PREFABRICATED STRUCTURES

UNIT I NOTES
Introduction

The rapid development of prefabricated houses has led to the increasing of construction templates that homeowners have
more choice for designs of their houses.

By combining these templates, it is possible to design the layout of the house, specify the dimensions of each room, and
build a home that is exactly to the specification of the owners.

There are also complex building plans for prefabricated construction that can be adjusted slightly and still have the
benefit of using materials of standard lengths, widths, and textures.

Prefabricated houses are not the only type of construction structures that can be produced using prefabrication
construction method.

As mentioned above, this method is widely used in many types of constructions like bridges, culverts or even swimming
pools.

1) PREFABRICATION

 Prefabricated construction is a building process in which elements or modules of the structure are prefabricated at plants,
then transported to the construction site for installation.
 Prefabrication is an advanced up to date method of reinforced concrete construction.
 Prefabrication is the manufacture of an entire building or components cast in a factory or on site before being placed in
position assembling the structural units so that they can be easily and rapidly erected. Prefabricated buildings are pre-
cut, pre-drilled, and pre-engineered before the actual building is constructed.
 Prefabricated Structures (PFS) are useful for sites, which are not suitable for normal construction methods such as hilly
regions, and also when normal construction materials are not easily available. PFS facilities can also be created at or
near a site as is done to make concrete blocks used in place of conventional bricks.

Prefabricates
Prefabricated members are called prefabricates

Advantages of Prefabrication

 The benefit of prefabricated construction method is from the fabrication of standard components on factory floor.
 This production is less time consumption compared to actual condition of construction process.
 The prefabricated elements are transported to the site for installing process.
 At the site, the modules are unloaded, moved into position with the support of heavy cranes, and assembled to form a
designed building.
 Together with the fast assembly, prefabricated construction also saves a lot of money on the construction project.
 By using standard patterns, the building materials are saved at the manufacturing factories.
 This help to reduce the waste in formwork and other materials that can occur during traditional building procedures.
 Another considerable profit using prefabricated construction method is the energy efficiency.
 Because the prefab elements of a panelized home are precut, they fit snugly together, making for a tighter edifice.
 This means less effort for heating and cooling, resulted in lower energy bills.
 Precast concrete is a form of construction, where concrete is cast in a reusable mould or "form" which is then cured in a
controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into place.
 In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site specific forms and cured on site.
 Precast architectural panels are also used to clad all or part of a building facade free-standing walls used for landscaping,
soundproofing and security walls. The New South Wales Government Railways made extensive use of precast concrete
construction for its stations and similar buildings. Between 1917 and 1932, they erected such buildings Storm water
drainage, water and sewage pipes and tunnels make use of precast concrete units.
 The advantages of using precast concrete is the increased quality of the material, when formed in controlled conditions,
and the reduced cost of constructing large forms used with concrete poured on site.
 Precast concrete products can withstand the most extreme weather conditions and will hold up for many decades of
constant usage.
 Products include bunker silos, cattle feed bunks, cattle grid, agricultural fencing, H-bunks, J-bunks, livestock slats,
livestock watering troughs, etc...
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Disadvantages

1. Careful handling of prefabricated components such as concrete panels or steel and glass panels is required.
2. Attention has to be paid to the strength and corrosion-resistance of the joining of prefabricated sections to avoid failure
of the joint.
3. Similarly, leaks can form at joints in prefabricated components.
4. Transportation costs may be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections than for the materials of which they are made,
which can often be packed more compactly.
5. Large prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes and precision measurement and handling

Need for prefabrication

1. To improve in quality as the components can be

2. Manufactured under controlled conditions.
3. To speed up construction since no curing period is necessary.
4. To use locally available materials with required characteristics.
5. To use the materials which possess their innate characteristics like light-weight, easy workability, thermal insulation,
non-combustibility etc., to effect economy and improve quality.

Precast concrete is widely used for:

 Multi-family housing (low, mid-rise)

 Hotels and Motels
 Retirement Homes
 Security facilities
 Schools ,Office Buildings
 Warehouses ,Manufacturing Facilities
 Storage Facilities
 Big Box Stores
 Shopping malls
 Hospitals
 Libraries
 Airport Terminals
 Stadium and Arena Elements (seating, steps, pedestrian ramps, concession stands, locker rooms)
 Sound barriers (Highways, Industrial Sites)
 Security barriers (planters, walls)

There are numerous benefits to the use of prefabrication beyond accelerated bridge construction.
Prefabrication can improve the quality of bridge elements and systems since they are constructed in a controlled environment
using high quality materials and standardized production processes.
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Improved quality leads to an extension of the structure service life. Prefabrication can also reduce bridge construction costs and
life-cycle costs.
A major advantage of prefabrication is that it can reduce onsite construction time, resulting in several key benefits when
compared to conventional on-site construction practices:

Traffic:

The disruption of traffic is often cited as a reason for using accelerated construction techniques. Reduction in lane closures and
the number of days of traffic detours can have a measurable affect on the user costs of a highway system.

Safety:

By reducing the amount of construction that takes place at the site, the amount of time that construction crews and motorists are
exposed to the dangers of work-zones is also reduced. In addition, prefabrication can improve construction crew safety when
working over water or in hazardous conditions such as when construction is adjacent to high voltage power lines.

Environmental:

Often environmental permitting requirements limit onsite construction, for example, to certain seasons of the year. These
limitations effectively reduce the number of available calendar days for construction. Prefabrication and accelerated construction
can keep a project on schedule even with fewer available working days and other environmental limitations at the site.

Weather:

As with environmental constraints, many areas of the country have limited work seasons due to severe winter weather.
Prefabrication and accelerated construction can be used to complete more construction during a short construction season.

Principles Method of Prefabrication

Plant prefabrication

 Prefabrication is done in permanent plants or in factories, reliable structure of good quality, manufactures
standardized components
 This kind of prefabrication is done in permanent plants or factories established particularly for this purpose.
 Its advantage is that the can be performed in covered rooms irrespective of the hardships of weather and outer
temperature, with a constant team of workmen, and the itself can be organized factory-like.
 The plant can be furnished to highest degree with mechanization and automation.
 The permanent laboratory allows continual control; and so the materials to be used always in similar properties;
Owing to these advantageous conditions prefabrication plants or factories produce in serial manufacturing, in
gencral, cheap reliable structures of good quality.
 But a drawback of plant prefabrication is that the members must be transported to places where they are to be used.
 The transportation cost of precast member to the site amounts, in general, to about 10-15 per cent of the total cost
required for the production and assembly of same.
 For the sake of transportability the dimensions of the members must be held within certain limits so increasing the
number of joints in structures.
 The above-mentioned limitation of the dimensions of the members a certain restraint on design, as well as on the
further development of prefabrication
 'Plant prefabrication is appropriate for mass production, chiefly for the manufacture of standardized members
 Plant prefabrication might be performed either in a large building component factory of country character or in
smaller prefabrication plants operated by the individual building firms.
 In the field of industrial structures the development markedly points towards the production of precast members in
centralized prefabrication plants set up and run by the individual building firms.

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 Site prefabrication

 The components are manufacture at site, transportation of members are not needed, required diemensions can be
prefabricated.
 When using this kind of prefabrication, the reinforced concrete members produced on the site, chiefly in the open air,
and most member .smaller size are precast in temporary covered sheds established for this purpose.
 Difficulties occurring in construction work, in general, cannot be avoided here either.
 Each new building site entails in most case employment of new labourers, and the use of different building materials the
properties of which are often not sufficiently known.
 Mechanization cannot be of such a high degree as in a permanent plant, because of the temporary nature of site work, its
duration being generally at most one or two years;
 so a high degree of mechanization site that applied in a permanent workshop would not be profitable
 Laboratories on sites are, in general, not so well equipped as in a factory for building members. The work must he
carried out in the air, and this means, particularly in winter, serious drawback, though hue that the greater part of the
members can also he produced in alpriatc seasons under favorable weather

Materials of Construction

The materials used in prefabricated components are many. The modern trend is to use concrete, steel, treated wood, aluminium,
cellular concrete, lightweight concrete, ceramic
products, etc. However, this chapter pertains to prefabricated concrete elements. While choosing the materials for prefabrication,
the following special characteristics are to be considered.
1. Easy availability.
2. Lightweight for easy handling and transport and to
economise on sections and sizes of foundations.
3. Thermal insulation property.
4. Easy workability.
5. Durability in all weather conditions.
6. Non-combustibility.
7. Economy in cost.
8. Sound insulation.

STANDARDIZATION

Standardization may be on a national scale, obligatory over the whole country provided that the competent authorities
publish catalogues of standard prefabricates and standard housing units, or even of whole buildings.

Advantages of standardization:
The following are the advantages of standardization.
1. Easier in design as it eliminates unnecessary choices.
2. Easier in manufacture as there are a limited number of variants.
3. Makes repeated use of specialized equipments in erection and completion easier and quicker.

Factors Influencing Standardization

1. To select the most rational type of member for each element from the point of production, assembly, serviceability and
economy.
2. To limit the number of types of elements and to use them in a large quantities.
3. To use the largest size to the extent possible, thus resulting in less number of joints.
4. To limit the size and number of prefabricate by the weight in overall dimension that can be handled by the handling
and erection equipment and by the limitation of transportation.
5. To have all the prefabricates approximately of same weight very near to the lifting capacity of the equipment.

Three basic method of production:

a. The stand system;
b. The conveyor belt or production line system;
c. The aggregate system.

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The stand system:

In the stand system, the prefabricates mature at the point where moulded, while the production team moves to
successive stands.
The conveyor belt or production line system:

 The conveyor belt system of productions splits the whole production into a series of operations carried out at separate,
successive and permanent points, served by specialized teams.
 The movement of the mould or prefabricate from one point to the next may be by means of a conveyor belt, trolleys,
cranes, etc.

The aggregate system:

 The word “aggregate” describes a large, complex, permanently installed set of machines and mechanical appliances,
which carry out most of the separate operations involved in casting concrete components.
 The stand is operated by a permanent team.
 The only move the prefabricate makes is to its maturing point.
 Aggregates are used in production of multiduct hollow floor panels at the Fealbet plant in Warsaw.
 At the production point, the reinforcement is fixed in the form, and the remote-controlled aggregate then inserts ducts
formers, casts, and vibrates the concrete, floats the top face of the panel and removes the formers.
 The prepared prefabricate then goes directly to an autoclave chamber, in which the hardening of the concrete is
accelerated.

The manufacturing process involves

 Preparation of moulds
 Reinforcing and prestressing the components
 Concreting the components
 Hardening of the concrete
 Demoulding the components and storage

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Basic requirements of moulds

1. They should have volumetric stability to ensure dimensional accuracy.

2. They can be reused for a large number of times with minimum maintenance cost.
3. They should be easy to handle and close tightly so that no liquid can leak out.
4. They should have no adhesion to concrete and easy to clean.
5. They can .be used for various cross sections and shapes of the components.

Types of moulds based on materials

Wooden moulds
 Concrete sticks more easily.
 They can be used 30 to 40 times
 The dimensions should be checked frequently
 They are used for small production
 Suitable for casting of solid web beams, lattice members, and arches or as lateral forms for floors and roofs.
Steel mould
 Smooth surface, demoulding is easy
 They retain volumetric stability for long time
 The joints are sealed with rubber lining or gaster
 Suitable for solid web beams, columns, floors, and wall units
Plastic mould
 Moulds made of glass fiber reinforced plastics are commonly used
 They are easily transportable, demoulding is easy
 They can be used 70 to 80 times without repair
Concrete mould
 These are used in vertical battery molding
 These are stationary, workability is low
 These enables high degree of dimensional accuracy, but are un-suitable for making modifications

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Methods of moulding.

1. Vertical moulding
2. Single moulding
3. Flow line production

1. Vertical moulding
It is best suited for panels that require a smooth surface finish on both sides.

Advantages

1. A large number of units can be produced in small space

2. Concreting the units is fast
3. Surface finishing is not necessary as the mould faces are smooth.
4. No need to spread the concrete
5. Heat of hydration developed is conserved and accelerates curing.

SINGLE MOULDS

 These are employed for casting huge volumetric elements such as sanitary units, ventilating shafts and refuse chutes.
 Battery moulds are employed for internal panel walls and floor panels.
 The swing down moulds are used for simultaneous manufacture of two wall panels.

Flow Line Production

 This is a travelling horizontal mould system. In this, the moulds are moved along the element from one position to the
next through a series of stations, such as demoulding, mould cleaning and oiling, placing of reinforcements, concreting,
vibrating surface finishing and curing.
 Steam chamber forms the part of the continuous travelling chain and the chain can be in the horizontal plane or in the
vertical plane. Fig. 4.15 shows the schematic diagram of flow line production.

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CURING
Curing aids hydration in the process of setting and hardening is quite common now-a-days for quick demoulding.

Accelerated hardening

 In most of the precasting factories, it is economical to use faster curing methods or artificial curing methods.
 They will allow the elements to be demoulded much earlier, permitting early reuse of forms.

METHODS OF ACCELERATED CURING

Any of the following methods may be adopted.

By heating the aggregates and water before mixing the concrete

 By heating the aggregates and water to about 70° C to 80° C before preparing the concrete mix and placing in the
moulds.
 High strengths are developed sufficiently earlier to allow the elements to be stripped and transported.

Accelerated curing systems:

Lower the cost of producing concrete products by reducing the amount of cement and other additives
required in the mix

Decrease energy costs by efficiently using heat created by cement during curing

Reduce turnaround time for hardened products, which frees up rack space and makes better use of
production personnel

Dramatically lessen the number of rejects and customer complaints

An example I often use to illustrate these concepts involves concrete pavers: there are both financial and
quality incentives to accelerate the curing of concrete pavers.

Accelerating the hardening of the pavers reduces the amount of rack space, building space and pallets
required – reducing the initial capital expense of a greenfield project.

Reduced hardening times of no more than 12 hours allow for immediate secondary processing (splitting,
grinding and polishing, tumbling, etc) without intermediate yard storage saving a huge amount of money
on strapping materials, transportation and yard space.

Accelerated curing allows for the use of GGBFS (ground granulated blast furnace slag) and other latent
hydraulic by-products that reduce material costs.

From a quality aspect, proper curing improves the consistency of all concrete properties including color,
strength and durability, and it reduces the likelihood of secondary efflorescence and lessens complaints.

STEAM CURING

 Steam curing may be done under high pressure and high temperature in an autoclave.
 This technique is more suited to smaller elements. Alternatively, this could be done by using low pressure steam having
temperature around 80°C.

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  For lightweight concrete products, when steam cured under high pressure, the· drying shrinkage is reduced considerably.
 Due to this reason, high pressure steam curing in autoclave is specified for lightweight low densities ranging from 300 to
1,000 kg/m3.
 For normal heavy concretes and lightweight concretes of higher densities, low pressure stream curing may be desirable
as it does not involve use of high pressure and temperature requiring high investment in an autoclave.

3. STEAM INJECTION DURING MIXING OF CONCRETE

 In this method, low pressure saturated steam is injected into the mixer while the aggregates are being mixed.
 This enables the heating up of concrete to approximately 60° C. Such a concrete after being placed in the moulds attains
high early strength.

4. HEATED AIR METHOD

 In this method, the concrete elements are kept in contact with hot air with a relative humidity not less than 80 percent.
 This method is specially useful for light weight concrete products with porous coarse aggregates.
 In this method, the passage of current through the concrete panels generates heat through its electro-resistivity and
accelerates curing.
 In this method, the concrete is heated up by an alternating current ranging from 50 volts for a plastic concrete and
gradually increasing to 230 V for the set concrete.
 This method is normally used for massive concrete products.
 Such a method is generally used in the centrifugal moulding of pipes and such elements.
 The spinning motion removes excess water, effects consolidation and permits earlier demoulding.
7. PRESSED CONCRETE

 This method is suitable for fabrication of small or large products at high speed of production.
 A 100-200 tonnes press compresses the wet concrete in rigid moulds and expels water.
 Early handling and a dense wear resistant concrete is obtained

8. VACCUM METHOD

 This method removes the surplus air and water from the newly placed concretes in slabs and similar elements.
 A suction up to about 70 percent of an atmosphere is applied for 20 to 30 minutes per centimeter thickness of the units.
9. CONSOLIDATION BY SHOCK

 This method is suitable for small concrete units placed in strong moulds dropped repeatedly from a height.
 The number of shocks required to remove excess water and air may vary from 6 to 20 and the height of drop may be up
to as much as half the depth of the mould.
 After the accelerated curing of the above products by any of the above accepted methods, the elements shall be cured
further by normal curing methods to attain full final strength.
 The curing of the prefabricated elements can be effected by the normal methods of curing by sprinkling water and
keeping the elements moist.
 This can also be done in the case of smaller elements by immersing them in a specially built water tanks.

STACKING DURING TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

 Every precaution shall be taken against over stress or damage, by the provision of suitable packing at agreed points of
support.
 Particular attention is directed to the inherent dangers of breakage and damage caused by supporting other than at two
positions, and also by the careless placing of packing (for example, not vertically one above the other). Ribs, corners and
intricate projections from solid section should be adequately protected.
 Packing pieces shall not discolour or disfigure. Otherwise, permanently cause marks on units or members.
 Stacking of the precast units should be arranged or protected, so as to prevent the accumulation of trapped water or
rubbish, and if necessary to reduce the risk of efflorescence.

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 SYSTEM

The word system referred to a particular method of construction of buildings by using prefabricated components which are
inter related in functions to set of instructions.

Characteristics of System

 Straight and simple walling scheme

 Limited opening in bearing walls
 Intensified usage of spaces
 Structural clarity and efficiency

Prefabrication System

 Open prefab system

 Large panel prefab system
 Wall system
 Floor system
 Staircase system
 Box type system

PARTIAL PREFAB OPEN SYSTEM:

This system is basically emphasis the use of precast roofing and flooring components and other minor elements like
lintels, sunshades, kitchen sills in conventional building construction. The structural system could be in the form of in-situ
framework or load bearing walls.

FULL PREFAB OPEN SYSTEM:

In this system, almost all the structural components are prefabricated. The filler walls may be of bricks or of any other
local materials.

Transportation and Erection of Precast Elements:

1. Lifting hooks
2. Stacking of units
3. Transportation
4. Placing and aligning
5. Bearing

1. Lifting hooks
The lifting hook can be formed out of normal mild steel reinforcing bars with adequate carrying capacity to carry the self weight
during demoulding, handling and erection .after erection the hooks can either be cut or bent down inside the screed or joint
concrete that will be laid subsequently.

2. Stacking of units
After removal from moulds the precast units shall be stacked over supports placed at about 1/6 of span from ends. Care shall be
taken to see that no support is placed at the centre of span. Care also be taken to see that the main reinforcement is always at the
bottom of stacked units.

3. Transportation
The units shall be transported always with the main reinforcement at the bottom. For transporting and erecting the units , rope
slings shall be tied near the ends at 1/5 of the length from either end of the unit. In case the units are transported in trolleys the
overhang of the units from the trolley shall not be more than 1/5 of the length. the units shall be lifted manually or with the help
of chain pulley blocks

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4. Placing and aligning
The units shall be placed and aligned side by side across the span to be covered. While placing the units care shall be taken to
see that they have the specified bearing on supporting wall/beam. Placing of units shall be started from one end of the building.

5. Bearing
The precast units shall have a minimum bearing of 75mm on the beams and 100mm on the conventional masonry wall.

ERECTION

It is the process of assembling the precast elements in the final position as per drawings. In the erection of precast elements the
following items of work are to be carried out
1. Slinging of the precast elements.
2. Tying up of erection ropes connecting to the erection hooks.
3. Cleaning the elements and the site of erection.
4. Cleaning the steel inserts before incorporation in the joints, lifting and setting the elements into correct position.
5. Adjustment to get the stipulated level, line and plumb.
6. Welding of cleats.
7. Changing of the erection tackles.
8. Putting up and removing the necessary scaffolding or supports.
9. Welding the inserts, laying the reinforcements in joints and grouting the joints.
10. Finishing the points to bring the whole work to a workman like finished product.
The erection work in various construction jobs by using prefabricated concrete elements differs from place to place depending
upon the site conditions. Safety precautions in the work are of utmost importance. Hence, only skilled foremen, trained workers
and fitters have to be employed on the job.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED FOR ERECTION

These are various types of tools and machineries that are employed in the erection of precast elements. The equipment used in
the precast concrete industry can be classified into the following categories.
1. Machinery required for quarrying of coarse and fine aggregates.
2. Conveying equipment, such as belt conveyor, chain conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators, hoists etc Concrete
(mixing mac,hines) mixers.
4. Concrete (vibrating machines) vibrators.
5. Erection equipment, such as cranes, derricks, hoists chain pulley blocks etc.
6. Transport machinery, such as tractor-cum-trailers, dumpers, lorries, locomotives, motor boats and rarely even helicopters.
7. Workshop machinery for fabricating and repairing steel and timber moulds.
8. Bar straightening, bending and welding machines to make reinforcement cages.
9. Minor tools and takes, such as wheel barrows, concrete buckets etc.
10. Steam generation plant for accelerated curing.
In addition to the above, pumps and soil compacting machinery are required at the building site for the execution of civil
engineering projects involving prefabricated components. Each of the above groups can further be classified into various
categories of machines and further to various other types depending on the source of power and capacity.

CRANES

For erection of prefabricated buildings, the following cranes are used.

1. Stationary cranes:
2. Cranes on rails:
3. Mobile crane on moving ground:
a. Guyed Derrick
b. Climbing crane
a. Portal Crane
b. Tower crane with fixed base.
a. Truck Mounted Cranes
b. Crawler Mounted Cranes

Hoisting Machines

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 It can be divided into the following groups

 Tower Cranes
 Crawler cranes
 Truck cranes
 Gantry cranes
 Mast Cranes
 Twinned – Mast Cranes
 Derricks

Tower Cranes

 The tower crane is one of the most useful machines in the Building industry.
 It is used, in the first place ,for the conveyance of building materials in a vertical direction & for the Hoisting of precast
members, But it is also suitable for any other Hoisting or placing operation, as well as for horizontal transportation.
 Tower Cranes require a heavy rail track resting on a proper foundation.
 This circumstance is one serious drawback of these machines, as well as their cumbersome, lengthy& Expensive
assembling, dismantaling & shipping
 Consequently, the use of tower cranes is only economical if a great number of members is to be hoisted.
 These cranes are able to perform three kinds of movement at same time to hoist the load to move backwards and
forwards and to turn together with the load on the boom

Tower crane

Guyed derrick

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Portal Crane

Construction of indoor stadium

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 Crawler cranes

 Crawler cranes are particularly suitable for the hoisting and placing precast members
 They are mobile and do not require a rail track
 These cranes are able to transport the members.
 Crawler cranes operated by two operators.
 These machines are able to lift turn and making traveling movements

Truck cranes

 Truck cranes consists of the chassis, including the motor and generator and of the pivoting upper part
 To the pivoting part belong the winch the boom and the operators cabin
 These cranes are mobile and travel on their own wheels
 The only drawbacks of these cranes is the necessity for firm and compact soil under them so that if it is at all possible
concrete work paving should be provided
 These cranes are able to rotate through 3600

Gantry cranes

 These cranes are used mainly to serve the operation of the manufacturing and storing areas in prefabrication plants.
 They can also be used for hoisting members

Mechanization of Construction and Erection Process

As in any other industry the various processes can be mechanized for attaining the advantages of mass production of identical
elements.
In turn it will increase productivity, maintain quality and reduce the cost of production in the long run.
On the basis of degree of mechanization employed, the precasting factories can be divided into three categories:
1. with simple mechanizations
2. with partial mechanization
3. with complex mechanization leading to automation.
1. In simple mechanization, simple mechanically operated implements are used to reduce the manual labour and increase the
speed.
2. In partial mechanization, manual work is more or less eliminated in the part of a process.
Examples
1. Batching plant for mixing concrete.
2. Hoists to lift materials to a great height.
3. Bulldozer doing earth work.
3. In case of complex mechanization, the number of processes leading to the end-product are mechanized to a large extent. This
type of mechanization reduces manual work to the absolute minimum and guarantees mass production at a very fast rate at cheap
price.

Three Dimensions Used In Prefabrication

 Design dimension Lx( erection)
 Theoretical dimension L (planned dimension)
 Actual dimension Lw (actual size)

Modular Coordination
Only basic module is to be adopted. Basic module is the fundamental module used in modular co-ordination. The size of
basic module is selected for general application for building and its components. The value of the basic module chosen is
100 mm for maximum flexibility and convenience. The symbol used for basis module is M. After adopting this, further work
is necessary to outline suitable range of multi modules with greater increments, often referred to as preferred increments. A
set of rules as detailed below are adequate for meeting the requirements of conventional and prefabricated construction.
These rules relate to the following basic elements.

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Modular Co-ordination (M)

1. The planning grid in both directions of the horizontal plan shall be

a. 3M for residential and institutional buildings;
b. For industrial building
15M for spans up to 12 m,
30 M for spans between 12 m and 18 m, and
60 M for spans over 18 m.
The centre lines of load bearing walls shall coincide with the grid lines.
2. In case of external walls, the grid lines shall coincide with the centre line of the wall or a line on the wall50 mm from the
internal face;
3. The planning module in the vertical direction shall be1 M up to and including a height of 2.8 m above the height of 2.8 m, it
shall be 2 M ;

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Examples of Prefabricated Elements

For the purposes of this manual, the term "Elements" describes individual prefabricated components that make a system,
e.g., deck panels are elements that make a superstructure system and bent caps are elements that make a substructure system.
Prefabrication is not a new concept. The vast majority of bridges built today employ some form of prefabrication. Steel and
pretensioned concrete beams are two of the most common prefabricated elements on typical bridges. Partial-depth precast
concrete deck panels have also been used in some regions for many years. Other common accelerated bridge elements
include:

Full-Depth Prefabricated Decks:

Several different types of prefabricated decks are used, including full-depth precast concrete panels, steel grids (unfilled, filled
and exodermic), fiber reinforced polymer panels, and glue laminated timber panels.

Figure 1.2.4-1 Full Depth Precast Deck Panels

Pier Caps:

Several states use precast pier caps due to the difficulties of casting a large concrete element high in the air or over water. Precast
pier caps have been used on both pile bent piers and standard concrete pier bents.

In recent years, states have used more prefabricated elements to build bridges faster. These include:

Pier columns

Pile cap footings

Abutment stems

Integral abutments

Footings

Barriers

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 Figure 1.2.4.-2 Precast Pier Cap

The world's first pre-cast panelled apartments in Liverpool, England, in 1905.

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 Eldon Street Apartments, Liverpool, in 1905.

 A precast concrete walled house in construction.

 By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete
is afforded the opportunity to properly cure and be closely monitored by plant employees.
 Many states across the United States require a precast plant to be certified (either by APA, NPCA or PCI) for a precast
producer to supply their product to a construction site sponsored by State and Federal DOTs.
 There are many different types of precast concrete forming systems for architectural applications, differing in size,
function and cost.
 Ancient Roman builders made use of concrete and soon poured the material into moulds to build their complex network
of aqueducts, culverts and tunnels.
 Modern uses for pre-cast technology include a variety of architectural and structural applications featuring parts of or an
entire building system.
 In the modern world pre-cast panelled buildings were pioneered in Liverpool, England in 1905.
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  A process was invented by city engineer John Alexander Brodie, whose inventive genius also had him inventing the
football goal net.
 The tram stables at Walton in Liverpool followed in 1906.
 The idea was not taken up extensively in Britain, however was adopted all over the world, particularly in Eastern
Europe.

Precast Concrete Products

Precast concrete wall veneer formed to replicate brick.

The following is a sampling of the numerous products that utilize precast/prestressed concrete. While this is not a complete list,
the majority of precast/prestressed products can fall under one or more of the following categories:

 Agricultural Products
 Building and Site Amenities

Precast concrete building components and site amenities are used architecturally as cladding, trim products, accessories and in
structural applications such as foundations, beams, floors, walls and other structural components.

Cemetery Products

Underground vaults or mausoleums - calls for quality watertight structures that withstand the tests of time and the forces of
nature.

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A precast concrete hazardous material storage container.

Hazardous Materials Containment Storage of hazardous material, whether short-term or long-term, is an increasingly important
environmental issue, calling for containers that not only seal in the materials, but are strong enough to stand up to natural
disasters or terrorist attacks.

Marine Products

 Floating docks, underwater infrastructure, decking, railings and a host of amenities are among the uses of precast along
the waterfront.
 When designed with heavy weight in mind, precast products counteract the buoyant forces of water significantly better
than most materials.

Modular Paving

 Available in a rainbow of colors, shapes, sizes and textures, these versatile precast concrete pieces can be designed to
mimic brick, stone or wood.

Prestressed/Structural Products

 Prestressing is a technique of introducing stresses of a predetermined magnitude into a structural member to improve its
behavior.
 This technique is usually found in concrete beams, spandrels, columns, single and double tees, wall panels, segmental
bridge units, bulb-tee girders, I-beam girders, and others.

Retaining Walls

An example of a precast concrete retaining wall.

Precast concrete manufacturers located throughout North America produce a wide range of engineered earth retaining systems.
Products include:
 commercial retaining wall,
 residential retaining walls,
 sea walls,
 mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) panels,
 modular block systems,
 segmental retaining walls, etc...

Sanitary and Storm water

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  Storm water management products are structures designed for underground installation that have been specifically
engineered for the treatment and removal of pollutants from stormwater run-off.
 These precast concrete products include stormwater detention vaults, catch basins and manholes.

Transportation and traffic related products

Precast concrete transportation products are used in the construction, safety and site protection of road, airport and railroad
transportation systems.

Products include:
 box culverts,
 3-sided culverts,
 bridge systems,
 railroad crossings,
 railroad ties,
 sound walls/barriers,
 Jersey barriers,
 Tunnel segments and other transportation products.

Used to make underpasses, surface-passes and pedestrian subways, so that traffic in cities is disturbed for less amount of time.

Utility Structures

 For communications, electrical, gas or steam systems, precast concrete utility structures protect the vital connections and
controls for utility distribution.
 Precast concrete is nontoxic and environmentally safe.
 Products include: hand holes, hollowcore products, light pole bases, meter boxes, panel vaults, pull boxes,
telecommunications structures, transformer pads, transformer vaults, trenches, utility buildings, utility vaults, utility
poles, controlled environment vaults (CEVs) and other utility structures.
Water and Wastewater Products

 Precast water and wastewater products hold or contain water, oil or other liquids for the purpose of further processing
into non-contaminating liquids and soil products.
 Products include: aeration systems, distribution boxes, dosing tanks, dry wells, grease interceptors, leaching pits, sand-
oil/oil-water interceptors, septic tanks, water/sewage storage tanks, wetwells, fire cisterns and other water & wastewater
products.

Reinforced concrete box

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  A reinforced concrete box is a square or rectangular "pipe" made of concrete with rebar or wire mesh fabric strewn
throughout for the addition of extra strength.
 Multiple such boxes are arranged sideways to make a pipe or tunnel like structure.
 It is often used for sanitary sewer trunks, storm drain spillways, pedestrian subways, utility tunnels, catch basins, and
other similar underground passage ways.
 In India, pre-cast concrete boxes known as Magic Boxes are used for the construction of flyovers and underpasses.
 Available in many sizes, it is often ideal for use in sewers or tunnels that have little cover above them, and are subject to
the stress of a road atop them. This is due to the enormous strength of reinforced concrete.

Double Wall Precast

 The double wall process has been in use in Europe for many years.
 The walls consist of 2 wythes of concrete separated by an insulated void.
 The most commonly specified thickness of the wall panels is 8 inches.
 The walls can also be built 10 and 12 inches thick if desired.
 A typical 8-inch wall panel consists of two wythes (layers) of reinforced concrete (each wythe is 2-3/8 inches thick)
sandwiched around 3-1/4 inches of high R-value insulating foam.
 The two wythes of the interior and exterior concrete layers are held together with steel trusses.
 The insulation is continuous throughout the wall section. The composite sandwich wall section has an R-value
exceeding R-22.
 The wall panels can be made to any height desired, up to a limit of 12 feet. Many owners prefer a 9-foot clear height for
the quality of look and feel it affords a building.

A single-family detached home being built up from precast concrete parts

 The walls can be produced with smooth surfaces on both sides because of the unique manufacturing process which form
finishes both sides.
 The walls are simply painted or stained on the exterior surface to achieve the desired color or textured surface.
 When desired, the exterior surface can be manufactured to have a wide variety of brick, stone, wood or other formed and
patterned appearances through the use of reusable, removable form liners.
 Interior surfaces of the double-wall panels are drywall quality in appearance right out of the plant, requiring only the
same prime and paint procedure as is common when completing conventional interior walls made of drywall and studs.
 Window and door openings are cast into the walls at the manufacturing plant as part of the fabrication process.
 Electrical and telecommunications conduit and boxes are flush mounted and cast directly in the panels in the specified
locations.

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 The carpenters, electricians and plumbers do need to make some slight adjustments when first becoming familiar with
some of the unique aspects of the wall panels.
 However, they still perform most of their job duties in the manner to which they are accustomed.
 Double-wall precast concrete sandwich panels can be used on most every type of building including but not limited to:
Multi-family, Townhouses, Condominiums, Apartments, Hotels/Motels, Dormitories/Schools and Single Family homes.
 Depending upon building function and layout, the double-wall panels can be easily designed to handle both the
structural requirements for strength and safety, as well as the aesthetic and sound attenuation qualities the owner desires.
 Speed of construction, durability of finished structure and energy-efficiency are all hallmarks of a building that utilizes
the double-wall system.

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