid is immersed in it.
The volume of displaced liquid is measured by the increase in its level in the
beaker. This is done using a level sensor and the output from the sensor is
used to calculate the final volume. From the measured volume, the density
of immersed solid can be determined as the mass of solid is already a known
value. [5]

From the paper titled “Archimedes revisited: a faster, better, cheaper


method of accurately measuring the volume of small objects” by Stephen
hughes, we came across the overflow method to find density of solids. In
this method, a beaker with a hole on its surface is used. When the solid is
immersed in it, the liquid overflows through the hole. From the mass of the
displaced liquid, its volume can be determined which is equal to the volume
of the solid immersed. [6]
From the manual of a company named “Sartorius”, we studied a
method called the suspension method or buoyancy method to determine the
density of solids. This method uses the concept of mass lost by the solid
when it is immersed in a liquid. Initially, the solid is suspended from a point
and its mass is measured. Now it is immersed in a liquid whilst still hanging
from the point. There will be a mass loss due to the buoyancy force acting
on the solid from the liquid. This mass loss is used to determine the density
of the suspended solid. [9]

From the journal titled “Measuring Densities of Solids and Liquids


Using Magnetic Levitation: Fundamentals, Katherine A. Mirica, et.al., we
came to the understanding that that uses magnetic levitation to measure
densities of solids and water-immiscible organic liquids with accuracies
ranging from (0.0002 to (0.02 g/cm3, depending on the type of experiment.
The technique is compatible with densities of 0.8-3 g/cm3 and is applicable
to samples with volumes of 1 pL to 1 mL; the samples can be either
spherical or irregular in shape. The method employs two permanent NdFeB
magnets positioned with like poles facing one another with the axis between
the poles aligned with the gravitational fields and a container filled with
paramagnetic medium (e.g., MnCl2 dissolved in water) placed between
these magnets. Density measurements are obtained by placing the sample
into the container and measuring the position of the sample relative to the
bottom magnet. The balance of magnetic and gravitational forces determines
the vertical position of the sample within the device; knowing this position
makes it possible to calculate the density of the sample. The device is
inexpensive and easy to operate, and it can be substituted for more
sophisticated instrumentation in many routine measurements of density. The
measurements can be made either in relation to known density standards
(e.g., calibrated glass beads, organic polymers, and immiscible organic
droplets) or by using a theoreticalexpression that relates the density of the
sample to its levitation height (eq 8a) in a properly precalibrated system.
Measurements made relative to known density standards allow the user to
neglect most of the assumptions about the physics of the system, as well as
the uncertainties associated with individual experimental parameters .[7]

2.1 PRINCIPLE

As the main objective of our project is to fabricate an apparatus which is less


costly than other counterparts, we proceed with the basic principle i.e. the
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE.

What does Archimedes' Principle state?

The Principle states that: “A body immersed in a liquid loses weight


by an amount equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.”

Archimedes principle also states that: “When a body is immersed in a liquid,


an upward thrust, equal to the weight of the liquid displaced, acts on it.”
Fig 2.1 Archimedes principle

The more the density of liquid in which the solid is immersed, the less is the
weight of the liquid displaced on immersing the solid.

Learning outcomes

The results obtained confirm Archimedes' Principle. They prove that:

1. When a body is partly or completely immersed in water, it loses


weight.
2. A body loses its maximum weight when it is completely immersed in
water.

3. When a body is partly or completely in water then:

 Loss in weight of the body = Weight of water displaced by the


body = Buoyant Force or up-thrust exerted by water on the
body.
 Volume of the water displaced = Volume of the body immersed
in water.

2.2 DENSITY DETERMINATION BASED ON THE ARCHIMEDEAN


PRINCIPLE

The Archimedean Principle

In accordance with the definition of density as ρ = m/V, in order to


determine the density of matter, the mass and the volume of the sample must
be known.
The determination of mass can be performed directly using a weighing
instrument. The determination of volume generally cannot be performed
directly. Exceptions to this rule include

 Cases where the accuracy is not required to be very high, and


Measurements performed on geometric bodies, such as cubes, cuboids or
cylinders, the volume of which can easily be determined from dimensions
such as length, height and diameter.
 The volume of a liquid can be measured in a graduated cylinder or in
a Pipette; the volume of solids can be determined by immersing the
sample in a cylinder filled with water and then measuring the rise in
the water level.
Because of the difficulty of determining volume with precision, especially
when the sample has a highly irregular shape, a "detour" is often taken when
determining the density, by making use of the Archimedean Principle, which
describes the relation between forces (or masses), volumes and densities of
solid samples immersed in liquid:
From everyday experience, everyone is familiar with the effect that an object
or body appears to be lighter than in air – just like your own body in a
swimming pool.
A body immersed in water is subjected to stress from all sides
simultaneously due to hydrostatic pressure. The horizontal stress is in
equilibrium, which is to say that the forces cancel each other out.
The vertical pressure on the immersed body increases as the depth of the
body under the surface increases. The pressure at a certain depth in liquid
exerted by the liquid above that point is called weight pressure. The weight
pressure can be calculated from the density of the liquid, the height of liquid

and the gravitational acceleration:


The buoyancy is the result of the level of hydrostatic pressure in a
liquid. Buoyancy is inverse to the weight of a body immersed in liquid. This
explains why a body seems to be lighter in water than in air. Depending on
the ratio of body weight to buoyancy, the immersed body may sink, float or
be suspended.
If the buoyancy is less than the weight (FB < Ws), the body will sink.
In this case, the density of the body is greater than that of the liquid (rs>rfl).
The widely used method of determining density according to the buoyancy
method is usually used under these conditions.

If the buoyancy is equal to the weight (F B = Ws), the body remains


completely immersed and is suspended in the liquid. Because both the
volume and mass of the body are equal to the volume and mass of the
displaced water, it follows that the body and the liquid have the same
density.

If the buoyancy is greater than the weight (F B> Ws), the body floats;
i.e., it rises to the surface of the liquid and remains only partially immersed.
In fact, it dips so far into the liquid until the weight of that volume of liquid
that is displaced is equal to the weight of the body. In this case, the volume
of the displaced liquid is less than the volume of the body (Vfl<Vs) and the
density of the liquid is greater than the density of the body.

Density Determination Based on the Archimedean Principle


The relationships between the mass, the volume and the density of
solid bodies immersed in liquid as described by Archimedes form a basis for
the determination of the density of substances. The difficulty in this method
of density determination lies in the precise determination of the volume of
the sample.
When a body is completely immersed in liquid, the mode of procedure
demands that the volume of the body is equal to the volume of the displaced
liquid. Thus we can derive the following general equation between the
density and mass of a liquid and of a solid.
Fig. 2.2 Suspension method diagram

Accordingly, the unknown density of a solid substance can be


determined from the known density of the liquid for buoyancy and two mass
values:
Reciprocally, the density of liquids can be determined from one mass value
and the known density of the immersed body. Simple and precise methods of
mass determination can eliminate the need to measure volume.

Hydrostatic balances and Mohr balances are still used in some cases
for measuring density; the Mohr balance, a beam balance has been widely
replaced by the use of density sets in conjunction with laboratory balances.

There are two basically different procedures for hydrostatic weighing


methods. The actual meaning of the values displayed on the weighing
instrument depends on the mode of procedure used. The buoyancy method
entails measuring the weight of the body, which is decreased by buoyancy,
while the displacement method calls for the direct measurement of the
weight or mass of the displaced fluid. Other methods that are based on the
Archimedean principle include density determination using hydrometers as
well as various suspension methods
3.OBJECTIVE AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 OBJECTIVE

To make the instrument efficient and effective, the following parameters


should be taken into consideration:

 Error correction should be done properly.


 No. of steps should be minimum.
 The process should be very simple.
 Level of water should be maintained uniformly for all instances.
 The sample should immerse completely inside the water.
 Total cost of the apparatus should be as low as possible.
 Repeatability of the instrument should be very high.
 The weighing machine should be of optimum range and accuracy.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

The methodologies followed in this work are:

Case study of density


determination methods

Review of literature
Design of our model

Selection of weighing machine

Fabrication of apparatus and microcontroller coding

Testing and
calibrating
of
apparatus
3.3 TIMELINE
3.4 CONCEPT EVALUTION
Requirement Priority

Weighing machine(0.01g) 5

Main stand 4

Beaker stand 2

Strength of acrylic 5

Aesthetics 3

Sample carrier 4

Electronics 3

Table 3.1 Concept evaluation

4. PROJECT DESCRIPTION
4.1 Choosing a Density Determination Method
There are several methods that can be used to determine the density of
liquids, including the hydrometer, pycnometer, oscillator, buoyancy and
displacement methods. The choice of method depends, among other things,
on the degree of precision required and the amount of sample material
available.

4.2 Buoyancy Method


The buoyancy method is often used to determine the density of solid
bodies. The apparent weight of a body in a liquid, i.e., the weight as reduced
by the buoyancy force is measured. This value is used in combination with
the weight in air to calculate the density.
The values displayed on the weight readout indicate the mass of the
immersed body as reduced by buoyancy.
The mass of the body weighed in air is known: m(s) = m(a). The mass of the
liquid m(fl) is not directly known, but is yielded by the difference between
the weights of the body in air (m(a)) and in liquid (m(fl)):
M(fl) = m(a) - m(fl).
This changes Equation 9 for determining the density of the body into:

4.3 PARTS OF DENSITY FINDING APPARATUS

The apparatus consist of following parts:


 Main stand
 Beaker stand
 Sample carrier

Main stand
 A stand which is in the shape of a rectangular channel is designed
to hold the sample carrier inside which sample will be placed.
 This stand will be directly placed on the weighing pan.

Fig 4.1 Main stand model

Beaker stand
 A stand is designed which holds the beaker on it.
 This stand will not be in contact with the weighing pan.
 Because the purpose of this stand is only to hold the beaker inside
which the solid sample will be immersed.

Fig 4.2 Beaker stand model


Sample carrier
 The sample is to be carried by a device which is held by the main
stand.
 It is designed in such a way that the rod of the carrier goes through
the hole on the top of the main stand.
 Thus the weight of the sample can be measured both inside and
outside the liquid by placing the sample on the lower and upper
plates respectively.

Fig 4.3 Sample carrier model

6. IMPLEMENTATION
Fig 6.1 Implemented image

7. CALCULATION

Using Archimedes principle

Buoyancy force = weight of fluid displaced


-1

Weight of fluid displaced (wfd) = mf.g

= (multiplying and dividing by v)

= -2

Buoyancy force (FB)=Win air – Win fluid -3

(Substituting 2&3 in 1)

Win air – Win fluid= .g.v

V=

= (

= (

Where

=mass of solid
= mass of solid in fluid

= density of fluid

Buoyancy effect:

Fig. 7.1 Buoyancy Effect

=
According to theorem
7.1 ERROR CORRECTION FACTORS

There are several things that can affect the accuracy of a density
measurement.

Buoyancy of Air
 When the density of a liquid is measured, an upward force, 0.0010 to
0.0014 g/cm3, isexerted in proportion to the volume of the liquid.
 The buoyancy in air per 1 cm3 is found by:

 When obtaining measurement results down to the third decimal place,


0.001 g/cm3 is added to the measured value to compensate for the air
density error.

Temperature of a Liquid
 When the density of a solid is measured, the density of the liquid
changes with its temperature.
Graph 7.1 Density Vs Temperature (water)

Graph 7.2 Density Vs Temperature (ethanol)

 Obtain the density of a liquid by comparing its temperature with the


values for distilled water or given in other reference documents for
other liquids.
 It is usually better to use water than ethanol as a liquid for buoyancy;
when the temperature increases, for example, from 20°C to 21°C, the
density of the water only decreases by 0.00021 g/cm3, where the
density of ethanol decreases by 0.00085 g/cm3 – more than 4 times as
much. This means that the temperature has to be controlled more
precisely, or a greater error must be assumed in the results of the
density determination using ethanol.

Volume of Float
 The tolerance of the measured value of the volume of the float is
±0.01 cm3.

Influence of Wire
 When a solid sample is placed on the density pan, which is immersed
in a liquid, for a density measurement, the liquid surface position
rises. At this time, the wire (φ1 mm) connecting the upper and lower
pans is subject to the buoyancy whose magnitude is equal to the
weight of the raised liquid. 1-mm raise of the liquid surface exerts a
buoyancy of about 0.8 mg to the wire.
 To minimize a measurement error caused by the buoyancy, adjust the
sample size so that it will not raise the liquid surface so much, or
perform a mathematical correction.
 When measuring the density of a liquid, the float-suspending wire (φ2
mm) immersed in the liquid affects the measurement. Immersing the
wire by 10 mm exerts a buoyancy of about 0.3 mg to the wire.
However, this buoyancy can be ignored because it is divided by the
volume of the float when the density of the liquid is obtained.
Surface Tension
 When the density of a solid is measured, a force of about 5 mg
(surface tension) is applied to the pan, between the wire (1 mm in
diameter) of the pan and the surface of the liquid.
 The surface tension can be reduced to about 1 mg by adding a surface-
active agent (for example, a water droplet preventive solution as used
for developing photographs).
 Adding 0.1 ml (1.2 g/ cm3 density) of a surface-active agent to 200 ml
of water will increase the density of the water by about 0.0001 g/cm3.
 When the density of a liquid is measured, a force of about 1mg is
exerted by the wire of 0.2 mm in diameter. However, this force can be
ignored because it is divided by the volume of the float.

Bubbles
 The buoyancy of a bubble of 1 mm in diameter is about 0.5 mg.
Stickiness of bubbles depends on the shape and material of sample.
Make measurements considering the characteristic of bubbles.
 When the density of a solid is measured, a surface-active agent may
be added to reduce the influence of surface tension and bubbles.

8. FABRICATION

 Except the weighing machine, all other set up has been fabricated
using acrylic sheet.
 Using acrylic sheet reduced the weight of the set up and also made the
fabrication less complex.
 Required dimension of acrylic sheet has been cut out.

a. Beaker stand is made by heating and bending at corners.

Fig 8.1 Beaker stand Photograph

b. Main stand and sample carrier is fabricated by cutting the acrylic


sheet and joined using adhesives.
Fig 8.2 Main stand with sample carrier Photograph

c. Microprocessor and control boards are available in the market

Fig 8.3 RS 232 Connector


Fig 8.4 Arduino processor
8.1 COST REPORT

S.NO MATERIAL QUANTITY COST

1 Weighing 1 nos Rs. 7000


machine(0.01g)
2 Acrylic material 4 sq feet Rs. 240

3 Bond 1 nos Rs. 40

4 Beaker 1000 ml Rs. 210

5 LCD Display 1 nos Rs. 150

6 Atmega 8 1nos Rs. 600

7 Female connector 10 Rs. 40

8 Male connector 15 Rs.60

9 RS 232 cable 1 nos Rs. 100

TOTAL Rs. 8440

Table 8.1 Cost report

9. ADVANTAGES
 There are many advantages in fabricating the apparatus using basic
principle compared to advanced technologies.

 Replacing the advanced concepts with basic principle made the device
less complicated and more precise.

 The manufacturing cost of this instrument is very less compared to


advanced instruments.

 Though it is a lab based method, density can be determined by


performing only two steps.

 Ease of usage is also an added advantage of this instrument.


10. CONCLUSION

With the limits of our study, we have designed and fabricated the
apparatus with low cost and high accuracy. Using the Archimedes
principle is a small step which conveys the importance and significance
of basics. The industry, for which the instrument is fabricated, is
completely satisfied with our effort. Overall, the result has been
satisfactory with respect to the analysis.
REFERENCES

1. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 1971 52nd edn (Cleveland, Ohio:


Chemical Rubber Company) F-5
2. Bland J M and Altman D G 1986 Lancet I 307-310
3. Kirkup L 1994 Experimental Methods (Brisbane: Jacaranda Wiley) ch
4
4. Halliday D, Resnick R and Walker J 1997 Fundamentals of Physics 5th
edn (NewYork: John Wiley)
5. Differential level hydrometer US 5900547 A by Luke Bartkiewicz on
4 May 1999.
6. Archimedes revisited: a faster, better, cheaper method of accurately
measuring the volume of small objects. Physics Education, 40(5). pp.
468-474 Copyright 2005 Institute of Physics Publishing, Hughes,
Stephen William.
7. Katherine A. Mirica, Sergey S. Shevkoplyas, Scott T. Phillips,
Malancha Gupta, and George M. Whitesides “Measuring Densities of
Solids and Liquids Using Magnetic Levitation: Fundamentals” a article
Published on Web 07/02/2009 by Department of Chemistry and
Chemical Biology HarVardUniVersity, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 02138.
8. Density Determination Kit.
9. Manual of Weighing Applications of SARTORIS Company.
10. Heath T L The Works of Archimedes (New York: Dover)

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