1.

INTRODUCTION

The behavior of fluid flowing between solid boundaries is heavily dependent on force inversely
acting from those boundaries. If the force acting from wall is very small, the shear stress can be
neglected and the fluid behavior tends to ideal fluid having characteristics of incompressible and
zero viscosity. If the force acting from wall is high enough, the fluid behavior approach to
compressible fluid and having certain viscosity. At low velocity, fluid flows without cross-
currents. This flow regime is called as laminar flow. However, when fluid flows at high velocity,
it tends to occur lateral mixing. This flow regime is called as turbulent flow. Velocity profile of
laminar flow can be seen in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Velocity profile of Laminar Flow

In one dimensional flow, due to an actual fluid endure shear, there must be a shear force acting
parallel to the wall of the shear. As a result, shear stress is resulted by the shear force acting on the
fluid per unit area of the shearing plane. This can be written in Newton’s third law which is can be
seen in equation 1.1.
𝐹
τ=𝐴 (1.1)

where τ is shear stress.

In a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity of fluid does not change with no matter shear stress applied on
the fluid. Therefore, the shear rate is directly proportional to shear stress. The equation can be
written as follow.
𝑑𝑣𝑥
τyx= −𝜇 (1.2)
𝑑𝑦

Where 𝜇 is defined viscosity of fluid which is resistance of fluid to flow along boundaries.
Some gases and most simple liquids are obeyed this equation since there are type of Newtonian
fluid.
Let consider a fluid flows in a certain long pipe. Due to friction of wall, there will be energy loss
observed as pressure loss. So that, pressure difference affects fluid to flow. Moreover, shear stress
is exerted by wall. The schematic of forces can be seen in the figure 1.2.

P0
P1

Figure 1.2 Schematic of forces acting along a pipe at steady state

By looking at figure 1.2, mechanical forces balance can be approached and result an expression in
equation 1.3.
∆𝑃 . 𝐴 = τ . 2 . Π. r. L (1.3)
Where A can be defined as Π.r2. Then, it can be simflified as equation 1.4.
𝛥𝑃.𝑟
τ= (1.4)
2.𝐿

By substituting equation 1.2 into equation 1.4, new expression can be obtained as follow.
𝑑𝑢 𝛥𝑃.𝑟
= 𝐿.2.𝜇 (1.5)
𝑑𝑟

By integrating equation 1.5, it becomes

𝛥𝑃.𝑟 2
u=- +𝑐 (1.6)
𝐿.4.𝜇

Boundary conditions can be applied on equation (1.6) where at r=0, (u = umax) and at r=R, (u=0).
𝛥𝑃 𝑅²
After applying boundary condition, C constant can be found as c= .
𝐿 4𝜇

Hence, the expression of velocity profile along a pipe for laminar flow can obtained as

𝛥𝑃 1
u (r)= (R²-r²) (1.7)
𝐿 4𝜇

Volumetric flowrate of fluid can be obtained by relating with equation 1.8.

Q= u. A (1.8)
 𝑅
Where u can be expressed as u = ∫0 𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑟. By substituting this into equation 1.8 and integrating it,
it becomes equation 1.9 below.

𝛥𝑃 𝑅⁴𝛱
Q= (1.9)
𝐿 8𝜇

Beside Newtonian fluid, there are some fluids behave non-Newtonian fluid with changes of
viscosity. The viscosity changes along changing shear rate. In terms of time independent for non-
Newtonian fluids can be classified into three categories.

1. Bingham Plastic
2. Pseudoplastic (Shear thinning)
3. Dilatant (Shear thickening)

Relationship between shear rate and shear stress for every type of fluid can be seen in figure 1.3
below.

Figure 1.3 Relationship between shear rate and shear stress for different types of fluids.

By looking figure 1.3, for bingham fluid, it needs a certainshear stress applied in order to force
fluid to flow.when it flows, its shear stress is direclty proportional to shear rate like Newtonian
fluid. Example of bingham fluids are grease, hand cream, tooth paste, etc.

Moreover, shear thickening fluids have higher shear rate which is higher their viscosity than shear
thinning at same shear stress applied. As a result, for shear thinning fluid, it behaves easier to flow
than shear thickening due to difference of flow behaviour characteristic. Figure 3.1 can represented
by Ostwald-de Waele equation which is expressed in equation 1.10

τ=K(γ)ⁿ (1.10)

Where “n” is flow behaviour index, “K” is consistency index and γ is shear rate.

For shear thinning, “n” value is larger than 1. Whwreas for shear thickening, “n” value is smaller
than 1.

Shear rate of non-Newtonian power-law fluids can be defined in equation 1.11.

3𝑛+1 𝑄
γ= ( )(𝛱𝑅³) (1.11)
𝑛

By substituting equation 1.11 into equation 1.10. it becomes

3𝑛+1 𝑄
τ=K( )ⁿ. (𝛱𝑅³)ⁿ (1.12)
4𝑛

From equation 1.12, it is clearly seen that shear rate as well as on the flow rate depends on shear
stress applied and power law of n value.

By replacing equation 1.4 into 1.12. a new expression can be obtained and simplified by taking
log-log scales. It becomes

𝛥𝑃 2𝐾 3𝑛+1 4
log( 𝐿 ) = n.log(Q) + log( 𝑅 ) + n.log( ) + n.log(𝜋.𝑅3) (1.13)
4𝑛

slope intercept

From relation between pressure difference and flow rate, power law of n and K value can be
evaluated.

In order to know the flow regime of non-Newtonian fluid, Reynolds number should be investigated
with equation 1.14 as follow.

𝜌𝐷ⁿ 𝑛
Re = 8[ V2-n](6𝑛+2)ⁿ (1.14)
𝐾

Where V is fluid velocity and D is diameter of the pipe.

According to Bagley’s correlation, the shear stress at steady state can be evaluated in order to
analyze the end effects on the flow. The end effects used assumption of fully developed flow if the
capillary length is much greater than diameter of the pipe. The ratio of length to diamater is around
100 to 120 for viscous fluids. By taking Bagley’s correlation, the end correction factor can be
obtained by equation 1.15 below.

𝐿
Δ𝑃 = 2𝜏𝑤 ( ) + 2𝑒𝜏𝑤 (1.15)
𝑅
2. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

In order to achieve the objective of tubular viscometry experiment, some apparatus and
chemicals were prepared. After preparing those, the experimental setup was carried out as
shown in figure 2.1. Carboxylmethyl cellulose (CMC) solution with 0.5 wt% was used as a
chemical to measure its charactheristic.

Equipments:

- Peristaltic pump
- Glassware
- Stopwatch
- Volumetric watch
- Two capillaries of two distinct length, 35 and 50 cm

Figure 2.1 The Experimental Set-up

The experiment was carried out into two parts which are with and without end effect. Firstly, a
solution of 0.5wt% CMC was poured into a basket. Then it was pumped by the peristaltic pump to
the cylinder. Four different flowrates from the pump were set up. In order to determine hydrostatic
pressure applied on the fluid, the liquid level in the cylinder was recorded. For taking one data
data of flowrate, liquid level in the cylinder should have been constant. After reaching steady state,
volumetric flowrate was measured by taking a certain amount of CMC solution flowing from
capillary while having stopwatch recorded. The procedure was done for 35 and 50 cm of capillaries
length