1.

The ANSI/ISA sizing equations for liquids use FL to calculate the theoretical point where choked flow occurs
(ΔiP rna) so that the valve can be sized without the difficulty of the process being choked. For gas applications,
the terminal pressure-drop ratio xT is used to describe the choked pressure drop for a particular valve.

2. As the pressure drops, the point where vapor bubbles begin to form is called incipient cavitation

3. with some being more gradual and others more abrupt. For example, globe-style valves tend to handle
higher pressure drops without choking, as opposed to rotary valves, which tend to choke and cavitate at
smaller pressure drops.

4.The liquid pressure-recovery factor is determined by the manufacturer through flow testing that particular valve
style. FL factors can vary significantly depending on the internal design of the valve. Valves from the same basic
design
5. In gas and vapor services, choked flow occurs when the velocity of the fluid achieves sonic levels (Mach 1 or
greater) at any point in the valve body or downstream piping
6. Liquid recovery factor FL is usully provided by manufacturer

Safety valves
back pressure
pressure that exists at the outlet of a pressure-relief device as a result of the pressure in the discharge
system
The back pressure is the sum of the superimposed and built-up back pressures.

superimposed back pressure

static pressure that exists at the outlet of a pressure-relief device at the time the device is required to
operate
It is the result of pressure in the discharge system coming from other sources and can be constant or variable as per
API 521

set pressure
inlet gauge pressure at which a pressure-relief device is set to open under service conditions

accumulation
pressure increase over the maximum allowable working pressure of the vessel allowed during discharge
through
the pressure-relief device
NOTE Accumulation is expressed in units of pressure or as a percentage of MAWP or design pressure. Maximum
allowable accumulations are established by pressure-design codes for emergency operating and fire contingencies.
built-up back pressure
increase in pressure at the outlet of a pressure-relief device that develops as a result of flow after the
pressurerelief
device opens
cold differential test pressure
CDTP
pressure at which a pressure-relief valve is adjusted to open on the test stand
NOTE The cold differential test pressure includes corrections for the service conditions of back pressure or
temperature
or both.
pressure, together with the design temperature, used to determine the minimum permissible thickness or
physical
characteristic of each component, as determined by the design rules of the pressure-design code
NOTE The design pressure is selected by the user to provide a suitable margin above the most severe pressure
expected during normal operation at a coincident temperature, and it is the pressure specified on the purchase order.
The
design pressure is equal to or less than the MAWP (the design pressure can be used as the MAWP in cases where
the MAW
has not been established).
MAWP
maximum gauge pressure permissible at the top of a completed vessel in its normal operating position at
the
designated coincident temperature specified for that pressure
cf. design pressure (3.23)
NOTE The MAWP is the least of the values for the internal or external pressure as determined by the vessel design
rules
for each element of the vessel using actual nominal thickness, exclusive of additional metal thickness allowed for
corrosion
and loadings other than pressure. The MAWP is the basis for the pressure setting of the pressure-relief devices that
protect
the vessel.
overpressure
〈 general〉 condition where the MAWP, or other specified pressure, is exceeded
〈 relieving device〉 pressure increase over the set pressure of a relieving device
NOTE In the latter context, overpressure is the same as accumulation (3.1) only when the relieving device is set to
open
at the MAWP of the vessel.
API RP 551

Range is the region in which a quantity is measured, received or transmitted. The limits of this region are
the lower and upper range values.
Span is the absolute algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.
Lower Range Limit is the lowest value of the measured variable that a device can be adjustedto
measure.
Upper Range Limit is the highest value of the measured variable that a device can be adjustedto
measure.
Lower Range Value is the lowest value of the measured variable that a device is adjustedto measure.
Upper Range Value is the highest value of the measured variable that a device is adjustedto measure.
Elevated Zero is a range where the measured variable zero value is greater than the low range value such as occurs
with a wet leg differential level transmitter or a bi-directional flow meter. Occasional referred to as Suppressed
Range.
13 of 186 Suppressed Zero is a range where the measured variable zero value is less than the low range
valuesuch as occurs with a dry leg differential level transmitter. Occasional referred to as Elevated
Range.
Compound Range is range with an elevated zero that has a negative number as its Lower Range Value
and a positive number as its Upper Range Value. Often the zero point is placed at mid scale. This
calibration is also referred to as a zero crossing measurement.
See ISA 51.1 "Process Instrumentation Terminology" for further information on measurement terminology.
3.3 Instrument Range Selection
Range Requirements
Ideally, the normal operating point should lie between 50% and 75% of the calibrated range and not less than 25%.
The instrument calibrated range should be selected to cover the full operating window. It should be wide enough
to cover alternate conditions.
TEMPERATURE
ASME PTC 19.3 TW 2010 Thermowell performance test codes
Immersion Length: The immersion length is the distance from free end of the temperature-sensing element or
well to the point of immersion in the medium whose temperature is being measurement.
Natural Frequency: The frequency of free oscillations of the sensing element of a fully assembled transducer
Wake Frequency: when a thermowell is inserted into a flowing liquid or gas, circular flow pattern is created
downstream of the thermowell. These flow patterns are called von karman vortices. These vortices break away
periodically, known as vortex shedding and cause a regular change in the forces on thermowell. This regular
change or frequency of vortex shedding is called wake frequency
Thermowell wake frequency calculation exception cases
At very low fluid velocities, the risk of thermowell failure is greatly reduced. The calculations of natural frequency and
corresponding-frequency limits, steady-state stress and Oscillating stress do not need to be performed provided the
following criteria are met:
(a) The process fluid has a maximum velocity less than 0.64 m/s (2.1 ft/sec).
(b) The thermowell dimensions satisfy the limits
(1) A - d > 9.55 mm (0.376 in.)
(2) L < 0.61 m (24 in.)
(3) A > B > 12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
(c) The thermowell material satisfies S > 69 MPa (10 ksi) and Sf > 21 MPa (3 ksi).
(d)The thermowell material is not subject to stress corrosion or embrittlement.
The calculation of the external pressure rating shall still be performed.
Designers are cautioned that if the in-line resonance is excited at fluid velocities below 0.64 m/s (2.1 ft/ sec), sustained
operation on resonance may damage the temperature sensor even if the risk of mechanical thermowell failure is very
small.
A= outside diameter of thermowell at support plane or root, based on which point is closest to the thermowell tip,
m (in.)
B= outside diameter at tip of thermowell, m (in.)
L = unsupported length of thermowell, measured from the tip to the support plane, m (in.)
d = bore diameter of thermowell, m (in.)
S = maximum allowable working stress, Pa (psi)
Sf = fatigue endurance limit, in the high-cycle limit, Pa (psi)
t 5 minimum thickness of the tip