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An Overview of
Commercial Explosives
Chapter 2
The usc of explosive for breaking rock is a technique accepted worldwide. Most of
the mining and construction operations use blasting. Many a types of mining ventures
and construction projects would not be feasible or economically justified without the
use of explosive. Coal, cement, steel, aluminum, copper and other metals are the
basic needs of any country. The supply of all these necessities depends to a great
extent on explosives.
To meet the growing demand of minerals, large open cast mines were planned. Large
open cast mining projects designed for high production rates required large size blasts
and huge quantity of explosives to be charged. The need was felt for automation of
explosive charging system to cope up with the demands of the industry in terms of
higher charging rates, less manpower, higher efficiency, low cost and complete safety.
Many rock breaking explosives are now available in the market. In India, ANFO,
slurry and emulsion are the popular commercial explosives. All these explosives can
be used in bulk form. Emulsion explosive is a recent development in the field of
commercial explosives which has a strength of a dynamite and safety of ANFO. It has
compltely phased out the dynamite and is a threat to the other commercial explosives.
4
An ( h•etTiew of ( 'ummaciul/,\p/o.l·il't'S
commonly used wmmncial explosives with spcdal reference to the emulsion explosive.
Although the usc of commercial explosives for breaking the rock began in early l 7'"
century but their large scale application has a history of only one hundred fifty years.
The history of the development of commercial explosives can be divideded into three
eras, as detailed below (see Xuguang,l994):
• Black Powder Era (1627-1870)
Black powder was invented by the Chinese about 2000 years ago and then it spreaded
to Arabian countries and Europe. The first documented proof of nitre, the basic
ingredient of black powder was found in the scripts written by Arabian author, Abd
Allah in l3'"century. In 1242, Roger Bacon published a formula for black powder.
The first documentary proof of the use of black powder for breaking the rock in
mines is by Kasper Weindl at Royal Mines ofSchemnitz at Ober-Biberstollen, Hungry.
The use of black powder for rock breaking continued until the invention of dynamites
by Alfred Nobel in 1866.
Ascanio, an Italian chemist discovered the Nitroglycerin in 1846. It was highly sensitive
to shock. Alfred Nobel invented Dynamite in 1866 by mixing nitroglycerin with
kieselguhr and named it "Nobels Safety Podwer". In 1875, Nobel formed gelatin
dynamite by dissolving nitrocellulose in nitroglycerin. Since dynamite was more
powerful than black powder, it had a higher detonation velocity and was more effective
in rock breakage; soon it replaced the black powder and dominated the market of
commercial explosives. It played an important role in rock blasting.
In mid 1950s, industrial explosives entered a new development period- the modern
blasting era of blasting agents. J. R.Glauber synthesized ammonium nitrate in 1659
for the first time and named it Nitrum Flammans. In 1955, H. B. Lee and R. L. Akre
exploited the economic potential of ammonium nitrate as a blasting agent and
carbonaceous fuel sensitizer. The solid fuels, like coal, used initially were later on
replaced by fuel oil. Fertilizer grade ammonium nitrate was replaced by ammonium
5
I 'Jwprer :! All ( )l't'rl'i<'ll' of ( 'ommercia/1:\p/osil't'.l'
In !956, Prof Cook and Farnam invented slurry explosives hy mixing the aqueous
solution of ammonium nitrate with fuel and then gelatinizing the mixture. The slurries
overcame the two of the above-mentioned disadvantages ofANFO explosive. Cook
and Farnam developed a slurry with TNT and aluminum powder as sensitizer. In 1963,
lreco Chemicals, USA developed slurry explosives with non-metallic sensitizers. In
!969, DuPont, USA produced a mono-methylamine nitrate (MMAN) sensitized slurry.
In 1970s, non-explosive sensitized, small diameter, cap-sensitive and bubble-sensitized
slurry explosives came into existance one after the other. The emergence of slurry
loading trucks and pumpable slurry fulfilled the needs of surface mines for high charging
rate.
The initial form of the emulsion explosives was developed by R. S. Egly in 1961 by
mixing water-in-oil emulsion with ordinary water bearing slurry explosives. In 1963,
N. E. Gehrig developed the emulsions without slurries. In 1969, H. Bluhm of Atlas
Chemical Industries Limited fully described the technique of emulsion explosives.
Therefore, it is generally believed that emulsion explosives were revealed by Bluhm.
The emulsion explosives revealed by Bluhm, were non-cap sensitive and initiated with
the help of booster charge. In 1972, G. R. Catermole of DuPont described a formula
which increased the detonation sensitivity of the emulsion explosives by using organic
amine nitrates. This type of emulsion could detonate steadily in small diameter blast
holes. In 1973, Charles G. Wade oflmperial Chemical Industries Inc. patented emulsion
explosives containing entrapped gases and emulsion explosives containing strontium-
ion explosion catalyzer, which improved detonation sensitivity of the emulsion
explosives. In 1973, E. A. Tomic ofDu Pont patented a technique to manufacture
free-flowing, water-in-oil emulsion explosives by using ammonium stearate or alkali
stearates as emulsifier. In 1977, Charles G. Wade of Atlas Powder Company
developed a cap sensitive emulsion explosive which did not contain explosive sensitizer
and other organic amine nitrate sensitizer. The sensitization was achieved by maintaining
proper grain size and by using hollow glass micro-balloons.
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( 'hllf'lt'f" } .·In ( Ji·erl'iew o/ ( ·olll!llerciall::rp/osiw.,·
2.2.1 Strength
7
( 'haJ!It'r l .·In 0l't'rl'iell' of ( 'olll/1/t'l'cia/ f.\p/osil't'.\'
2.2.2 I>cnsity
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume and in practice, it is expressed in
glee. Density of explosives is an important characteristic because explosives are
purchased and used on weight basis. It has an influence on sensitivity and the VOD of
an explosive.
The prime purpose of varying the density of an explosive is to enable the total energy
charge in a blast hole to meet the particular field conditions. In case of hard massive
rocks, denser explosives are used since more energy is required to break them. In
watery holes also, the explosive should have a density higher than that of water,
otherwise they will float.
Velocity of detonation is the rate at which the detonation wave travels through an
explosive column. It is expressed in mls. It is an excellent means for checking the
explosive performance. The VOD of a blasting agent depends heavily on formulation
characteristics,confinement,blast hole diameter and priming (Bilgin & Essen, 2005).
VODs of the most of the commercial explosives vary between 2000 and 5500 m!s.
The detonation pressure is a near instantaneous pressure derived from the shock wave
moving through the explosive column. It is the pressure in the reaction zone behind
the detonation zone, at the C-J plane. It is expressed in kilo bar. The detonation
pressure is important since it controls the stress level in the rocks. The stress level is
important for fragmentation.
8
.·In ( h·en·iell' o/ ( 'ommercia/1:\p/osil·e.,
2.2.6 Sensitivity
The sensitivity of an explosive is the amount of input energy needed to cause a reliable
initiation of the explosive. It is also called the minimum booster rating or minimum-
priming requirement. Sensitivity of an explosive is affected by the presence of water
in blast hole, inadequate charge diameter and extreme temperature conditions.
Explosive compounds can suffer in performance if they are stored under extremely
hot or cold conditions. In hot storage conditions, beyond 90°F, many compounds
may slowly decompose and change their properties. Most of the commercial explosives
contain ammonium nitrate. Storage of ammonium nitrate based blasting agents in
temperature above 90°F can result in cycling which affects the performance of the
product. Cycling is the ability of a material to change its crystal forms depending on
temperature. The two temperatures at which cycling will occur in ammonium nitrate
are 0°F and 90°F (Konya & Walter, 1990).
Cold conditions can also affect the performance of some explosive products. Some
products may become stiff and firm after prolonged exposure to a low temperature
and may become difficult to use in the field. Slurry explosives can have serious
detonation problem if stored in cold temperature and is not allowed to warm up before
they are detonated (Konya & Walter, 1990).
9
An ( h·erl'it'\1' of ( 'ollllllt'rL'ial F\p/osil•e.1·
mDsl common gases that an: consitkred in the fume class rulings. ( 'arhon dioxide is
nDt considered as fume since it is not toxic. llowever, it can result in death due to
su!Tocation if generated in large quantity during blasting in the con!incd area.
Commercial cxplosiv.:s an: oxygen balanced to minimize fumes. However, fumes can
still occur as a result of hlast environmental conditions such as insuf!icient charge
diameter, inadequate water resistance and inadequate priming ( Konya & Walter, 1990).
The commonly used commercial explosives in India are ANFO, slurry and emulsion.
Dynamite is completely phased out from the market. All these explosives are available
in bulk form. The properties of these explosives have been summarised in Table 2.1.
Bulk emulsion explosive is dominating the market of bulk products in India and is
being used by all major explosive consumers namely; Coal India Ltd., National Mineral
Development Corporation, Singreni Collieries Company Ltd. etc. Market ofbulk slurry
is restricted only to few mines of Coal India Ltd., Hindustan Copper Ltd. and National
Mineral Development Corporation. The use of bulk ANFO (mechanically loaded) is
limited only to bauxite mine ofNational Aluminum Company Ltd. Manually loaded
ANFO is popular among small mine operators and construction work. Slurry is leading
the market oflarge diameter cartridge explosives (LD explosive). Production of these
explosives in India in the year 2002-03, 2003-04 and 2004-05 is given in Table 2.2.
A brief description of these explosives is given below with special emphasis on the
emulsion explosives.
ANFO, also known as dry blasting agent, is a simple physical mixture of prilled
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (diesel oil) in the ratio 94:6 by weight. ANFO is still the
most popular explosive in the world because of its low cost, but in India, it is not such
popular because ofthe non availability of prilled ammonium nitrate in sufficient quantity.
In India, it is mostly used by small mine operators and in civil construction projects as
manually site mixing form. Though, ANFO has a high weight strength (930 kcal/kg)
and a good gas volume, it has several drawbacks such as low density, low VOD, low
bulk strength, low detonation pressure and very poor water resistance. It is not suitable
for use in hard, dense, massive rocks and watery holes. But in soft to medium hard
rocks and in jointed strata, where heaving action is preferred, it works very well.
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I 'hapra:! An Own•iew tJ(( 'ommercia/l:~rp/Mive.\·
'l(thlt: :?..1 : Properties of Bulk bplosivcs (l'radhan, 1996: Pradhan & Kate, 2005).
Table 2.2 :Production of Explosives in India in the Year 2002-03, 2003-04 & 2004-05
(Petroleum and Explosive Safety Organisation).
II
( 'hupl.:r :! An Ol't'rl'iew oj ( 'ommerciul Exp/o.l'i\'1!.\'
Slurry explosives wen: lirst developed as a result of attempts to water proof, improve
the density and strength of ANFO. Slurry is a mixture of nitrate (such as ammonium
nitrate and sodium nitrate), a fuel sensitizer either explosive or non explosive and
varying amounts of water. The mixture is thickened with guar gum to slurry consistency
and cross linked with some transition metal ions to form an effective gel matrix.
Slurry explosives are available both in bulk and cartridge form. Cartridge slurry
explosives are available as both cap sensitive and non-cap sensitive. They exhibit an
excellent water resistance. Their VODs vary from 3000 to 4500 m/s. Since they are
water based explosives, they are less sensitive to shock and friction and are extremely
safe in transportation, storage and use.
Emulsion explosives have become quite an important blasting means because of their
comparatively high detonation parameters and exceptionally good safety characteristics.
Emulsion explosives are prepared by agitation the of a super saturated aqueous solution
of some oxidizers and a fuel doped with an emulsifying agent. The composition thus
prepared is extremely insensitive to initiation and hence requires gas bubbles for
sensitization. The basic oxidizer used in emulsion explosives is ammonium nitrate.
Sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate are frequently used to modify the properties of the
oxidizer solution. The fuel phase consists of various mineral oils and waxes. A
distiguinshed feature of emulsion explosives is that in the aqueous solution, the oxidizer
is present in the form of tiny droplets covered with a very thin fuel layer. Consequently,
the interfacial surface of the emulsion is very large, as a result of which emulsion
explosives have high VOD. The VOD of emulsion explosives vary from 4000 to 5500
mls.
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( 'lwpter 2 An ( >wrview ofC 'ommerdul fxp/osive.1·
• Oil-phase Material
The waxes which are commonly used in emulsion explosives are the ones extracted
from petroleum such as vaseline wax, microcrystalline wax, and paraffin wax; mineral
waxes such as earth wax and montan wax; insect wax such as beeswax etc. All liquid
petrolium products having proper consistency may be used as oil phase material. The
commonly used petroleum oils are diesel oil, machine oil and vash oil.
Polymers are often used to thicken the oil-phase material. Commonly used polymers
are natural rubber, synthetic rubber, copolymers of butadiene-styrene etc. Saturated
fatty acids like caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, higher alcohols like hexanol,
nonanol, lauric alcohol and some plant oils like corn oil, cotton seed oil, soybean oil
etc. may also be used as oil-phase material.
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( 'lwpler 2 An ( )l't'n'iew o/ ( 'ommercial l:xp/o.l·iws
T.:mpcraturc,"C Solubility, g
In I 00 g water In I 00 g solution
() 20 54.5
10 150 60.0
20 187 65.2
30 233 70.0
40 280 73.7
50 339 77.2
60 411 80.4
70 50! 83.4
80 618 86.1
90 772 88.5
100 994 90.9
generally used to prepare the aqueous oxidizer solution for emulsion explosives. Use
of mixed salt solution increases the oxygen-supplying quantity and density and lowers
the fudge point of the explosive. The density of the powdered and grained ammonium
nitrate is usually in the range 0.8-0.95 g/cc. It supplies 200 g of oxygen per kg.
Sodium nitrate is the most common supplemental oxidizer suitable for emulsion
explosives. It raises the dissolubility and drops the fudge point of aqueous oxidizer
solution and thus improves the stability of the emulsion explosive. Its density is 2.265
glee and oxygen-supplying quantity is 2.35 times that of AN. It also increases the
density of the emulsion matrix and oxygen supplying quantity of the oxidizer solution.
Calcium nitrate is also a good supplementary oxidizer for emulsion explosives. It not
only drops the fudge point of the aqueous oxidizer solution but also promotes the
emulsification, thus improves the quality of emulsions. Its oxygen supplying quantity is
about 2.5 times more than ammonium nitrate.
• Density Modifier
Density modifier refers to a group of substances which can introduce a large number
of micro-bubbles into emulsion explosives. The main functions of a density modifier in
14
An 01•en•iew of ('om mercia/ Exp/osiws
~mulsion explosive arc to control the density of the explosive and to sensitize the
~xplosivc according to th.: hot spot theory of initiation.
The commonly used density modilicrs arc occluded gases, chemical foaming agents
and gas retaining closed solid particles.
Occl udcd gases refer to micro-bubbles of air, nitrogen, carbon di-oxide, nitrogen
monoxide, gaseous hydrocarbons etc. retained and evenly distributed in emulsion
explosives by mechanical stirring.
The chemical foaming agents are those agents which can enter into a chemical reaction
and hence produce a large number of micro-bubbles, evenly dispersed throughout the
explosive. The chemical foaming agents are of two types-inorganic and organic. The
inorganic foaming agents include nitrites such as sodium and potassium nitrites,
carbonates such as sodium hydrocarbonates, ammonium carbonate and ammonium
chloride. The organic foaming agents include azo compounds such as azoamino-benzene,
azo-isobutyric dinitrate and hydrazine compounds such as hydrazine hydrate etc.
NH4NO,= N, +2H 20
Gas retained solid particles added to emulsion explosives may be either glass or resin
hollow micro-balloons or expanded particulate perlite. As compared to gas-occluded
or chemical sensitization methods, emulsion explosives sensitized by this method are
able to bear tremendous external pressure. Glass micro-balloon is made up of a new
silicate material which is light in weight and has good roundness and chemical stability.
Expanded particulate perlite is a white porous loose particulate material made by
crushing, preheating and roasting acidic volcanic glass lava (perlite ore).
• Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are one of the key components of emulsion explosives and usually their
content is 0.5 to 2.0% of the total massoftheexplosive. They play an important role in
15
( 'hapter 2 An 0\'C!rl'iell' tJj'( 'ommrrciul F.xplosive.\·
• Other Additives
To improve the performance of the emulsion explosives, small quantities of some other
components are also added to them which are as described below:
• Crystal-shape Modifier
• Emulsification Promoter
• Emulsion Stabilizer
16
< 'haf>la :! An O••en•i<!l\'11/ ( 'o111111t'rdt1/ Erp/o.•·ive.1·
an: added to emulsion explosives in small quantity. These stabilizers together with
emulsifier arc dissolved in oil-phase prior to emulsification. Some commonly used
emulsion stabilizers arc phosphatide compounds like soybean lecithin, solid tine powder,
and beeswax and borax.
Soybcan is a plant lccithin. Addition of about 0.5% of this stabilizer improves the
long-term storage stability of emulsion explosives. Solid fine powder ofzinc stearate,
tctradecoic acid zinc, aluminum stearate, tetradecoic acid magnesium, carbon black,
silicon dioxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, sulphur, aluminum and zinc improve the
stability of emulsion explosive in storage and performance under low temperature.
Addition amounts of solid fine powder are usually in the range 0.1-1%. Beeswax and
borax have also been found to improve the storage stability of emulsion explosives.
Addition amount of beeswax in an emulsion explosive is about 0.3% and that of borax
is about 0.4 to 0.7% of the mass of explosive.
Bulk explosive systems are essentially those where explosives are delivered directly
into the blast hole through mechanized and mobile delivery systems. Explosives which
are amenable to bulk loading are ANFO, slurry and emulsion. The bulk explosive
systems offer the following advantages (Pradhan, 1996; Xuguang, 1994):
• No need for a large fleet of explosive vans. Explosive vans are required only
for transportation of cast boosters, detonating cord, detonators etc.
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( 'lwpler 2 An ( )vervit'\1'11/ ('om mercia/ f:xp/oJive.1·
• Better transfer of explosive energy to rock due to full bore coupling permits
larger spacing and burden ami thus results in reduction in drilling cost.
Emulsion explosives are available both in bulk and cartridge form. Bulk emulsion
explosives are booster sensitive. They are usually mixed and prepared on the site and
directly loaded into the drill holes. Basically, there are two systems for bulk delivery of
emulsion explosives namely; site mixed emulsion explosive system and re-pumpable
emulsion explosive system.
In site mixed emulsion explosive system, a support facility is erected near the mine
site where the intermediaries for the production of explosive on truck such as oxidizer
and fuel blends are prepared. The truck carries different ingredients in different
compartments. The mixing of various ingredients in pre-determined calibrated quantities
is carried out on the truck and the final mixture is pumped into the blast hole through
a loading hose. The advantage of this system is that explosive material is neither
manufactured at the plant nor carried on the truck. The mixture becomes an explosive
only after gassing that takes place in the hole. Also, explosive formulations can be
customized by controlling the addition of ingredients. The main disadvantage ofthis
system is that the pump trucks are of complex design. Moreover, quality assurance is
difficult as the emulsion matrix is prepared on the truck at the site (Persson eta!.,
2001 ).
The bulk emulsion explosives are generally sensitized either by addition of glass micro-
balloons (GMB) or chemicals. In India, chemical gassing method is often selected by
the explosive manufacturers because glass micro-balloons are expensive and not
manufactured in India. A comparison of GMB sensitized with chemically sensitized
18
t 'hapter :? An ( )t•en•iew t!(l 'ommerciul Explosive.\·
19