Natural Sciences

GEN 106

Spring 2016

Assignment #1

Submitted by

Salem Mohamed Salem Al Junaibi

[DAM1302173]
Answer 1:
A. Elements according to decreasing atomic size: Fr, Sr, Cu, Na, C
B. Elements according to increasing negative E. A.: Ba, Ca, Si, O, F
C. The usual valence in covalent compounds

Carbon C 4 Oxygen O 2 Nitrogen N 3 Fluorine F 1

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Answer 2:
Atomic Theory

A theory of the structure and behavior of atoms has taken over 2 millennia to
evolve, from the abstract musings of Greek philosophers to the high-tech
experiments of recent scientists. However, before the scientific revolution and
therefore the development of the methodology beginning within the sixteenth
century, concepts concerning the atom were primarily speculative. It wasn't till
the terribly finish of the nineteenth century that technology became advanced
enough to permit scientists a glimpse of the atom's constituent parts: the lepton,
nucleus, proton, and nucleon.

Greek Origins

The idea that everyone matter is created from little, indivisible by particles, or
atoms, is believed to possess originated with the Greek thinker Leucippus of
Miletus and his student philosopher of Abdera within the fifth century B.C. (The
word atom comes from the Greek word atomos, which suggests “indivisible.”)
These thinkers command that, additionally to being too tiny to be seen, constant,
and indestructible, atoms were additionally fully solid, with no internal structure,
associated came in an infinite style of shapes and sizes that accounted for the
various sorts of matter. Color, taste, and alternative intangible qualities were
additionally thought to be composed of atoms.

While the thought of the atom was supported by some later Greek philosophers,
it had been ferociously attacked by others, as well as Aristotle, World Health
Organization argued against the existence of such particles. throughout the
center Ages in Europe, Roman Catholic theologians were heavily influenced by
Aristotle's concepts, so atomic philosophy was mostly laid-off for hundreds of
years. However, the Greeks' conception of the atom survived, each in Aristotle's
works (his arguments against) and in another classical work by the Roman author
Titus Lucretius Carus, DE rerum natura (“On the character of Things”), that was
rediscovered in Europe at the beginning of the Renaissance.

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Modern Development

Modern atomic theory is mostly same to start with Dalton, associate English
chemist and specializer World Health Organization in 1808 revealed a book on the
atmosphere and therefore the behavior of gases that was entitled a replacement
System of Chemical Philosophy. Dalton's theory of atoms reinvigorated on four
basic ideas: chemical components were composed of atoms; the atoms of part
were identical in weight; the atoms totally different of various} components had
different weights; and atoms combined solely in tiny whole-number ratios, like
1:1, 1:2, 2:1, 2:3, to make compounds.

Not all of those concepts were new; the Greeks had already introduced the
thought that components were composed of atoms which atoms totally different
of various} components had different physical properties. Dalton's specific
contribution, that distinguished his work from what had been done before, was
his technique for really decisive relative atomic mass. In associate essay revealed
in 1805, John Dalton had enclosed a listing of atomic weights for twenty one
components. John Dalton was additionally the primary to propose customary
symbols for the weather.

Subatomic Structure

Dalton's work was primarily concerning the chemistry of atoms—how they

combined to make new compounds—rather than the physical, internal structure
of atoms, though he ne'er denied the chance of atoms' having a substructure.
Fashionable theories concerning the body of atoms failed to begin till 1897, with
J. J. Thomson's discovery of the lepton.

Actually, what Thomson discovered was that cathode rays were streams of
charged particles with a mass concerning one, 000 times smaller than an atom.
He claimed that these particles, that he known as “corpuscles,” were the items
that atoms were made up of. The term “electron” predated Thomson's
discovery—a few years earlier Irish man of science G. J. Stoney had planned that
electricity was fabricated from negative particles known as “electrons,” and
scientists had adopted the word to seek advice from something with an electrical

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charge. However, Thomson, World Health Organization was a man of science at
Cambridge, was the primary to counsel that these particles were a building block
of the atom.

Thomson additionally tried to indicate however the electrons were located within
the atom. Since atoms were illustrious to be electrically neutral, Thomson
planned (1904) a model within which the atom was a charged sphere decorated
with charged electrons. It had been known as the “plum-pudding” model, since
the electrons within the atom resembled the raisins in a very Christmas pudding.
This model failed to survive undoubted for long. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford's
experiments with alpha rays LED him to explain the atom as little, significant
nucleus with electrons in orbit around it. This nuclear model of the atom became
the premise for the one that's still accepted these days.

Bohr and on the far side

In 1913, Danish man of science nuclear physicist, World Health Organization had
studied underneath each Thomson and Rutherford, any refined the nuclear model
by proposing that electrons moved solely in restricted, sequential orbital shells
which the outer, and higher-energy orbits determined the chemical properties of
the various components. What is more, Niels Bohr was ready to justify the
spectral lines of the various components by suggesting that as electrons jumped
from higher to lower orbits; they emitted energy within the sort of light-weight.
Within the Twenties, Bohr's theory became the premise for quantum physics that
explained in larger detail the complicated structure and behavior of atoms.

Protons and Neutrons

Since Thomson's discovery of the lepton in 1897, scientists had accomplished that
associate atom should contain an electric charge to counterbalance the electrons'
electric charge. In 1919, as a byproduct of his experiments on the rending of
atomic nuclei, Rutherford discovered the nucleon that constitutes the nucleus of
an atom. A nucleon carries one positive electrical charge, and each atomic
nucleus contains one or additional protons.

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Answer 3:
Chemical equilibrium is a state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals
the rate of the backward reaction. In other words, there is no net change in
concentrations of reactants and products. This kind of equilibrium is also called
dynamic equilibrium.

Consider the following reactions:

CaCO3(s) + CO2(aq) + H2O(l)  Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq) ..(1)
And
Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3-(aq)  CaCO3(s) + CO2(aq) + H2O(l) ..(2)

Reaction (2) is the reverse of reaction (1).

At equilibrium the two opposing reactions occur at the same rate.
Concentrations of chemical species do not change once equilibrium is
established.