MASTER

oml ORNL/TM-7286

OAK
RIDGE;
NATIONAL
LABORATORY

Meteorological Effects of Thermal

|nergy Releases (MEEXELR) Prog ram
Annual Progress Report
October 1 9 7 8 to September 1 9 7 9
A. A. N. Patrinos
H. W. Hoffman

OPERATED BY
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
FOR THE UNITED STATfS
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY Ol3TPiQ'.5TK!i OF T S QGCUMLHT IS UNLIMITEB
 ORNL/TM-7286
Dist. Category UC-12

Contract No. W-7405-eng-26

M E T E O R O L O G I C A L E F F E C T S OF T H E R M A L E N E R G Y R E L E A S E S
(METER) P R O G R A M ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT
O C T O B E R 19 78 T O S E P T E M B E R 1 9 7 9

Contributions by:

Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories

Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Pennsylvania State University
Rand Corporation

Compiled by:

A. A. N . Patrinos
H. W. Hoffman

Dote Published: April 1980

NOTICE This document contains information of a preliminary nature,

(t is subject to revision or correction and therefore does not represent a
final report.

P r e p a r e d by the
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
operated by
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
f o r the
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

••• DISCLAIMER ,
This book was prepared as an account of work w n o n d Dy aft agency of t h * United States Covernment.
Neither the United St««t Gover/vrWM nor any agtncy thertol. nor any of ttwir employee*. mates any
watranty, n o r n s or l m o l * d , on a n o m n try te^al t lability PI rnponybitity tor the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any informelion. apparatus. product. Or praces dl«cf<md, or
represents that its us* would " o t infringe privately o w r e d rights. Reference herein to any Specific
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not necessarily constitute oc imply Its endorjenent, recommendftten, or f t w r l n j by the United
State* Government or «ny agtncy thereof. The views and ooiniom of authors expressed herein do not
necessarily state or rafiact those o l n * United S u m G c w n m t m o r any agency tterapf.
 iii

CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION 1

FIELD STUDIES

I. STUDIES A T P L A N T B O W E N : RAINFALL MODIFICATION

A N D WETFALL CHEMISTRY 7

ABSTRACT 7

1. RAINFALL MODIFICATION 7

1.1 Introduction 7
1.2 G e n e r a l Results 9
1.3 Statistical Design 20
1.4 C o n c l u s i o n s and F u t u r e W o r k 25
2. WETFALL CHEMISTRY 26

2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Weekly Samples 26
2.3 Event Samples 29
2.4 Future Work 35

REFERENCES 36

II.A. DRIFT FROM MECHANICAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS 39

ABSTRACT 39

1. INTRODUCTION 39

2. EXPERIMENTAL 40

3o RESULTS 41

4. CONCLUSIONS 55

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 58

REFERENCES 58

II.B, F I E L D S T U D I E S OF COOLING T O W E R C O N D E N S A T E S C A V E N G I N G 59

ABSTRACT 59

1. INTRODUCTION 59

2. EXPERIMENTAL 60

3. RESULTS 64

4. C O M P A R I S O N W I T H THEORY 73

5. CONCLUSION 80

REFERENCES 80

APPENDIX 81
 iv

Page
III.A. S U L F A T E A E R O S O L P R O D U C T I O N GROWTH IN COAL-OPERATED
POWER PLANT PLUMES 83

1. INTRODUCTION ... 83

2. EXPERIMENTAL 85

3. RESULTS A N D D I S C U S S I O N 88

3.1 P l u m e SO2 C o n v e r s i o n Rates and the Influence

of M e t e o r o l o g i c a l Parameters 89

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 97

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 99

REFERENCES 99

1II.B. A T M O S P H E R I C M E A S U R E M E N T TECHNIQUES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY

C O N T R O L SYSTEM S T R A T E G I E S 101

1. INTRODUCTION 101

2. D E F I N I T I O N O F T H E ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITORY 102

3. T H E PENN STATE C O M P U T E R I Z E D ACOUSTIC SOUNDING

SYSTEM 106

4. CASS APPLIED TO SCS 108

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 112

III.C. D R I F T DEPOSITION C L O S E T O THE COOLING T O W E R 113

REFERENCE P H Y S I C A L MODELING 114

IV. P H Y S I C A L M O D E L I N G O F F L O W O V E R AN A X I S Y M M E T R I C K N O L L
U N D E R N E U T R A L A T M O S P H E R I C CONDITIONS 117

SUMMARY 117

1. INTRODUCTION 117

2. CONCLUSIONS A N D RECOMMENDATIONS 119

2.1 Conclusions 119

2.2 Recommendations 119

3. A T M O S P H E R I C B O U N D A R Y L A Y E R MODELING R E Q U I R E M E N T S 120

4. T H E O R E T I C A L V E L O C I T Y PROFILE A B O V E T H E C R E S T OF

A KNOLL . 122

5. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD 124

5.1 E x p e r i m e n t a l F a c i l i t i e s and Equipment 124

5.2 Procedure 127

6. R E S U L T S A N D DISCUSSION 131

7. ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS 135

 V

P a
§e

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 136

REFERENCES 138

APPENDIX A . T H E O R E T I C A L VELOCITY PROFILE AT T H E CREST

OF THE K N O L L 139

APPENDIX B. E R R O R A N D UNCERTAINTY A N A L Y S I S 143

P R E D I C T I V E METHODS

V. T H E C L I M A T I C P R O B A B I L I T Y OF SNOWFALL INDUCED BY

COOLING-TOWER PLUMES 149

ABSTRACT 149

1. INTRODUCTION 150

2. PROCEDURE 151

3. RESULTS 159

4. CONCLUSION < 169

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 171

NOMENCLATURE 172

REFERENCES 173
 M E T E O R O L O G I C A L EFFECTS OF T H E R M A L ENERGY RELEASES (METER)
P R O G R A M A N N U A L T E C H N I C A L PROGRESS R E P O R T
OCTOBER 19 3 TO SEPTEMBER 1979

A. A. N . Patrinos H. W. H o f f m a n

INTRODUCTION

H. W . H o f f m a n

The M E T E R (Meteorological Effocts of T h e r m a l Energy R e l e a s e s ) Pro-

gram w a s organized to "develop and verify methods .•. for predicting the

m a x i m u m amount of energy that can be dissipated to the atmosphere (through

c o o l i n g towers or cooling p o n d s ) from proposed n u c l e a r energy centers

without affecting ... the local and regional e n v i r o n m e n t . " The initial

p r o g r a m scope (mathematical m o d e l i n g , laboratory and field experimenta-

tion, and societal impact a s s e s s m e n t ) has now narrowed to emphasis on the

a c q u i s i t i o n of field data of s u b s t a n t i a l quality and extent.

The p r i n c i p a l focus of the M E T E R program continues to b e the p r e c i p i -

tation m o d i f i c a t i o n studies at the Bowen Electric G e n e r a t i n g Plant in

n o r t h w e s t e r n Georgia. A t t e n t i o n h a s now shifted from an e x a m i n a t i o n of

N a t i o n a l Weather Service data to the collection and analysis of precipi-

tation data from the M E T E R - O R N L n e t w o r k activated i n February 1978. Ten-

tative results indicate a p l a n t - i n d u c e d increase in the n u m b e r of air mass

storms in the vicinity as compared to contiguous areas; it must b e empha-

sized, h o w e v e r , that this conclusion rests on data from the first y e a r of

n e t w o r k operation. During FY 1 9 7 9 , a limited study of w e t f a l l chemistry

w i t h i n the M E T E R - O R N L n e t w o r k w a s started. Data obtained on a w e e k l y

basis w e r e variable w i t h n o consistent pattern d i s c e r n i b l e ; it appears that

event b a s i s s a m p l i n g is n e c e s s a r y . R a i n f a l l enhancement due to precipita-

tion scavenging from the cooling tower condensate p l u m e w a s also examined

in a limited series of tests; n o obvious rainfall e n h a n c e m e n t w a s ob-

s e r v e d , though the most favorable set of data indicated enhancement along

the plume centerline of n o t m o r e than 10%. A noteworthy event during this

f i s c a l y e a r w a s the scheduling of a joint field study at B o w e n for December

1979.
 2

The W i n t e r Study of P o w e r Plant Effects (WISPE) w i l l involve Battelle

Pacific N o r t h w e s t Laboratory (PNL), Oak R i d g e N a t i o n a l Laboratory (ORNL),

and P e n n s y l v a n i a State University (PSU) in a coordinated field study at

the Plant Bowen site. The primary o b j e c t i v e s o f W I S P E are twofold:

1. D e t e r m i n a t i o n of a e r o s o l characteristics and precipitation

chemistry; airborne plume s a m p l i n g w i l l b e combined w i t h ground measure-

ments to correlate p r e c i p i t a t i o n amount and distribution w i t h airborne

particle n u m b e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n and distribution and to relate inplume sulfur

conversion ratios and p r e c i p i t a t i o n scavenging of SO2 and sulfate particles

to ground level p r e c i p i t a t i o n acidity and sulfate concentration.

2. Determination of temperature/humidity profiles; airborne measure-

ments w i l l d e t a i l the t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity characteristics of the

atmosphere and plume in the vicinity of the cooling towers and correlate

the data w i t h atmospheric and plant parameters.

Secondary objectives of this study are: (1) d e t e r m i n a t i o n of drift-drop

concentration as a f u n c t i o n of plume height, and (2) continued rainfall

scavenging measurements.

Data obtained during J u n e 1978 on drift from the m e c h a n i c a l draft

cooling towers of the P i t t s b u r g Power Plant (Pacific Gas and Electric

Company) w e r e analyzed during this year. The o b j e c t i v e of e s t a b l i s h i n g a

data base for drift d e p o s i t i o n m o d e l e v a l u a t i o n w a s met over a limited

range of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l conditions; the results probably give a reason-

able p i c t u r e of drift e m i s s i o n s and depositions during the dry, warm-to-

hot s u m m e r conditions of that area. In this same area of drift deposition,

observations at the K e y s t o n e P o w e r Plant indicated considerable discrep-

ancy b e t w e e n observed and p r e d i c t e d drift d e p o s i t i o n rates, w i t h observed

values always m u c h h i g h e r than predicted v a l u e s ; the key to explaining this

seems to be b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the w i n d velocity field b e h i n d the

tower.

Sulfur in the atmosphere due to emissions from coal-fired p o w e r sta-

tions continues to be a n a t i o n a l concern. In a d d i t i o n to the field studies

at Plant B o w e n (noted above), the M E T E R p r o g r a m has continued investigations

at K e y s t o n e into the i m p o r t a n c e of atmospheric relative h u m i d i t y and solar

radiative flux on plume s u l f u r chemistry in order to isolate and identify

 3

p r i n c i p a l chemical m e c h a n i s m s . A particularly interesting adjunct to this

study has been the examination of supplementary c o n t r o l system strategies,

whereby — through combined utilization of i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and models — a

coal fueled power plant can remain w i t h i n air quality standard limits

w h i l e burning higher sulfur coals.

Modeling of atmospheric p h e n o m e n a and the use of such models to pre-

dict real events is an aspect of the METER p r o g r a m that, while deemphasized

in favor of extending and improving the field data base, continues to re-

ceive some attention. Criteria developed for p r e d i c t i n g the probability

of snow falling from cooling-tower plumes w e r e tested against climato-

l o g i c a l data for stations distributed across the colder parts of the United

States; results w e r e sufficiently optimistic to suggest the value of a more

comprehensive study. Finally, it is recognized that the local terrain w i l l

influence the behavior of cooling tower plumes; a physical modeling study

of flow across an axisymroetric k n o l l (simulating a mechanical draft cooling

tower) established that this technique could indeed be useful for charac-

tering plume b e h a v i o r i n c o m p l e x terrains.

Overall, FY 1979 has been a productive year for the METER program.
We have seen some rainfall modification that can be associated with power
plant presence, but cannot avow conclusive significance (at least at the
heat/moisture rejection levels of Plant Bowen). We have carried out some
scoping tests on precipitation chemistry in the near-field that, while
currently inconclusive, warrant continuation; we have not been able to
"sell" this work as a necessary "initial condition" study for far-field
atmospheric sulfur characterization. The thoughts presented last year as
to "whither METER" have evoked little response. It remains our feeling
that the METER studies are important in the U.S. energy picture, and it is
frustrating to find the effort struggling to complete its first phase
rather than expanding more broadly. It is a truism to comment that now is
the time to obtain, evaluate, generalize, and disseminate the information
that will assure least deterimental impact of future generations of power
stations.
With the end of FY 1979, active participation in the METER program by
the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) and the Physical Modeling Group of
 4

the b a t t e l l e Pacific Northwest L a b o r a t o r y also ended; the contributions

of both groups to M E T E R are greatly appreciated.

The sections following d o c u m e n t the status of the s e v e r a l efforts

comprising the M E T E R program in FY 1979. The contribution of each author

is included without substantive editing.

Previous Reports in this Series

1. A . A . N. Patrinos and H. W. H o f f m a n (Compilers), Atmospheric Effects

of Nunleav Enevgu Centers (AENEC) Program Annual Technical Progress
Report for the Period July 1975-September 1976, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory Report O R N L / T M - 5 7 7 8 (April 1977).

2. (Compilers), Meteorological
A . A . N . P a t r i n o s and H. W. H o f f m a n
Effects of Thermal Energy Releases (METER) Program Annual Progress
Report, October 1976 to September 1977, Oak R i d g e N a t i o n a l Laboratory
Report ORNL/TM-6248 (August 1978).

3. A . A . N . Patrinos and H. W. H o f f m a n (Compilers), Meteorologicul

Effects of Thermal Energy Releases (METER) Program Annual Progress
Report, October 1977 to September 1978, Oak R i d g e N a t i o n a l Laboratory
Report O R N L / T M - 6 8 6 7 (June 1979).
FIELD STUDIES
 7

I. S T U D I E S AT P L A N T B O W E N : RAINFALL MODIFICATION
A N D WETFALL CHEMISTRY

A . A. N. Patrinos R. L . M i l l e r
N . C. J . Chen R- E. S a y l o r

ABSTRACT

The p r e c i p i t a t i o n studies u n d e r t a k e n by O R N L (on behalf of

M E T E R ) around the Bowen Electric Generating Plant have addressed

two major areas during FY 1979. The first is the rainfall mod-

ification i n v e s t i g a t i o n and the second is the area of precipita-

tion chemistry which represents a new d i m e n s i o n to the M E T E R -

ORNL effort.

The analysis of data from the M E T E R - O R N L Network has re-

vealed a n effect of the power plant on the f r e q u e n c y of air mass

storms in the vicinity of the plant. Precipitation chemistry

data collected both on a weekly and a storm event basis h a v e

laid the groundwork for future w e t f a l l chemistry studies and

have shown s o m e i n d i c a t i o n of a smokestack plume effect.

1. RAINFALL MODIFICATION

1.1 Introduction

T h e focus of the O R N L program on behalf of the M E T E R Program con-

tinues to be the rainfall modification s t u d y around the Bowen Electric

Generating Plant in n o r t h w e s t e r n Georgia.1 Research activities have

shifted from the e x a m i n a t i o n of National Weather S e r v i c e ( N W S ) data to the

 8

analysis of the data acquired by the METER-ORNL Precipitation Network

which has been in operation since February 1978. This report presents

some highlights of the analysis of the data from the Feb. 22, 1978 through

Feb. 28, 1979 period.

Earlier results using NWS data demonstrated the existence of a

plant-induced effect in the general downwind a r e a . ^ A control-target

statistical design w a s used coupled w i t h a preoperational-postoperational

time framework together with overall wind statistics. The spatial corre-

lation of monthly rainfall served as the test statistic in a M o n t e Carlo

randomization approach. The effect was interpreted as an increase in the

spatial variability of rainfall in the target area. More specifically

this effect could be viewed as a higher incidence of scattered rainstorms

in the plant's downwind area without an appreciable increase in the area's

rainfall volume. The suspected subtle nature of the plant's effect led to

the development of m o r e sophisticated statistical tools for the treatment

of the METER-ORNL data. One of these tools, employing the sample skewness

and kurtosis as test statistics, was applied to the data from the first

six months of operation of the METER-ORNL Network.^ The results demon-

strated a statistically significant increase in the skewness and kurtosis

of the distribution of target area rainfall. At this time considerable

effort is being devoted to the translation of this result into something

more physically tangible.

The work reported h e r e represents a m o r e fundamental approach in the

analysis of the METER-ORNL Network data. Particular attention is given to

the straightforward examination of rainfall patterns. The most signifi-

cant finding was a larger frequency of air mass storms in the immediate
 9

w e s t e r n vicinity of the plant as compared to most other areas. Viewed in

terms of predominant easterly winds for those storms, this is congruous to

the earlier r e s u ^ J ^ a n d to the currently assumed model for plume-induced

rainfall modification: the triggering mechanism.

For the statistical examination of the M E T E R - O R N L data a comprehen-

sive statistical software package was developed at O R N L . This package

includes both parametric and nonparametric tests, extensive graphics

options, and rainfall distribution transformation routines. This report

contains results from the application of two nonparametric tests (squared

rank, Wilcoxon). The results failed to reveal any significant effect at

the 5% significance level, e v e n for the case of the air mass storms.

Sensitivity tests, however, have cast some doubt on the suitability of

these tests in this investigation, suggesting that parametric techniques

might be more appropriate in this weather modification experiment,^

1.2 General Results

Details on the Bowen Electric Generating Plant, the northwestern

G e o r g i a topography, and the METER-ORNL Network (Fig. 1) can be found in

some of the earlier reports.

As mentioned in the Introduction, the results presented in this re-

port are based on data from the period Feb. 22, 1978 through Feb. 28,

1979. A total of 164 storms occurred during this period. Table 1 p r e -

sents a stratification of these storms according to type together w i t h

some pertinent statistics. N o t e the large percentage of air mass storms,

indicative of the climate of the test s i t e . These storms will receive

 10

ORNL-DWC 78-4197

I KILOMETERS

F i g . 1. The M E T E R - O R N L Precipitation Network superimposed on the

t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p of the a r e a . D o t s denote the l o c a t i o n of the raingages
w h i l e crosses represent the locations of the w i n d s e t s .
 11

Table 1. Storms over the M E T E R - O R N L Network:

F e b . 2 2 , 1978 through Feb. 28, 1979

A v e r a g e No. of
Average r a i n f a l l
Storm type N o . of storms stations w i t h
(mm)
rainfall

Stationary front 23 3.7 24

O c c l u d e d front 5 9.7 35
Col^d front 20 11.2 40
Warm front 3 27.4 49
P r e f r o n t a l stationary 6 0.5 13
P o s t f r o n t a l stationary 9 6.7 34
P r e f r o n t a l warm 3 18.8 40
P r e f r o n t a l cold 6 5.3 29
P o s t f r o n t a l cold 1 0.1 4
S q u a l l line 20 14.7 37
S q u a l l zone 8 9.8 39
Low pressure center 5 18.6 49
Air m a s s 43 1.2 15
Cold air mass 12 2.8 23

Total 164

p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n in subsequent analyses since they are the prime

candidates for m o d i f i c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to the triggering mechanism hy-

pothesis. 7 M o r e o v e r , their relatively large n u m b e r sharpens the

significance of the applied s t a t i s t i c a l tests.

T h r e e types of winds are identified for the storms: surface winds

prior to the storm, s u r f a c e w i n d s during the s t o r m , and upper a i r w i n d s .

T h e relationship b e t w e e n the position of the cooling tower p l u m e s p r i o r to

and during the storms and these w i n d s is the subject of an o n g o i n g in-

vestigation. Several simplified approaches to this problem w e r e attempted

a n d w i l l be described in the presentation of the s t a t i s t i c a l d e s i g n . Fig-

u r e 2 displays the w i n d roses of the three types of w i n d s for a l l storms,

w h i l e Fig. 3 depicts these wind roses for the a i r m a s s storms alone.

 ORNL—DWG 79-16876 ETD

Fig. 2. Witidroses of the three winds for the 164 storms.

 ORNL-DWG 79-15877 ETD

AIR MASS STORMS

Fig. 3. Windroses of the three winds for the 43 air mass storms.
Noteworthy in both cases Is the large percentage of easterly surface winds

and s o u t h w e s t e r l y upper a i r w i n d s . Figure 4 presents the contours of

total p r e c i p i t a t i o n for the entire storm data set, while Fig. 5 displays

the respective contours for the air mass storms. Figure 5 is noteworthy

because of the high just w e s t of the plant. W h e n viewed in terms of the

predominant easterly surface w i n d s , this high suggests some plant-induced

r a i n f a l l enhancement. Figure 6 p r e s e n t s the contours of precipitation

occurrence by station over the 4 3 air mass s t o r m s . The h i g h occurring

just west or the plar.t suggests a plant-induced increase in the frequency

of a i r mass storms which supports the triggering m e c h a n i s m hypothesis for

the cooling tower plumes. The h y p o t h e s i s that the surface winds govern

the motion of the c o o l i n g towsr plumes during air mass storms is fairly

plausible considering the w e l l - m i x e d state of the a t m o s p h e r e and the

absence of frontal activity d u r i n g such storms.

Figures 7 and 8 present the equivalent results for the stationary

front storms, w h i l e Table 2 displays the relevant wind d i r e c t i o n statis-

tics. Stationary front and a i r m a s s storms are of a n entirely different

n a t u r e in terms of the general a t m o s p h e r i c state. Nevertheless, the

stationary n a t u r e of the f o r m e r type is suspected of providing a fertile

environment for the action of the triggering m e c h a n i s m of the cooling

tower plumes. Figure 7 s h o w s two h i g h s on either side of the plant sup-

p o r t i n g such a h y p o t h e s i s . The h i g h l y variable w i n d s c o u p l e d with the

long d u r a t i o n of the stationary front storms r e n d e r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of

a p o s s i b l e target a r e a exceedingly difficult. Instead, the effect of the

plant should be viewed i n terms of the proximity of the two h i g h s east and

west of thn plant.

 ORNt-DWG 80-4366 ETD

ALL STORMS

(O

£
<§> >
,S>
O 'I rf
a>

MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION =
52.20 in. AT STATION 8
MINIMUM PRECIPITATION =
36.51 in. A T S T A T I O N 48
c
AVERAGT -. _CIPITATION =
44.86 in.

S T A T I O N S O P E R A T I N G = 49
AVERAGE OF STATIONS WITH
P R E C I P I T A T I O N = 44.86 in.

STATIONS WITH PRECIPITA-

T I O N = 49

Fig. 4. Contours of total precipitation for the 164 storms.

 O R N L - D W G 8 0 - 4 3 6 4 ETD

AIR MASS STORMS

m *- S
S <0

MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION -
4.01 in. AT STATION 24
MINIMUM PRECIPITATION =
0.92 in. AT STATION 11
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION *
1.99 in.
STATIONS OPERATING = 49
AVERAGE OF STATIONS WITH
PRECIPITATION = 1.99 in.
STATIONS WITH PRECIP f A -
TION = 49

Fig. 5. Contours of total precipitation for the air mass storms.

 ORNL-DWG 79-16872 ETD

FREQUENCIES FOR AIR MASS STORMS

10
12 •

Fig. 6. Contours of precipitation occurrence for the

storms.
 O R N L - D W G 8 0 - 4 3 6 3 ETD

STATIONARY FRONT STORMS

MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION =
4.83 in. AT STATION 23
MINIMUM PRECIPITATION =
2.15 in. AT STATION 6
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION -
3.32 in.
STATIONS OPERATING = 49
AVERAGE OF STATIONS WITH
PRECIPITATION = 3.32 in.
STATIONS WITH PRECIPITA-
TION = 49

Fig. 7. Contours of total precipitation for the stationary front

storms.
 ORNL-OWG 79-16873 ETD

FREQUENCIES FOR S T A T I O N A R Y FRONT STORMS

9
10 •

Fig. 8. Contours of precipitation occurrence for the stationary

front storms.
 20

T a b l e 2. Wind direction statistics for

stationary front storms

Sfc. w i n d s Sfc. w i n d s Upper-air

p r i o r to storms during storms winds

N 0 i 0
NNE 0 0 0
NE U 1 0
ENE 2 3 0
E 5 5 0
ESE 2 3 0
SE 2 2 0
SSE 0 1 1
S 0 0 5
SSW 1 1 1
SW 2 1 6
wsw 0 1 5
w 1 2 1
WNW 0 1 1
NW 4 1 1
NNW 0 0 2

23 23 23

1.3 Statistical Design

The s t a t i s t i c a l design utilized in the study is based on a control-

target area framework.® T h e s e areas are determined on the basis of wind

direction for each s t o r m . As previously mentioned, three wind directions

a r e identified f o r each storm. The target area is determined w i t h the

c h o i c e of a primary and secondary wind d i r e c t i o n and a n angle 0 w h i c h d e -

fines the spread over w h i c h the plumes are expected to have an effect.

The graphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of this discussion is presented i n Fig. 9. The

w o r k i n g physical h y p o t h e s i s for this configuration is that the cooling

tower plumes w i l l be governed by the chosen wind directions and therefore

 21

O R N L - O W G 80—4362 E T D

SECONDARY
WIND DIRECTION

SECONDARY
WIND DIRECTION
SECONDARY \ • y P , TARGET AREA
CONTROL AREA 1-v
/ / > y C ' r - t PRIMARY
WIN0 DIRECTION

v SECONDARY
CONTROL » CONTROL AREA 2
AREA

(c)

Fig. 9. Graphic representation of the determination of the control

and target areas.
 22

to a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n the target area w i l l be confined o v e r the smaller

of the a n g l e s formed by the two v e c t o r s . Figure 9 describes the choices

of target and control areas for v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of the w i n d vec-

tors. As e x p e c t e d , the target and c o n t r o l a r e a s vary from s t o r m to storm.

Two options are available for the a s s i m i l a t i o n of c o n t r o l or target pre-

cipitation: the a v e r a g e precipitation for e a c h storm c o m p u t e d f r o m the

precipitation recorded at a l l s t a t i o n s in each a r e a ( o p t i o n A ) , and the

aggregate of a l l p r e c i p i t a t i o n a m o u n t s from a l l s t a t i o n s i n e a c h a r e a (op-

tion B ) . F o r example, for a stratification involving 4 3 storms the first

o p t i o n w i l l give 4 3 d a t a p o i n t s for each area w h i l e the second w i l l

43
give J d a t a p o i n t s w h e r e i d e n o t e s the target or one of the three
3=1
c o n t r o l a r e a s ( i = l , 4 ) a n d P-jj d e n o t e s the n u m b e r of s t a t i o n s included in

the ith a r e a for the j th s t o r m . T h i s o p t i o n h a s b e e n used in previous

studies.

The r e s u l t s of two n o n p a r a m e t r i c tests applied to the M E T E R - O R N L data

a r e presented i n this r e p o r t : the W i l c o x o n rank test and the squared rank

test.^ F o r both tests the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s s t a t e s that there is no dif-

ference between target and control precipitation. This hypothesis is

tested a g a i n s t a 5% s i g n i f i c a n c e level. Three test c a s e s a r e presented.

These c a s e s a r e aimed at d e t e r m i n i n g the s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e associ-

a t e d w i t h the c o n t o u r s of t o t a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n g i v e n i n the p r e v i o u s sec-

tion. Only o p t i o n A i s used here.

Test Case A. All 164 s t o r m s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n this c a s e . The target

a r e a is d e t e r m i n e d on the basis of the s u r f a c e w i n d p r i o r to the storm and

the upper air wind, w i t h the f o r m e r being the p r i m a r y v e c t o r . The a n g l e 3

 23

is 15°. The results are presented i n Table 3. For all c o m b i n a t i o n s be-

tween the target and c o n t r o l areas, the null hypothesis is not rejected at

the 5% s i g n i f i c a n c e level.

Test Case B. This case deals with the 43 a i r mass s t o r m s . The tar-

get area is again determined on the basis of the surface w i n d prior to the

storm and the upper air w i n d , with g equal to 15°. The results are pre-

sented in Table 4. The hypothesis is again not rejected at the 5% level.

T a b l e 3. T e s t Case Aa

Rank squared test Wilcoxon test

Target and control 0.305 0.228

Target and secondary control 1 0.312 0.394
Target and secondary control 2 0.230 0.184
Control and secondary control 1 -0.011 0.156
C o n t r o l and secondary control 2 -0.048 -0.018

a
V a l u e s of the normalized test statistic for the r a n k test
comparisons between control and target area r a i n f a l l (all 164
storms). For one-tail significances of 1% and 5 % t h e values of
the normalized test statistic are 2.326 and 1.645 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Table 4. T e s t Case Ba

Rank squared test Wilcoxon test

Target and control 1.121 0.846

Target and secondary c o n t r o l 1 0.815 0.534
Target and secondary c o n t r o l 2 0.493 0.302
C o n t r o l a n d secondary control 1 -0.222 0.244
C o n t r o l and secondary c o n t r o l 2 -0.888, -0.703

V a l u e s of the normalized test statistic for the rank test

c o m p a r i s o n s between c o n t r o l and target area r a i n f a l l (43 a i r mass
storms). For one tail significances of 1% and 5% the v a l u e s of the
n o r m a l i z e d test statistic a r e 2 . 3 2 6 and 1.645 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
 24

H o w e v e r , if a n a d d i t i o n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n is performed on the data by c o n -

sidering those storms for w h i c h the mean network amount is g r e a t e r than

1 m m , the null hypothesis is rejected at the 5% level. The results are

presented in Table 5. This represents the first positive i n d i c a t i o n of a

plant-related influence of air m a s s storms w i t h i n the prescribed signifi-

cance of the rank tests.

Table 5. Test Cast

Rank squared test Wilcoxon test

T a r g e t and control 2.205^ 2.34l£

T a r g e t and secondary c o n t r o l 1 2.300^ 2.310
T a r g e t and secondary c o n t r o l 2 1.803 1.473
C o n t r o l and secondary control 1 -0.025 0.000
C o n t r o l and secondary c o n t r o l 2 -1.236 -1.273

a
V a l u e s of the normalized test statistic for the rank test
comparisons between c o n t r o l and taarget area rainfall (air-mass
storms w i t h m e a n rainfall greater than 1 mm). For one-tail sig-
nificances of 1% and 5% the values of the normalized test statis-
tic are 2 . 3 2 6 and 1.645 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

^ N u l l hypothesis rejected at 5 % level.

e
N u l l hypothesis rejected at 1% level.

Test Case C . This case examines the 2 3 stationary front storms. The

target area is determined i n the s a m e manner as the other cases. The hy-

pothesis is a g a i n not rejected at the 5% level.

A s mentioned in the Introduction, sensitivity tests o n the applied

rank tests raised q u e s t i o n s regarding the suitability of these tests in

this w e a t h e r modification experiment. The c o m p l e t e discussion of these

tests is included in the relevant reference.^ In summary, it w a s d i s c o v -

ered that the applied rank tests would demonstrate the existence of a n
 25

effect only for the case of sizable increases (or decreases) of target

area precipitation. All i n d i c a t i o n s at this time however, point toward an

effect of a less s p e c t a c u l a r nature; therefore, m o r e sophisticated

techniques, such as p a r a m e t r i c tests, may be more suitable for this

investigation.

1.4 Conclusions and Future Work

Some highlights of the analysis of the M E T E R - O R N L Network storms were

presented. This analysis is performed with the u s e of a specifically de-

signed computer s o f t w a r e package. The m a j o r conclusions reached from the

analysis of the first year data can be summarized as follows:

1. There appears to be a plant-induced increase in the number of air

mass storms in the vicinity of the plant as c o m p a r e d to other areas.

2. The nonparametric tests (rank W i l c o x o n and squared rank) h a v e proven

rather i n e f f e c t i v e in the d e m o n s t r a t i o n of effects other than sizable

increases (or d e c r e a s e s ) of target area precipitation.

It should be emphasized that these results should be viewed as tenta-

tive since they are based on the data from the first year of o p e r a t i o n of

the M E T E R - O R N L Network. This network is expected to operate for a total

of f i v e years and it is expected that the above results will be confirmed

o r refuted in future analyses w i t h a satisfactory statistical signifi-

cance. Furthermore, additional effects of a different nature c o u l d become

e v i d e n t w i t h the g r o w t h of the data base.

 26

2. WETFALL CHEMISTRY

2.1 Introduction

Some of the h i g h l i g h t s for the M e t e o r o l o g i c a l E f f e c t s of T h e r m a l

Energy R e l e a s e s (METER) Program's w e t f a l l chemistry a c t i v i t y during

FY 1979 are presented. These results i n c l u d e 4 0 weekly s a m p l e s and one

event sample, which w e r e not covered by a formal report, ORNL/TM-6930^0

o r the Program P l a n of the W i n t e r Study of P o w e r Plant E f f e c t s (WISPE)11;

thus, they deserve a s e p a r a t e documentation.

M E T E R operates a uniformly spaced network of 49 recording raingages

and six w i n d s e t s around Plant Bowen to study effects of cooling towers on

rainfall distributions. Plant Bowen, located ~ 6 5 km northwest of Atlanta,

Georgia, is a 3160-MWe coal-fired p o w e r plant with four 120-m natural-

draft cooling towers and two 300-m smokestacks. The n e t w o r k has been

equipped f o r studying p r e c i p i t a t i o n chemistry since N o v e m b e r 1978 by a

specially designed wetfall chemistry network to collect event a n d weekly

samples. The detailed descriptions and preliminary r e s u l t s have been

presented elsewhere.1®

2.2 Weekly Samples

Rainfall-activated Health and Safety Laboratory ( H A S L ) collectors

w e r e selected as the basic collection equipment. This d e c i s i o n w a s based

o n the M u l t i s t a t e A t m o s p h e r i c Power P r o d u c t i o n P o l l u t i o n Study (MAP3S).12

A l s o , e a c h site is already Instrumented w i t h a recording raingage w h i c h

provides time records of precipitation events and a s t a n d a r d precipitation

 27

measurement device (wedge-shaped r a i n g a g e ) for evaluation of the collector

efficiency.

F o u r H A S L - t y p e collectors w e r e installed at strategic locations, a s

shown in Fig. 10. The location of each collector in relation to Plant

B o w e n and the times of commencement of sampling are given in T a b l e 6. The

collector at the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l station has been in operation since N o v .

14, 1978, but installation at the T a y l o r s v i l l e site w a s delayed u n t i l Jan.

11, 1979, because of a power supply problem and a m a l f u n c t i o n i n g wetfall

collector. T h e collectors at 17 and 25, sites of the regular raingage

stations, h a v e been added recently to better cover, the probable target

areas which are defined by the surface and u p p e r air w i n d s .

The results of the analysis of the w e e k l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n s a m p l e s col-

lected by the M E T E R - O R N L w e t f a l l chemistry n e t w o r k from N o v e m b e r 1978

through August 1979 are listed in T a b l e 7. Over this period, s a m p l e s h a v e

b e e n analyzed routinely for pH, c o n d u c t i v i t y , and other major consti-

t u e n t s , selectively. T h r e e selected s a m p l e s (January 11—18, J a n u a r y

2+ 2+ + + 3+
18—25, February 1 — 8 ) h a v e been analyzed for Ca , Mg , K , Na , Al ,

Fe2+, Cd2+, Mn2+, Pb2+, Zn2+, Cl~, S O ^ T N 0 ~ - N , N H ^ — N , and P 0 ^ ~ — P.10

In Table 7, Column 1 r e p r e s e n t s the observation w e e k in w h i c h A means

meteorological station; B, the T a y l o r s v i l l e substation; C, site 17; D,

site 25. Column 2 provides the on and off times for the c o l l e c t o r s . The

elapsed time in days is given in C o l u m n 3. Station identification is

shown in Column 4 ; M E T stands for m e t e o r o l o g i c a l station a n d SUB, Taylors-

v i l l e station. C o l u m n s 5 and 6 present r a i n f a l l in inches at each site

and at the closest station of the raingage n e t w o r k . The n u m b e r of

 28

ORNL-DWG 78-4197A

0 5 10 15 20 25
KILOMETERS

Fig. 10. The M E T E R - O R N L W e t f a l l Chemistry Network.

 29

Table 6. Dates of sampling commencement

Location in
Date of
Site Code relation to _. _ n
^ _ f i r s t sample
plant B o w e n

Meteorological A 5 km N E Nov. 22, 1978

station

Taylorsville B 8 km SW Jan. 18, 1979

substation

17 C 7 km NW Aug. 30, 1979

25 D 3 km E Sept. 21, 1979

p r e c i p i t a t i o n events is given in Column 7. If the samples w e r e collected

during rain, a fractional event would result. Column 8 provides evapora-

tion in inches of water, based on climatological d a t a at the nearby Na-

t i o n a l W e a t h e r Service stations. The rest of the columns give measure-

-1 2- -1 -
m e n t s of pH, c o n d u c t i v i t y (ymho cm ), SO4 (mg l i t e r ), NO3 — N (mg

liter and N H * — N (mg liter Furthermore, a —1 signifies a missing

s a m p l e w i t h the p o s s i b l e reasons given in the c o m m e n t column; a — 2 denotes

e i t h e r no rain or insufficient s a m p l e for a n a l y s i s ; and a zero m e a n s n o

s a m p l e was analyzed.

2.3 Event Samples

The uvent s a m p l e w a s collected o n A p r i l 2 5 , 1979. Due to l i m i t e d

m a n p o w e r only ten p o l y e t h y l e n e f u n n e l - b o t t l e - p o l e collectors w e r e in-

stalled. These c o l l e c t o r s w e r e deployed m a n u a l l y at regular raingage

s i t e s i n the i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y of Plant Bowen, e n c l o s i n g a n a r e a of a b o u t

13 x 13 km, and w e r e exposed eight hours b e f o r e the onset of the storm.

 Table 7. METER-ORNL wetfall chemistry experiment

HASL HilSfUlf SAMP1ES

R A I N F A L L IN I N C H E S
C O N D U C T I V I T Y IN BICRCttHC PER C M
S 0 4 , K 0 3 - N , A N D N H 4 - N IN fllLlIGEAH PEE LITER

SU4 N0 3-tf N H 4 - N CC.1«ENT

OBS PERIOD

111478 112276 9 M E T - . 0 0 a. 75 1.00 0 . 0 7 4. JJ 2 J.o J.O O.d a. J

1A
2A 112278 1 1 3 0 7 8 9 B E 1 - .00 1. 70 4 . 0 0 0.06 4 . 3 1 21. 1 0.0 o.c 0.0
3A 113073 120778 a JIET— . 0 0 2. 00 3. JO 0 . 0 5 4 . 6 0 11-9 J. 0 0. 0 0.0
1.00 0 . 0 4 4 . 5 0 1C.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
4A 120778 12147J 3 M E T - . 0 0 1. 50
0.0
121478 122178 3 HET- .00 0. 85 2 . 0 0 0 . 0 1 u. 32 23.0 0.0 0.0
5A -1.0 0.0 0. 0 NC SAflPLE TAKfcfl
6A 122178 1 1 0 7 9 21 tfET- .00-•1. 00 0.0 0.32- • 1 . 0 0 0.0
7A 11179 11879 8 M E T - .00 0. 4 5 3.00 0.05 4.43 22.0 1.53 0 . 2 8 C 0.0
11679 J. 00 0. 05 4 . 4 0 22-3 1.46 0.366 0.0 C A M A U E TO W h P'J t G A G E
11179 8 S U B - .00 0. 50
7B
8A 11879 12679 9 M E 1 - .00 2 . 70 3.00 0. 10 4. 42 18. 1 1 . 5 7 0 . 2 3 5 0.0
11879 12679 9 S U B - . 0 0 2. 6 0 3 . 0 0 0. 10 4 . 4 8 1 8 . 5 1.51 0 . 178 0.0
8B 0.03- • 2 . 0 0 -2.0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0.0 INSUtHCIc.NI SA.^LU
9A 12679 20179 7 tiET- .00 0 . 0 0.0
20179 0 . 0 J- •2.00 - 2 . 0 0.0 0.0 ).0 INSUFFICIENT SArtPLE
9D 12679 7 S U Q - .00 J. a 0.0
10 A 20179 2 0 8 7 9 .1ET- .00 1. 45 2.00 1 . 0 0 4.63
• 15.5 1. 70 0. 152 0 . Cb6
10B 20179 20879 3 S U B - , 0 0 1. 50 2.00 • 1 . 0 0 4.72 11. 1 1.00 0 . 1 4 9 0.05 3
11A 20879 21579 9 M E T - .00 0. 10 2.00- • 1 . 0 0 J . 9 ) 08.6 0 . 0 0 . 0 0. J
11B 20979 21579 9 S U D - .00 0 . 07 2.00 • 1 . 0 0 3.80 80. 1 0 . 0 0 . 0 0.0
12A 21579 2 2 2 7 9 8 3 E T - . 0 0 1. 6 0 3.00 0.03 4.35 29.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 ICE STC&S U)
21579 22279 2 . 0 0 0 . 0 3 4. 20 3 2 . 0 0. 0 0.0 0.0 ICE STOltR o
12B 8 S U B - .00 1. 5 0
13A 22279 30179 8 fltT- . 0 0 3. 20 6 . 0 0 0 . 11 4 . 5 2 16. 1 0 . 0 0.0 0.0
13B 22279 30179 8 S U B - .oc 2. 0 0 6 . 0 0 0. 11 4 . 4 8 19.4 0 . 3 0.0 0-1
14 A 30179 30879 8 M E T - . 0 0 5. 25 1. 00 0 . .04 4.67 13.2 0.0 0. 0 0.0
14B 30179 30879
8 S U B - .00 5 . 6 0 2.00 0 04 4.60
0.08 4 . 2 5 16.7 0 . 0 0.0 0.0 tiECGE j A U Z Diii.\ SiSSiNiJ
3 0879 31479 H E T - .00 0 . 6 0 3.00 0 J 0.9 0 - 0 0.0 0-0
15A 31479 7 . 0 0 4.27
30879 7 S U B - .00 0. 45 3 . 0 0 0. 11- • 2 . 0 0 29.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
15 B 31479 32279 0.0 I N S U F H C I t H T ur.lt'LE
16 A 9 M E T - . 0 0 0 . 20 2 . 0 0 0. 11 •2. 0<> - 2 . 0 0. 0 0.0
16B
31479 32279
9 S O B - .00 0. 10 1.00 0.08 4 . J J - 2 - 0 0. 0 0.0 0.0 I N S U r I C I E N I SAMPLE
17A
32279 32879
32879 7 M E T - . 0 0 0. 5 0 3 . 0 0 0.08 4 . 8 0 - 1 . 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
32279 7 SUB- . 0 0 0. 5 5 2 . 0 0 0. 14 4. 52 - 1 . 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
17B
ISA
32879 40379
7 M H T - .00 4 . 7 5 2 . 0 0 0. 14 4. 59 19. 1 0. 0 0.0 0.0
32879 40379 2 - 0 0 0 . 2 1 4„ 52 1b.3 0 . 0 0.0 0.0
18B 41279 7 SIJ3- . 0 0 5. 10 SAilPIE CCi.Lfcl.TED tfJalNi; Em IK
40379 1 . 1 0 0.21 4 . 5 0 18.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
19A 40379 4 1 2 7 9 13 M E 1 — .03 1. 9 5 21.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 SAMPLii (JCLLECTFL) JlJ'uiNG HAIH
19B 41279 4 1 9 7 9 10 M E T - .00 1. 30 2. 10 0 . 2 4 4 . 9 2
8.0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0.0
20A 41979 8 KET- .00 4 . 25 0 . 9 0 0.24- •1.00
20 B
41279
42579 8 S U U - .00 4 . 60 0.90 0 . 2 2 4.97 - 1 . 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 GAvit flALFUNLl ICh
21A
41979
41979 42579 7 H E I - .00 0. 57 0 . 3 3 0 . 2 2 4. 70 8.1 0 . 0 0 . 0 0.0
21B 7 S U B - .00 0. 9 b 0 . 5 0 0. 18 •1.00 10. 4 0 . 0 0.0 0.0
42579 50379 - 1 . 0 0.0 0.0 UO aAHtLE TAKEN
22 A 50 3 7 9 9 M E I - . 0 0 1. 2 8 0 . 6 7 0. 18- • 1 . 0 0 0.0
22B
42579
50379 50979 9 SIJ U— . 0 0 1. 05 0 . 5 0 0. 14 4. 15 - 1 . 0 0 . 0 0. 0 0.0 NU SAcU'LE 1 A S c N
23A 50979 7 M £ T - . 0 0 0. 2 5 3 . 0 0 0 . 1 4 4. 17 30.8 0.3 0.0 0.0
50379
23B 50979 51779 7 S U B - . 0 0 0. 42 5 . 0 0 0 . 2 0 4. 23 34.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
24A 50979 51779 9 flET- .00 0. 3 5 2 . 0 0 0.20 4 . 5 0 34.0 0-0 o.c 0.0
2»B 52479 9 S U B - . 0 0 1. 80 3 . 0 0 0 . 19 4. 10 18.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
51779 0.0
25A 51779 52479 9 M E T - . 0 0 1. 7 5 6.00 0.19 - 1 . 0 0 47.0 0.0 0.0
25B 52479 53179 3 SUE . 7 0 1. 5 5 5 . 0 0 U. 14 4. 30 - 1 . 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 UA«S U t l S u fcttrtlKil)
26A 52479 53179 8 « E T - .00-•1. 0 0 - 1 . 0 0 0 . 1 4 4 . 3 0 24.7 o.c 0.0 0.0
26B 53179 60679 8 S U B 2 . 2 0 2. 0 5 5.0 3 0.0 4.00 24. 1 0.0 0.0 0.0
27A 7 M E T 0 . 9 0 0 . 85 2.00 49.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
 31

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 32

T h e storm started at 7:00 a.m., A p r i l 25, and ended at 12:00 noon, April

26. However, the collectors were covered and retrieved at 6:30 p.m.,

A p r i l 25, c o v e r i n g approximately the first one-third of the event both in

time and v o l u m e .

T h e r a i n f a l l distribution per event as shown in Fig. 11 over the en-

tire n e t w o r k has a minimum of 35.6 mm in the North and a m a x i m u m of 8 3 . 8 2

mn. in the S o u t h , but the rain is relatively uniform over areas where the

ten c o l l e c t o r s w e r e deployed. The average rainfall w a s about 17 m m for

the first one-third of the event, w i t h a coefficient of v a r i a t i o n of 12%.

For this event, the pH at all sites (Fig. 1 2 ) is about the same, with

values n e a r 4 . 9 5 at all but one site, which had a depressed value of 4.21.

ORNL-DWG 7 9 - 6 5 8 9 ETD

H 8 0

Fig. 11. R a i n f a l l amount distribution for the storm of Apr. 25,

1979.
 33

ORNL-DWG 79-6080R ETD

4.95i J V^
4.9
4 97 ^CARTERSVILLE
PLANT o

0 5 10 4.7
o 4.9 5.08
KILOMETERS

• •
<jcic
CEDARTOWN

F i g . 12. Rainfall pH values for the s t o r m of A p r . 25, 1979.

This s i t e is 4 km downwind from P l a n t B o w e n i n r e l a t i o n to a n E N E surface

wind which was determined by a nearby windset. Plume direction was also

determined visually during t h e event and a g r e e d w i t h the w i n d s e t reading.

S i m i l a r l y , the c o n d u c t i v i t y (Fig. 1 3 ) at a l l s i t e s w a s f a i r l y uniform,

with a value of 8 vonho c m - ^ except at the same s i t e m e n t i o n e d above,

which had an e l e v a t e d v a l u e of 2 9 ymho cm"*.

Because the r e s u l t s showed a l o w e r p H and h i g h e r conductivity at this

2-

downwind site, t h e r a i n s a m p l e s w e r e f u r t h e r analyzed for SO4, NO3,

and NH4 ( T a b l e 8 ) at two sites ( o n e 3 km u p w i n d of the p l a n t , t h e other

4 km downwind). No differences in N O 3 a n d N H 4 w e r e detected between

2-

these sites, b u t the S O 4 content was approximately double at the down-

wind site.
 34

ORNL-DWG 79-6081R ETD

• •

ROME„ • •

8.0
7.8
1
V
*
PLANT 8.1
^ARTERSVILLE

• 29.0. ® •
0 5 10 10.4
• o 8.1
• 7.2
• 8.1 • •
KILOMETERS

CEDARTOWN
• •

F i g . 13. Rainfall c o n d u c t i v i t y values for the s t o r m o f A p r . 25,

1979.

2 - -
Table 8. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of S O 4 , N O 3 ,
and Nfty-ion (mg l i t e r - ! ) f o r the
event s a m p l e of A p r i l 25, 1979

2- +
Site SO4 NO3-N NH4-N

U p w i n d (~3 k m ) 0.98 0.10 0.90

Downwind (~4 k m ) 1.98 0.11 0.90

In summary, the weekly samples of pH, c o n d u c t i v i t y , a n d rain volume

showed variable results, with no consistent pattern. This suggests the

need f o r event sampling to minimize variable winds, variable rain volume,

and m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e effects often associated with weekly samples. Results

of limited chemical analyses on a single event sampled around Plant Bowen

 35

suggest the p r e s e n c e of a m e a s u r a b l e effect of the power plant plume on pH

and specific conductance of rain collected downwind and w i t h i n 4 km of the

smokestack. Rain s a m p l e s collected in the target area w e r e significantly

l o w e r in ph and h i g h e r in specific conductance than samples collected in

other areas.

2.4 Future Work

The next m a j o r activity in the area of w e t f a l l chemistry was the

WISPE (Winter Study of Power Plant E f f e c t s ) joint field study in D e c e m b e r

1979 which w i l l be the subject of a separate report. Based o/; the c o n c l u -

sions of this study several m e d i u m - s c a l e wetfall chemistry experiments are

planned for the FY 1981 and FY 1982. These w i l l employ the a u t o m a t i c wet-

fall collectors w h i c h were used during the W I S P E joint effort.

 36

REFERENCES

1. A. A. N . Patrinos and H. W. Hoffman, Meteorological E f f e c t s of Ther-

mal Energy Releases (METER) Annual Progress Report, October 1977—

September 1978, ORNL/TM-6867 (1979).

2. A. A . N . Patrinos, N . C . J. Chen, and R. L. M i l l e r , "Spatial Cor-

relations of Monthly R a i n f a l l : Applications in Climatology and

W e a t h e r M o d i f i c a t i o n E x p e r i m e n t s , " J. Appl. M e t e o r . , 18, 719—732

(1979).

3. A. A» N. Patrinos a n d K . 0. Bowman, "Weather M o d i f i c a t i o n from C o o l -

ing T o w e r s : A Test Based on the D i s t r i b u t i o n a l P r o p e r t i e s of R a i n -

f a l l , " J. Appl. M e t e o r . , (to appear March, 1980).

4. A. A. N. Patrinos, R. L. Miller, and R. S. Saylor, "Power Plant

Induced Rainfall M o d i f i c a t i o n : Results of the First Year of a Field

Study," J. Appl. M e t e o r . , (submitted for publication, February,

1980).

5. R. L . Miller, R. E. Saylor, and A. A. N. P a t r i n o s , The METER-ORNL

Precipitation Network: From Design to Data Analysis, 0RNL/TM-6523

(1978).

6. R. L. Miller, A. A. N. Patrinos, and R. E. Saylor, Storms Over the

METER-ORNL Precipitation Network: The First Six Months, 0RNL/TM-6883

(1979).

7. F . A . Huff, "Potential A u g m e n t a t i o n of P r e c i p i t a t i o n from Cooling

T o w e r Effluents," B u l l . A m e r . M e t e o r . Soc. 53, 6 3 9 - 6 4 4 (1972).

8. F . A . Huff and S. A . Changnon, J r . , "Precipitation M o d i f i c a t i o n by

M a j o r ' U r b a n A r e a s , " Bull. A m e r . M e t e o r . Soc. 54, 1220-1232

(1973).
 37

9. P. W. Mielke, "Squared Rank Test A p p r o p r i a t e to Weathf i.cation

Cross-Over D e s i g n , " T e c h n o m e t r i e s , 16, 13—16 (1974).,

10. N. C. J. C h e n and A. A. N. Patrinos, Feasibility of Conducting

Wetfall Chemistry Investigations Around the Bowen Power Plant,

0RNL/TM-6930 (1979).

11. A. A. N. P a t r i n o s , Winter Study of Power Plant Effects, Meteorolog-

ical E f f e c t s of T h e r m a l Energy R e l e a s e s M o n t h l y Progress Report,

ORNL/METER/MR-79-11 (1979).

12. M. C. MacCracken, The Multistate Atmospheric Power Production Pol-

lution Study —MAP3S, P r o g r e s s Report for FY 1977 and FY 1978,

DOE/EV-0040, UC-11, UC-90, (July, 1979).

 39

II.A. DRIFT FROM MECHANICAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS

Summary of Results

N. S. Laulainen*

ABSTRACT

A summary of results of a comprehensive experiment to study drift from

mechanical draft cooling towers is presented. The experiment was conducted
at the PG&E Pittsburg Power Plant during June 1978. The objective of the
experiment was to establish a data base for use in drift deposition model
validation. The objective was met over a limited range of meteorological
conditions by the simultaneous measurement of cooling tower source emission
parameters, meteorological variables and drift deposition patterns. Source
measurements are summarized for seven test runs while deposition results
are given for six test runs.

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, considerable research effort has been directed towards

understanding the environmental and meteorological effects of power plant
cooling systems. An important element of this research is the study of
drift from cooling towers. An essential step in the prediction and mitigation
of drift effects is the modeling and prediction of drift dispersion patterns
and concentrations. While a number of analytical models have been formulated
to do this, there are little data available to validate and improve these
models.

A comprehensive experiment to study emissions, transport and downwind

deposition of drift from a mechanical draft cooling tower was conducted at
the PG&E oil-fired Pittsburg Power Plant at Pittsburg, CA during the two week
period June 12-26, 1978. The purpose of the study was to develop a data
base which can be used for validation of drift deposition models.

•Atmospheric Sciences Department, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory,

Richland, WA.
 40

The key aspects of the study were to measure concurrently the character-
istics of the drift droplets emitted from the tower, the ambient meteorological
conditions responsible for the transport and dispersion of the drift, and
the downwind deposition patterns and near-surface air concentrations of the
drift. The source characteristics, including updraft air temperature and
velocity profiles, and the meteorological data provide inputs to the models.
The measured deposition patterns serve as comparisons to model outputs.

Source characterization measurements were performed by Environmental

Systems Corporation (ESC, Knoxville, TN) under Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) sponsorship. Meteorological and surface deposition
measurements were carried out by Pacifi c Northwest Laboratory (PNL).

A discussion of experiment design and a presentation of preliminary

results are found in earlier Annual Reports (Laulainen, 1978; Laulainen,
1979). This report summarizes the results of the experiment. A detailed
discussion of the experiment and results is available elsewhere (Laulainen,
et al., 1979).

2. EXPERIMENTAL

A total of eight test runs plus a limited near tower test were carried
out during the June drift study at Pittsburg, CA. Downwind deposition
measurements were coordinated with ESC's source measurements on seven
different, tests. An eighth test was conducted with no concurrent source
measurements. Limited droplet measurements were made on the fan deck of a
single tower to examine near field deposition during a ninth and final test.
The tests were divided into two-tower operation (three tests), Tower 7-2
alone (two tests), and Tower 7-1 alone (three tests).

Intensive measurements of a single cell during a specific test run

were made along with limited measurements of reference cells on each tower.
Droplet size distributions and drift flux profiles were determined using
sensitive papers (SP) and a light scattering, droplet counting system (PILLS).
Additional droplet size distribution data were acquired using a special photo-
graphic technique. Mineral mass fluxes were determined with an isokinetic
 41

(IK) sampler. Updraft velocity profiles were measured with a gill anemometer
while the air temperatures were obtained with standard precision thermistors.

Meteorological data were collected at two levels from an instrumented

10 m tower upwind of the cooling towers during the period June 16-25, 1978.
Temperature (dry- and wet-bulb), u, v, and w components of the wind were
recorded continuously onto a seven track magnetic tape at five minute inter-
vals over the experimental period.

A tethered balloon system provided vertical profiles of temperature,

moisture and horizontal wind speed and direction within the vicinity of
the cooling towers as well as in the upwind direction- Profiling was per-
formed from the surface up to as high as 400 m on one occasion. The bulk
of the profiles extended up to only 100 m. During the experimental period,
the tethered balloon system was flown on only seven days (June 15, 16, 17, 21,
23, 24 and 25). Its operation was limited by high winds ( 10 m s 1 ). The
system was interfaced with an HP-97 calculator and provided print-out onto
paper tape of time, pressure, height, temperature, relative humidity,
mixing ratio, wind speed and direction and potential temperature.

Downwind drift deposition patterns were determined using sensitive

papers (SP) and deposition pans distributed in arcs about the cooling towers.
In addition, untreated filter papers were also exposed. These latter papers
can be examined either as additional deposition receptors for further chemical
analysis, or developed for Cl ion using Ag NC>3 (the papers treated in this
manner should proeuce stains similar to those found on the SP's). At
selected locations a rotating arm sampler with sensitive papers attached
was used to determine near surface air concentrations of drift. Canal and
basin water samples were collected regularly during test runs.

3. RESULTS

Of the eight test runs conducted during the June 1978 drift study, only
six were used in the evaluation of downwind deposition patterns, while seven
were used to establish a representative source emission rate.
 42

Meteorological conditions were quite windy. The winds, though persistently

from the westerly sector, were more intense during the morning hours than the
previous June climatology would have indicated. Only two test runs were made
1
where the wind speed could be classified as 5 m s or less. The other tests
were carried out under conditions where wind speeds ranged from 5 to 10 in s \
A summary of the test runs and average meteorological conditions is found in
Table 1. The test run sequence number was assigned in order of analysis
rather than in chronological order.

TABLE 1. Summary of Test Runs and Average Meteorological

Conditions During the June 1978 Pittsburg Drift
Study

Wind
Relative Wind
Speed
Run Temperature Humidity Direction
Date No. (°c) (%) (ms ) (°) Comments
6-15 3 23.6 43 6.6 292 Both towers
6-16 1 18.4 55 4.8 269 Both towers
6-17 2 19.7 57 3.9 265 Tower 7-1 only
6-18 5 16.9 63 7.1 241 Tower 7-3 only
6-20 8 13.5 85 7.6 242 Tower 7-2 only
6-21 4 18.3 65 5.7 246 Tower 7-2 only
6-22 6 16.8 66 6.4 248 Both towers
6-24 7 16.7 61 7.7 248 Tower 7-1 only
6-25 X 15.9 65 5.4 248 Tower 7-1 only

(1) Source characterization

Average plant and cooling tower operational parameters obtained by ESC
during the drift study are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Although most tests
were conducted in the morning, the tower operating parameters remained
reasonably uniform. The stability in operating conditions was mainly attribut-
able to steady plant load and a rise in wet-bulb temperature of typically
4°C or less durinq the test. The associated rise in tower operating equili-
brium was typically 4 to 5°C each test day (about 5 hr duration). Because
 43

TABLE 2. Plant Operational Data

Water Temperatures ( ° C ) Avg Ambient

Time (PST) P l a n t Load 1 Condenser 2 Canal Temperature(°C
Date Start Stop (MWe) Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Drybulb Wetbulb

6-15 1130 1610 517 26.2 34. 3 33..3 25.,5 23. ,9 16.3

6-16 0630 1115 682 25.6 36. 5 35..7 25..5 20.,9 14.6

6-17 0630 1130 493 24.6 32..6 32..0 24..6 21..6 17.6

6-18 0630 1215 504 24.2 32.,3 31.,6 24..0 18..9 14.1

6-20 0745 1230 518 24.1 32..2 31..5 24..1 19..0 14.8

6-21 0730 1200 416 23.5 30..3 30,.3 23 .9 20 .3 16.2

6-22 0700 1130 512 24.5 32..8 32..0 24..1 20,.0 15.1

6-24 0700 1200 511 22.8 31..1

6-25 0730 0900 509 29.1 37 .2

A v e r a g e , PG&E P l a n t Hour or Demand Log, Instantaneous Net g e n e r a t i o n

a t 1/2 - 1 hr i n t e r v a l s .
z
A v e r a g e , PG&E P l a n t Hour o r Demand Log, condenser c i r c u l a t i n g water
temperatures.

p l a n t load w a s held essentially constant during the tests, variations in

cold w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e for the test cell and tower closely paralleled those

of the hot w a t e r temperature.

Drift e m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are b a s e d upon d a t a derived from updraft

air speed, temperature, m i n e r a l and liquid d r i f t m a s s emission measurements

from four cells o f T o w e r 7-1 and three cells of Tower 7-2. The velocity

p r o f i l e for each cell exhibited the double-lobed structure c o m m o n to fan

3 -1
driven flows. Calculated v o l u m e t r i c a i r flow rates w e r e 557 ± 17 m s ,
1
w h i c h corresponds to an average
3 updraft air velocity o f 7 . 1 1 0 . 2 m s for

a cell exit area of 7 7 . 8 m . Temperature profiles, in general, reflected

the increase i n a m b i e n t temperature through the day and v a r i e d from cell to

cell, w i t h w e t - and dry-bulb temperatures, as expected, identical w i t h i n

sensor accuracy.
 44

TABLE 3. Cooling Tower Operational Data

Water Temperature (°C)

Water Fan Test
Time (PST) Tower Operating Flow Power 3 All Cells Test Cells Cell
Date Start Stop ID Cells1 (ma/s) <kw) Hot Cold Hot Cold' 1 ID

6-15 1130 1610 7-1 12 9.5 153 33.4 25.0 33.3 23.7 7
7-2 10 10.4 151 32.2 27.3 — — —

6-16 0630 1115 7-1 12 9.5 155 35.6 24.5 35.6 26.5 12
7-2 10 10.4 154 34.6 27.6 — — —

6-17 0630 1130 7-1 12 9.5 153 32.0 23.9 32.0 22.9 3
7-2 0

6-18 0630 1215 7-1 12 9.5 156 31.6 22.8 31.6 23.9 9
7-2 0

6-20 0745 1230 7-1 0 — — — — — — —

7-2 10 10.4 156 31.2 25.2 31.5 22.5 7

6-21 0730 1200 7-1 0 — — — — — — —

7-2 10 10.4 151 29.9 24.9 30.0 24.7 12

6-22 0700 1130 7-1 12 9.5 155 32.1 23.5 — — —

7-2 10 10.4 154 31.4 25.6 31.3 23.7 3

6-24 0700 1200 7-1

7-2
11
0
9.5 M55 25.8 21.7
: :
6-25 0730 0900 7-1 11 9.5 M55 <30.5 24.1 — — —

7-2 0 — — — — — — —

J
C e l 1 4 on 7 - 1 , C e l l s 5 , 1 0 , 13 on 7 - 2 not o p e r a t i n g , c e l l 12 on 7 - 1
out on 6 - 2 4 , 6 - 2 5 .
2
A v e r a g e , PG&E Cooling Tower Data Logger paper t a p e printout.
3
Average fan power per c e l l a t the fan based on v o l t - a m p e r e r e a d i n g s ,
f a n e f f i c i e n c y o f about 0 . 9 2 , ambient p s y c h r o m e t r i c s t a t e and o t h e r
c o o l i n g tower o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s .

Mineral concentration of the cooling tower c i r c u l a t i n g w a t e r increased

d r a m a t i c a l l y during the field test. Sodium ion c o n c e n t r a t i o n s derived from

chemical a n a l y s i s of circulating w a t e r samples collected b y E S C and P N L are

shown in F i g u r e 1. A l s o it appeared from the PNL s a m p l e s that sodium con-

centration w a s h i g h e s t at the b e g i n n i n g of a test run, early in the m o r n i n g ,

and d e c r e a s e d to lower v a l u e s toward the end of the e x p e r i m e n t . While there

w a s g e n e r a l agreement b e t w e e n the E S C and P N L values, some large discrepancies

w e r e a l s o apparent, especially for the data o f 6 - 2 2 - 7 8 . T h e P N L analysis of

 45

900 -
•
07
o ESC BASIN (HOT)
•
PNL BASIN (COLD)
A PNL CANAL (HOT)
ESC BASIN (HOT)/
PNL ANALYSIS
PG&E

%
£

• vo
• A•

• •a
V A
O
•
0
%
•
A
1
6° D
A
h S)

v
I • I • I • I • I • I . I • I • I • I 1 I • I • I • I • I •
12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24
6-15 I 6-16 | 6-17 I 6-18 | 6-19 I 6-20 | 6-21 I 6-22 I 6-23 6-24 I
SAMPLE COLLECTION TIME (PDT)

F I G U R E 1. Sodium Ion Concentration of the C o o l i n g Tower Circulating

Water as a Function o f Sample C o l l e c t i o n Time and Day. The
PG&E V a l u e is Calculated from a T o t a l Salt Concentration,
Assuming that N a + is 34% of the Salts in Seawater

the s a m p l e s taken b y E S C w e r e not consistent w i t h e i t h e r the ESC or PNL

a n a l y s e s of their own samples, respectively. A n explanation to account for

all of the observed changes in sodium concentration during a given test run

can b e attributed to t i d a l action in Suisun B a y . Incoming tides w o u l d b r i n g

in saline w a t e r from S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y w h i l e o u t g o i n g tides w o u l d result in

d i l u t i o n b y fresh river w a t e r .
 46

Based on the analysis of the IK s a m p l e s , the sodium m a s s emission rates

of the seven characterized cells varied in the range 1380 to 3890 pg s

++ +
The average ratio of Mg to N a e m i s s i o n r a t e s w a s 0 . 1 1 ± 0.02, compared

to the b a s i n w a t e r concentration ratio of 0.15 ± 0.01. No explanation for

this d i f f e r e n c e is a p p a r e n t .
If no evsporation of d r o p l e t s o c c u r r e d in the fill region, then the
+ +
mineral (Na ) m a s s emxssion rates coupled w i t h the b a s i n w a t e r m i n e r a l (Na )

concentration y i e l d a liquid m a s s emission rate in the range 6 . 8 to 18.2 g s

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g range o f v a l u e s of liquid m a s s emission from a n a l y s i s o f

1
SP d r i f t d r o p l e t spectra w e r e 2.6 to 8.2 g s . The ratio of IK to SP liquid

m a s s emission v a l u e s v a r i e s from 1.3 to 6.2 w i t h an a v e r a g e v a l u e of 2.8,

indicating that e v a p o r a t i o n effects w i t h i n the fill may b e significant and

that the m i n e r a l concentration o f the drift droplets is higher than that o f

the circulating water (see Schrecker et al., 1975 for a d i s c u s s i o n of similar

findings in other m e a s u r e m e n t p r o g r a m s ) . T h e drift and m i n e r a l m a s s emission

data are s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 4.

A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e m i s s i o n r a t e p e r cell w a s c a l c u l a t e d b y E S C using a

w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e of those c e l l s judged d u r i n g a p r e t e s t survey to h a v e high,

m e d i u m or low e m i s s i o n s . The emission rate p e r cell w a s found to b e 4 . 8 g s

resulting in a total e m i s s i o n rate of 124 g s if all 26 cells are operating

The t o t a l e m i s s i o n rate c o r r e s p o n d s to a d r i f t fraction of 0 . 0 0 0 6 % for a

total c i r c u l a t i n g w a t e r flow rate o f 20 m 3 s The m e a s u r e d d r i f t rate is

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h results o f other m e a s u r e m e n t p r o g r a m s o n m o d e r n cooling

towers that h a v e current d r i f t e l i m i n a t o r design.

(2) Meteorology

M e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w e r e quite similar during the t e s t p e r i o d .

G e n e r a l l y fair w e a t h e r p r e v a i l e d w i t h clear skies, w a r m t e m p e r a t u r e s and

m o d e r a t e to h i g h w i n d s . Since all the test runs, except for test r u n 3,

6 - 1 5 - 7 8 , w e r e conducted d u r i n g the m o r n i n g hours, surface temperatures

increased from an average low v a l u e of a b o u t 15°C at the b e g i n n i n g o f a

test run to an average high o f about 23°c at the end of it. Relative

h u m i d i t i e s decreased from ^ 7 5 % to ^ 5 0 % d u r i n g the same time p e r i o d . Winds

generally increased b y 1 to 3 m s w i t h a n average v a l u e d u r i n g the test

1
period of about 6 m s . W i n d d i r e c t i o n w a s from the w e s t (270°) d u r i n g
 TABLE 4. Pittsburg Plant Cooling Tower Drift and Mineral Mass

Emission Rates

Reference Cel1
Data Above 90 urn
(„a s - 1 ) IK BdsecF SP-Based Ratio of DME7
;
Test Cell Pretest + + DME3 DME3 IK to MMD1' Rate MMD1'
Date (Tower C e l l ) Rank Na Mg (gs-1) 1 s-1) SP DME3 (pm) (g s - i ) (mil)
6-15 1-7 Medium 1540 192 16.0 2.59 6.2 73 4.70 720
6-16 1-12 Medium 1910 171 18.2 4.57 4.0 785
6-17 1-3 High 1830 194 14.7 6.76 2.2 721
6-18 1-9 Low 1380 157 6.77 4.23 1.6 638
6-20 2-7 Medium 2650 268 9.64 4.59 2.1 81.9 6.48 503
5
6-21 2-12 High 3670s 523 10.8 8.17 1.3 507
6-22 2-3 Medium 3890 294 8.34 4.08 2.0 692
J.4. 4-
Mg /Na 0.11 i 0.02

1
MME = Mineral Mass Emission.
C a l c u l a t e d using assumption that sodium concentration of d r i f t d r o p l e t s equals t h a t of
c i r c u l a t i n g water.
3
DME = D r i f t Mass Emission.
l,
MMD = Mass Median Diameter.
5
Based on i n t e r p o l a t e d basin water concentration values.
 48

the first t h r e e days, b u t w a s from the W S W (^245°) for the remainder of

the teot p e r i o d . Standard d e v i a t i o n s of w i n d d i r e c t i o n w e r e quite low,

typically <10°-

A v e r a g e d values of dry-bulb t e m p e r a t u r e , relative h u m i d i t y , and w i n d

speed and d i r e c t i o n w e r e computed and synthesized from d a t a obtained from

the 10-m m e t e o r o l o g i c a l tower, tethered b a l l o o n system and the PG&E on-plant

meteorological facility. V e r t i c a l p r o f i l e s of t e m p e r a t u r e , wind and relative

humidity w e r e also derived from the tethered-balloon system measurements.

Generally, w i n d speeds w e r e too g r e a t to use the eystem e f f e c t i v e l y . Some

estimate of atmospheric stability m a y b e m a d e from the t e m p e r a t u r e and wind

profiles. Except for the later m o r n i n g h o u r s of 6 - 1 7 - 7 8 , the atmosphere in

the first 100 m could b e classified as unstable, thus tending to promote

vertical m i x i n g . Evidently on those days for which no b a l l o o n flights could

be m a d e b e c a u s e of excessive s u r f a c e and near surface w i n d speeds, the

atmosphere w a s also u n s t a b l e .

(3) Drift deposition

(a) Droplet deposition p a t t e r n s . A typical result o f the droplet stain

analysis is shown in F i g . 2 for test run 1. Total d r i f t m a s s w a s found b y

s u m m i n g the m a s s contribution from e a c h size interval. T h e range of uncer-

tainty in the total m a s s is the r e s u l t of two different m a s s estimates.

The u p p e r m a s s bound arises from u s i n g a calibration curve for droplets

i m p a c t i n g at normal incidence at their settling v e l o c i t y and assuming that

the stain w i d t h is identical to a c i r c u l a r stain d i a m e t e r and no correction

for the s t r e a k s not all b e i n g aligned in the same d i r e c t i o n o n the SP. The

lower m a s s b o u n d uses calibration curves for droplets i m p a c t i n g at oblique

incidence and an estimated c o r r e c t i o n for streaks not aligned along the

p r e f e r r e d m e a s u r e m e n t axis. T h e u p p e r bound h a s roughly twice the m a s s of

the lower b o u n d .

In the example shown in F i g . 2, b o t h towers v/ere o p e r a t i n g . T h e drift

plume c e n t e r l i n e appeared to lie b e t w e e n 90° and 100° c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w i n d s

from 270°. Arc 0 is referenced to T o w e r 7 - 2 while the o t h e r a r c s are

referenced to Tower 7-1. T h e curve for arc 1 shows, in a d d i t i o n to the m a i n

p e a k at 95°, a smaller p e a k at ^ 1 6 0 ° . If this p o r t i o n o f the arc 1 curve is

referenced instead to T o w e r 7 - 2 , the p e a k shifts o v e r to 1 1 0 - 1 2 0 ° . This

 49

TEST RUN 1. 6-16-78

BOTH TOWERS OPERATING

CM
t
E

C
DC.

CO
o

Q_
O
OC
Q

50 100 150
DIRECTION FROM TOWER 7 - 1 or 7 -2 (DEGREES)

F I G U R E 2. Drift Droplet Mass Deposition Pattern for T e s t Run 1,

6-16-78, w i t h B o t h Towers Operating
 50

result is a l s o shown in F i g . 2. It is a p p a r e n t that t h i s p e a k is the r e s u l t

of c o n t r i b u t i o n s from T o w e r 7 - 2 . Similar b e h a v i o r w a s o b s e r v e d i n the d r o p -

let data for the other test r u n s .

T h e p e a k droplet m a s s d e p o s i t i o n values a r e s h o w n in Fig. 3 for each

test r u n as a function o f downwind d i s t a n c e . T h e c u r v e s show remarkable

similarities as w e l l as d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e s l o p e s of the lines are roughly

the same w h e n b o t h towers are operating and d e c r e a s e e x p o n e n t i a l l y w i t h

d i s t a n c e as ^ e x p ( - l O x ) , w h e r e x is the downwind d i s t a n c e in k m . For single-

tower operation the slopes are again similar b u t larger than the two-tower

value, decreasing e x p o n e n t i a l l y at i-exp(-15x) . In the cases w h e r e b o t h

towers w e r e o p e r a t i n g , it w a s also possible to infer v a l u e s from 7 - 2 , as

discussed above; these v a l u e s are also included in F i g . 3.

Deposition v a l u e s at .2 km are nearly a factor of 10 larger for test

run 1 t h a n for t e s t run 3. M e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s , r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t i e s and w i n d

speeds w e r e 18.4 and 23.6°C, 55- and 43%, and 4.8 and 6.6 m s ^ , respectively

during runs 1 and 3. P l a n t loads w e r e 680 and 520 M W e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , during

the tests. M o d e l i n g s t u d i e s w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d to d i s c e r n w h i c h o f the

m e t e o r o l o g i c a l o r p l a n t load factors played a d o m i n a n t role in the d o w n w i n d

drift deposition rates. D e p o s i t i o n v a l u e s for the other test runs w e r e

found to b e b e t w e e n the t w o e x t r e m e s of test runs 1 and 3.

(b) M i n e r a l ion d e p o s i t i o n p a t t e r n s . A t y p i c a l result of chemical analysis

+
o f the b u l k d e p o s i t i o n s a m p l e s is shown in F i g . 4 for test run 1 for Na

ion. C o m p a r i s o n o f F i g . 4 for the m i n e r a l m a s s d a t a and Fig. 2 for the

droplet data shows that t h e m i n e r a l m a s s d e p o s i t i o n w a s m u c h m o r e irregular

and v a r i a b l e than the d r o p l e t deposition. This variability is m a i n l y d u e

to b a c k g r o u n d d e p o s i t i o n and s a m p l e contamination arising from a v a r i e t y of

sources. Since the d r o p l e t s are detected b y the S P s b y v i r t u e of their

w a t e r content, o n l y p a r t i c l e s that contain w a t e r p r o d u c e an image; these

p r e s u m a b l y m u s t o r i g i n a t e f r o m the cooling t o w e r s . (Only a few e x a m p l e s of

droplets arriving f r o m s o u r c e s o t h e r than the c o o l i n g towers w e r e observed

— o n c e from the s p r a y canal and once from Suisan B a y . ) Dry p a r t i c l e s , drift

or o t h e r w i s e , p r o d u c e no s t a i n o n t h e SPs.
 51

0.5 1.0
DOWNWIND DISTANCE (km)

F I G U R E 3. P e a k Drift D r o p l e t Mass D e p o s i t i o n Rate as a F u n c t i o n of

Downwind Distance for T e s t Runs 1-6
 52

RUN 1, 6-16-78
BOTH TOWERS
ARC 3, REF 7-2
40 L

ARC 3, REF 7-1

J L J L J — i L ± i J L

80

ARC 2, REF 7-2

40

ir>
P 200 b ARC I, REF 7-1

J L

200

30 60 90 120 150
DIRECTION FROM TOWER 7-1 OR 7-2 (DEGREES)

FIGURE 4. Sodium Drift M a s s Deposition Pattern for T e s t Run 1, 6 - 1 6 - 7 8 ,

w i t h B o t h Towers Operating
 53

The bulk deposition collectors however cannot distinguish w h e t h e r or

not the collected particles are w e t or dry ncr can they distinguish the

origin o f the deposited particles. Consequently, the material collected

in the b u c k e t s may arise from drift, background sources or local contamin-

ation such as dust from vehicular traffic or dust resuspended from the

ground by wind gusts.

Sodium ion m i n e r a l mass deposition patterns for each arc resemble those

for the droplet pattern of Fig. 2, except that the data are quite ragged.

It appears that contributions from Tower 7 - 2 can b e discerned in these data

also. T h e shadowing effect of the switchyards also appears on the data for

arc 2. Similar b e h a v i o r w a s observed in the mineral mass data for the other

test runs.

Peak or p l u m e centerline deposition rates for test run 1, 6 - 1 6 - 7 8 , as

a function of d i s t a n c e are shown in Figure 5 for N a + . Also shown are pre-

dictions made by E S C w i t h the ESC drift d e p o s i t i o n model for two values of

the droplet salinity and the measured drift flux from the cooling towers.

T h e salinity value of 250 ppm is an average b a s i n w a t e r value found b y ESC

w h i l e the 750 ppm value is one determined by ESC using the IK and SP methods

for the droplets leaving the tower.

T h e experimental values tend to lie w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of the two

p r e d i c t e d curves. From a comparison of the experimental values at 1/2 and

3/4 km alone it would appear that the switchyards could have reduced the

drift deposition by as m u c h as a factor of two. T h i s would also appear to

b e the case when compared to the ESC model. V a l u e s for Tower 7-2 alone were

obtained from arc 0 o r estimated from the apparent contributions to arcs 1,

2 and 3. In general the v a l u e s appear to be larger after the same distances

than the apparent contribution from Tower 7-1; this indicates that, even

though 3 fans w e r e not operating, Tower 7-2 has a h i g h e r drift emission rate.

T h i s apparent difference in drift emission rates is also seen w h e n the

data for single tower operation are compared. Peak d e p o s i t i o n rates from

Tower 7 - 2 (6-21-78) are larger than those in the two cases for T o w e r 7-1

alone (6-17-78 and 6-18-78). T w o other cases of two-tower operation (6-15-

78 and 6-22-781 showed differences which p r o b a b l y w e r e the result of greater

 54

10*

RUN 1, 6-16-78
BOTH TOWERS

CALCULATED, ESC
• MEASURED, PNL
O ESTIMATED TOWER 7-2
10

ID?

101

I _L _L
10
0.5 1.0
DOWNWIND DISTANCE (km)

F I G U R E 5. Sodium D r i f t D e p o s i t i o n Rate as a Function of Downwind

Distance for Test Run 1, 6 - 1 6 - 7 8 , w i t h B o t h T o w e r s O p e r a t i n g .
E x p e r i m e n t a l V a l u e s a r e Compared to T h o s e C a l c u l a t e d b y
ESC for a D r o p l e t Salinity o f a) 750 p p m and b ) 250 p p m
 55

evaporation and consequently a larger fraction of n o n d e p o s i t i n g d r i f t (dry

p a r t i c l e s ) in the afternoon (.6-15-78) than in the m o r n i n g (6-16-78 and

6-22-78).

Similar deposition p a t t e r n s were found for the o t h e r m i n e r a l ions,

++
including CI , SO , and Ca . Peak d e p o s i t i o n rates h a d a distance
+
dependence similar to the Na . Water droplet m a s s d e p o s i t i o n rate (Fig. 2)

had a m u c h steeper falloff with distance than the m i n e r a l mass; this is a

reasonable expectation b e c a u s e of evaporation of the d r o p l e t s as they travel

downwind.

T h e effect o f decreasing r e l a t i v e humidity d u r i n g the course of a test

i.un w a s also observed w i t h the sensitive p a p e r s . As an e x a m p l e , the p e a k

droplet m a s s d e p o s i t i o n rate for the 6 - 1 6 test at station 1C changed from a

-2 -1
value o f 4 0 0 - 8 9 0 m g * m hr during the first 1.2 hr of the test to a value
of 129-321 mg-m - 2 hr -1 during the next 1.7 hr. Similarly for the 6 - 1 7 test
- 2
at station ID, the droplet m a s s deposition rate changed from 285-532 mg-m
-1 -2 -1
hr during the first 1.25 hr to 73-144 m g - m hr during the final 2.6 h r s .

M i n e r a l m a s s d e p o s i t i o n samples were integrated o v e r the entire test p e r i o d ;

hence nc sequential d a t a is available in this case.

4. CONCLUSIONS

A c o m p r e h e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t to study drift from m e c h a n i c a l d r a f t cooling

towers w a s conducted d u r i n g June 1978 at the Pacific Gas and Electric

Company's (PG&E) P i t t s b u r g Power Plant located at P i t t s b u r g , California.

The o b j e c t i v e of the e x p e r i m e n t w a s to establish a d a t a b a s e for use in drift

deposition model validation. T h i s o b j e c t i v e w a s m e t b y the simultaneous

m e a s u r e m e n t of cooling tower source e m i s s i o n p a r a m e t e r s , meteorological

v a r i a b l e s and d r i f t d e p o s i t i o n p a t t e r n s during seven of e i g h t test runs.

In this report, the r e s u l t s from six of these test r u n s are presented and

discussed.

Environmental Systems Corporation (ESC) conducted the source character-

ization m e a s u r e m e n t s . These m e a s u r e m e n t s included c o o l i n g tower emission

p a r a m e t e r s such as u p d r a f t velocity and temperature p r o f i l e s , liquid and

m i n e r a l m a s s drift e m i s s i o n rates, and d r i f t d r o p l e t size distributions.

 56

E S C also p r o v i d e d plant, and cooling tower o p e r a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s , obtained

either from its own m e a s u r e m e n t p r o g r a m or from the P G & E p l a n t log. These

m e a s u r e m e n t s are d i s c u s s e d in detail in p a r t II.

Pacific N o r t h w e s t L a b o r a t o r y (PNL) carried o u t the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and

surface d r i f t d e p o s i t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s . The meteorological measurements

included w s t - and d r y - b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e and w i n d speed and d i r e c t i o n on a

continuous b a s i s from s e n s o r s o n a 10 m tower and o n an intermittent basis

from an instrumented t e t h e r e d - b a l l o o n system. The latter m e a s u r e m e n t s pro-

v i d e d information o n the v e r t i c a l structure o f t e m p e r a t u r e , m o i s t u r e and

m a s s transport. Surface d e p o s i t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s included b o t h droplet and

b u l k mineral m a s s d e p o s i t i o n rates.

The E S C - d e r i v e d d r i f t emission rate p e r cell w a s found to be 4.8 g s \

If all 26 cells w e r e o p e r a t i n g the total e m i s s i o n rate w o u l d b e 124 g s

The latter v a l u e m a y b e u n c e r t a i n by a n y w h e r e from 30 to 70%, depending upon

the validity of the a v e r a g i n g p r o c e d u r e . W i t h a total circulating w a t e r

3 - 1 -1
flow rate o f 20 m s , the 124 g s e m i s s i o n rate c o r r e s p o n d s to a d r i f t

fraction o f 0 . 0 0 0 6 % compared to the g u a r a n t e e d drift rate of 0.004%.

Meteorological conditions during the d r i f t study w e r e characterized

b y relatively high winds, w a r m t e m p e r a t u r e s and m o d e r a t e h u m i d i t i e s . The

relatively high w i n d s increased the u n c e r t a i n t y in the measured deposition

patterns. In spite of the large (factor o f 2 or 3) uncertainty in the

measured d e p o s i t i o n rates, preliminary c a l c u l a t i o n s of drift d e p o s i t i o n rates

b y ESC, using its own m o d e l and the source and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l data described

above, are in agreement w i t h each other for test run 1, 6 - 1 6 - 7 8 .

Mineral d e p o s i t i o n s a r i s i n g n a i n l y from b l o w i n g d u s t produced substantial

interference w i t h the downwind deposition p a t t e r n s , especially at the greater

downwind d i s t a n c e s w h e r e d r i f t deposition rates w e r e small. The m e a s u r e d

d r i f t m i n e r a l deposition rates w e r e uncertain by as m u c h as a factor of two

o r m o r e after this v a r i a b l e b a c k g r o u n d c o m p o n e n t w a s estimated and subtracted

from the total d e p o s i t i o n r a t e s . The effects of v a r i o u s structures, such as

t h e electrical s w i t c h y a r d s w e r e apparent i n d a t a for the three days w h e n

w i n d s from 270° to 300°.

 57

Droplet d e p o s i t i o n rates w e r e also u n c e r t a i n as a result of the relatively

h i g h winds, which p r o d u c e d droplet stains on the sensitive p a p e r s that w e r e

streaked and difficult to analyze in an automated m a n n e r . Calibration of

sensitive p a p e r s for d r o p l e t s incident at o b l i q u e a n g l e s w a s n e c e s s a r y to

properly interpret these data.

The meteorological conditions during the test period did not provide

drift data r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of all the conditions w h i c h w o u l d b e encountered

at the Pittsburg Plant, b u t they probably gave a reasonable p i c t u r e of drift

e m i s s i o n s and d e p o s i t i o n s during the dry, w a r m - t o - h o t s u m m e r conditions of

1
the area. Winds w e r e typically 5 m s o r larger from the 240-300 direction.

Relative h u m i d i t i e s and dry bulb temperatures w e r e typically 50-60% and

15-20 C, respectively, during the experiment. Such w a r m temperatures, low

h u m i d i t i e s and high w i n d s had the effect o f rapidly drying out the drift

d r o p l e t s and d i s p e r s i n g them over a b r o a d area. F r o m a practical, experi-

m e n t a l point of view this m e a n t that the anticipated drift accumulation at

the receptors w a s m u c h smaller than w h a t one m i g h t observe in the w i n t e r

m o n t h s at this site.

A l t h o u g h the e x p e r i m e n t plan had the b e n e f i t of input from several

other groups that h a v e b e e n involved in d r i f t experiments (e.g., the Chalk

Point Cooling Tower P r o j e c t ) , several improvements to the e x p e r i m e n t design

could have been m a d e . Larger deposition p a n s w o u l d have made the analysis

o f the b u l k m i n e r a l d e p o s i t i o n m u c h easier and less uncertain. Some type

of w i n d screen to reduce the horizontal w i n d c o m p o n e n t m i g h t have allowed

for b e t t e r control of the stain images. H i g h - v o l u m e samplers should have

b e e n used to m e a s u r e the air concentration of the dry nondepositing drift

material.

W h i l e the p r e s e n t study did not e n c o m p a s s a s w i d e a range of m e t e o r o -

l o g i c a l conditions as w o u l d b e required for c o m p l e t e validation o f various

d r i f t models, it h a s contributed a unique set o f d a t a for that p u r p o s e .

 58

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h e a u t h o r a c k n o w l e d g e s w i t h g r a t i t u d e the efforts of John Maulbetsch

o f EPRI in p r o v i d i n g funds for the s o u r c e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n p a r t o f the

study. J i m M e y e r of the A p p l i e d P h y s i c s Laboratory, J o h n s H o p k i n s University

and G u n t e r S c h r e c k e r of S c i e n c e A p p l i c a t i o n s , Inc. p r o v i d e d v a l u a b l e advice

and c o n s u l t a t i o n o n e x p e r i m e n t d e i s g n and site s e l e c t i o n . Ronnie M o o r e o f

ESC p r o v i d e d d r i f t m o d e l c o m p a r i s o n data.

The following p e o p l e c o n t r i b u t e d to the success o f the P N L field

effort: Owen Abbey, Don Glover, Roger S c h r e c k and J o h n T h o r p . Jane Rothert

and S t e v e H a r r i s carried o u t the chemical analysis of the drift mineral

s a m p l e s w h i l e Lee Daniel w a s in charge o f the droplet sizing analysis from

the SP s a m p l e s . Tom B a n d e r c o n t r i b u t e d to the s t a t i s t i c a l analysis of b u l k

mineral d e p o s i t i o n r e s u l t s u s i n g a l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g technique.

Ron W e b b and Karl W i l b e r of E S C conducted the c o n c u r r e n t source m e a s u r e -

ments and p r o v i d e d the d a t a from w h i c h the source c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n summaries

were derived.

REFERENCES

Laulainen, N . S., 1978: "Cooling T o w e r Drift E x p e r i m e n t D e s i g n for

C o m p r e h e n s i v e C a s e Study," M E T E R A n n u a l P r o g r e s s R e p o r t , O c t o b e r 1976
to S e p t e m b e r 1977, O R N L / T M - 6 2 4 8 , Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y , Oak Ridge,
TN 37830, p p . 48-58.

Laulainen, N. S., 1979: " C o m p r e h e n s i v e Study of D r i f t f r o m M e c h a n i c a l

Draft C o o l i n g T o w e r s , " M E T E R A n n u a l P r o g r e s s R e p o r t , O c t o b e r 1977 to
S e p t e m b e r 1978, O R N L / T M - 6 8 6 7 , O a k Ridge National L a b o r a t o r y , Oak Ridge,
T N 37830, p p . 45-60.

Laulainen, N . S., R. 0. W e b b , K . R. W i l b e r and S. L. U l a n s k i , 1979:

C o m p r e h e n s i v e Study of D r i f t from M e c h a n i c a l D r a f t C o o l i n g T o w e r s - F i n a l
Report, P N L - 3 0 8 3 , Pacific N o r t h w e s t Laboratory, R i c h l a n d , W A 99352.

Schrecker, G . O., R. O . W e b b , D . A . R u t h e r f o r d and F . M . Shofner, 1 9 7 5 :

Drift D a t a A c q u i r e d on M e c h a n i c a l S a l t w a t e r C o o l i n g D e v i c e s . EPA-650/2-75-060,
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Systems C o r p o r a t i o n , K n o x v i l l e , T N 3 7 9 0 1 .
 59

II.B. F I E L D STUDIES OF COOLING T O W E R C O N D E N S A T E SCAVENGING

* *
M . Terry Dana and D o n a l d W . Glover

ABSTRACT

Rainfall o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e m a d e during six s t o r m s in the v i c i n i t y of

the Bowen Generating Plant in M a r c h and April, 1979; the aim w a s t o detect
any r a i n f a l l enhancement d u e to p r e c i p i t a t i o n s c a v e n g i n g of cooling tower
c o n d e n s a t e and test the p r e v i o u s l y developed t h e o r y . O f six storms, three
had the p r o p e r wind c o n d i t i o n s for analysis, and of these, two w e r e suit-
a b l e for c o m p a r i s o n of m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h the t h e o r y . No obvious r a i n f a l l
e n h a n c e m e n t w a s observed, b u t the m o s t favorable r u n for enhancement showed
p o s s i b l e centerline e n h a n c e m e n t not greater than ten p e r c e n t . Due to the
short d u r a t i o n of m o s t o f the rain events and p o o r time r e s o l u t i o n o n w i n d
r e c o r d s , p r e c i s e a n a l y s i s of enhancement p o t e n t i a l s w a s not p o s s i b l e .

1. INTRODUCTION

A m o n g the concerns of t h e M e t e o r o l o g i c a l E f f e c t s of T h e r m a l Energy

Releases (METER) p r o g r a m a r e t h e i m p a c t s on p r e c i p i t a t i o n c h a r a c t e r o f large

r e l e a s e s of w a t e r (vapor and liquid) from cooling t o w e r s . Subunits o f the M E T E R

p r o j e c t are concerned w i t h c o o l i n g tower effects o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n formation

(storm triggering) and, theoretically and experimentally, w i t h enchancement

o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n through p r e c i p i t a t i o n scavenging o f cooling t o w e r condensate.

A recent r e p o r t ^ d e s c r i b e s t h e results of a t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y o f c o n d e n s a t e

s c a v e n g i n g ; the conclusion w a s t h a t such scavenging c o u l d lead to significant

and m e a s u r a b l e e n h a n c e m e n t o f r a i n f a l l under certain conditions. This report

is c o n c e r n e d w i t h a field study w h i c h attempted to m e a s u r e rainfall downwind

of l a r g e cooling towers, w i t h the aims of detecting any enhancement and

t e s t i n g the theory.

*
B a t t e l l e , P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t Laboratories, R i c h l a n d , W A 99352
 60

2. EXPERIMENTAL

T h e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s of a rainfall e n h a n c e m e n t field study, as sug-

gested b y the t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k , ^ w e r e as f o l l o w s : 1) p r e c i p i t a t i o n should

b e of t h e frontal type (i.e., o f long d u r a t i o n , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a steady w i n d

direction); 2 ) a r e l i a b l e n a t u r a l draft cooling t o w e r b e u s e d as the source

of c o n d e n s a t e ; and 3) t h a t the terrain downwind b a relatively flat, o p e n and

a c c e s s i b l e to facilitate n e t w o r k s a m p l i n g . S e l e c t i o n o f a site combining

these features w a s r e s t r i c t e d somewhat in that the timing of the contract

p e r i o d r e q u i r e d that the field w o r k b e done in the w i n t e r t i m e or early spring-

time. T h i s restriction r u l e d out n o r t h e r n sites, as snow w a s to b e avoided.

T h e B o w e n Steam G e n e r a t i n g Plant near C a r t e r s v i l l e , G A w a s chosen for the

e x p e r i m e n t a l effort b e c a u s e o f its southern location, its reliability as the

m a j o r p o w e r source of t h e south, and b e c a u s e o f a good w o r k i n g relationship

w i t h its o p e r a t o r s d e v e l o p e d o v e r several y e a r s o f o t h e r f S T E R projects.

(2)
E a r l i e r studies of t h e B o w e n Plant site c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s had shown that some

frontal storm activity o c c u r s there w e l l into the springtime, and t h a t a

s o u t h w e s t e r n w i n d d i r e c t i o n could be expected during p r e f r o n t a l precipitation.

T h i s latter information along w i t h the p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e site

allowed for the setup of a n e t w o r k for rain sampling c o m p l e t e l y on p l a n t

property. A d i s a d v a n t a g e of the site w a s that there are four cooling towers

(one for each of four 880 M w Generating units), b u t their p h y s i c a l separation

and limited o p e r a t i o n of two of the units during the field study p e r i o d

allowed for a u s e f u l e x p e r i m e t n a l situation. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the U n i t s

3 and 4 c o o l i n g towers (the p r i m a r y sources o f condensate) are listed in

Table 1.

Table 1. Cooling Tower Characteristics^

Type Natural Draft

P o w e r Output o f U n i t , M W e 880
Liquid Flow Rate,Kg s - 1 2 x 10*
(gpm) (3.1 x 1 0 5 )
Diameter, m
Sill 96.6
T h r o a t (W) 63.7
Height, m (H) 119.0

^Units 3 and 4 Towers identical.

 61

The e x p e r i m e n t a l plan w a s very simple: rainfall would b e collected on

a network of r a i n g a u g e s , sufficiently e x t e n s i v e to contain the p l u m e in the

expected downwind direction, and sufficiently d e n s e to allow for several

m e a s u r e m e n t l o c a t i o n s underneath the plume. T h e network w o u l d also cover

a w i d e range of distances downwind in an a t t e m p t to discern enhancement

v a r i a t i o n s as a function o f p l u m e travel d i s t a n c e . A n y rainfall enhancement

w o u l d appear as increased rainfall under the p l u m e . Supporting measurements

(described b e l o w ) included w i n d speed and d i r e c t i o n , raindrop size spectra,

and t e m p e r a t u r e and d e w p o i n t . T h e supporting m e a s u r e m e n t s , along w i t h cooling

tower p e r f o r m a n c e data, were used to estimate likely enhancement using the

theory of condensate scavenging.

The n e t w o r k e s t a b l i s h e d is shown in F i g u r e 1. It w a s designed to center

on the Unit 4 tower for southwest winds, b u t w a s extended to cover at least

in p a r t all w i n d s from the w e s t . C o n d e n s a t e p l u m e s from both Units 3 and 4

w o u l d affect the n e t w o r k , and the exact d i r e c t i o n of the w i n d w o u l d determine

the complexity of any o b s e r v e d enhancement p a t t e r n . The n e t w o r k consisted

of some 140 r a i n g a u g e s ; their separation along the roads and r a i l r o a d s on t h e

plan site w a s d e t e r m i n e d from estimates of likely p l u m e w i d t h in order to

ensure several sites below the p l u m e . The a r b i t r a r i l y chosen separations

were 30 m along the 1U0 and 200-numbered lines, and 40 m along the more

distant 300 line.

The basic rain collector used w a s a standard w e d g e - t y p e rain g a u g e w i t h

a capacity of 15 cm of rainfall. In order h o p e f u l l y to o b t a i n useable data

from rainfalls of less than 0.25 cm, w e c o n s t r u c t e d the a r r a n g e m e n t shown

in Figure 2 to increase the effective catch a r e a o f the raingauge b y a factor

of about 6.5. T h i s arrangement consisted o f a 20 cm diameter polyethylene

funnel m o u n t e d above the w e d g e on a m e t a l b r a c k e t , and extending into the

w e d g e at the b o t t o m . Testing with 10 such c o l l e c t o r s at H a n f o r d , Washington

d u r i n g some 10 events o v e r three months p r i o r t o t h e field trip confirmed

that, despite the awkward appearance o f the collector, consistant catches

w e r e obtained b y adjacent units during c o n d i t i o n s amenable to the p e r f o r m a n c e

of the field e x p e r i m e n t s . T h e collectors w e r e n o t consistent in g e n e r a l during

-1
brisk winds (above a b o u t 5 m s ) , b u t for o t h e r reasons (see S e c t i o n 4), such
 180° 200° 220°

1. The M a r c h - A p r i l 1979 C o n d e n s a t e Scavenging N e t w o r k , Bow;en

Steam Generating Plant.

 63

2. Modified Rainguage for Condensate Scavenging Measurements.

h i g h w i n d s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d m a r g i n a l for effective enhancement measurements

in the field. C o m p a r i n g the catch of the special collectors w i t h that

from p l a i n w e d g e s , and w i t h a standard r a i n g a u g e at the adjacent Hanford

weather station, showed t h a t the e f f e c t i v e area o f the special collector

w a s n o t in general 6.5 t i m e s that of a p l a i n w e d g e , b u t w a s consistent for

a d j a c e n t u n i t s d u r i n g suitable rain p e r i o d s . Since the o b j e c t i v e of the

field w o r k w a s to d e t e c t relative r a i n f a l l amounts, w e w e r e concerned

o n l y w i t h c o n s i s t e n c y , a n d not w i t h efficiency of collection c o m p a r e d t o

standard r a i n g a u g e s . O n e topographical feature of the Bowen network,

n a m e l y an a b o u t 8 m b a n k upwind of the 1 0 0 line (along a r a i l r o a d ) ,

p r o m p t e d u s to install a l o n g w i t h t h e special collectors, p l a i n w e d g e s

at 1 7 of the 1 0 0 sites. A l l other stations o f the n e t w o r k used the special

l a r g e - a r e a c o l l e c t o r s only.
 W i n d speed and d i r e c t i o n w e r e m e a s u r e d on the p l a n t meteorological

tower, about 4.3 km n o r t h e a s t of the U n i t 4 t o w e r . The p o i n t o f m e a s u r e -

m e n t w a s at an e l e v a t i o n of 360 msl, w h i c h is a p p r o x i m a t e l y the h e i g h t of

the c o o l i n g tower tops. W i n d data were collected on strip charts o n l y

(the r e c o r d e r s p r e v i o u s l y used by plant m a n a g m e n t for site characerization

the chart speed w a s slow a n d not generally suitable for data analysis to

a great d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y d u r i n g short p e r i o d s o f r a i n f a l l . We sought,

a n d w e r e expecting, f r o n t a l r a i n p e r i o d s of more than an hour, however,

for w h i c h the existing e q u i p m e n t w o u l d b e a d e q u a t e ; therefore, :-••]:ecial

wind instrumentation w a s installed.

Standard tipping-bucket raingauges were o p e r a t e d at. the plant site

(between U n i t 4 tower and 100 line) and at the m e t e o r o l o g y tower sites.

S e n s i t i v e p a p e r e x p o s u r e s for r a i n d r o p size spectra w e r e m a d e during some

of the rain p e r i o d s , a s w e r e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t e m p e r a t u r e and dewpoint

using an aspirated e l e c t r o n i c p s y c h r o m e t e r . D a t a c o l l e c t i o n s for m e a s u r e -

ment of p l u m e d i m e n s i o n s a n d d i r e c t i o n w e r e p h o t o g r a p h i c : time exposure

p l u m e p h o t o s from o f f - p l a n t locations, and w i d e - a n g l e u p w a r d - p o i n t i n g photos

from lander the p l u m e .

3. RESULTS

T h e field study w a s c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g the p e r i o d M a r c h 2 0 - A p r i l 4, 1979.

T i m i n g and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l d e t a i l s of the six r a i n events encountered during

the set-up portion of t h i s p e r i o d are listed in T a b l e 2 and relevant cooling

tower d a t a d a t a are l i s t e d in T a b l e 3. Immediately o b v i o u s is that five

of the e v e n t s w e r e o f short d u r a t i o n , a n d w e r e o f the c o n v e c t i v e shower

nature. T h e s e short d u r a t i o n s limited the accuracy of wind measurements

a s d e s c r i b e d above, and n a t u r a l l y m a d e d e f i n i t i o n of p l u m e locations diffi-

cult. P l u m e p h o t o g r a p h s w e r e not m a d e d u r i n g any r u n s b e c a u s e their short

d u r a t i o n of u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of wind d i r e c t i o n m a d e set up at the p r o p e r

l o c a t i o n s impossible. T h e t o t a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n data for t h e r u n s w e r e measured

at the p l a n t b y t i p p i n g - b u c k e t r a i n g a u g e (except for that of B6, w h i c h is

from w e d g e g a u g e s ) . The r a i n f a l l at t h e m e t e o r o l o g y tower w a s essentially

the same, however, for a l l events, and generally coincident with rainfall
 65

Table 2. Experiment Summary

(b)
Wind
Speed Useful for E n h a n c e -
(a) (c)
Run Date Time(s) Precipitation cm Dir n/sec ment Measurements

BI 3/23/79 2130-2200 0.18 234 14.2 Yes

3/24 0315-0335
B2 3/31/79 1630-1705 0.08 160 11.6 No
B3 4/02/79 1915-0925 0.05 225 7.8 Marginal
B4 4/02/79 1340-1405 0.28 270 3.8 Yes
B5 4/02/79 1645-1740 0.75 35 2.5 No
B6 4/02/79 1845-0700 13.0 30 e No
4/03/79

(a) M e a s u r e d by a standard tipping-bucket gauge near the 200 s a m p l i n g line.

(b) Measured at n e a r C T top level, 4.3 km NE o f Unit 4.
(c) A z i m u t h from true n o r t h
(d) P r e c i p i t a t i o n - w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e of two showers
(e) Not a n a l y z e d

(a)
Table 3. P o w e r Plant Data

Power O u t p u t , Mw Unit 3 Unit 4

Run Unit 3 Unit 4 In Out In Out
Bl 842 847 25 38 26 40
B2 831 0 29 43 b b
B3 787 0 29 42 b b
B4 784 297< c > 29 42 28 35
*B5 787 0 29 41 b b
B6 803 553 W 27 40 26(d)36(d)

(a) Provided b y plant m a n a g e m e n t . D a t a a r e hourly a v e r a g e s for h o u r s con-

taining the runs. Unit 2 operated at about one-half c a p a c i t y during
the e x p e r i m e n t series, but is n e g l e c t e d in the a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e o f
d i s t a n c e from the sampling n e t w o r k , and lack of h o u r l y data.
(b) Unit d o w n
(c) Stable at this level previous 2 h o u r s
(d) Unit s t a r t e d up at 2 2 0 0 and r e a c h e d full output by 0500.

at the plant. A further difficulty with showers was that wind directions

were not constant, and considerable direction shifts would occur. Brief

evaluations of the runs and their suitablility for enhancement analysis

follow.

Run Bl consisted of two brief showers overnight. Mean wind directions

were similar (about 220° and 240°) and the plumes were contained on the

sampling network. Wind speeds were quite high (enhancement is approximately

 66

inversely p r o p o r t i o n a l to w i n d speed - see S e c t i o n 4) leading to a p r e s u m p -

tion of m a r g i n a l c o n d i t i o n s for enhancement; the two sources h o w e v e r , w e r e in

line w i t h the wind w h i c h would favor d e t e c t a b i l i t y , w i t h all else constant.

T h e rainfall for B2 w a s m a r g i n a l l y low; furthermore, the wind direction

w a s n e a r l y off the n e t w o r k , w i t h only about o n e - t h i r d of the shower occurring

•while t h e p l u m e passed o v e r the northern p o r t i o n . T h i s run w a s the first of

three w h e r e Unit 4 w a s e i t h e r down or operating at a low level, removing the

Number 4 tower as a v i a b l e source for significant enhancement.

R u n B 3 w a s characterized b y a desirable and r e l a t i v e l y constant wind

d i r e c t i o n and more m o d e r a t e speed (though only one source) , but rainfall

amounts collected w e r e too small for clear d e t e c t i o n of a n y enhancement.

T h e w i n d direction and speed for run B 4 were a c c e p t a b l e , although a

direction shift occurred (about 2/3 of the t i m e period had a mean direction

of 260, and about 1/3 at 290). Moreover, Unit 4 w a s o p e r a t i n g at a power

level a b o u t 38% o f that of Unit 3. These factors c o m b i n e d with significant

rain a c c u m u l a t i o n , m a k e this run w o r t h y of detailed data analysis and

e s t i m a t i o n of expected enhancement.

R u n s B5 and B6 w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d by "wrong-way" w i n d s , and were associ-

a t e d w i t h the passing o f a long-stalled front. The heavy rainfall over-

night A p r i l 2-3, 1979 w e r e e x c e s s i v e for m e a s u r e m e n t on t h e funnel/wedge

gauges (capacity about 2.5 cm), b u t the 17 p l a i n w e d g e s a c c o m m o d a t e d the

total.

O n A p r i l 02, 1979, r u n s (B3-B5) had a c c o m p a n y i n g r a i n size spectra

and t e m p e r a t u r e / d e w p o i n t m e a s u r e m e n t s , but none of the former w e r e analyzed,

since u n c e r t a i n t i e s (for theory calculation p u r p o s e s ) in w i n d data w e r e

greater than those w h i c h would result from estimation o f rain size spectra.

R a i n f a l l readings for all six r u n s are shown in F i g u r e s 3 to 8, w i t h p l a i n

wedge readings (equivalent to h u n d r e t h s of inches or 0 . 0 2 5 cm) p l a c e d in

boxes. A l t h o u g h o n l y 2 or 3 o f t h e r u n s a r e u s e f u l for enhancement

m e a s u r e m e n t p u r p o s e s , w e include a l l of the data to d e m o n s t r a t e the con-

sistency o f t h e collector m e a s u r e m e n t s , and to illustrate (for the unac-

c e p t a b l e runs) n o r m a l r a i n f a l l v a r i a t i o n s t h a t may b e e n c o u n t e r e d at the

 67

61
IgQO 190° 200° 210° 220°

3. Rainguage readings for Run Bl. The boxed v a l u e s a r e standard

wedge readings (0.01 inch units). T h e dashed lines indicate

estimated direction o f plume travel.

 68

4. Rainguage readings for Run B2. The b o x v a l u e s a r e standard

wedge readings (0.01 inch units). The dashed lines indicate

estimated d i r e c t i o n o f plume travel.

 69

B3

5. Rainguage readings for B3.

 70

B3

6. R a i n g u a g e readings for B4. The b o x e d v a l u e s are standard

wedged readings (0.01 inch u n i t s ) . T h e dashed lines indicate

estimated d i r e c t i o n o f p l u m e travel. Lines perpendicular to

p l u m e travel lines are the p r o j e c t i o n s o f the sampling lines

u s e d in F i g u r e s 10 and 11.
 71

350° 340° 330°

100 m

4. R a i n g u a g e readings for Run 5B. The boxed values are standard

wedge r e a d i n g s (0-01 inch units). The dashed lines indicate

estimated direction of plume travel.

 72

B6

180° 190° 200° 210° 220°

, 100 m ,

8. Rainguage readings for Run B6. T h e boxed v a l u e s a r e standard

w e d g e readings (0-01 inch units). The dashed lines indicate

estimated d i r e c t i o n o f p l u m e travel.
 73

site. In this regard, it is worthy of n o t e that n o consistent severe local

v a r i a t i o n s appeared a n y w h e r e on the network inspite of v a r i a t i o n s in terrain,

p r o x i m i t y of trees, etc. A l s o shown, w h e r e r e l e v a n t , on F i g u r e s 3 to 8 are m e a n

p l u m e travel directions, and in the case of Run B 4 , lines n o r m a l to p l u m e

d i r e c t i o n used for p r o j e c t i o n of sample sites a s d i s c u s s e d in the next

section.

4 . COMPARISON W I T H THEORY

F o r p u r p o s e s o f estimating rainfall enhancement under p r e s e n t run

conditions, we utilize an abridged version of the theory described earlier.^

T h e m a j o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n is that we use h e r e a fixed, assumed raindrop size

s p e c t r u m characterized b y a m a s s mean radius and "spread" factor and simple

h a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s rather than c o m p u t e r c a l c u l a t i o n s u s i n g a d i s c r e t e , measured

spectrum. T h e m o r e detailed approach is p r o b a b l y not w a r r a n t e d in the p r e s e n t

case b e c a u s e o f the lack of d a t a on actual p l u m e shape (and thus d i l u t i o n , etc.)

and the crudity of t h e m e a n w i n d data.

The mass flux of scavenged material (in this case condensate droplets)

t o the ground can b e expressed as

CJ = k)^ (1)

w h e r e c = concentration o f condensate in the r a i n f a l l (g cm ) ,

J = a scavenging (or "washout") coefficient representing

-1
the c o n d e n s a t e and rainfall size s p e c t r a encounters,

= the m a s s of c o n d e n s a t e in a unit area column along the

raindrops' p a t h through the plume (g c m - 3 )

F i g u r e 9 shows the g e o m e t r y of the scavenging situation and defines

t e r m i n o l o g y used in the following derivation. T h e p l u m e p a t h a l o n g the

r a i n d r o p s ' trajectories m a y b e closely approximated b y assuming a v e r t i -

cal fall p a t h at the d i s t a n c e of plume centerline encounter x'"*". if w e

d e s c r i b e the p l u m e w i t h a b i v a r i a t e normal p l u m e m o d e l , the vertical

i n t e g r a l at x' is given b y

(2)
 74

DOWNWIND DISTANCE X

9. P l u m e and rainfall g e o m e t r y used in c o n d e n s a t e scavenging

calculations.

w h e r e Q is t h e source (g s "S

°y is the standard deviation o f the cross p l u m e d i m e n s i o n y (cm)

u is t h e mean w i n d speed.

W e w i l l c o n s i d e r only p l u m e c e n t e r l i n e e s t i m a t e s here, so y is set to 0.

W e m u s t assume t h a t the p l u m e w i l l b e depleted by s c a v e n g i n g , so

the "source" at x' b e c o m e s

j - k ( x ' - x )\
Q(x') - A( X .x , exP ( _ - J E - J ' (3)

where x is t h e d i s t a n c e of the r e a l source d o w n w i n d o f t h e v i r t u a l source,

r
as shown in F i g u r e 9. Substituting (3) and (2) into (1) and rearranging,

w e h a v e an expression f o r the p l u m e c e n t e r l i n e e n h a n c e m e n t as a function

of x' :

Q0 exp- u ) (4)
k
E „ _ ( x ' ) = C(x') = a
C L J p
w /2~ y(x')u
 75

C
(The enhancement E is n u m e r i c a l l y equal to / P w w h e n the density of w a t e r

P^ is expressed in cgs u n i t s .

T h e p l u m e interception p o i n t x' is a function o f raindrop terminal

velocity V and thus r a i n d r o p size; for present p u r p o s e s , w e w i l l assume

(3)
a fixed raindrop s p e c t r u m for c o n v e c t i v e shower r a i n f a l l with mass

m e a n radius of 0.05 cm. A d d i t i o n a l l y assuming t h e same condensate size

s p e c t r u m as w a s used in the p r e v i o u s r e p o r t , ^ w e can use the t h e o r y of

p o l y d i s p e r s e p a r t i c l e w a s h o u t to estimate a v a l u e o f k/J o f 5 c m \

T h e location of the v i r t u a l source p o i n t is determined by assuming

that the plume at the real source is six times the v a l u e of y at that
(4)
point. We w i l l u s e t h e S m i t h - S i n g e r value of y for n e u t r a l conditions.

° y ( x ) = 0.69 x 0.86 (x in cm) , (5)

to d e r i v e

X = / W \1-16 , ,,,
r (6)
14316 )

w h e r e W is the cooling tower m o u t h diameter. C o n t i n u i n g to f o l l o w the

g e o m e t r y of Figure 9 and the derivation of the p r e v i o u s r e p o r t , ^ the

v i r t u a l source height H' and thence x' are g i v e n b y

V
H' = H - x 1 (7)
r —
u

(8)

w h e r e V^ is the average p l u m e loft v e l o c i t y and x ^ is the sampling distance.

T h e remaining input to the enhancement c a l c u l a t i o n is t h e source term

Qq. T h i s is e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e cooling tower l i q u i d flow rate a n d circu-

lating w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s , and m e a s u r e d wet b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r A p r i l

02, 1979. The p r o c e d u r e e m p l o y s m a s s and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s , and i s described

in t h e A p p e n d i x .
 76

T a b l e 4 is a summary o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l i n p u t t o the calculations,

and Table 5 lists scavenging and source terms and e s t i m a t e d enhancement

for t h e r e l e v a n t runs Bi, B 3 and B 4 . The source e s t i m a t e for A p r i l 02,

1979, is a p p l i c a b l e to U n i t 3 for R u n s B 3 and B4. T h e r u n B4, U n i t 4

e s t i m a t e i s b a s e d o n scaling t h e U n i t 3 value by t h e r a t i o o f t h e p o w e r

outputs. T h e r e w e r e no w e t b u l b m e a s u r e m e n t s for B l , and t h e A p r i l 02

source is u s e d as a crude e s t i m a t e for the towers for t h i s run.

W h i l e no dramatic and o b v i o u s p e a k s in rainfall amount w e r e observed

o n any of the runs, the R u n B 4 m e a s u r e m e n t s did show p o s s i b l e enhancement

r a i n f a l l a t two distances, at n e a r t h e expected p l u m e p a t h s . To illustrate

t h i s F i g u r e s 10 and 11 show r a i n f a l l readings, expressed as t h e ratio of

site v a l u e to the average o v e r t h e c r o s s p l u m e distance shown, versus

projected cross p l u m e d i s t a n c e . T h e p r o j e c t e d sampling p o s i t i o n s lie

along lines (shown in F i g u r e 6) p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the e s t i m a t e d plume

direction. D a s h e d p o r t i o n s of t h e p l o t s are for sample p o s t i o n s signifi-

c a n t l y closer to the source than the p e r p e n d i c u l a r l i n e s - at t h e s e p o s i -

tions, e n h a n c e m e n t w o u l d b e e j e c t e d to b e relatively g r e a t e r , according

to (4). T h e peaks, w h i l e not s h a r p l y higher than at some p o s i t i o n s

d i s t a n t from t h e p l u m e location, a r e consistent w i t h an e n h a n c e m e n t due

to a p l u m e direction somewhat o f f t h e estimated direction.

T h e p r e d i c t e d e n h a n c e m e n t f o r B l is apparently s i g n i f i c a n t , but since

m e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a are p o o r e r , and actual p l u m e t r a v e l w a s n o t observed

d u r i n g t h e two short showers, c o n c l u s i o n s regarding the non-observability

o f e n h a n c e m e n t w o u l d b e s p e c u l a t i v e at b e s t .

T a b l e 4. G e o m e t r i c a l F a c t o r s for S o u r c e Estimates

Run Unit H' 100 A r e a 200 Area 300 Area

Bl 3 110. 520/82 820/260 1220/510
4 110. 350/—24 630/145 1100/440

B3 3 103. 530/202 790/360 1360/710

B4 3 86. 380/185 805/440

4 86. 340/150 800/440
 77

T A B L E 5. Theoretical Enhancement Estimates

k Qo
Run Units :nra hr ,-1 g s- l Area E
CL' %

B1 3 & 4 2.2 3xl0~4 100 0

200 19

300 7

B3 3.0 4.2xl0~4 1.8x10~ 100 13

200 8

300 4

B4 6.7 9.3xl0-4 1.8x10' 100 28

300 12

-4
B4 6.7 9.3x10 7x10 100 13

300 5

(a)
Crude estimate, assuming two cooling towers w i t h same source
as the Unit 3 s o u r c e for Run B4.
 78

RUN B4 MEAN WIND DIRECTION

UNIT 3 PROJECTION

325 330 335 340 345

260

115 120 125

PROJECTED SAMPLE POSITION

I
400 300 200 100 0 100 200
CROSS-PLUME DISTANCE, m

10. Cross p l u m e ratios o f site rainguage r e a d i n g s to the average

r a i n g u a g e reading for t h e sampling line segment. Run B4, The

s a m p l e p o s i t i o n s are p r o j e c t e d to t h e lines shown in F i g u r e 6

p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the U n i t 3 p l u m e travel direction.

 79

300 200 100 0 100 200 300

C ROSS-PLUME DISTANCE, m

11. Cross p l u m e ratios o f site rainguage readings to the average

r a i n g u a g e reading for the sampling line segment, Run B4.

The s a m p l e p o s i t i o n s are p r o j e c t e d to the lines shown in

Figure 6 p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the U n i t 4 p l u m e travel direction.

 80

5. CONCLUSION

Despite the rather p o o r meteorological conditions experienced during

the March-April 1979 field series, it appears from the observed rainfall

measurements that detection of peak enhancement values of 30 percent

or so ar possible, given steady winds and somewhat longer duration rains.

A possible enhancement w a s observed for Run B4 of the series, but confirm-

ation cannot be made in view of the lack of suitable meteorological and

p l u m e data.

REFERENCES

1. D-n.vi, M. Terry and Wolf, M. A., 1977. RcunficUH. Enhancement Vat to

$^.ve.ng-ing CooJLing ToweA Condensate,
BNWL-2295, Battelle, Pacific
Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

2. Patrinos, A. A. N., 1979. "Studies o f Rainfall Around Plant Bowen:

In Search of Effects," in Patrinos, A . A . N. and Hoffman, H. W.,
editors, Met&oiologlcjcut E^eet& oh ThemaZ Energy Release* (METER)
ptiogfwjn AnnuaZ PAogieA* Repont, Octoben. 1977 to September 1978,
ORNL/TM-6867, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

3. Dana, M. Terry and Hales, J. M., 1976. "Statistical Aspects of the

Washout of Polydisperse Aerosols," Atmospheric Env-Lfiovmewt, 10:45-50.

4. Smith, M. E. and Singer, I. A., 1966. "An Improved Method of

Estimating Concentrations and Related Phenomena from a Point Source
Emission," JouAnaZ o{, Apptied MeteAoZogy, 5^631-639.
 81

APPENDIX

ESTIMATION OF SOURCE T E R M

Calculation of the condensate source term involves comparison of

the enthalpy (EN) and mixing ratio (MR) o f p l u m e - a m b i e n t air m a s s mix-

tures. These are dependent on the w e t - b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e s of the p l u m e

and ambient atmospheres: for the conditions of A p r i l 2, 1969 (Runs

B3 and fi4), these w e r e 36°C and 18°C. T h e former is the average of the

in and out circulating water temperatures from T a b l e 3. The corres-

1 1
p o n d i n g enthalpy and mixing ratio values are 36,033 cal kg and 37.1 g kg

for the plume, and 18,064 and 13.5 for ambient, respectively.

anc
T h e next step is calculation of the enthalpy ^ various

m i x t u r e s described by R = M /M , where the M's a r e the appropriate (9)

amb plume
m a s s e s p e r unit volume of the mixture. From E . is derived a w e t - b u l b
mix
temperature for the m i x T and a corresponding saturation mixing ratio
T
for m j, x - Similarly, a mixing ratio for the m i x t u r e is calculated:

(MR) . = (R(MR) , + (MR)

mix \ amb plume/ / ( R + 1) (10)

The difference between the m i x i n g ratio for the m i x t u r e and :':.he m i x i n g

ratio for the saturation at T . is the e x c e s s w a t e r content vAMR) w h i c h

mix
w i l l b e considered condensate. The product o f this w i t h R + 1 is the m a s s

condensate per m a s s effluent C .

w

C = (MR . - MR) (R + 1) (11)

w mix

Calculations for arbitrarily selected v a l u e s o f R are shown in Table

6. Since t h e a c t u a l dilution is not known, a n average value for C^ is

selected by inspection o che table. T h i s is 9 . 0 g kg w h i c h w h e n multi-

4 -i
p l i e d b y the effluent flowrate o f 2 x 10 kg s , gives the estimated

v a l u e for condensate source of 1.8 x 10^ g s \

 82

T a b l e 6. Calculations for C o n d e n s a t e Source Term Estimate

R (EN) . T MR (MR) . MR C
mix w mix w
cal/kg C g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg

1 270^ 27 21.3 25.3 4.0 8.0

2 24J54 24 18. 5 21.4 2.9 8.7
5 21059 21 16.0 17.4 1.4 8.4
10 19698 19.5 14.8 15.7 0.9 9.9
15 19187 19.2 14.5 15.0 0.5 8.0
20 18920 18.9 14. 3 14.6 0.3 6.3
30 18643 18.5 13.9 14.3 0.4 12.4
50 18416 18.4 13.8 14.0 0.2 10.2
100 18242 18.2 13.6 13.7 0.1 10.1
 83

III.A. Sl'I.HATK AKROSOL PRODUCTION AND (iROWTll IN

OUAI.-OPKRATKU POWER PLANT PLUMES
•ft V:
Allen (.. DiLtenhuefer and Rosa C. de Pena

1. INTRODUCTION

Lt is c u r r e n t l y believed that a t m o s p h e r i c sulfur con.,jnencs owe their

existence primarily to a n t h r o p o g e n i c sources leading to r e g i o n a l l y high

a c c u m u l a t i o n s of sulfur d i o x i d e and s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e s downwind of m a j o r

urban and industrial centers (Husar and Husar, 1978). Fossil-fuel electric

power generating s t a t i o n s are the most prolific s o u r c e s of a t m o s p h e r i c SO^;

detectable traces of SO^ emitted from c o a l - b u r n i n g power plants have been

identified over ranges exceeding 300 km (Gillani et a l . , 1978). Chemical con-

v e r s i o n of SO^ in the a t m o s p h e r e results in the p r o d u c t i o n of sulfur-containing

compounds which accumulate in the aerosol phase (Friedlander, 1978) and accounts

for the b u l k of a t m o s p h e r i c sulfate.

In v i e w of c u r r e n t w o r l d w i d e energy s h o r t a g e s and p r o j e c t e d energy demands

for the coming y e a r s , increased u t i l i z a t i o n oE c o a l , our most abundant domestic

fossil-fule r e s o u r c e , is i n e v i t a b l e . A sizeable increase in the s u l f u r loading

of the a t m o s p h e r e is a l m o s t sure to result. In o r d e r to assess alternative

s t r a t e g i e s for a sound s u l f a t e c o n t r o l program that w o u l d e n s u r e p r o t e c t i o n of

human h e a l t h and a d e q u a t e p r e s e r v a t i o n of the r.atural e n v i r o n m e n t , it is first

necessary to g a i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p r o c e s s e s involved in SO^ oxidation

under a w i d e v a r i e t y of a t m o s p h e r i c conditions. T o d a t e , a firm relationship

b e t w e e n SC^ e m i s s i o n s and a m b i e n t s u l f a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s has not been established

(Perhac, 1978). T h u s , field studies h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d downwind of large SC^

s o u r c e s to m e a s u r e the a t m o s p h e r i c o x i d a t i o n of S O j and recognize the various

p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l forms of the s u l f a t e aerosol.

Department of M e t e o r o l o g y , T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a State U n i v e r s i t y , University

Park, Pa.
 84

The c o n v e r s i o n of SC>2 to SO^ in f o s s i l - f u e l power plants is a highly com-

plex p r o c e s s o c c u r r i n g by s e v e r a l c h e m i c a l p a t h w a y s . The relatp. < importance

of these c h e m i c a l m e c h a n i s m s is believed to be c l o s e l y related to the prevailing

meteorological conditions, the type of fuel b e i n g c o m b u s t e d , and the chemical

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the a i r m a s s in w h i c h the plume is e m b e d d e d , r e s u l t i n g in

a wide range of s u l f a t e formation rates. Recent laboratory and field evidence

for the h o m o g e n e o u s gas p h a s e o x i d a t i o n of SO^ involving gaseous precursors

produced in the N O ^ - O ^ - h y d r o c a r b o n - s u n l i g h t photochemical cycle h a s been re-

ported (Davis, 1977; Calvert et al., 1 9 7 8 ) . These reactive transient species

are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of u r b a n smog and b e l i e v e d to c o n t r i b u t e substantially to

sulfate formation in s t a c k p l u m e s w h i c h have been e x t e n s i v e l y diluted by pol-

luted a m b i e n t air. Oxidation of SO2 to SO^ ill the a q u e o u s phase is believed

important during conditions of h i g h r e l a t i v e humidity, such a s is found in

clouds, fogs, or cooling tower p l u m e s , resulting in the size g r o w t h of pre-

existing atmospheric particles. Either high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of s o l u b l e metal

catalysts, such a s the iron and m a n g a n e s e supplied by p l u m e fly ash, or s rong

oxidizing agents, i n c l u d i n g o z o n e and h y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e found predominantly in

smoggy b a c k g r o u n d air, must be p r e s e n t in the droplet For sulfate to form at

an a p p r e c i a b l e r a t e (Beilke and G r a v e n h o r s t , 1978).

T h e r e have b e e n n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s to m e a s u r e the a t m o s p h e r i c oxidation

rate of S O 2 in recent -ears, e m p l o y i n g a d i v e r s e a s s o r t m e n t of sampling apparatus

mounted on various instrument platforms. As yet no set of a i r b o r n e investigations

of the sulfur chemistry of s t a c k and u r b a n p l u m e s h a s firmly d e t e r ined the re-

lative i m p o r t a n c e of these c h e m i c a l p a t h w a y s for S O 2 to SO^ conversion.

Aerosol f o r m a t i o n r a t e s in p l u m e s a r e low, r e q u i r i n g h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e and precise

techniques for the m e a s u r e m e n t of p l u m e c o n s t i t u e n t s . As a r e s u l t , m a n y plume

sampling experiments have suffered from i n a c c u r a c i e s in e x p e r i m e n t a l design,

l i m i t a t i o n s in i n s t r u m e n t a l s e n s i t i v i t y , and r a n d o m e r r o r s in s a m p l e collection

and a n a l y s i s , r e s u l t i n g in c o n s i d e r a b l e s c a t t e r and inconsistency of measurements.

 85

Furthermore, p l u m e s are o f t e n invisible and v e r y difficult to track at large

distances from their source. These p r o b l e m s , coupled with a general deficiency

of m e a s u r e m e n t s c o m p i l e d during extreme pertinent meteorological conditions,

especially high v a l u e s of r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y , h a v e left large u n c e r t a i n t i e s as

to the r a t e s and p r i n c i p a l m e c h a n i s m s involved in p l u m e chemistry.

T h i s study w a s d e s i g n e d w i t h the p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of m e a s u r i n g the atmospheric

o x i d a t i o n rate of SC^ to SO^ particles in the p l u m e of a large coal-burning

power plant o v e r a wid<^ r a n g e of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l conditions. Emphasis was

focused on e v a l u a t i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of a t m o s p h e r i c r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y and solar

r a d i a t i v e flux on p l u m e s u l f u r c h e m i s t r y in o r d e r to i s o l a t e and identify the

principal chemical mechanisms. As previous plume sampling experiments have

been unable to o b t a i n strong evidence of d r o p l e t p h a s e SC^ c o n v e r s i o n , consid-

e r a b l e effort w a s m a d e in this study to i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t s on sulfate

f o r m a t i o n r a t e s of h i g h r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y resulting from p l u m e m e r g e r w i t h cloud

or fog layers.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

Flights were conducted at the K e y s t o n e power p l a n t , a n 1800 M W e coal-burning

power s t a t i o n l o c a t e d 305 m e t e r s a b o v e sea l e v e l in a s h a l l o w r u r a l v a l l e y in

western Pennsylvania 50 km E N E of P i t t s b u r g h . T h e plant c o n s i s t s of two 224-

m e t e r s t a c k s and four 99-metsr tall n a t u r a l draft c o o l i n g towers. The region

in w h i c h t h e p l a n t is l o c a t e d is subject to f a i r l y h i g h a m b i e n t l e v e l s of pol-

lution originating f r o m the P i t t s b u r g h a r e a and other u r b a n - i n d u s t r i a l sources

throughout the M i d w e s t . W e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m o i s t ,

temperate climzce. with precipitation fairly evenly distributed throughout the

year and oc.curring, on the a v e r a g e , o v e r 2 0 0 d a y s per y e a r (U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of

Commerce, 1963). A t m o s p h e r i c r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y at p l u m e l e v e l , t h e r e f o r e , varies

 86

widely in r e s p o n s e t o c h a n g i n g w e a t h e r patterns. The cooling t o w e r s at the

K e y s t o n e plant r e p r e s e n t a l o c a l s o u r c e of m o i s t u r e , producing plumes which

can m e r g e w i t h s t a c k e f f l u e n t s and p e r s i s t for m a n y kilometers downwind,

especially during cold, humid conditions (Hosier and Landsberg, 1977).

The instrumentation on-board the P e n n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a i r c r a f t , a twin-

engine Aerocommander 680E, has been described in a p r e v i o u s p a p e r (Dittenhoefer

and d e P e n a , 1978). Atmospheric aerosol sampling equipment included an

Environment One M o d e l R i c h 1 0 0 C o n d e n s a t i o n Nucleus Counter (CNC), a R o y c o

M o d e l 225 O p t i c a l P a r t i c l e Counter (OPC), and a TSI M o d e l 3030 Electrical

Aerosol Analyzer (EAA), w h i c h in c o m b i n a t i o n m o n i t o r e d atmospheric particle

concentrations in t w e l v e d i s t i n c t size ranges, spanning the e n t i r e size spectrum

of a e r o s o l s p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s t u d y . The airplane is also e q u i p p e d with a

rapid-response SO2 a n a l y z e r , a s w e l l a s an a s s o r t m e n t of i n s t r u m e n t s capable

of s u p p l y i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and a i r c r a f t position data.

Atmospheric particles within the size r a n g e 0 . 1 0 - 2 . 0 pm d i a m e t e r were

collected for s i z i n g and s u l f a t e a n a l y s i s by a C a s e l l a cascade Impactor (May,

I94f). Particles were collected directly onto 3 m m . c o p p e r electron microscope

s c r e e n s w h i c h had b e e n c o a t e d w i t h a f o r m v a r m e m b r a n e and a c a r b o n film and

placed onto the i m p a c t o r p l a t e s e x a c t l y b e l o w the jet n o z z l e s of the third and

fourth stages. To c o r r e c t for the d i s t o r t i o n of f l o w and the r e s u l t a n t change

in p a r t i c l e s i m p a c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y caused b y the s c r e e n s , it w a s n e c e s s a r y to

m e a s u r e t h e i r t h i c k n e s s u s i n g a n o p t i c a l m i c r o s c o p e and thus d e t e r m i n e the

new jet-to-plate distance. Using the t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between the

1/2

s q u a r e r o o t of the S t o k e s n u m b e r at 5 0 % i m p a c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , (St^ ) ,

„nd j e t - t o - p l a t e d i s t a n c e d e v e l o p e d by M a r p l e and Liu (1974), a n e w set of

impaction efficiency curves tor the third and f o u r t h s t a g e s of t'le i m p a c t o r

was constructed.

A quantitative method d e v e l o p e d a t P e n n State (Mamane and de P e n a , 1978)

for t h ^ a n a l y s i s of i n d i v i d u a l sulfate particles using a transmission electron

 87

microscope (TEM) a l l o w e d for the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and sizing of the sulfate

o

aerosol collected. A f t e r sampling, a film of B a C ^ of t h i c k n e s s 300 + 50 A

is v a c u u m evaporated onto the s c r e e n s , a f t e r w h i c h they are exposed in a sealed

c h a m b e r to a r e l a t i v e humidity of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70% for one h o u r . Soluble

sulfate p a r t i c l e s w h i c h have collected onto the s c r e e n s react w i t h the BaCljj

forming a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c spot or halo composed of insoluble barium sulfate which

is stable and r e c o g n i z a b l e under the t r a n s m i s s i o n electron microscope. The size

of the halo is a f u n c t i o n of p a r t i c l e size, the t h i c k n e s s of the B a C ^ film, and

the r e l a t i v e humidity at w h i c h the r e a c t i o n takes p l a c e (Mamane and d e P e n a ,

1978). By m a i n t a i n i n g the BaCl^ film thickness and r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y constant,

a relationship b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e and h a l o size can be e s t a b l i s h e d . Mamane and

de Pena found the halo to p a r t i c l e size ratio to be 1 . 6 6 for laboratory-generated

a m m o n i u m s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e s and roughly twice that for sufluric acid aerosols.

For this study a r a t i o of 1.8 w a s u s e d , obtained by a c a r e f u l c o m p a r i s o n of

the p a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n s b e f o r e and after B a C ^ treatment. By tediously

counting and sizing a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e of h a l o s on each screen, followed by

a p p l i c a t i o n of the a p p r o p r i a t e halo to particle size ratio and c o r r e c t i o n factor

for p a r t i c l e i m p a c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , o n e obtains a d e t a i l e d , a c c u r a t e sulfate

p a r t i c l e size distribution.

B e s i d e s p r o v i d i n g a q u a n t i t a t i v e , r e p r o d u c i b l e m e a s u r e of a t m o s p h e r i c sulfate,

this t e c h n i q u e is s p e c i f i c for s u l f a t e s . Although nitrates, carbonates, and

s u l f i t e s react w i t h B a C ^ forming i n s o l u b l e p r e c i p i t a t e s , it is p o s s i b l e to

distinguish these a n i o n s from s u l f a t e (Mamane and d e P e n a , 1 9 7 8 ) . The technique

outlined above is not affected by the background of the c o l l e c t i n g surface.

Furthermore, the m e t h o d r e q u i r e s v e r y short s a m p l i n g times, e.g. 1 0 - 2 0 seconds

for h i g h l y polluted a r e a s , w h i c h m a k e s it ideal for a i r c r a f t plume sampling

and a l l o w s for the d e t e c t i o n of s u b t l e changes in s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e m a s s con-

c e n t r a t i o n and size d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n power plant p l u m e s . The lower limit

of d e t e c t i o n of this s u l f a t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e is r o u g h l y 10 ^ grams,
 88

corresponding t o the m a s s o f the s m a l l e s t particle size d e t e c t e d , far below

the q u a n t i t y a c c e s s i b l e by b u l k a n a l y s i s methods.

For e a c h f l i g h t a v e r t i c a l s p i r a l a i r c r a f t s o u n d i n g w a s m a d e upwind of the

p o w e r s t a t i o n to d e t e r m i n e a t m o s p h e r i c s t a b i l i t y and u p w i n d particle and SC^

concentrations. Impactor and EAA sampling was performed upwind of the plant

at a p p r o x i m a t e p l u m e l e v e l to o b t a i n b a c k g r o u n d particle size distributions.

Downwind, the f l i g h t p a t t e r n c o n s i s t e d of a s y s t e m a t i c s e r i e s of crosswind

p l u m e t r a v e r s e s at i n c r e m e n t a l a l t i t u d e s to e s t i m a t e t o t a l SC>2 and particle

fluxes at s p e c i f i e d d i s t a n c e s from the p l a n t . Due to time l i m i t a t i o n s , plume

cross-sections could b e o b t a i n e d at only two to four d i s t a n c e s , terminating

at the p o i n t w h e r e SC^ a p p r o a c h e d b a c k g r o u n d levels. I m p a c t o r and bag samples

(for t h e E A A ) w e r e taken at several altitudes at e a c h d o w n w i n d position.

P a r t i c l e and SC^ background concentrations were determined outside the plume

for e a c h c r o s s w i n d plume traverse.

3. RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION

A c o m p l e t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the SO^ and S O ^ particle concentration

d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h i n the p l u m e w a s c o n d u c t e d for t h i r t e e n flights during the

m o n t h s of A p r i l , M a y , S e p t e m b e r , and October of 1 9 7 8 . Because previous labora-

tory and f i e l d studies implicated r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n as

important parameters influencing SO2 conversion, the f l i g h t s w e r e conducted

under highly varying meteorological conditions. (Cos 2), the c o s i n e of

the solar z e n i t h a n g l e , w h i c h is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the flux of solar radiation

r e c e i v e d a t t h e top of t h e a t m o s p h e r e , w a s c a l c u l a t e d for e a c h f l i g h t . For

c a s e s in w h i c h cloud cover existed during the s a m p l i n g p e r i o d , (cos z) w a s

m u l t i p l i e d by a factor (1-A), w h e r e A is a n e s t i m a t e of the cloud albedo.

V i s u a l e s t i m a t e s of c l o u d t y p e and sky c o v e r a g e w e r e used in c o n j u n c t i o n with

values for cloud a l b e d o a s g i v e n by S e l l e r s (1965) to d e t e r m i n e the factor

 89

(i-A). Changes in (co'. v.) (1~/*J during the course of each flight reflected

changes in tin- hour angle of the -sun, as well as v a r i a t i o n s in observed cloud

cover. I'lutne relative humidity was found to vary within the plume, especially

during cases of a sizeable vertical gradient of m o i s t u r e associated with ground

fog below or cloud layers above the plume. Plume lap.se rat'-' "was determined

1 row the upwind aircraft temperature: sounding within the altitude range en-

compassed by the plume.

"). 1 P l u m e S(>2 Conversion Rates and the Influence

of MeLoorologicn1 1'arametors

In order to gain an estimate of the SC^ conversion rate in the plume, the

sulfaLe to total sulfur molar ratios were determined at varying distances

from the power plant for each flight. This was done by computing the flow of

both sulfate and SO^ through individual cross-sections of the plume, similar to

a procedure employed by Cantrell and Whitby (1978). To obtain sulfate m a s s ,

total particle m a s s size distributions a s given by the EAA, OPC, and CNC

w e r e combined w i t h the results of the electron m i c r o s c o p e sulfate analysis,

in which a relation between the fraction of particles containing sulfate and

particle size was found (e.g., Figure 1). The curves were extended to include

particles too small to be collected by the impactor. A m a s s density of 1.77 g/cc

corresponding to dry ( N H ^ ^ S O ^ was assumed. The amount of sulfate contained

w i t h i n mixed p a r t i c l e s , though generally of minor importance, w a s estimated by

ruler measurement of the halo w i d t h s and included. For each horizontal cross-

wind plume traverse, concentration profiles of S O ^ and sulfate m a s s w e r e thus

generated. Background SC>2 and sulfate m a s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n s were m a d e in a

similar fashion o u t s i d e the plume at each plume-sampling altitude. T h e SC>2 and

sulfate "fluxes" through the plume were then calculated by way of a two-dimensional

integration of the background-corrected c o n c e n t r a t i o n profiles over the entire

 90

Figure 1. E x a m p l e of Che r e l a t i o n s h i p of f r e q u e n c y w i t h particle diamet'er

obtained from the e l e c t r o m i c r o s c o p e sulfate analysis of impactor

collected particles upwind and at two d i s t a n c e s d o w n w i n d of the

stack.

plume c r o s s - s e c t i o n , m u l t i p l i e d by the a v e r a g e wind speed n o r m a l to the cross-

section. The s u l f a t e to total s u l f u r m o l a r r a t i o , SO^ /S^, is thus the flow

of s u l f a t e , e x p r e s s e d in m o l e s per unit time, d i v i d e d by the s u m of the flows of

SC>2 and sulfate.

T h e r e s u l t s of t h i s a n a l y s i s a p p e a r in F i g u r e 2, in w h i c h SO^ /S^ is plotted

as a f u n c t i o n of p l u m e t r a v e l t i m e . After plume transport times ranging from 30

to 160 m i n u t e s , n o m o r e t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y four percent of the t o t a l plume

sulfur w a s s u l f a t e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h p r e v i o u s p l u m e s t u d i e s (Lusis et al.,

1978; Forrest and N e w m a n , 1 9 7 7 ) . T h e S O 2 c o n v e r s i o n r a t e , w h i c h is simply the

difference in SO^ /S^, b e t w e e n two p l u m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s divided by the corresponding

difference in p l u m e t r a v e l time, h a s b e e n c o m p u t e d for e a c h flight in u n i t s of

(%/hr).
 91

PLUME TRAVEL TIME (MIN.)

F i g u r e 2. Sulfate-to-cotal sulfur m o l a r ratio v s . p l u m e travel time.

The a v e r a g e SC>2 o x i d a t i o n rate for a l l the flights w a s about 1%/hr, which

falls w i t h i n the r a n g e of rates m o s t c o m m o n l y reported for s t a c k plumes. The

highest r a t e observed by far w a s for flight 23, d u r i n g w h i c h the u p p e r portion

of che p l u m e m e r g e d w i t h the b a s e of a d e c k of s t r a t o c u m u l u s c l o u d s , resulting

in a r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y that a p p r o a c h e d 100%. These clouds dissipated somewhat

 92

during the course 01" thi.-^ e x p e r i m e n t , allowing solar radiative flux t.o increase

subs tantiallv. This irend continued into 11igiu 24, conducted in the afternoon

on tiie sane d a y , which was characterized by a higher solar elevation angle,

sli»;iitly lower relative h u m i d i t y , and a love;, hut n e v e r t h e l e s s hish, conversion

rate.

Figure j shows a plot of overall conversion rate against averai\.' relative

humid if.-. For relative h u m i d i t i e s less than 65/'.', it is sci'ii thai S09 conversion

is ne^l L^i ble. A notable increase occurs beyond hY,'. relative h u m i d i t y , marked

by a dramatic rise in conversion rate above 90^. If oxidation in the aqueous

phase is tile primary m e c h a n i s m contributing to the SO^ c o n v e r s i o n observed for

this study, then the results suggest that d e l i q u e s c e n c e at relative humidities

of 65% or less has occurred w i t h i n the plume. It was also found that the impactor-

coilected sulfate particLes r e a c t e d ivLth barium cnlorid<; at a relative humidity

of 63"^. The sharp increase in S O ^ conversion rate above 90Z relative humidity is

consistent with theoreticc.1 p r e d i c t i o n s of a q u e o u s p h a s e o x i d a t i o n (Freiberg, 1974).

Examination of plume s u l f a t e particles under the electron m i c r o s c o p e revealed

a direct relationship between particle size and ambient relative humidity, re-

presenting unequivocal evidence of droplet phase SC^ c o n v e r s i o n . Dried sulfate

particles achieved a m a x i m u m size of roughly 2 pm diameter during flight 23,

during w h i c h plume merger w i t h a cloud deck occurred.

To investigate the role of photochemistry on plume sulfur transformation,

conversion rate is graphed as a function of solar zenith angle in F i g u r e 4. The

h o r i z o n t a l bars denote the range in (cos z)(1-A) encountered during the course

of each flight. No apparent r e l a t i o n s h i p is evident from this a n a l y s i s , signifying

that p h o t o c h e m i c a l reactions a l o n e do not significantly influence plume sulfate

formation rates aver the p l u m e transit times involved.

The molar ratio of s u l f a t e particles larger than 0.3 wm to total plume

sulfur is plotted with respect to p l u m e travel time in F i g u r e 5. A diameter

of 0.3 um w a s selected b e c a u s e it roughly represents the lower size limit of

 ENTIRE FLIGHT ENTIRE FLIGHT

I I I l°n In I o I ry.1 "> 1 -o—• — • ° • " • I -n- . -o

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 .100 .200 .300 .400 .500 .600 .700
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (COS Z) (l-A)
Figure 3. SO^ conversion rate for the entire flight Figure k. conversion rate for the entire flight

vs. plume relative humidity. vs. (cos Z)(l-A).

 94

PLUME TRAVEL TIME (MIN)

Figure 5. Molar ratio of s u l f a t e for p a r t i c l e s larger than 0.3 nm to total

sulfur vs. plume travel time.

particles collected by the c a s c a d e impactor, for w h i c h an accurate estimate of

sulfate mass is c e r t a i n . Furthermore, particles larger than this size were

monitored by the OPC, w h i c h w a s used in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a heated sampling

line, thus eliminating the e f f e c t s of r e l a t i v e humidity on sulfate particle size

due to their hygroscopicity. As seen in t h e d i a g r a m , the m o l a r fraction of

sulfate contained in these particles generally increased with plume age, es-

pecially during those flights in w h i c h the o v e r a l l conversion rate was found

to b e t h e h i g h e s t (flights 8, 12, 13, 20, 23, and 24). This represents further

evidence of droplet phase particle growth. The high correlation between this

molar ratio at thirty m i n u t e s plume travel time and r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y as inferred

from F i g u r e 6 suggests that the dissolution and o x i d a t i o n of SO2 in p l u m e drop-

lets is largely responsible for the growth of sulfate particles to s i z e s larger

 95

30 MINUTES PLUME
TRAVEL TIME

,030

I—
<
cc
cr
<
o
.020
£
ro
A*

Q
to
P fl-
O
cn
.010

o
o
o
o

20 40 60 80 100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Figure 6. Molar ratio of sulfate for particles larger than 0.3 vim to total

sulfur vs. relative humidity.

than 0.3 ym. These particles accounted for a major fraction of the total

sulfate mass in the plume under conditions of high relative humidity.

To gain an estimate of the degree of Aitken nuclei production within the

plume, total Aitken particle concentrations normalized by S0 2 are plotted as

a function of plume transit time in Figure 7. Sizeable increases in this

parameter with respect to plume age occurred during flights 8, 15, 17, 20, 23,

and 24, in which moderate to high solar radiative fluxes were observed.

Figure 8 shows the distinct relationship between S02~normalized Aitken nuclei

concentration and solar intensity, pointing to photochemical gas phase nucleation

as the primary agent for new-particle production within the plume.

 30 MINUTE PLUME
TRAVEL TIME
x 10
60 r 601-

50-

to
ui
.j
o
K 30-
g o
<S)
Z v£>
UJ
^
t:
< 20-

10-

JL _L I X
.100 .200 .300 .40C. 500 .600 .700
PLUME TRAVEL TIME (MIN) (COS Z)(l-A)

Figure 7. SC^-normalized Aitken particle concentra- Figure 8. S02-normalized Aitken particle concentta-

tion vs. plume travel time. tion vs. (cos Z)(l-A).

 97

h. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

M e a s u r e m e n t s of p a r t i c l e p r o d u c t i o n and g r o w t h h a v e b e e n m a d e w i t h i n the

p l u m e of the c o a l - f i r e d K e y s t o n e power p l a n t using instrumented aircraft and

applying a micro-chemical spot test for the q u a n t i t a t i v e identification of

individual plume s u l f a t e particles.

The h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y of the e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e sulfate analysis technique

and the r e l a t i v e l y shore sampling times r e q u i r e d for the c o l l e c t i o n of plume

particles by the c a s c a d e i m p a c t o r , c o u p l e d w i t h a flight p a t t e r n c o n s i s t i n g of

complete cross-sectxonal plume mappings, provided the h i g h spatial resolution

necessary for the d e t e c t i o n of s u b t l e c h a n g e s in s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e size distri-

b u t i o n s and s u l f a t e - t o - t o t a l sulfur molar ratios throughout the plume. Further-

more, the c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a r g e n u m b e r of f l i g h t s in this suudy and the w i d e

r a n g e of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and p l u m e c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h they w e r e conducted

represent a r e a s of s i g n i f i c a n t improvement o v e r other p l u m e s a m p l i n g programs.

An a v e r a g e g a s - t o - p a r t i c l e c o n v e r s i o n r a t e of r o u g h l y 1 % / h r . w a s found for

thirteen flights conducted under widely varying meteorological conditions of

r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y and solar r a d i a t i v e flux. A m a x i m u m r a t e of 6 % / h r . w a s

observed w h e n the u p p e r portion of the p l u m e m e r g e d w i t h a cloud deck, during

which sulfate particles achieved their m a x i m u m size, due to droplet phase SO2

oxidation. A n o t i c e a b l e c h a n g e in the r a t e of c o n v e r s i o n o c c u r r e d at approxi-

mately 65% relative humidity, quite possibly the point of d e l i q u e s c e n c e of

sulfate particles in the plume.

Photochemistry a l o n e did n o t a c c o u n t for m u c h of the p l u m e sulfur mass

transformation for t h e f l i g h t s studied but w a s p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the

p r o d u c t i o n of h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of s m a l l p a r t i c l e s d u r i n g c o n d i t i o n s of high

solar intensity and r a p i d p l u m e d i l u t i o n . There was some evidence that

p h o t o c h e m i c a l a f f e c t s p l a y a m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in p l u m e c h e m i s t r y at

longer plume transport times. C o n v e r s i o n r a t e s w e r e h i g h e s t and i n c r e a s e d with

 98

p l u m e a g e d u r i n g c o n d i t i o n s of h i g h r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y and solar f l u x and intense

atmospheric mixing for p l u m e s e m b e d d e d in air m a s s e s h a v i n g h i g h background

Aitken particle concentrations. T h i s s u g g e s t s that the a d m i x t u r e into the

p l u m e of g a s e o u s p r e c u r s o r s p h o t o c h e m i c a l l y - g e n e r a t e d in the a m b i e n t air becomes

an i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s m for p l u m e s u l f a t e f o r m a t i o n a s the p l u m e a g e s . It is

likely that b o t h h o m o g e n e o u s g a s p h a s e and a q u e o u s p h a s e o x i d a t i o n involving

c h e m i c a l b y - p r o d u c t s of the N O - C L - h y d r o c a r b o n - s u n l i g h t photochemical cycle

X j

contribute to p l u m e sulfur transformation at these longer travel times.

T h e u n d e n i a b l e i m p o r t a n c e of a q u e o u s p h a s e SC^ o x i d a t i o n as r e v e a l e d in

this study h a s i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t to the d e v e l o p m e n t of numerical

models w h i c h predict the f o r m a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t of a t m o s p h e r i c sulfate. Many

current models (e.g., G i l l a n i , 1 9 7 8 ) h a v e used a d i u r n a l l y - v a r y i n g chemical

transformation r a t e of SC>2 to SO^ under the a s s u m p t i o n that photochemistry

plays the d o m i n a n t role in s u l f a t e p r o d u c t i o n . Whereas this m a y be true at

transport times considerably longer than those associated w i t h this s t u d y , the

i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f the p l u m e into a cloud o r fog l a y e r m a y s i g n i f i c a n t l y enhance

" O 2 c o n v e r s i o n at a n y period in p l u m e h i s t o r y , i r r e g a r d l e s s of time of day.

Furthermore, the chemical characteristics of the air m a s s in w h i c h a s t a c k or

u r b a n p l u m e is e m b e d d e d , in t e r m s of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of photochemically-

generated s p e c i e s w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y p r o m o t e SC^ o x i d a t i o n , should be a p r i m e

consideration in future, m o d e l i n g efforts.

T h e c o n v e r s i o n rates and the r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of a q u e o u s p h a s e and gas

p h a s e SO2 o x i d a t i o n found in t h i s study should b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a typical

coal-buring power p l a n t l o c a t e d i n the n o r t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d States within the

i n i t i a l o n e to two h o u r s of p l u m e t r a n s p o r t . Further field studies are

necessary to d e f i n e the r a t e - c o n t r o l l i n g c h e m i c a l and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l processes

involved i n t h e o x i d a t i o n of SO2 in p l u m e s e m i t t e d from power plants located

in o t h e r c l i m a t i c r e g i o n s and s u b j e c t to d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of b a c k g r o u n d pol-

lution. W i t h i n particular c l i m a t i c and a i r q u a l i t y r e g i o n s , m e a s u r e m e n t s at

 99

different power p l a n t s are n e e d e d to test the i m p o r t a n c e of fuel type and plant

o p e r a t i n g and e m i s s i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (e.g., s t a c k g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s , SC^ and

p a r t i c l e e m i s s i o n s , s t a c k g a s exit v e l o c i t i e s , and flue gas treatments) on

atmospheric SO, conversion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by ERDA and D O E G r a n t s E ( l l - l ) 2463 for w h i c h

we are grateful.

W o r k reported h e r e i n c l u d e s a p o r t i o n of Dr. D i t t e n h o e f e r ' s doctoral

dissertation.

REFERENCES

Beilke, S. and C. G r a v e n h o r s t , 1978: Heterogeneous SO2 oxidation in the

droplet phase. Atmos. Environ., 12, 231-240.

Calvert, J. G . , F . Su, J . W . B o t t e n h e i m , and 0 . P. S t r a u s z , 1978: Mechanism

of the h o m o g e n e o u s o x i d a t i o n of sulfur d i o x i d e in the troposphere.

Atmos. Environ., 12, 197-226.

Cantrell, B. K. and K. T . W h i t b y , 1 9 7 8 : A e r o s o l size d i s t r i b u t i o n s and aerosol

volume formation for a c o a l - f i r e d power plant plume. Atmos. Environ.,

12, 323-334.

Davis, D., 1977: OH radical measurements: impact on p o w e r plant p l u m e chemistry,

Georgia Institute of T e c h n o l o g y , EPRI EA-465, P r o j e c t 676.

D i t t e n h o e f e r , A . C. and R. G . d e P e n a , 1978: A study of p r o d u c t i o n and growth

of s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e s in p l u m e s from a coal fired power plant.

Atmos. Environ., 12 297-306.

F o r r e s t , J . and L. N e w m a n , 1 9 7 7 : F u r t h e r studies on the o x i d a t i o n of sulfur

dioxide in c o a l - f i r e d p o w e r plant p l u m e s . Atmos. E n v i r o n . , 11, 465-474.

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Freiberg, J . , 1 9 7 4 : Effects of r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e on the iron-

catalyzed o x i d a t i o n of SO,, in a t m o s p h e r i c aerosols. Environmental

S c i e n c e and Technology, 8_, 731-734.

Friedlander, S. K . , 1 9 7 8 : A review of the d y n a m i c s of sulfate containing

aerosols. A t m o s . E n v i r o n . , 12, 187-196.

Gillani, N. V . , 1 9 7 8 : Project M I S T T : m e s o s c a l e plume m o d e l i n g of the dispersion,

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and ground r e m o v a l of SC^. A t m o s . E n v i r o n . , 12, 569-587.

Hosier, C. L . and H. E. L a n d s b e r g , 1 9 7 7 : Effect of localized man-made heat

and m o s i t u r e s o u r c e s in m e s o s c a l e w e a t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n . In Energy and

C l i m a t e , N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of Sciences, W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., 96-105.

Husar, R . B. and J. D. H u s a r , 1978: Meeting review, International S y m p o s i u m on

Sulfur in the A t m o s p h e r e , 7-14 September 1977, Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia.

B u l l e t i n of the A m e r i c a n M e t e o r o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , 59, 1332-1j33.

Lusis, M . A . , K. G. A n l a u f , L. A. B a r r i e , and H . A. Wiebe, 1 9 7 8 : Plume

chemistry s t u d i e s at a n o r t h e r n A l b e r t a power plant. Atmos. Environ.,

12, 649-660.

Mamane, Y. and R . G . de Pena, 1 9 7 8 : A q u a n t i t a t i v e method for the d e t e c t i o n of

individual s u b m i c r o m e t e r size s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e s . Atmos. Environ., 12,

69-82.

Marple, V . A. and B. Y . Liu, 1974: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of laminar jet impactors.

E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e and T e c h n o l o g y , 648-654.

M a y , K. R., 1 9 4 5 : T h e cascade i m p a c t o r : a n instrument for s a m p l i n g aerosol.

J. Sci. Instr., 22, 1 8 7 - 1 9 5 .

Perhac, R . M . , 1 9 7 8 : Sulfate regional experiment in n o r t h e a s t e r n United States:

the " S U R E " p r o g r a m . A t m o s . E n v i r o n . , 12, 641-648.

Sellers, W . D . , 1 9 6 5 : P h y s i c a l C l i m a t o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o P r e s s , 272 pp.

U.S. Department of C o m m e r c e . D e c e n n i a l C e n s u s of United States Climate -

S u m m a r y of Hourly O b s e r v a t i o n s , P i t t s b u r g h , Pennsylvania.

Washington, D.C., 1963.

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III.B. A T M O S P H E R I C M E A S U R E M E N T T E C H N I Q U E S FOR
SUPPLEMENTARY CONTROL SYSTEM STRATEGIES
* *

Dennis W. Thomson and M a r k J. Logan

1. INTRODUCTION

The-atmosphere varies tremendously in its a b i l i t y to d i s p e r s e the emissions

from the tall smoke s t a c k s of large, coal-fired power g e n e r a t i n g plants.

A c t u a l air q u a l i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e at s u c h plants have s h o w n that, m o s t of

the time, c o n t r a r y to current air q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s , the p l a n t s could burn

high-sulfur coal without unduly taxing the a t m o s p h e r e . It w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y to

burn the l e s s a b u n d a n t and m o r e e x p e n s i v e l o w - s u l f u r c o a l only at those times w h e n

monitoring instruments indicated the e x i s t e n c e of d e c r e a s e d wind speed and in-

version conditions that w o u l d not a l l o w the a t m o s p h e r e to d i s p e r s e the emissions

from h i g h - s u l f u r c o a l quickly enough for e n v i r o n m e n t a l safety.

T h i s t e c h n i q u e for m a k i n g u s e of o u r h i g h - s u l f u r c o a l has b e e n a d v a n c e d by

v a r i o u s e x p e r t s and a g e n c i e s as a m e t h o d of o p e r a t i o n for large power plants

along the east c o a s t . Any acid r a i n that m i g h t occur as a result of the increased

sulfur d i o x i d e e m i s s i o n s from these p l a n t s , it is m a i n t a i n e d , would be carried

o f f s h o r e by the p r e v a i l i n g w e s t e r l y f l o w of air and e v e n t u a l l y fall in the ocean.

The a m o u n t of acid d e p o s i t e d in the A t l a n t i c would not be n o t i c e a b l e , a n d , by

the time the air w o u l d reach Europe, it w o u l d be cleansed.

S u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n of this t e c h n i q u e of s w i t c h i n g from l o w - s u l f u r to

h i g h - s u l f u r c o a l in r e s p o n s e to c h a n g i n g a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s , w e r e it to b e

permitted by the E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y , w o u l d d e p e n d u p o n the operation

at the p o w e r plant of c o m b i n e d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and m o d e l s w h i c h together a r e called

a supplementary control system (SCS). T h e SCS is d e s i g n e d to i n s u r e that emissions

from a g i v e n s o u r c e w i l l n o t cause t h e q u a l i t y of the a i r a r o u n d that s o u r c e to

d e t e r i o r a t e b e l o w the r e q u i r e d standards during varying meteorological conditions.

*
Department of M e t e o r o l o g y , T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , University
Park, Pa.
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A l t h o u g h n a t i o n a l air q u a l i t y r e g u l a t i o n s p r e s e n t l y require that primary

emission c o n t r o l s be of a " r e m o v a l " n a t u r e (from the f u e l o r at the stack)

rather t h a n of a c o n t r o l n a t u r e , economic (as to f u e l type, a v a i l a b i l i t y and

c o s t ) and p o l i t i c a l (such as the use of n u c l e a r power) considerations are certain

to m o t i v a t e r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of S C S techniques. This w i l l b e true p a r t i c u l a r l y in

coal mining areas where relatively l a r g e n u m b e r s of c o a l - f i r e d electrical power

plants are located and s y n t h e t i c liquid f u e l plants are l i k e l y to be built.

As exemplified on a d a i l y b a s i s by our c h a n g e a b l e w e a t h e r , the a t m o s p h e r e as a

depository i n t o w h i c h r e s i d u a l s u l f u r - d i o x i d e and other w a s t e p r o d u c t s must be

dumped is h i g h l y v a r i a b l e — w i t h regard to b o t h space and time. Fortunately,

b o t h our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s and atmospheric structure,

and o u r a b i l i t y to m a k e m e a s u r e m e n t s of these, h a s a d v a n c e d significantly in the

last d e c a d e . T h i s paper s u m m a r i z e s some of the a d v a n c e s r e l e v a n t to SCS technology

to w h i c h research in the College of E a r t h and M i n e r a l S c i e n c e s at P e n n State has

made significant contributions.

2. DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITORY

T h e l e n g t h of the a t m o s p h e r i c " b o x " into w h i c h p o l l u t a n t s a r e d e p o s i t e d down-

wind of a s p e c i f i c e m i s s i o n s o u r c e d e p e n d s , b a s i c a l l y , u p o n the speed of the wind.

Determination of the a v e r a g e w i n d speed and d i r e c t i o n , w h i c h is e q u i v a l e n t to

defining the b o x length and o r i e n t a t i o n , is generally sufficient to d e f i n e pro-

c e s s e s that t r a n s p o r t the p o l l u t a n t s . T h e w i d t h of the b o x , h o w e v e r , depends

upon diffusion processes which are related to f l u c t u a t i o n s in w i n d speed and di-

rection. A l t h o u g h the d e p t h of the b o x i s determined b y v e r t i c a l diffusion

processes, diffusion upward is e f f e c t i v e l y limited b y a s h a l l o w , r e l a t i v e l y stable

l a y e r of a i r that n o r m a l l y caps the s o - c a l l e d p l a n e t a r y b o u n d a r y or " m i x i n g " layer.

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At a l t i t u d e s of m o r e than two k i l o m e t e r s , the effects on the a t m o s p h e r e of the

proximate earth's surface may essentially be ignored w i t h o u t adversely effecting,

for e x a m p l e , an a v i a t i o n w e a t h e r forecast.

H o w e v e r , the s t r u c t u r e of the m i x i n g layer and p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g within

it d e p e n d not o n l y u p o n c u r r e n t w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s but a l s o u p o n the complicated

topography of and the m i c r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g at the earth1s

surface. It is in the h i g h l y v a r i a b l e m i x i n g layer that w e l i v e and into which

most pollutants created b y m a n a r e emitted.

D e p e n d i n g u p o n the l o c a t i o n and w e a t h - r c o n d i t i o n s , in the c r u r s e of a d a y ,

the m i x i n g l a y e r , z ^ in F i g u r e s 1 and 2, m a y be as s h a i l c .s 30 m e t e r s or deeper

than 2 kilnnje^ers w h i c h m e a n s that its depth may v a r y by a facr.or of more than 70.

In c e n t r a l P e n n s y l v a n i a (Figure 1) d i u r n a l v a r i a t i o n s of the m i x i n g layer are an

o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e , typically from 150 to 1500 m .

A l t h o u g h analysis in d e t a i l of the v a r i a t i o n s w i t h time of the mixing layer

is the subject of o n g o i n g r e s e a r c h , its g e n e r a l d i u r n a l b e h a v i o r is w e l l under-

stood. H e n c e , for p o l l u t a n t s e m i t t e d c l o s e to the s u r f a c e , s u c h as automobile

(or w o o d - b u r n i n g s t o v e ) e x h a u s t s , l o c a l air q u a l i t y c o n d i t o n s in and downwind of

an u r b a n area can often b e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y evaluated using a simple "box" m o d e l

as o u t l i n e d above.

H o w e v e r , in the case of a l a r g e point s o u r c e such as a p o w e r p l a n t , adequate

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of h o w the box s i z e v a r i e s w i t h time can not be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y in-

ferred from larger-scale weather maps, observations made o n l y at the earth's

s u r f a c e or b y u s i n g e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e i n s t r u m e n t e d towers.

P o w e r p l a n t stack h e i g h t s are typically 800 to 1 0 0 0 feet h i g h (250-312 m e t e r s ) .

But s i n c e the s t a c k g a s e s a r e b o u y a n t , w a r m e r than the s u r r o u n d i n g air, they w i l l

r i s e to the so-called e f f e c t i v e s t a c k height at w h i c h the g a s and atmospheric

t e m p e r a t u r e s are e q u a l . This means that at night p o l l u t a n t s a r e emitted into

the a t m o s p h e r e above the h e i g h t of the m i x i n g layer; s o m e t i m e d u r i n g the day,

the m i x i n g l a y e r and the e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t w i l l c o i n c i d e ; then, until about

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F i g u r e 1. S o d a r r e c o r d of m i x i n g layer d e p t h (surface to 1 k m ) v e r s u s time

(midnight to 8 a m ) o b s e r v e d at R o c k S p r i n g s A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h C e n t e r near

the U n i v e r s i t y P a r k C a m p u s . B o t h p e r i o d s of i n t e r m i t t e n t breakdown of the

surface-based nocturnal inversion and the rise of the d a y t i m e m i x i n g layer are

clearly evident.

sunset the e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t w i l l b e less than the d e p t h of the m i x i n g layer

(Figure 2).. The decision by the E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y to discourage

supplementary c o n t r o l s y s t e m s t r a t e g i e s for air p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l w a s probably

strongly i n f l u e n c e d by recognition of: (1) the " m e g a b u c k " c o s t s of acquiring

m i x i n g layer m e a s u r e m e n t s using conventional tower-mounted or a i r b o r n e (aircraft

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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of mixing layer d e p t h and typical associated

e f f e c t i v e p l u m e height and type v e r s u s time of day. = stack height,

= effective stack height, z = upper boundary of m i x i n g layer,

es 1

or b a l l o o n ) t e m p e r a t u r e and w i n d s e n s o r s , and (2) the l a c k of a d e q u a t e diagnostic

and p r o g n o s t i c m o d e l s a p p r o p r i a t e for fast (real-time) analyses of pollutant

t r a n s p o r t and d i f f u s i o n i n the m i x i n g l a y e r . Both mixing layer modeling and

measurement t e c h n i q u e s h a v e long b e e n the subject of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h at

P e n n State. W i t h i n the past y e a r , w e have b e e n s u c c e s s f u l in d e v e l o p i n g a

computer-based measurement s y s t e m w h i c h , it n o w a p p e a r s , can solve m o s t practical

mixing layer d i a g n o s i s and p r e d i c t i o n p r o b l e m s . W e call this system the Computerized

Acoustic Sounding System. (CASS).

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3. T H E PENN S T A T E C O M P U T E R I Z E D A C O U S T I C S O U N D I N G SYSTEM

T h e Penn S t a t e C o m p u t e r i z e d Acoustic Sounding System c o n s i s t s of a u n i q u e

c o m b i n a t i o n of m i x i n g layer diagnostic and prediction models that are run in the

m i n i c o m p u t e r w h i c h a l s o c o n t r o l s and p r o c e s s e s data f r o m a n i n t e g r a t e d , sophis-

ticated D o p p l e r s o d a r (sonic d e t e c t i o n and ranging) system.

Since their d e v e l o p m e n t in the late 1 9 6 0 s , s o d a r systems have become widely

accepted as a " s e m i - q u a n t i t a t i v e " , r e m o t e probe of the lower a t m o s p h e r e . Nearly

a thousand sodar units have been c o m m e r c i a l l y produced and d i s t r i b u t e d throughout

the w o r l d . However, the b a s i c c o m m e r c i a l s y s t e m s p r o v i d e quantitative information

only on the d e p t h of the m i x i n g layer. Information on the r e l a t i v e stability

of d i f f e r e n t atmospheric layers, which c o n t r o l v e r t i c a l d i f f u s i o n r a t e s at various

h e i g h t s , m a y be only "qualitatively" inferred.

Doppler sodar s y s t e m s w h i c h can also d e t e r m i n e w i n d speed and d i r e c t i o n as a

function of height are n o w a l s o bi'.ing c o m m e r c i a l l y m a r k e t e d . However, unambiguous

interpretation of sodar r e c o r d s — l i k e t h o s e from w e a t h e r r a d a r s — c u r r e n t l y requires

a highly trained o b s e r v e r . Furthermore, the s y s t e m o u t p u t s , at best, are still

"intermediate" meteorological variables which then m u s t be s e p a r a t e l y applied to

the u s e r ' s p a r t i c u l a r a i r p o l l u t i o n iiieasurement or m o d e l i n g problem.

In the C A S S s y s t e m , m a n y of the t a s k s p r e v i o u s l y requiring the effort of a

professional meteorologist have been programmed into the s o d a r s y s t e m computer.

T h e c h a l l e n g e in d e v e l o p i n g such a s y s t e m w a s in f i n d i n g w a y s to extract from

the r e c e i v e d sodar s i g n a l s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y for the v a r i o u s air pollution-

related, meteorological models.

A s indicated e a r l i e r , the transport of p o l l u t a n t s is d e p e n d e n t u p o n the mean

wind speed. Although extensive computer processing of the D o p p l e r - s h i f t e d re-

ceived s i g n a l s is r e q u i r e d , s o d a r can n o w b e r e a d i l y used for w i n d measurements.

U p to h e i g h t s of about 3 0 0 m e t e r s , the m a x i m u m h e i g h t of c o s t l y i n s t r u m e n t e d towers,

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the wind speed and d i r e c t i o n can be determined just as w e l l by sodar as w i t h con-

ventional anemometers and w i n d v a n e s . Above tower h e i g h t s (300 m to 1 k m ) wind

m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e by sodar are far superior to those d e t e r m i n e d by use of the

so-called " p i b a l " b a l l o o n s w h i c h m u s t be m a n u a l l y tracked w i t h theodolite.

H o w e v e r , both the rise of a buoyant p l u m e from a p o w e r plant to the effective

s t a c k height and the v e r t i c a l diffusion of the p l u m e d e p e n d upon the rate of

change of t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h h e i g h t . This observation cannot be d i r e c t l y extracted

from the sodar s i g n a l s . The s i g n a l s do d e p e n d , h o w e v e r , upon the m a g n i t u d e of

atmospheric temperature f l u c t u a t i o n s w h i c h are in turn d e p e n d e n t upon the

vertical temperature profile. By using a m i x i n g layer m o d e l w e can r e l a t e the

sodar signals to the v e r t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e profile. This is p o s s i b l e because

the a m b i e n t temperature profile must be dynamically consistent with the change

in wind speed w i t h h e i g h t , and also with the m a g n i t u d e of the turbulent wind and

temperature f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h h e i g h t — b o t h of w h i c h are o b s e r v a b l e u s i n g the sodar.

M i x i n g or b o u n d a r y layer m o d e l s w h i c h can be used for d i a g n o s i s and prediction

of w i n d , t e m p e r a t u r e , and t u r b u l e n c e p r o f i l e s as a f u n c t i o n of time cover a wide

r a n g e in their d e g r e e of c o m p l e x i t y and the cost of their a p p l i c a t i o n . A research

mixing layer m o d e l used to test and e v a l u a t e s i m p l i f i e d models that are appropriate

for a i r p o l l u t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s can r e q u i r e a s m u c h as 3 5 0 h o u r s of time on a large

computer for the n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n of the e v o l u t i o n of the b o u n d a r y layer for

a s i n g l e 24-hour p e r i o d . Application of s u c h a r e s e a r c h m o d e l for operational

purposes is l o g i s t i c a l l y and economically out of the q u e s t i o n . Fortunately, in the

last five y e a r s a n u m b e r of s i m p l i f i e d m o d e l s have b e e n developed.

At Penn S t a t e D r . A . K . B l a c k a d a r , p r o f e s s o r and H e a d of the D e p a r t m e n t of

Meteorology, Dr. Hendrick Tennekes now director of r e s e a r c h at the R o y a l Nether-

lands Meteorological Institute, and o t h e r s , have g a i n e d w o r l d - w i d e recognition

for t h e i r w o r k in d e v e l o p i n g s i m p l i f i e d m o d e l s for s i m u l a t i n g the g r o w t h and daily

e v o l u t i o n of the m i x i n g l a y e r . A p p l i c a t i o n of s e v e r a l of these P e n n State models

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in the C A S S s y s t e m w a s thus not simply a matter of g e o g r a p h i c convenience but

r a t h e r , and m o r e importantly, the a d o p t i o n of a s o u n d , w i d e l y accepted methodology.

4. CASS APPLIEIj TO SCS

Let us for the m o m e n t , limit the a p p l i c a t i o n of C A S S to the following special

SCS p r o b l e m : predictions of the time of f u m i g a t i o n (coincidence of the mixing

layer depth and e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t ) and the down-wind surface concentrations

of SO., from a p o w e r plant. With these p r e d i c t i o n s in h a n d , the plant operator

w i l l be able to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r 01 not it w i l l be p o s s i b l e on a given day to

burn less e x p e n s i v e , h i g h e r - s u l f u r coal. T h e plant operator m a y employ C A S S , as

shown in the b l o c k d i a g r a m in l'igure 3, in the following manner.

F i g u r e 3. B l o c k d i a g r a m of the P e n n State C A S S system. The sodar system

c o m p u t e r i n c l u d e s a l l the f u n c t i o n a l e l e m e n t s w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of the plant

o p e r a t i n g d a t a and the s u r f a c e m e a s u r e m e n t s . B o t h of the latter could a l s o b e

automatically input to the s y s t e m computer.

 109

First, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of an initial t e m p e r a t u r e s o u n d i n g , all of the

required input d a t a ( o b s e r v a t i o n s ) arc n o r m a l l y available or easily measurable

at the power plant using conventional i n s t r u m e n t s and a sodar s y s t e m . Fortunately,

the local (in a g e o g r a p h i c sense) characteristics of e a r l y m o r n i n g vertical

temperature p r o f i l e s are, typically, limited to about 10 percent of the eventual

total mixing l a y e r d e p t h . Normally temperature sounding data from the nearest

National Weather Service radiosonde station are a d e q u a t e for b e g i n n i n g computations

w i t h the m o d e l . Lacking radicsonde data, a suitable temperature sounding could be

inferred from l o c a l s u r f a c e observations aiid r e a d i l y available network weather

data. This is p o s s i b l e only b e c a u s e CASS has a u n i q u e " f e e d b a c k " circuit in the

i n v e r s i o n rise, m i x i n g layer, model calculations which updates the s o u n d i n g on

the b a s i s of the l o c a l s o d a r measurements.

The CASS c o m p u t e r d e t e r m i n e s the e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t by r u n n i n g a plume-

rise m o d e l based on the d a t a as s h o w n in Part A of F i g u r e 4. Immediately after

the e f f e c t i v e s t a c k h e i g h t is c o m p u t e d , an i n v e r s i o n rise m o d e l (such as one of

those developed at P e n n S t a t e ) is r u n , u s i n g the d a t a s u m m a r i z e d in part B

Figure 1. Note that some of the required m e a s u r e m e n t s are common to both the

i n v e r s i o n rise and the p l u m e - r i s e m o d e l s . By c o m b i n i n g the results of the two

m o d e l s , the o p e r a t o r w i l l o b t a i n an i n i t i a l f o r e c a s t of the time of fumigation

which occurs w h e n the h e i g h t of the u p w a r d g r o w i n g m i x e d layer r e a c h e s the level

of the e f f e c t i v e stack height. The effective stack height is t y p i c a l l y several

h u n d r e d m e t e r s a n d , t h u s , is s u c h that f u m i g a t i o n is likely to occur b e t w e e n 9 and

11:30 a.m.

After s u n r i s e , w i t h the i n i t i a l m o d e l p r e d i c t i o n s c o m p l e t e d , the C A S S m o n i t o r s

the a c t u a l i n v e r s i o n h e i g h t and c o m p a r e s it w i t h the e a r l i e r p r e d i c t e d height.

If the mixed layer is o b s e r v e d to be g r o w i n g at a d i f f e r e n t rate than w a s forecast,

the CASS w i l l m o d i f y , for e x a m p l e , the u p w a r d flux of h e a t and then r e r u n (update)

the i n v e r s i o n - r i s e m o d e l . T h i s process is r e p e a t e d u n t i l the a c t u a l and predicted

m i x i n g layers c o i n c i d e . Using the "updated o u t p u t " of the i n v e r s i o n - r i s e model,

A) PLUME RISEMOOEL
INPUTS: AIR TEMPERATURE
WIND SPEEO AT STACK HEIGHT
VERTICAL TEMPERATURE PROFILE OR STABLITY CLASS
STACK TEMPERATURE
EXIT VELOCITY

OUTPUT: EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT

BMNVERSION RISE MODEL

INPUTS SUNRISE SURFACE TEMPERATURE
SUNRISE VERTICAL TEMPERATURE PROFILE
DAY OF YEAR
J SURFACE ALBEDO AND BOWEN RATIO
r "SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

TIME OF OUTPUT: SENSIBLE HEAT FLUX

FUMIGATION TIME DEPENDENT MIXING LAYER DEPTH
r - VERTICAL TEMPERATURE PROFILE

C) GAUSSIAN (MULTIPLE REFLECTION) DIFFUSION MODEL

INPUTS:VERTICAL WIND PROFILE
> VERTICAL TEMPERATURE PROFILE
>MIXING LAYER DEPTH
POLLUTANT EMISSION RATE
> EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT

OUTPUTS: VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL DIFFUSION PARAMETERS

DOWNWIND POLLUTANT DISTRIBUTION
Figure 4. Summary of principle input-output parameters for models used in

CASS. Solid lines denote use of model predicted parameters in subsequent

models. The dashed line shows the feedback scheme used to correct earlier

predicted mixing layer depths with observed values.

 Ill

the o p e r a t o r can expect a n even m o r e a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e , for e x a m p l e , of the time

of fumigation.

Presumably, a plant operator w i l l be interested n o t only in the time of

fumigation, signaling the onset of an event that may last only 30 m i n u t e s , but also

the d o w n w i n d spatial distribution of p o l l u t a n t s . Of p a r t i c u l a r importance is the

maximum SO2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n that w i l l occur and its l o c a t i o n . After fumigation has

occurred, the s u r f a c e SO2 concentrations vary inversely w i t h the h e i g h t of the

mixed layer. Hence, the surface c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l g e n e r a l l y d e c r e a s e as the

day p r o c e e d s . It is the p l u m e - d i s p e r s i o n model which provides the estimated

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by c o m b i n i n g o u t p u t s from the p l u m e - r i s e m o d e l , the inversion-rise

m o d e l , and the o t h e r d a t a p r e s e n t e d in Part C of F i g u r e 4. F i g u r e 5 is a n ex-'iwple

u
in l a c k and w h i t e of the color t e l e v i s i o n d i s p l a y of p o l l u t a n t concentration

i s o p l e t h s on the output of the CASS c o m p u t e r system.

A s s o o n as the o p e r a t o r h a s the " u p d a t e d o u t p u t " from the i n v e r s i o n rise

m o d e l , he u s e s the C A S S c o m p u t e r to f o r e c a s t concentrations for the remainder

of the d a y . The estimated concentrations thus a l l o w h i m to p l a n h i s control

strategy; for e x a m p l e , he can p r e d i c t the f e a s i b i l i t y of s w i t c h i n g to a n o t h e r

coal without exceeding air quality standards in the v i c i n i t y of the p l a n t . Repeated

r u n s of the m o d e l w o u l d most likely be used to e v a l u a t e average surface concentrations

over selected intervals s u c h as 1 - , 3 - , or 24-hour periods.

Using C A S S , it is thus p o s s i b l e , b y a b o u t two h o u r s a f t e r s u n r i s e , to h a v e

sufficient information a v a i l a b l e to p l a n a n e n t i r e d a y ' s fuel burning strategy.

At the present time, t e c h n i q u e s s u c h as CASS are r e a d i l y a p p l i c a b l e to p o w e r

p l a n t or i n d u s t r i a l s i t e s that are k n o w n to b e h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e to local m e t e o -

rological conditions. Looking to the f u t u r e , such t e c h n i q u e s a r e also w e l l suited

foe u r b a n a n d , p e r h a p s , e v e n r e g i o n a l s c a l e a n a l y s e s . By s u b s t i t u t i n g time-

dependent "box" models for the s i n g l e - p l u m e m o d e l s d e s c r i b e d here, predictions

of a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t a n t concentrations d o w n w i n d of m a n y , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y distributed

s o u r c e s are p o s s i b l e . T h u s in c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s s u c h as m a j o r a i r stagnation
 112

F i g u r e 5. B l a c k and w h i t e r e p r o d u c t i o n of CASS c o l o r t e l e v i s i o n d i s p l a y of

v e r t i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n of p o l l u t a n t concentration isopleths.

e p i s o d e s , it w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to m a k e o b j e c t i v e evaluations regarding the i m p a c t of

specific pollutant sources on the a t m o s p h e r e at any time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sodar d e v e l o p m e n t and a p p l i c a t i o n s r e s e a r c h at P e n n S t a t e h a s b e e n supported

b y b o t h the U . S . D e p a r t m e n t of E n e r g y and E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y . The

assistance of Robert P e t e r s , r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t , in all a s p e c t s of the system

development effort is g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.

 113

III.e. D R I F T D E P O S I T I O N CLOSE T O T H E C O O L I N G TOWER

it
Jorge A . P e n a

The prediction of drift d e p o s i t i o n can b e m a d e w i t h several models which

assume that once the drift d r o p s leave the p l u m e they fall to the ground while

evaporating according to the a m b i e n t r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y . The trajectories of

t h e s e drops are d e t e r m i n e d by their fall v e l o c i t i e s and the wind speed which

is a s s u m e d to be h o r i z o n t a l . Its v a l u e can c h a n g e w i t h h e i g h t but not its

direction.

Up to a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e the wind behind a building d o e s not c o n f i r m the

a s s u m p t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l v e l o c i t y . Wind tunnel e x p e r i m e n t s suggest a c o m p l e x

c i r c u l a t i o n where t h e wind v e l o c i t y can have downward c o m p o n e n t s as w e l l a s a

reversal in the wind direction.

The trajectory of a drift d r o p falling in such a w i n d field is expected

to d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y from that o n e predicted by the m o d e l s and particularly

they a r e going to hit the g r o u n d at d i s t a n c e s shorter than those predicted

theoretically.

O b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e at the K e y s t o n e Power Plant (PA) i n d i c a t e first the

discrepancies between the observed and predicted drift deposition rates can

be c o n s i d e r a b l e , and the d i s c r e p a n c i e s are in the e x p e c t e d direction i.e.

the o b s e r v e d v a l u e s a r e m u c h h i g h e r , (for some drop s i z e s it is s e v e r a l orders

of magnitude)."*"

A l a r g e r d e p o s i t i o n c l o s e to the tower m e a n s a s m a l l e r d e p o s i t i o n on the

countryside, a c c o r d i n g to this the t h e o r e t i c a l e s t i m a t e s can b e too conservative

and the e x t r a p r e c a u t i o n s t a k e n m a y not be necessary.

In o r d e r to m a k e p r o g r e s s w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s the wind

field b e i n d the t o w e r should b e determined.

*
Department of M e t e o r o l o g y , T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , University
Park, Pa.
 114

REFERENCE

1. P e n a , J . , 19"f9: Drift d r o p d e p o s i t i o n rate at short distances from natural

draft cooling towers. Atmos. Environ., accepted for publication.

PHYSICAL MODELING
 117

IV. PHYSICAL MODELING OF FLOW OVER AN AXISYMMETRIC

KNOLL UNDER NEUTRAL ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS

W. C. Cliff* J. D. Smith*

SUMMARY

The Pacific Northwest Laboratory used a glass-walled hydraulic (water)

flume to physically model air flow near an axisymmetric knoll in a neutral
atmospheric boundary layer. The knoll was a 1:250 scale model. An upstream
velocity profile (1/7 power law), characteristic of a neutral atmospheric
boundary layer, was produced by locating a 10-cm-high (4-in.) trip near the
flume entrance and by appropriately roughening the flume floor.

Mean velocity, rms velocity, and turbulence intensity profiles were mea-
sured at locations near the knoll using an existing laser Doppler anemometer
system. The flow accelerated over the knoll and produced a relatively uniform
velocity profile at the crest. The measured velocity profile was in close
agreement with a theoretical velocity profile developed using potential flow
theory and an upstream power law velocity profile. The turbulence intensity
decreased at the crest of the knoll as a result of the flow acceleration.

1. INTRODUCTION

Developing methods to estimate the trajectory and diffusion of thermal

plume releases From power generation facilities has been the prime objective
of the Meter program (Meteorological Effects of Thermal Energy Releases) spon-
sored by the Department of Energy. The Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) was
contracted to perform a physical simulation of flow near an axisymmetric knoll
with the long-range objective of modeling the trajectory of exhaust plumes
from mechanical draft cooling towers in complex terrain. The objectives of
this initial study were to: 1) modify an existing water flume system to per-
mit simulation of a neutral atmospheric boundary layer, 2) utilize an existing
laser Doppler anemometer (LDA) system to measure fluid velocities and turbu-
lence intensities, and 3) characterize the fluid flow near an axisymmetric
knoll subjected to a neutral atmospheric boundary layer.

*
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Wash.
 118

Characteristics of an atmospheric surface layer (the lower portion of the

atmospheric boundary layer) that has developed over a flat, homogeneous ter-
rain are well understood because of extensive measurements in the lowest 150 m
(493 ft) of the atmosphere. G. I. Taylor^ began quantifying atmospheric
surface layer characteristics in a study in 1913, when he observed the motion
of a tethered balloon. Since that time, investigators have performed many
measurements which have aided in describing the atmospheric surface layer. In
recent years, excellent compilations and reviews have been presented^'^'^
with the neutral atmospheric boundary layer receiving comprehensive
evaluations.

However, the characterization of atmospheric flow over complex terrain

has not been well established, partly because few field test programs have
large enough measurement networks. Because the expense of such programs is
prohibitively large, most flow characterizations are performed by simulating
the desired flow field. There are two basic approaches to simulation:
physical modeling and numerical modeling. Physical modeling in fluid channels
has a great flexibility in simulating the complex terrain and the atmospheric
boundary l a y e r . s t a t e of the art in numerical modeling does not
permit characterization of flow over nonhomogeneous surface roughnesses and
complex terrain.^

Physical modeling of atmospheric flows over complex terrain has primarily

been considered for stably stratified f l o w s . F o r stably stratified
cases, no boundary layer is used, and the approaching flow has a uniform velo-
city distribution. Characterization of flow over complex terrain under neu-
(9)
tral conditions is more limited. ' The effort of Hunt, Snyder, and Lawson
characterized the flow over a large hill when the crest of the hill was near
(91
x
or above the height of the atmospheric boundary layer. ' The present PNL
study used the same model shape as that used by Hunt, Snyder, and Lawson but
scaled the model to simulate a knoll height of approximately 19 m (62.5 ft),
which corresponds to the height of many mechanical draft cooling towers. This
study measures the mean velocity, rms velocity, and turbulence intensity pro-
files near and above the modeled knoll. A theoretical mean velocity profile
is also developed and compared to the measured mean velocity profile.
 119

2. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The following conclusions and recommendations are based upon the results
of the analysis and experimental testing performed during this study.

2.1 CONCLUSIONS

• Physical modeling in the PNL flume was used to successfully charac-

terize the fluid flow near an axisymmetric knoll under neutral atmo-
spheric conditions.

• The LDA provided a satisfactory method of obtaining velocity arid

turbulence intensity profiles near the model knoll.

• Measured mean velocity profiles were found to be fairly uniform

above the crest of the model knoll and were in good agreement with a
theoretical profile developed from potential flow theory.

• The turbulence intensity decreased at the crest of the knoll as a

result of flow acceleration.

2.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
• An extension of this effort should be performed to investigate the
effects of a local surface protuberance, such as an axisymmetric
knoll, on mechanical draft cooling tower plumes under neutral atmo-
spheric conditions.

• Future studies should characterize fluid flow over other generic

topographic shapes.
 120

3. ATMOSPHERIC BOUNDARY LAYER MODELING REQUIREMENTS

Physical modeling of the atmospheric boundary layer requires geometric,

dynamic, and thermic similarity between model and prototype. Determination of
the nondimensional parameters required to ensure similarity between model and
prototype can be obtained by inspectional analysis of the governing equations
for mass, momentum, and energy. Cermak^ has performed an inspectional
analysis, showing that exact similarity requires the model and prototype to be
equal in
1) Rossby number
2) Richardson number
3) Reynolds number
4) Prandtl number
5) Eckert number
and have consistent geometric scaling in all dimensions.

The approach flow and surface boundary conditions require similarity of

1) mean and turbulent velocity profiles
2) temperature profiles and distribution
3) pressure gradient (should be zero)
4) surface roughness
5) topography.

All of the above requirements cannot be met because of physical modeling

limitations. A particular experiment must therefore be designed to accurately
simulate those scales of motion which are of greatest significance to the spe-
cific application. The similarity requirements are substantially reduced for
the case considered in this study, but similarity of the following nondimen-
sional parameters was important.
1) geometric scale
2) Richardson number
3) Reynolds number
4) mean and turbulent velocity profile
5) pressure gradient
6) surface roughness
7) topography.
 121

This study provided similarity for the seven parameters listed above as
follows:

1) Geometric surface roughness lengths were scaled 1:250.

2) Richardson numbers for both the neutral atmosphere and the

model were equal to zero.

3) Reynolds number similarity was not met. This did not signifi-
cantly limit modeling because the significant flow characteris-
tics were weakly dependent upon the Reynolds number.^

4) Similarity for the mean and turbulent velocity profiles were

attained by tripping the boundary layer and roughening the sur-
face upstream of the model knoll until the boundary layer velo-
city profiles were similar to the desired atmospheric velocity
profiles.

5) Pressure gradients in both the model and the neutral atmosphere

were equal to zero.

6) Surface roughness was aerodynamically similar when the velocity

profiles were made similar.

7) Topography was scaled at 1:250, to provide geometric similarity

between model and prototype.

The following similarity parameters were not important:

1) Rossby number similarity is only required to simulate larger

scales of motion.

2) Prandtl number was not important because an adiabatic model was

considered.

3) Eckert number corresponds to the Mach number squared. In an

order of magnitude analysis, the Eckert number was found to be
very small compared to unity for both the model and the atmo-
spheric conditions. Thus, the term in the governing energy
equation in which the Eckert number appears was also small com-
pared to other terms.
 122

4. THEORETICAL VELOCITY PROFILE ABOVE THE CREST OF A KNOLL

Ono. can estimate the velocity profile expected above the top of an axi-
symmetric knoll using potential flow theory for flow near a half sphere and
adjusting the approach velocities to be consistent with the upstream velocity
profile. This replaces the uniform upstream velocity profile conventionally
assumed in potential flow theory. A detailed analysis presented in Appendix A
resulted in the following relationship for the expected velocity profile above
the centerline of an axisymmetric knoll.

(1)

where: U ^ = velocity at the crest of the knoll

L
'us = u
P s t r e a m velocity
Z = upstream height
r = the vertical distance from the center of the knoll
n = exponent of power law for approach velocity
r Q = the height of knoll

— = j , n = 1/7 for the conditions presented in this study

Using Equation 1, a profile of the expected mean velocity at the crest of

a knoll with a 1/7 power law approach velocity profile is presented in Fig-
ure 1. The greatest acceleration of the upstream flow occurs near the surface,
which results in an almost vertical velocity profile above the centerline of
the knoll. At r = r , the mean velocity goes to zero, which is consistent
with the required no-slip condition at the surface. Table 1 presents specific
values of the mean velocities presented in Figure 1. These values show the
small change in elevation required to reach a mean velocity equivalent to the
mean velocity observed upstream at a height equal to the height of the knoll.
 123

u
u
z = r " z-r 0
o
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0
T 1 1 T 1 1 r
THEORETC
I AL

4.0 -
VaOCITY PROFLI E OVER CREST U . Um, z.rQ
i/14
bMi
\ (APPROACH VELOCITY)

rsi|J> 3.0 - 1/7

U 6 )
2.0 -

1.0

DISTANCE FROM CENTERLINE OF KNOLL r

o

FIGURE 1. Theoretical Velocity Profile Over the Crest of the Knoll

TABLE 1. Expected Velocity Profile Above the Crest

of an Axisymmetric Knoll with a 1/7 Power
Law Approach Velocity Profile

U
ir~
us,z=r

1.00 0.00
1.00001 0.71
1.0001 0.84
1.001 0.99
1.005 1.11
1.01 1.16
1.05 1.25
1.10 1.26
1.20 1.24
1.30 1.22
1.40 1.20
1.50 1.19
1.60 1.18
1.70 1.17
1.80 1.17
1.90 1.16
2.00 1.16
2.25 1.16
2.50 1.17
2.75 1.18
3.00 1.19
3.50 1.21
4.00 1.23
5.00 1.26
 124

5. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

This section describes the experimental facilities, measuring equipment,

and the procedure used in modeling atmospheric flow over a knoll under neutral
flow conditions.

5.1 EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

This section presents discussions of the hydraulic flume, the model
knoll, the laser Doppler anemometer, and the data acquisition system used to
obtain local velocity and turbulence intensity data.

5.1.1 Hydraulic Flume

An existing PNL hydraulic flume used for this study contains glass walls
with an open channel flow section 1.2 m (4 ft) wide, 1.5 m (5 ft) deep and
12.2 m (40 ft) long as shown in Figure 2. The recirculating flume has a maxi-
3 3
mum flowrate capability of 0.28 m / s (10 ft /s). Pump flow rates are mea-
sured with a calibrated orifice meter in the 25.4-cm (10-in.) return line.
After passing through a 1-m (38-in.) stilling chamber, the flow is slightly
accelerated and then flows through a honeycomb flow straightener and turbu-
lence suppressor which consists of 0.3-cm (1/8-in.) diameter by 23-cm (9-in.)

FLOW INLET

al PLAN VIEW

GLASS
1.5 m (5 ft)
: 0 WALLS

\
BOUNDARY LAYER TRIP MOD&

M ELEVATION VIEW

FIGURE 2. Hydraulic Flume Facility

 125

long flow channels. The total blockage created by the honeycomb is less than
2 percent of the available flow area. A 10-cm (4-in.) high boundary layer
trip that extended across the width of the flume was installed approximately
10 cm (4 in.) .'ownstream from the honeycomb. Crushed, 1.9-cm (3/4-in.) aggre-
gate spaced randomly with a mean spacing of approximately 7.6 cm (3 in.) was
located on the flume floor between the boundary layer trip and the model knoll.
The model knoll was located 7 m (22 ft) downstream from the boundary layer
trip. The boundary layer trip and the crushed aggregate produced a neutral
boundary layer exhibiting a 1/7 power law velocity profile upstream of the
model knoll.

5.1.2 Model Knoll Design

The axisymmetric knoll shape chosen for this study is defined by the fol-
lowing formula:

h = r (2)
o

where h equals the vertical height of the hill at a distance r from the center-
line, and r is the centerline vertical height of the hill. This shape has
(9)
been previously used by the Environmental Protection Agencyv ' and has
gaussian-shaped features near the top of the hill but decays more rapidly at
large values of r. The model used for this study was fabricated from a 7.5-cm
(2.94-in.) aluminum block with a radius of 20.3 cm (8 in.). Pea gravel having
a diameter of approximately 0.5 cm (3/16 in.) was glued to the knoll to pro-
vide an aerodynamically rough surface for testing. At a scale of 1:250, the
model represented a 19-m (62.5-ft) knoll.
5.1.3 Laser Doppler Anemometer

A single-component laser Doppler anemometer (LDA) shown in Figure 3 was

used to measure fluid velocities. The LDA measured the velocity in the fluid
stream by determining the velocity shift in monochromatic light scattered by
microscopic particles in the fluid. The laser beam from a 4-W argon-ion laser
was split into two parallel beams and then focused through a system of mirrors
and a lens to intersect within the flowing fluid. The sample volume formed at
the intersection of the two beams was 1.6 cm (0.63 in.) long and 0.07 cm
(0.03 in.) in diameter. Light scattered from the sample volume was directed
 126

to a photomultiplier detector. The output signal from the detector was moni-
tored by a Doppler signal processor. The processor provided a digital display
of the Doppler frequency and an analog output voltage scaled to that frequency.
The location of the sample volume was varied by movement of the lens and mir-
ror, and was monitored by encoders coupled to their respective drive
mechanisms. Resolution and control of the system was 0.16 cm (0.006 in.) in
any direction. The mean analog voltage from the processor and the output of
the encoders were processed and stored by a mini-computer which was used to
reduce, tabulate, and plot the flow field data. Figure 4 shows a schematic of
the LDA signal processing system. Figure 5 shows the LDA system in operation.

5.1.4 Data Acquisition System

Analog and digital signals from the laser system output and the sample
volume position were fed directly into a mini-computer data acquisition and
control system which was dedicated to the hydraulic flume facility. The data
 127

IDA
SIGNAL
INPUT

\I/
_
PM
TUBE

BAND PASS FREQUENCY STORAGE

FILTER TRACKER —| SCOPE

SPECTRUM RMS CRT

HIGH VOLTAGE ANALYZER VOLTMETER
POWER SUPPLY

MINICOMPUTOR DISK

\ POSITION
SHAFT PRINTER
READOUT
ENCODERS y

FIGURE 4. Laser Doppler Anemometer Signal Processing System

acquisition and control system permitted processing and storage on 512 sepa-
rate channels. The data were converted to engineering units and processed in
final form within the computer system, and the graphical analysis of the data
was displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) from which direct hard copies were
made using an available commercial hard copier. Figure 6 is a schematic of
the data acquisition system.

5.2 PROCEDURE
The hydraulic flume was filled with water to a height of approximately
1 m (3 f t ) and left to stand for several days to remove entrained air result-
ing from the f i l l i n g process. The water in the flume was then circulated
while measurements of velocity were obtained using the LDA system. Lateral
velocity profiles were obtained across the flow channel to ensure that the
velocity profile was invariant with regard to lateral location. The longitu-
dinal mean and turbulent velocity profiles were then obtained at locations
30.5 cm (12 in.), 15.2 cm (6 in.), 7.5 cm (3 in.) upstream and downstream of
the knoll centerline as well as at the apex of the knoll. Velocity profiles
were also obtained laterally from the knoll centerline at distances of 7.6 cm
128
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

ANALOG
TO DIGITAL
CONVERTER

MULTIPLEXOR

PDP 11/10
COMPUTER

(5

TELETYPE

GRAPHIC DISPLAY
CRT/TELETYPE

FIGURE 6. Data Acquisition System

 130

(3 in.) and 15.2 cm (6 in.). These lateral profiles could only be obtained at
elevations greater than the height of the knoll due to a large specular reflec-
tion from the knoll surface at lower elevations. The specular light reflection
as much greater than the intensity of the Doppler signal from the focal volume
of the laser system. The specular reflection swamped the photodetection system
and thus diJ not permit an evaluation of the Doppler signal.

The Doppler signal detected by the photodetector was fed to a commercial

laser Doppler signal tracking system which produced an analog voltage output
proportional to the fluid velocity. The mean analog output was sent to the
computer where it was converted to a mean velocity. The instantaneous analog
output was sent to a true rms meter whose output was sent to the computer and
converted to the turbulence rms velocity. The location of a measurement was
simultaneously fed to the computer from digital encoders which provided a sig-
nal proportional to the location of the laser optics. The data was then con-
verted to engineering units, providing velocity profile information at each
desired location.
 131

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A 1/7 power law velocity profile was established by using a 10-cm (4-in.)
trip fence 6.7 m (22 f t ) upstream of the knoll and by roughing the floor of
the hydraulic flume using 1.9-cm (3/4-in.) crushed aggregate spaced approxi-
mately 7.6 cm (3 in.) apart. A plot of the measured upstream velocity profile
obtained 30.5 cm (12 in.) upstream from the knoll is shown in Figure 7. In
this nondimensional plot of mean velocity, the region where the log profile
fits the data corresponds to the constant shear stress layer in the atmospheric
boundary layer. The shear, U*, for the case presented is 0.087 U- .
o
Figure 8 provides plots of the mean velocity profile at various locations
over the knoll. It is interesting to note how well the experimental velocity
profile obtained above the knoll centerline agrees with the theoretical veloc-
ity profile developed in Section 4. Table 2 presents the values of all the

1 2

VELOCITY 77^—
u
z.r 0

FIGURE 7. Measured Upstream Velocity Profile

 132

1500

-4 -i -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Dl STANCE

FIGURE 8. Nondimensional Velocity Profiles |u/uz=r(3) X=-30.5 cm)

velocity data. For a scale of 1 to 250, the upstream velocity profile corre-
sponds to an aerodynamic surface roughness of approximately 0.27 m (0.9 f t ) ,
which is consistent with a neutral atmospheric boundary l^yer developing over
(4)
fairly level, sparsely wooded countryside. '
Figure 9 is a plot of the level of turbulence, a u , and turbulence inten-
sity, ou/U, measured upstream and at the crest of the knoll. The constant
value of the level of turbulence upstream may be interpreted as representing
the constant shear portion of the boundary layer, which may extend to approxi-
mately 100 m (328 f t ) in the atmosphere. That is, for the neutral boundary
layer, au is proportional to u j ^ , shear velocity, which is equal to "Vt/p
where t is the local shear stress and p is the fluid density. Thus, t is pro-
portional to c ^ , and if a is constant, the shear stress is constant.
I t is also interesting to note that the level of turbulence does not
change significantly as the bulk flow is accelerated over the knoll. This was
expected because i t is generally accepted that when flow is accelerated, the
longitudinal turbulence level will stay constant or decrease. Some of the
longitudinal kinetic energy will be transferred to the lateral and/or vertical
components of flow.
 133

TABLE 2. Nondimensional Velocity Profiles (jrr and S^) Measured

Over the Knoll at Six Locations(a)u u

Location
X/V-4 X/ro=-2 x/v-i X/rQ.=1 X/ =2
Knoll <L V
(ZJ U U U U U u
r
o U' IT U' U' U' U U' U
0.0667
0.133
0.200 0.670 0.682 0.666 0.085
0.267 0.700 0.691 0.727 0.078
0.333 0.723 0.7?7 0.799 0.071
0.400 0.780 0.780 0.743 0.083
0.467 0.811 0.793 0.850 0.070
0.533 0.855 0.793 0.902 0.068
0.600 0.882 0.818 0.864 0.061
0.667 0.920 0.877 1.009 1.000 0.061 0.882 0.062
0.733 0.882 0.968 1.093 0.054
0.833 0.973 0.955 1.014 1.084 0.055 0.991 0.055
0.900 0.986 1.075 1.043 0.052
1.00 1.00 1.014 1.118 1.114 0.047 0.898 0.068
1.067 1.164 1.095 0.05?
1.125 1.114
1.167 1.04 1.070 1.166 1.114 1.166 0.050 1.023 0.060
1.233 1.166 1.109 1.095 0.050
1.333 1.064 1.070 1.175 1.118 1.170 0.047 1.00 0.059
1.400 1.141
1.500 1.080 1.123 1.170 1.150 1.127 0.048 1.034 0.053
1.567 1.150
1.667 1.105 1.123 1.198 1.150 1.093 0.054 1.039 0.053
1.833 1.155
2.000 1.105 1.123 1.216 1.150 1.136 0.054 1.114 0.055
2.167 1.150
2.333 1.105 1.118 1.216 1.150 1.093 0.050 1.105 0.056
2.667 1.105 1.127 1.225 1.234 1.132 0.044 1.118 0.045
3.000 1.100 1.150 1.220 1.189 1.132 0.046 1.105 0.041
3.333 1.105 1.150 1.215 1.184 1.136 0.046 1.166 0.045
3.667 1.100 1.150 1.216 1.184 1.136 0.048 1.123 0.049
4.000 1.150 1.216 1.184 1.136 0.052 1.123 0.047

(a) The results were obtained with a r0=7.62 cm (3.0 in.) andU'=13.4 cm/s
(0.44 ft/s) taken at Z=r0 upstream and 30.5 cm (12 in.) from the knoll
centerline (I).

As with the theoretical velocity profile developed in Section 4.0, the

nondimensional velocity profile measurements presented in Figures 7, 8, and 9
and Table 2 apply independently of scaling to any geometrically similar knoll
which is submerged in a fluid with an approach velocity profile similar to
that developed upstream of the model knoll; i.e., the test results are appli-
cable for any scaling, not just the 1:250 scaling for which this test was
intended.
 134

DISTANCE FROM KNOLL £ ( y - )

FIGURE 9. Turbulence Intensity Profiles

 135

7. ERROR AND UNCERTANTY ANALYSIS

The results of a detailed error and uncertainty analyss presented in

Appendix B indicate that the percent uncertainty associate'., with mean ar.d rms
velocity and turbulence intensity measurements were as follows:
% uncertainty in mean velocity, - +102
% uncertainty in the level of turbulence, rsns, - ±5%
% uncertainty in the turbulence intensity, - ±11%

The largest contribution to the above percent uncertainties resulted from

a stochastic nonstationarity flow condition which may have resulted from
insufficient head on the suction side of the pump.
 136

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the program's technical

monitor, Dr. Ari Patrinos of Oak Ridge National Laboratory and to
Drs. Harry Moses and Alan Rubin of the Department of Energy for their support.
 137

REFERENCES

1. Taylor, G. I. 1917. Observations and Speculations on the Nature of

Turbulent Motion. Reports and Memoranda of the Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, No. 345.
2. Kaufman, J. W., ed. 1977. Terrestrial Environment (Climatic) Criteria
Guidelines for Use in Aerospace Vehicle Development, 1977 Revision.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA Technical
Memorandum 78118.

3. Counihan, J. 1975. "Adiabatic Atmospheric Boundary Layers: A Review

and Analysis of Data from the Period 1880-1972." In Atmospheric
Environment, Volume 9, Pergammon Press, New York, pp. 871-905.

4. Engineering Sciences Data Unit. 1974. Characteristics of Atmospheric

Turbulence Near the Ground Part II: Single Point Data for Strong Winds
(Neutral Atmosphere). Engineering Sciences Data Item No.'74031, London.

5. Cermak, J. E. September 1971. "Laboratory Simulation of the Atmospheric

Boundary Layer." AIAA Journal. 9(9):1946-1954.

6. Cermak, J. E. 1974. Applications of Fluid Mechanics to Wind

Engineering. A Freeman Scholar Lecture, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York.

7. Panofsky, H. A. 1974. "The Atmospheric Boundary Layer Below 150 Meters."

In Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. Volume 6, pp. 147-177.

8. Liu, H. T. and J. T. Lin. May 1976. Plume Dispersion in Stably

Stratified Flows Over Complex Terrain, Phase 2. EPA-600/4-76-022,
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina.

9. Hunt, J. C. R, W. H. Snyder, and R. E. Lawson. July 1978. Flow

Structure and Turbulent Diffusion Around a Three Dimensional Hill: Fluid
Modeling Study on Effects Stratification Part 1. Flow Structure.
EPA-600/4-78-041, Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory, Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina.

10. Lin, J. T., H. T. Liu, and Y. H. Poa. February 1974. Laboratory

Simulation of Plume Dispersion in Stably Stratified Flows Over Complex
Terrain. Flow Research Report No. 29, Flow Research, Inc.,
Kent, Washington.

11. Onishi, Y. and D. S. Trent. February 1976. Mathematical and

Experimental Investigations on Dispersion and Recirculation of Plumes
From Dry Cooling Towers at Wyodak Power Plant in Wyoming. BNWL-1982,
Battelle, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.

12. Cliff, W. C. and G. H. Fichtl. July 1978. Wind Velocity-Change

(Gust Rise) Criteria for Wind Turbine Design. PNL-2526, Battelle,
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Washington.
 139

APPENDIX A
THEORETICAL VELOCITY PROFILE AT THE CREST OF THE KNOLL

A theoretical mean velocity profile at the crest of a knoll was developed

using potential flow theory for flow near a half sphere and a power law
approach velocity profile, as follows:

The stream function for potential flow near a sphere of radius r Q is

given by

(A.l)

where IL is the freestream velocity,

o
The velocities U and Ur are given by

(A.2)

where r is the radial distance from the center of the sphere and 8 is the
angle subtended from the horizontal.

Directly above the sphere (9 =n/2), the stream function becomes

(A.3)

or

(A.4)
 140

The !-?ft side of Equation A.4 may be thought of as a f u n c t i o n of the square of

the upstream (us) height of a stream l i n e t h a t passes over the c r e s t of the
hill at the height r with a v e l o c i t y equal to

U = F U 1 + (A.5)
us I p

The upstream height corresponding to a given stream f u n c t i o n would be

3 . 1/2

us - \ -U 0 I - \2 " 2r I

Thus, f o r a power law v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e upstream, the v e l o c i t y at height Z may

be expressed as

U,

The v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e at the crest of the h i l l would be

3 3 n/2
3 r r
U 'o " o
us,Z=r 11 + —JIJ
2r 2r r
o J

or

n/2
U =U 1+ f(n) (A.7)
us,Z=r [7 " k) 2r

where X = ~ and f ( n ) , which i s a f u n c t i o n of the v e l o c i t y power law exponent,

o
forces the stream lines at large distances from the model k n o l l to be unaf-
fected by the k n o l l . Taking the l i m i t as X approaches i n f i n i t y of the r a t i o
 141

of the velocity at the crest of the knoll to the upstream velocity yields

in/2
U us
crest »Z=r
limit v . _ —n —
X U
us Uz.r (X)n
o

= 1 = ( I ) " 7 2 f(n) * f(n) = 2 n / 2 (A.8)

Equation A.7 for the velocity profile over the crest of the knoll now
becomes

"crest " V , Z - r 0 (* 2 " I ( » * ^j) <*- 9 '

 143

APPENDIX B
ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

The purpose of this appendix is to present estimates of the accuracy of

the measured values of mean velocities, turbulent velocities and turbulence
intensities obtained using the laser Doppler system. Uncertainties exist in
each variable encountered while taking a velocity measurement. These variables
include the wavelength of the laser beam, the size and location of the sample
volume, the diameter of the laser beam, the diameter of the optics, the angle
subtended between the two laser beams, the calibration of the frequency to
velocity electronics, and the ability and accuracy with which a value is read
by the operator or data acquisition system as well as a host of other factors.

The velocity reported may be expressed as a function of these variables as

U = f(X 1 , X2, X3, . . . Xn) (B.l)

Using the chain rule for differentiation, the total differential of the
velocity may be expressed as

d U =
l i 1d X
i +2 i r d X
2 +
- - - l rnd X n

If each of the variables is independent of one another, the variance of the

velocity may be expressed as

(B.3)

where / 1S t h e variance of (A) taken over an ensemble of realizations.

Since both sides of the above equation can be multiplied by any desired con-
stant, it follows that each term can be equated to any desired number of stan-
dard deviations of the individual variable. Thus, the uncertainty of the
 144

velocity may be written as:

where W^ and W^ are the uncertr'nties in the measurements of U and X n

within a desireS confidence level (unless otherwise stated, a confidence level
of 95% was used throughout this uncertainty analysis). This means that 19 out
of 20 samples will fall within the value indicated by Wy and W x . The
percent uncertainty is calculated by dividing the uncertainty by the nominal
value of the variable. That is

W
U
% uncertainty = ±tt- (B.5)

Since the uncertainty in the velocity U is a function of the square root

of the sum of the squares of the uncertainties of the variables, only varia-
bles which may have large uncertainties need be considered.

Aside from human errors, the uncertainty in the measured velocity will be
considered to be a function only of the wavelength of the laser, A, the angle
subtended by the two converging laser beams, 9, and the measured frequency of
the Doppler signal, f.

Since U • g,-*fQ/o where U = 0.134 m/s

Sill D/i /-

X = 0.5145 x 10"D m
8 = 0.043574 radians
f = 25,000 Hz
LX » 0.001 x 10~6 m
aq = 0.002 radians
Af « 100 Hz
 145

% error = 100 1 % M ( f Y w 2+ / A |2 H 2
W
\U J U \sin 8/2I X \sin Q/2) w f

1/2
"e2
kZ sin -g '

= [(o.OOll)2 + (0.0024)2 + (0.0006)2]1/2

% uncertainty of U = 100 (°5°gfy) =0.46% (B.6)

The percent uncertainty in the measured velocity contributed by X, f, and 6

were 0.19%, 0.41%, and 0.10%, respectively.

The error analysis indicates that the measurement of velocity is

extremely accurate. However, there was a greater uncertainty associated with
the reported mean velocity because at times the flowrate in the flume appeared
to fluctuate. This fluctuation may have resulted from insufficient head on
the suction side of the pump. The instantaneous velocities measured during
these fluctuations, although extremely accurate, does represent a stochastic
nonstationary (transient) flow condition which was being used to approximate a
stochastic stationary (steady-state) flow. Instantaneous values of velocity
not due to turbulence departed from the stationary case by as much as 20%.
Time averaging, however, reduces this departure from the stationary case to
within 5% to 10%. This departure from stationary flow was significantly
greater than the uncertainty associated with the measurement; therefore, the
fluctuations in the flow were the uncertainty that governed the overall uncer-
tainty of the mean velocity measurement. Thus, the expected uncertainty of
the mean velocity measurement was

% uncertainty in mean velocity = ±10%

The uncertainty in the level of turbulence was not as great as the uncer-
tainty in the mean velocity due to an analog time averaging of the true rms
meter with which the data was taken. Thus, the expected uncertainty in the
level of turbulence was

% uncertainty in the level of turbulence = ±5%

 146

The turbulence intensity is defined as

T. = turbulence intensity = JJ-

The % uncertainty in the turbulence intensity value is ±11%.

 149

V. T H E C L I M A T I C PROBABILITY OF S N O W F A L L
I N D U C E D BY C O O L I N G - T O W E R P L U M E S

F. W . M u r r a y *

ABSTRACT

Several instances h a v e b e e n reported in w h i c h non-trivial amounts

of snow have been observed to fall from cooling-tower plumes when no
n a t u r a l snow occurred in the v i c i n i t y . In a p r e v i o u s study this
p h e n o m e n o n w a s examined both theoretically and empirically, and it w a s
determined that such a n o m a l o u s snowfall c a n be expected w h e n the air
t e m p e r a t u r e in the p l u m e is colder than - 1 3 ° and the d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n the saturation v a p o r density and the a c t u a l v a p o r density is
less than C 5 g .

Since only air t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity a r e involved, it is

f e a s i b l e to examine the c l i m a t o l o g i c a l records for a station to d e t e r -
m i n e the frequency w i t h w h i c h these conditions a r e normally fulfilled.
For a pilot study the r e c o r d s for eleven stations distributed over the
c o l d e r p a r t s of the United S t a t e s and encompassing the four coldest
m o n t h s over a period of eight years were c o l l e c t e d . The conditions
for a n o m a l o u s snowfall w e r e applied to this d a t a base, and the p r o b a -
b i l i t i e s for such snowfall w e r e calculated by station and m o n t h .
Predictably the p r o b a b i l i t i e s w e r e highest w h e r e t h e c l i m a t e w a s cold,
but there a r e v a r i a t i o n s that depend on geography, m o i s t u r e availability,
and other factors.

Most observations of a n o m a l o u s plume-rinduced snow a r e from the

southern part of the zone examined, w h e r e the p r o b a b i l i t y is relatively
low. It is inferred that m a n y instances occur in t h e high-probability
region, but they a r e not generally detected b e c a u s e of the masking
e f f e c t s of natural snowfall and snow cover.

The results of t h i s w o r k a r e sufficiently encouraging to suggest

that a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e study including all r a d i o s o n d e stations and
a longer period of record w o u l d produce a planning document of c o n -
siderable v a l u e .

*The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California

 150

I. INTRODUCTION

Among the m e t e o r o l o g i c a l effects that can be ascribed to the

rejection of heat and m o i s t u r e directly to the atmosphere through

evaporative cooling towers is the production of snow under certain

conditions w h e n no n a t u r a l snow occurs. Observations of non-trivial

amounts of snow generated by c o o l i n g - t o w e r plumes have been reported

by Otts (1976) and Kramer et a l . (1976). Koenig (1979) has collected

a number of high-resolution L A N D S A T p h o t o g r a p h s of snow streaks ori-

ginating at identifiable industrial sources, which suggests that this

type of a n o m a l o u s snowfall is not uncommon.

Kramer and his associates at Smith Singer M e t e o r o l o g i s t s m a d e a

number of aerial observations of plumes at subfreezing temperatures,

some of which produced snow. Koenig (197 9) has tabulated them and

has noted that no plumes w i t h temperatures warmer than - 1 3 ° C p r o -

duced snow. For the colder plumes snow w a s produced only w h e n the

humidity w a s sufficiently high to retard evaporation of water drops

in the plume and give them time to convert to ice p a r t i c l e s . Koenig

found that of eleven plumes w i t h temperature c o l d e r than -13°C and

difference between saturation vapor density and actual vapor density

-
less than 0.5 g m ^ , only three failed to produce snow.

Koenig further studied plume g l a c i a t i o n from a theoretical stand-

point and concluded that there is a physical basis for expecting snow

to b e generated by a p l u m e w h e n the temperature is colder than -13°C

and the vapor density d e p r e s s i o n less than 0.5 g m""3. The amount of

snow that falls m a y b e c o n s i d e r a b l e , even exceeding the amount of

w a t e r evaporated in the cooling tower. This is p o s s i b l e because the

p l u m e entrains a m b i e n t air containing w a t e r v a p o r , w h i c h through d y -

namic processes is converted into additional snow.

T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of this s i m p l e c r i t e r i o n for the production of

snow by a c o o l i n g - t o w e r p l u m e s u g g e s t s that a study of climatic records

could produce probabilities of o c c u r r e n c e of this p h e n o m e n o n at v a r i o u s

l o c a t i o n s and seasons. This Note reports on such a study.

 151

2. PROCEDURE

The only r e a s o n a b l e source of data for a study of this type

is the archive of u p p e r - a i r soundings held by the N a t i o n a l Climatic

Center in A s h e v i l l e , N o r t h C a r o l i n a . These soundings are m a d e by

r a d i o s o n d e i n s t r u m e n t s sent aloft by balloon twice daily from sta-

tions throughout the United States and the rest of the w o r l d . The

instruments m e a s u r e and report pressure, temperature, h u m i d i t y , and

wind d i r e c t i o n and speed at n u m e r o u s standard and significant levels

throughout the a t m o s p h e r e . Standard levels include the surface,

850 m b , 700 m b , 500 m b , and other h i g h e r levels, and significant

levels a r e c h o s e n in such a way a s to permit linear interpolation

of all v a r i a b l e s between successive levels. The height of the levels

is computed h y d r o s t a t i c a l l y from the p r e s s u r e , t e m p e r a t u r e , and

humidity.

The reports as tabulated give the pressure in m i l l i b a r s , the

temperature in d e g r e e s Celsius, and the relative humidity in percent.

To use them for the present purpose, the humidity m u s t b e transformed

into v a p o r density depression.

The s y m b o l s in the following d e v e l o p m e n t are defined in the N o m e n -

clature. For s n o w f a l l to be expected from a plume, b o t h of the

conditions

T c < - 1 3 °C (1)

D < 5 x 10
-4 kg m
-3
(2)

must obtain at p l u m e l e v e l . By d e f i n i t i o n the vapor d e n s i t y depression

 152

and the relative humidity is

U = 100 e/eg (4)

The equation of state for water vapor is

P v = e/RvT (5)

and particularly under saturated conditions

p s = e s /R v T (6)

Substituting (5) and (6) into (3),

e
n s(1 " e/es}
D = (7)
— - RT
V V

Combining (7) and (4),

where

T = T c + 273.15 (9)

The saturation vapor pressure e is a function of T only. By in-

s
ternational agreement the formulation of Goff and Gratch (1946) as
amended by Goff (1957,1963) has been adopted for meteorological pur-
poses. Since this formulation is too cumbersome for routine calcula-
tion, a number of simplifications of it have been proposed; e.g.,
Murray (1967) and Lowe (1977). These formulations are close approxi-
mations to the Goff-Gratch formulation in the meteorological range
and offer a considerable saving in computer time. Lowe's formulation
can be expressed
 153

6
a. T (10)
2 3 3 c
j=o

w h e r e the a^ are specified constants.

Given T c and U from a sounding, the p r o c e d u r e would be:

(a) D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r (1) holds, and if so,

(b) U s i n g (8), (9), and (10), determine whether (2) h o l d s .

An a l t e r n a t i v e procedure would be to transform the criterion (2)

to a form involving U rather than D . By rearrangement of (8),

( 1
DR T \

J (11)
_A
From (2) the critical v a l u e of D is 5 * 10 . Substituting this,

the v a l u e 461.51 for R^, and (9) into (11) yields a critical v a l u e of

U of

U = 100 - 23.0755 (T + 273.15)/e (12)

c c s

Figure 1 is a plot of U c as a function of T, using tabulated v a l u e s of

e g from the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables (List, 1958). Since

100 a s D 0, the c o n d i t i o n (2) is equivalent to

U > Uc (13)

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of U c still requires a fair amount of c o m p u t a t i o n

even u s i n g L o w e ' s f o r m u l a t i o n (10). This c a n be reduced by further

curve fitting. The form of Fig. 1 suggests a parabola, so the v a l u e s

used to plot Fig. 1, given in T a b l e 1, w e r e fitted by least squares to

an e x p r e s s i o n of the form

2
U = a + bT + cT (14)
c c c
 154

Tc rc>

Fig. 1—Critical relative humidity

 155

Table 1

CRITICAL RELATIVE HUMIDITY

T T e U U
c s c c

260.15 -13 225.15 73.337 73.006

259.15 -14 207.55 71.188 71.172

258.15 -15 191.18 68.841 69.012

257.15 -16 175.97 66.279 66.524

256.15 -17 161.86 63.482 63.710

255.15 -18 148.77 60.424 60.568

254.15 -19 136.64 57.080 57.100

253.15 -20 125.40 53.417 53.305

252.15 -21 115.00 49.404 49.182

251.15 -22 105.38 45.005 44.733

250.15 -23 96.49 40.177 39.957

249.15 -24 88.27 34.867 34.853

248.15 -25 80.70 29.044 29.423

247.15 -26 73.71 22.628 23.666

246.15 -27 67.27 15.564 17.581

245.15 -28 61.34 7.777 11.170

The results were

a = 67.08551548 )
b = -2.580786895 > (15)
c = -0.1634 915003 I

Results of this fitting are also given in Table 1, It is evident that

A
within the temperature range of interest U c is a close approximation
to U c . At worst they differ by less than 4 percent, whereas the error
of observation is of the order of 10 percent^(Air Weather Service,
1971). There is undoubtedly more uncertainty in the formulation of
the conditions (1) and (2) than in the substitution-of (13) for (2),
A

using U c from (14) and (15) to approximate U^,

 156

In order to test the method, data were secured from the National
Climatic Center for the eleven stations listed in Table 2. These sta-
tions were selected to be a cross-section of the climates of the colder
part of the United States, excluding Alaska. It was deemed that sta-
tions in the warmer part of the country would not meet the temperature
condition (1) frequently enough to justify their inclusion in a pilot
study. The data requested included all of the soundings taken in the
four coldest months—December, January, February, and March—from
December 1970 to March 1978. Since soundings are normally taken twice
d.iily, at midnight and noon Greenwich time, this amounted to 21,188
separate soundings, or an average of 1926 soundings per station.

Table 2

LIST OF STATIONS

Station N. Latitude W. Longitude Elevation

Dulles International 38° 57' 77° 27 ' 98 m

Airport, Virginia

Huntington, 38° 22' 82° 33' 255 m

West Virginia

Dayton, Ohio 39° 54' 84° 12' 306 m

Buffalo, New York 42° 56' 78° 4 4 ' 215 m

Flint, Michigan 42° 58' 83° 4 4 ' 233 m

Green Bay, Wisconsin 44° 29' 88° 08' 214 m

Peoria, Illinois 40° 40' 89° 4 1 ' 202 m

Omaha. Nebraska 41® 22' 96° 01' 406 m

Bismarck, 46° 4 6 ' 100° 4 5 ' 506 m

North Dakota

Salt Lake City, 40° 4 6 ' 111" 58' 1288 m

Utah

Spokane, Washington 47° 3 8 ' 117° 32' 721 m

 157

Since the object was to determine the probability of snowfall

induced by cooling-tower plumes, it would serve no purpose to deter-
mine whether the temperature and humidity conditions for snowfall were
met at levels where no plume was likely to exist. On the other hand,
the specific heights of plumes may vary with a number of conditions,
especially the atmospheric stability, and any attempt to use plume
theory to determine these heights for each of the 21,188 soundings
would have been prohibitively expensive for this study. Since the
reported significant levels vary greatly from one sounding to the
next, being sparse in one case and dense in another, it was not pos-
sible to pick out just one or a few of them at each station for
testing. Interpolating would have increased the expense. Hence it
was decided to stipulate that a particular sounding would represent
a "snow" case if the conditions (1) and (13), evaluated by means of
(14) and (15), were met at any standard or significant level between
ground level H q and some specified level H^ chosen sufficiently high
to encompass all plumes.
In summary, all three of the conditions

(a) H < HT

(b) T. S -13

(c) U > a + bT + cT 2
c c

a = 67.08551548
b = -2.580786895
c = -0.1634915003

must be met at some level H for a sounding to be considered a "snow"

case. Conversely, if no standard or significant level met all of
those conditions, it would be a "no-snow" case. From time to time
one or more of the elements may be missing from the report for a
given level. This can come about through instrument malfunction or
for other reasons, and it does not invalidate the data for other
 158

levels. If this occurs, but the necessary conditions are met at

some o t h e r level in the sounding, it is still considered a "snow"

case. If, however, at least one level has missing data and no

other level meets the conditions, it cannot be considered a "no-

snow" case, but must be classified "indefinite." Fortunately,

few of these were encountered.

 159

3. RESULTS

Each sounding of the data collection was tested for the three
snowfall conditions using H T = H q + 1500. Although most plumes are
likely to stay well below 1500 m above ground level, some may rise
that high, and using a layer that deep assures consideration of at
least one standard level. Furthermore, there is the possibility
that the ground elevation of some cooling towers might be signifi-
cantly higher than that of the nearby radiosonde station, further
narrowing the layer of consideration.
A tabulation of the number of "snow" cases (Ng ) , "no-snow"
i ,m
cases (Njj ), and indefinite cases (N^ ) by station (i) and month
i,m i,m
(m) is given in Table 3. The table also gives the probability of
snow, defined as
N
s.
p = l.M
i,m Nn + Ns (16)
i,m i,m

Because of certain assumptions and simplifications made in the

analysis this is not exactly the probability that any given plume

formed near station i in month m w i l l produce snow, but it is close

enough to be u s e f u l for planning purposes.

At ail stations the maximum probability of snow is in January

and the minimum in. March, pointing up the strong dependence on tem-
perature. This is also shown by the high snow probabilities at cold
stations such as Bismarck and Green Bay as compared with relatively
warm stations such as Huntington and Dulles. Buffalo and Flint have
moderately high snowfall probabilities even though their surface tem-
peratures are somewhat warmer than at Green Bay (see Table 5). Prob-
ably the influence of the lakes on humidity accounts for this
circumstance.
On the other hand, the far western stations of Salt Lake City
and Spokane have moderate to low probabilities; this may reflect the
 160

Table 3

PLUME SNOW PROBABILITIES FOR H„ - H 1500

T c

Snow No-Snow Indef inite Snow

Station Month Cases Cases Cases Probability

Dulles Dec 26 469 0.053

Jan 62 428 0.127
Feb 38 408 0.085
Mar 8 478 0.016

Huntington Dec 44 447 0.090

Jan 92 397 0.188
Feb 60 343 0.149
Mar 14 432 0.031

Dayton Dec 71 425 0.143

Jan 123 3/0 0.249
Feb 98 354 0.217
Mar 35 463 0.070

Buffalo Dec 99 397 0.200

Jan 217 274 0.442
Feb 182 268 0.404
Mar 83 411 0.168

Flint Dec 111 382 0.225

Jan 214 277 0.436
Feb 163 282 C. 366
Mar 64 432 0.129

Green Bay Dec 162 324 0.333

Jan 256 239 0.517
Feb 185 266 0.410
Mar 66 4 27 0.134

Peoria Dec 70 424 0.142

Jan 147 345 0.299
Feb 96 354 0.213
Mar 31 467 0.062

Omaha Dec 75 413 0.154

Jan 175 322 0.352
Feb 96 354 0.213
Mar 33 464 0.066

Eismarck Dec 208 286 0.421

Jan 298 199 0.600
Feb 202 246 0.451
Mar 105 385 0.214

Salt Lake City Dec 47 449 0.095

Jan 63 431 0.128
Feb 13 439 0.029
Mar 9 490 0.018

Spokane Dec 29 464 0.059

Jan 55 438 0.112
Feb 8 442 0.018
Mar 4 491 0.008
 161

prevalence of relatively dry air. Figures 2 through 5 are map plots

of the probabilities. They show the geographical variations in graph-
ical form.
It is of some interest that Huntington, which is near the Amos
plant where Otts and Kramer observed plume snowfall, and Dayton,
which is near the snow streaks observed by Koenig in the satellite
images, have relatively low snow probabilities. This suggests that
there may have been many more instances in the northerly region rep-
resented by Green Bay, Flint, and Buffalo that have gone unnoticed.
Perhaps the greater incidence of natural snow on the ground masks the
increment due to cooling-tower plumes. Presumably near Bismarck,
where the probability is highest, there are few cooling towers to
produce snow.
To test the sensitivity of the determination of snow probabil-
ity to the designated layer thickness, another run was made with
H T = Ho + 3000. The results are shown in Table 4. Of necessity
the consideration of more standard and significant levels at higher
altitudes, hence colder temperatures, will increase the computed
snow probability. Since few plumes will reach these higher levels,
the probabilities for H^ = H Q + 1500 are more indicative of the ac-
tual expectation of snow from cooling-tower plumes, but a study of
the deeper layer may aid in the interpretation of the results from
the shallower layer. The comparison of the two runs is given in
Table 5.
The increase ranges from a low of 18 percent at Bismarck in
January to a high of 4388 percent at Spokane in March. Taking
averages for the entire year, the stations fall into three groups.
The largest group, with increases ranging from 44 percent to 88 per-
cent, consists of Omaha, Dayton, Peoria, Green Bay, Flint, Buffalo,
and Huntington. The second group consists of Dulles (199 percent)
and Bismarck (293 percent), and the third consists of Salt Lake City
(1000 percent) and Spokane (1659 percent).
In every case the increase is much greater in March than in the
three colder months. (Mean ground level temperatures are also listed
in Table 5 for comparison.) When attention is limited to the shallower
 J C 4 U — Ml/TICAL Mllf5
100 200 300 •00 SOO

Fig. 5 - Plume snowfall probability for H T « H Q + 1500, March

 166

Table 4

PLUME SNOWFALL PROBABILITIES FOR H^ = H Q + 3000

Snow No-Snow Indefinite Snow

Station Month Cases Cases Cases Probability

Dulles Dec 64 431 5 0.129

Jan 98 392 4 0.200
Feb 86 359 3 0.193
Mar 44 441 4 0.091

Huntington Dec 76 414 1 0.155

Jan 119 368 2 0.244
Feb 88 315 0 0.218
Mar 42 404 1 0.094

t
Dayton Dec 100 396 0 0.202
Jan 151 342 0 0.306
Feb 135 317 0 0.299
Mar 62 436 0 0.124

Buffalo Dec 175 321 0 0.353

Jan 267 224 1 0.544
Feb 252 198 1 0.560
Mar 148 344 4 0.301

Flint Dec 163 329 1 0.331

Jan 268 222 5 0.547
Feb 223 222 0 0.501
Mar 121 375 0 0.244

Green Bay Dec 210 276 0 0.432

Jan 312 182 2 0.632
Feb 254 197 1 0.563
Mar 135 358 2 0.274

Peoria Dec 103 391 3 0.209

Jan 178 314 5 0.362
Feb 125 322 5 0.280
Mar 56 440 2 0.113

Omaha Dec 99 389 0 0.203

Jan 212 285 0 0.427
Feb 118 332 1 0.262
Mar 65 431 1 0.131

Bismarck Dec 275 220 1 0.556

Jan 353 144 0 0.710
Feb 259 189 3 0.578
Mar 193 297 3 0.394

Salt Lake C i t y Dec 196 299 1 0.396

Jan 240 255 0 0.485
Feb 184 268 0 0.407
Mar 197 301 2 0.396

Spokane Dec 162 332 1 0.328

Jan 173 319 3 0.352
Feb 136 314 2 0.302
Mar 178 318 0 0.359
 167

Table 5

VARIATION OF PROBABILITY WITH DEPTH OF LAYER

Percent Mean Surface

P P
Station Month 1500 3000 Increase Temperature (°C)*

Dulles Dec 0.053 0.129 143 3.1

Jan 0.127 0.200 57 1.7
Feb 0.085 0.193 127 2.2
Mar 0.016 0.091 469 6.7

Huntington Dec 0.090 0.155 72 3.6

Jan 0.188 0.244 30 3.3
Feb 0.149 0.218 46 4.4
Mar 0.031 0.094 203 6.9

Dayton Dec 0.143 0.202 41 -0.3

Jan 0.249 0.306 23 -1.4
Feb 0.217 0.299 38 -0.6
Mar 0.070 0.124 77 3.9

Buffalo Dec 0.200 0.353 77 -1.4

Jan 0.442 0.544 23 -3.3
Feb 0.404 0.560 39 -2.8
Mar 0.168 0.301 97 1.1

Flint Dec 0.225 0.331 47 -2.8

Jan 0.436 0.547 25 -5.0
Feb 0.366 0.501 37 -5.0
Mar 0.129 0.244 89 0.3

Green Bay Dec 0.333 0.432 30 -6.1

Jan 0.517 0.632 22 -8.9
Feb 0.410 0.563 37 -7.2
Mar 0.134 0.274 104 -2.8

Peoria Dec 0.142 0.209 47 -1.9

Jan 0.299 0.362 21 -3.9
Feb 0.213 0.280 31 -1.7
Mar 0.062 0.113 82 3.1

Omaha Dec 0.154 0.203 32 -2.5

Jan 0.352 0.427 21 -5.6
Feb 0.213 0.262 23 -3.3
Mar 0.066 0.131 98 3.1

Bismarck Dec 0.421 0.556 32 -8.3

Jan 0.600 0.710 18 -13.3
Feb 0.451 0.578 28 -10.3
Mar 0.214 0.394 84 -4.2

S a l t Lake City Dec 0.095 0.396 317 -0.6

Jan 0.128 0.485 279 -2.8
Feb 0.029 0.407 1303 0.6
Mar 0.018 0.396 2100 4.7

Spokane Dec 0.059 0.328 456 -i.l

Jan 0.112 0.352 214 -3.6
Feb 0.018 0.302 1578 -0.3
Mar 0.008 0.359 4388 2.8

*From World-Wide Air-Field Swmaries, U.S. Naval Heather S e r v i c e (1969, 1 9 7 0 ) .

Temperatures a t WaehingCon National Airport
 168

layer, the chance of satisfying the snowfall conditions decreases

sharply as the atmosphere warms. With the deeper layer the differ-
ence is not so great, for the -13°C isotherm can be expected to drop
below the 3000 m level (above ground) almost as frequently in March
as in the mid-winter months. This is especially noticeable at Bis-
marck, the coldest of these stations, for when averages are taken
for only December, January, and February, its increase drops to only
26 percent, almost as low as Omaha's. Otherwise the rankings remain
the same, with the first group ranging from percent to 49 percent,
the second consisting only of Dulles at 109 percent, and the third
of Salt Lake City at 633 percent and Spokane at 749 percent.
The latter two stations are of particular interest, for they
show the lowest probability of snow in the 1500 m layer, but are
midway in the group in the 3000 m layer. Probably their geographi-
cal location in a basin keeps them warmer and drier than such sta-
tions as Bismarck and Green Bay at lower altitudes (see mean surface
temperatures in Table 5), but at higher altitudes they are dominated
by cold, moist Pacific maritime air. Thus for these stations, even
more so than for the others, probabilities calculated in the deep
layer are misleading.
One might infer that calculation over a shallower layer than
1500 m would yield sti^l more reliable results. This is not neces-
sarily so, however, for such a layer might not contain enough standard
or significant levels to pick out the coldest, most humid point without
interpolation. Furthermore, some plumes might rise above that layer.
Hence the results given here for the 1500 m layer can be considered as
reasonably represen ta t ive.
 169

4. CONCLUSION

Based on the empirical and theoretical analysis of Koenig (1979),

a set of conditions has been derived that can be applied easily to
upper-air soundings archived by the National Climatic Center to in-
dicate the probability that a plume from a cooling tower will produce
anomalous snow. These conditions have been applied to a set of sound-
ings from eleven selected stations for four winter months over a period
of eight years.
The probabilities so computed show a maximum in January and a min-
imum in March. They also tend to increase with the latitude of the
station. Both of these circumstances reflect the strong dependence
of the snowfall conditions on temperature, both directly and indirectly
through the relative humidity. There are other influences, however,
associated with topography and climatology (for example, the lake ef-
fect at Buffalo, Flint, and Green Bay), so a procedure of the sort
described here is necessary to determine the potential for anomalous
snowfall at any location and season.
To the extent that the numbers generated here can be relied upon,
cooling tower plumes in the coldest part of the country will produce
snowfall on about half of the days in January. This is undoubtedly
an overestimate, for not all plumes will reach the levels for which
the conditions are fulfilled, particularly if there is a low-level
inversion. Nevertheless, it suggests that plume-induced snow is
relatively common, even though specific observations of it are rela-
tively few. Several reasons why plume-induced snowfall might go un-
reported could be cited, a major one being the masking effect of
natural snow. In snowy regions an additional increment from a plume
is not likely to excite concern. On the other hand, in regions of
little natural snow an anomalous fall of snow might be of considerable
interest even though (or especially because) its statistical probabil-
ity is slight.
This has been a rather limited pilot study. A more adequate
study would include many more stations, use a longer period of
 170

record, and consider additional cold-season months. Since the method

and programs are now developed, the major cost would be in acquiring
and reading the additional data tapes.
For planning at a given site this program could be run on call,
using data from the nearest radiosonde station. One problem with that
approach is that radiosonde stations are not necessarily located adja-
cent to proposed cooling-tower sites, and the nearest one may not be
representative. If, however, the program is run for all available
stations, maps similar to Figs. 2 through 5 can be plotted with suf-
ficient density of reports to justify the construction of probability
isopleths. The necessary data for any given site and month can then
be read off directly. Such a document would be a very useful plan-
ning tool. Its usefulness would be enhanced if at the cost of some
additional program development and computer running time the consid-
eration of height were refined by interpolation.
 171

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges the very considerable contri-

butions to this study made by Charles Schutz in gathering and inter-
preting the data and by R. Robert Rapp in the statistical design of
the experiment and evaluation of results.
 172

NOMENCLATURE

Svmbol Description Units

a,b,c Coefficients of regression

equation for U^

a. Coefficients of Lowe's formula

J
for saturation vapor pressure
-3
Saturation deficit kg m

Vapor pressure Pa
s Saturation vapor pressure Pa
H
Height of observation (MSL) m

Height of station (MSL) m

H„ Height of top of layer under m
consideration (MSL)

Number of "snow" cases for

1,3. station i in month m

Number of "no-snow" cases for

i,m station i in month m

Number of indefinite cases for

i,m station i in month m

P. Probability of plume-induced snow-

i,m
fall at station i in month m

= 461.51. Gas constant for water J kg"1 K" 1

vapor

Air temperature K

Air temperature °C
c
U Relative humidity %

u Critical relative humidity %

u Approximation to U c through %
curve fitting
-3
Saturation vapor density kg m

Ac tual vapor density kg m-3

 173

REFERENCES

1. Air Weather Service, 1971: Environmental-Measuring Equipment

Used by Air Weather Service in Support of Air Force and Army
Operations, AWSP 105-3, p. 2-31.

2. Goff, John A., 1957: "Saturation Pressure of Water on the

New Kelvin Temperature Scale," Transactions of the American
Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Vol. 63,
pp. 347-353.

3. Goff, John A., 1963: "Saturation Pressure of Water on the

New Kelvin Scale," First International Symposium on Humid-
ity and Moisture, Washington, D.C., Vol. 3: Humidity and
Moisture: Measurement and Control in Science and Industry,
Reinhold, New York, pp. 289-292.

4. Goff, John A., and S. Gratch, 1946: "Low-Pressure Properties

of Water from -160 to 212F", Transactions of the American
Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Vol. 52,
pp. 95-121.

5. Koenig, L. Randall, 1979: Anomalous Cloudiness and Precipi-

tation Caused by Industrial Heat Rejection, The Rand Corp-
oration, R-2465-DOE, 100 pp.

6. Kramer, M. L., D. E. Seymour, M. E. Smith, R. W. Reeves, and

T. T. Frankenberg, 1976: "Snowfall Observations from Nat-
ural-Draft Cooling Tower Plumes," Science, Vol. 193,
No. 4259, pp. 1239-1241.

7. List, Robert J. (ed.), 1958: Smithsonian Meteorological

Tables, Sixth Revised Edition, Smithsonian Miscellaneous
Collections, Vol. 114, The Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, p. 351.

8. Lowe, Paul R., 1977: "An Approximating Polynomial for the

Computation of Saturation Vapor Pressure," Journal of Ap-
plied Meteorology, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 100-103.

9. Murray, Francis W., 1967: "On the Computation of Saturation

Vapor Pressure," Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 6,
No. 1, pp. 203-204.

10. Otts, R. E., 1976: "Locally Heavy Snow Downwind from Cooling
Towers," NOAA Technical Memorandum, NWS ER-62, 8 pp.
 174

.S. Naval Weather Service, 1969-1970: World-Wide Air-Field

Summaries, Environmental Technical Applications Center
(Air Force), Washington, D.C., Vol. VIII: No. 1, May 1969,
AD 688-472; No. 2, June 1969, AD 689 792; No. 3, September
1969, AD 693 491; No. 4, October 1969, AD 696 971; No. 5,
December 1969, AD 699 917; and No. 7, March 1970, AD 703
606.