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The need inventory of sensation seeking (NISS)

Article in European Journal of Psychological Assessment · January 2011

DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000085

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 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein:
European JournalThe Need Inventory
of PsychologicalA of Sensation
ssessment
© 2011
2012; Seeking
Hogrefe
Vol. (NISS)
28(1):11–18
Publishing

Original Article

The Need Inventory of

Sensation Seeking (NISS)
Marcus Roth1 and Philipp Hammelstein2
1
University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany, 2University of Düsseldorf, Germany

Abstract. Based on the conception of sensation seeking as a need rather than a temperamental trait (Hammelstein, 2004), we present a
new assessment method, the Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS), which is considered to assess a motivational disposition. Three
studies are presented: The first examined the factorial structure and the reliability of the German versions of the NISS; the second study
compared the German and the English versions of the NISS; and finally, the validity of the NISS was examined in a nonclinical study
and compared to the validity of conventional methods of assessing sensation seeking (Sensation Seeking Scale – Form V; SSS-V).
Compared to the SSS-V, the NISS shows better reliability and validity in addition to providing new research possibilities including
application in experimental areas.

Keywords: sensation seeking, assessment, need theory

Introduction
The concept of sensation seeking can be traced back to the
works of Zuckerman (1971), yet its definition has changed
over time. Zuckerman (1979) initially described sensation
seeking as a “trait defined by the need for varied, novel and
complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to
take physical and social risks for the sake of such experi-
ence” (p. 10). Sensation seeking was conceptualized as an
age- and gender-dependent trait (for details, see Roth,
Hammelstein, & Brähler, 2007; Roth, Schumacher, &
Brähler, 2005). In later years, however, Zuckerman reject-
ed his own definition of sensation seeking as a need and
instead referred to it as a trait involving the “seeking of
varied, novel, complex and intense sensations and experi-
ences” (Zuckerman, 1994, p. 27). This modification was
made on account of the implication of “compulsion” (p. 26)
conveyed by the term “need.” It is, however, almost impos-
sible to avoid conceiving of sensation seeking as a need;
an exclusively behavioral definition without a motivational
component would result in a completely descriptive con-
ceptualization without an explicative function. Even
Zuckerman himself sometimes continues to speak of a
“need” for sensations (1994, p. 374). Apart from this
breach of logical explication (definition of “sensation seek-
ing” as “seeking”), problems arise when defining and op-
erationalizing sensation seeking based on highly specific
behavior via the Sensation Seeking Scale – Form V (SSS-
V; Zuckerman, 1994).
There has been much critique of both the conceptualiza-
tion and the assessment of sensation seeking using the SSS-
V (e.g., Arnett, 1994; Hammelstein, 2004; Jackson & Ma-
raun, 1996; Roth, 2003; Roth et al., 2007). Major points of
criticism include the lack of a theoretical foundation for the
SSS-V items; the lack of a conceptual differentiation be-
tween sensation seeking and impulsivity; the use of items
which are dependent on age, culture, and socioeconomic
status (e.g., “skiing,” “mountaineering”); and the inclusion
of items that themselves describe dysfunctional behavior
(e.g., the use of marijuana) and that therefore potentially
lead to a confounding of predictor (sensation seeking) and
criterion (substance abuse).
The present studies do not aim to repeat these critical
issues. An alternative concept of sensation seeking was
presented by Hammelstein and Roth (Hammelstein, 2004;
Roth et al., 2007; Roth, 2009), and a theoretical discussion
between Zuckerman and the exponents of an alternative
model has been published elsewhere (Roth, Hammelstein,
& Brähler, 2009). Rather, we intend only to outline our
theoretical model inasmuch as necessary for an understand-
ing of the development of an alternative assessment meth-
od. With respect to the theoretical foundations and a corre-
sponding discussion of this alternative method, we refer to
the publications cited above.
Here, sensation seeking is defined as a need for novelty
and intensity which develops its motivational power via the
registration of discrepancies between the as-is and the to-be
state. This definition focuses on the aim (or function) of a
specific behavior (e.g., feeling of excitement in the body)
rather than the behavior or behavior pattern itself (e.g.,
mountain climbing). In our view, it is thus essential that a
given behavior pursue experiences of novelty or intensity
before it can be spoken of as sensation seeking. The con-
crete form this behavior takes (e.g., partying, sexual behav-

© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18
DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000085
12 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein: The Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS)
ior, gambling, etc.; items of the SSS-V) is not essential to
defining sensation seeking. While, in our view, specific be-
haviors such as mountain climbing can represent a search
for experiences of intensity, they might also represent aims
that have nothing to do with the construct of sensation seek-
ing. An instrument is therefore needed to assess the under-
lying motivational aims and not the concrete behavior, as
is the case with the SSS-V and even the Arnett Inventory
of Sensation Seeking (AISS; Arnett, 1994).
Temperamental traits are defined by a specific behav-
ior pattern and can therefore be best measured based on
concrete behavior (e.g., introversion by reserved, less
outgoing, and less sociable behavior). In contrast, needs
are defined by the aims that drive behavior (stimulation,
sex, control, attachment, etc.) and therefore cannot be
measured via the concrete behavior itself. Grosse Holt-
forth and Grawe (2000) developed a German question-
naire for clinical purposes to measure different needs. In
this questionnaire, participants are asked how important
it is for them to experience specific target states (e.g.,
having control, being complimented on something, etc.).
The basis of this questionnaire is constituted by 94 items
from the statements of people in treatment. Everyday
goals, such as avoiding criticism and seeking the ad-
miration by others, are grouped into avoidance and
approach motives. This questionnaire aims to assess in-
terpersonal motives that are relevant for treatment plan-
ning.
Similar to this questionnaire, the Need Inventory of Sen-
sation Seeking (NISS) was developed as an assessment
method to ask respondents to state how pleasant a specific
stimulation situation (target state) is to them. The higher
number of situations, or the more pleasant the instance of
stimulation is rated, the greater the need for stimulation.
The following studies aim to test the reliability and validity
of the NISS. Study 1 examines the factorial structure and
the reliability of the German version. Study 2 presents the
English version of the NISS and examines its comparability
with the German version. Study 3 tests the validity of the
German version and examines the possibility of using the
NISS to predict the willingness of individuals to change
their job.
Study 1: Factorial Structure, Item
Analysis, and Preliminary Evidence of
Validity
In the first step, items were generated that reflect pleasure
in the target state of stimulation or in the opposite state
(rest, calmness). Example items include “I like the feeling
of excitement in my body” or “I enjoy it when there’s
nothing going on for a while.” The background of the gen-
eration of items was shaped by the descriptions of “high
sensation seekers” in the publication of Zuckerman (1979,
European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18
1994) and Arnett (1994). Items should reflect a physical
or psychological sensation as a goal state rather than a
concrete behavior. This is the distinction between the goal
(i.e., sensation) and the means (i.e., the concrete behavior
or the concrete kind of stimulation to reach this sensation-
al goal). In the first step the authors generated 27 items
that were then sent to four colleagues who had to rate
whether the items reflected a concrete behavior/stimula-
tion or a state of experience. At least the behavior had to
be described very broadly so that different kinds of behav-
ior could lead to this state (e.g., “I enjoy doing exciting
and stimulating activities with others”). Only if all four
subjects rated the items as sensation oriented the item had
not been cancelled (e.g., the item “Finding myself in un-
familiar situations is exciting” was rated as reflecting con-
crete behavior and was omitted, whereas the item “I like
feeling totally charged” was rated as reflecting a state of
sensation). A total of 10 items were omitted during this
step, so that 17 items remain (see Appendix).
Respondents are required to rate how often they have
felt this way in the past 6 months on a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = almost never, 5 = almost always). Thus, the first study
examined the factorial structure as well as the reliability of
the NISS comprising the items generated as described
above.
Methods
Participants
An e-mail was sent to students and employees of a German
university. It contained an internet link to the questionnaire,
which in turn was linked to a MySQL database. Since it
was not possible to record e-mail addresses or IP addresses,
anonymity was guaranteed. A total of 555 respondents
completed the questionnaire.
Participants’ mean age was M = 29.40 years (SD = 9.42)
with a range of 17 to 68 years. 313 participants were wom-
en (54.6%). The sample was almost completely character-
ized by a high level of education, with 519 (93.5%) having
attended school for 13 years (Abitur).
Materials
Participants were administered the German version of the
NISS comprising the 17 items (see Appendix).
Results
Exploratory Analysis of the Dimensional Structure
of the NISS
The factorial structure of the NISS was examined using a
principal component analysis (PCA) with oblimin rota-
tion. Since the Kaiser criterion (eigenvalues greater than
© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing
 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein: The Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS) 13

Table 1. Results of PCA with oblimin-rotation and item analysis concerning the NISS of the German Sample A (n = 555)
Descriptives PCA Item analysis
Item no. M SD F1 F2 h² ris rit
05 2.67 0.98 .77 –.16 .59 .69 .58
04 2.63 1.06 .75 –.31 .59 .67 .66
13 2.66 0.93 .74 –.03 .57 .65 .49
16 2.92 0.89 .73 –.20 .53 .65 .57
07 2.30 1.00 .71 –.10 .50 .62 .51
14 2.62 1.02 .67 –.16 .44 .58 .52
06 2.90 0.98 .66 –.17 .44 .57 .52
03 2.76 1.06 .65 –.06 .43 .56 .46
01 2.70 0.97 .60 –.11 .37 .52 .47
15 2.64 0.92 .56 –.22 .32 .48 .48
02 2.81 1.12 .54 –.14 .29 .46 .45
11 3.13 1.01 –.14 .82 .68 .70 .63
09 3.47 0.98 –.31 .80 .66 .67 .70
08 3.80 0.90 –.26 .75 .57 .62 .64
10 3.08 0.99 –.04 .74 .56 .60 .52
17 3.09 0.95 –.21 .72 .53 .58 .60
12 2.74 1.02 –.07 .52 .27 .38 .43
λ 5.2 3.5
Note. λ = Eigenvalue; ris = item to scale correlation; rit = item to total correlation. Highest loadings are presented in bold.

1) frequently leads to an overestimation of the number of
factors to be retained, a parallel analysis (PA) was per-
formed in the sense of Horn (1965). Using PA, the PCA
results in two factors which explain 49.0% of the total
variance (for two factors: λempirical = 2.8332 > λrandom =
1.2627; for three factors: λempirical = 1.2071 < λrandom =
1.2072). Loadings and communalities (h²) are presented
in Table 1. The first factor contains items describing stim-
ulation as aims of approaching according to Grawe
(2002); this factor is referred to as “need for stimulation”
(NS). The second factor consists of all negatively poled
items and is therefore called “avoidance of rest (or tran-
quility)” (AR). The factor structure also remains stable
when applying common factor analysis instead of PCA
and varimax instead of oblimin rotation.
Discussion
Reliability of the German NISS-version is considerably
higher than that found for other measures of sensation
seeking (SSS-V: e.g., Ball, Farnhill, & Wangeman, 1984;
Ferrando & Chico, 2001; AISS: e.g., Ferrando & Chico,
2001; Roth, 2003). The two-dimensional structure is in
line with Grawe’s (2002) theoretical considerations con-
cerning fundamental needs. In his view, schemes of ap-
proach and avoidance emerge for every fundamental need.
However, it should be noted that all items of the second
factor (referred to as “avoidance of rest and tranquility”)
are negatively poled. It is therefore questionable whether
this factor actually reflects the aim of avoidance or rather
a different aim of approach (see General Discussion).

Study 2: Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Item Analysis
Table 1 shows the Item-scale correlations (ris) and item-to-
tal correlations (rit). Internal consistency is high with α =
.88 for the subscale NS and α = .82 for AR, and α = .86
for the total scale. The two scales have a correlation of r =
.25. The correlation between the NS and the total score is
r = .78, and the correlation between the AR and the total
score is r = .80.
and Validity
To ensure that the structure of the German NISS, as re-
vealed by factor analyses in the German sample, is equiv-
alent to that of the English version of the instrument, we
crossvalidated the factor model (Study 1) with the data of
an English sample. We furthermore examined the relation-
ship between the NISS and the conventional method of
measuring sensation seeking (SSS-V). Correlations be-

© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18
14 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein: The Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS)
tween the two scales were expected to be midrange; higher
correlations were not expected because of the different as-
pects (aims of behavior vs. concrete behavior patterns) as-
sessed by the instruments.
Methods
Participants
Participants were recruited via different internet sport fo-
rums. This online method of recruitment would seem ap-
propriate for obtaining a homogeneous, nonclinical, Eng-
lish-speaking sample (methodical limitations associated
with this recruitment strategy are referred to in the discus-
sion). Internet users were informed that they had to be Eng-
lish native speakers to take part in the study.
The sample consisted of 146 participants (51 female,
34.9%) aged from 14 to 63 years (M = 33.1, SD = 11.7).
103 subjects came from the United States (70.5%), 12 from
Canada (8.2%), 8 from the United Kingdom (5.5%), 8 from
New Zealand (5.5%), and 15 from other countries (10.3%).
The average level of education was rather high, ranging
from 4 to 20 years of education (M = 16.0, SD = 3.8).
Materials
Participants were administered the English version of the
NISS as well as the original version of the SSS-V (Zucker-
man, 1994). The SSS-V is a 40-item, forced-choice ques-
tionnaire that measures four factors: thrill and adventure
seeking (TAS), experience seeking (ES), disinhibition
(Dis), and boredom susceptibility (BS).
European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18
Figure 1. Final path diagram (stan-
dardized coefficients) of the NISS by
sample C (n = 146). NS = Need for
stimulation, AR = Avoidance of rest.
Results
Data were analyzed using EQS 5.7 (Bentler, 1995). Since
χ² values are highly susceptible to variations in sample size
(Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Browne & Cudeck, 1993), we
used the comparative fit index (CFI), which is widely in-
dependent of sample size. Furthermore, the root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA; Jöreskog, 1993)
and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)
were provided as indices. As recommended by Bentler
(1995), we interpreted a CFI value of 0.90 or above as
showing adequate fit and a value of 0.95 as showing excel-
lent fit. In line with Browne and Cudeck (1993), we con-
sidered values of RMSEA below 0.08 to reflect adequate
fit and values below 0.05 good fit. Values of the SRMR are
expected to stay below 0.10. Parameters were estimated
using the robust maximum-likelihood (ML) estimation
method.
The tested NISS model was specified according to the
results of Study 1, which revealed two dimensions of sen-
sation seeking (see in detail Figure 1). The fit indices asso-
ciated with this model indicate a suboptimal fit when ap-
plied to the English sample (χ² = 240.26, p < .001, df = 118;
CFI = 0.89, RMSEA = 0.08; SRMR = 0.09). However,
when allowing correlations between the unique variance of
items 4 and 5 (see Figure 1), as was indicated by the mod-
ification indices (MIs) and standardized expected parame-
ter changes (SEPCs), the fit indices indicate an reasonable
fit to the data of the English sample: While χ² is significant
(χ² = 220.61, df = 117, p < .001), the other fit indices now
indicate reasonable model fit (CFI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.07,
SRMR = 0.09). Based on content analysis, it would seem
appropriate to allow the unique variances of the both items
to correlate: the common variance of items 4 and 5 may be
interpreted as constituting a factor described as “stimula-
© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing
 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein: The Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS) 15

Table 2. Correlations of the subscales of the SSS-V and the
NISS (n = 146)
TAS Dis BS ES
NS .54** .40** .34** .15
AR .08 .03 .06 –.19
NISS total .41** .28* .27* –.02
Notes. TAS = Thrill and Adventure Seeking; Dis = Disinhibition; BS
= Boredom Susceptibility; ES = Experience Seeking; SSS-V total =
total score of the SSS-V; NS = Need for stimulation; AR = Avoidance
of rest; NISS total = total score of the NISS. *p < .05, **p < .01 (after
Bonferroni adjustment).
tion of the body” that goes beyond the congeneric factor of
a general need for stimulation.
Furthermore, measurement equivalency was tested us-
ing multiple group comparisons with nested models. As
proposed by Raju, Lafitte, and Byrne (2002), invariant fac-
tor loadings between the English and German groups were
used as criteria for measurement invariance. Since Δχ² has
been criticized on account of its dependence on sample size
(e.g., Hu & Bentler, 1998), we used ΔCFI as an indicator
in the comparison of models. According to Cheung and
Rensvold (2002), values greater than .01 indicate a signif-
icant drop in fit. Multigroup CFA indicate that the structure
and the factor loadings are invariant across the two coun-
tries (unconstrained model: χ² = 793.77, df = 234; model
with equal factor loadings: χ² = 824.71, df = 249; ΔCFI =
0.004) showing the stability of the NISS over the two sam-
ples.
Internal consistency was similar to that found for the
original German version. Cronbach’s α ranged from .79
(AR) to .91 (NS; .88 for the total scale). The correlation
coefficients between the SSS-V and the NISS are described
in Table 2. As can be seen, the subscale NS moderately
correlates with the subscales of the SSS-V and corresponds
to the correlations between the intensity subscale of the
AISS and the subscales of the SSS-V (see Arnett, 1994;
Ferrando & Chico, 2001). There is, however, no relation-
ship between the AR subscale and the SSS-V.
Discussion
Overall, the results of the confirmatory factor analyses sup-
port the bidimensional structure of the English instruments.
This appears to imply a clear crosscultural and crosslingual
stability of the factorial structure of the NISS. Furthermore,
as indicated by the Cronbach’s α coefficients, we can as-
sume that the psychometric properties of the English adap-
tations of the NISS are adequate to excellent. These results
support the applicability of the English versions. Correla-
tions between NISS and SSS-V are midrange, as expected.
However, the subscale AR does not correlate with any of
the SSS-V scales, which might suggest that this second fac-
tor assesses something other than the need for sensation
seeking.
SSS-V
total
.57**
Study 3: Validity in a Nonclinical
–.02
.37** Context
By conceptualizing sensation seeking as a basal need for
stimulation that may be expressed in multiple areas of a
person’s life, the present study examined the validity of the
NISS in comparison with the SSS-V by applying a criterion
other than various types of risk behavior. In keeping with
Arnett’s suggestion (1994) to explore the sensation seeking
trait in relation to work, we employed the willingness for
occupational change as criterion with the following mani-
festations: “intention to change workplace” and “wanting
to learn or work in a new job.” It was expected that, com-
pared to low sensation seekers, the general need for stim-
ulation of high sensation seekers would be manifested in a
comparatively high willingness to change workplace. This
assumption is also supported by Zuckerman’s (1994) de-
scription of high sensation seekers as preferring changing
surroundings and low sensation seekers as preferring envi-
ronments that are highly stable and predictable. Because
the intention to change jobs is influenced by the current
situation of the employment market, we chose to examine
a sample of hairdressers, as hairdressing is one of the few
occupations in Germany in which vacancies exist.
Methods
Participants
The participants in this study were female employees of 60
hairdressing salons in Germany. Altogether, 146 people
work for this company, who were asked to complete a ques-
tionnaire. The scales were administered by the same person
in all cases (including an introduction).
Of the 146 employees invited to take part in the study,
118 participated. Responses from participants who had
more than three missing answers were excluded (n = 11).
Male hairdressers (N = 2) were excluded due to their small
number. This left a final sample of 105 female hairdressers
aged between 19 and 65 years (M = 40.83, SD = 13.39).
Measures
In addition to questions relating to demographic informa-
tion, participants completed the German form of the NISS
and the German version of the SSS-V by Beauducel, Stro-
bel, and Brocke (2003; see description above). Respon-
dents were also requested to indicate how often they intend-
ed to change their work place during their professional life
and whether they would like to learn or switch to a new

© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18
16 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein: The Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS)

Table 3. Means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of NISS and SSS-V scores in participants who do not intend to change
their workplace (No-ICW; n = 71) vs. participants who intent to do so (ICW; n = 34), and results of MANOVA
and MANCOVA (covariate: age)
No ICW ICW MANOVA MANCOVA
M SD M SD F ε² F ε²
NISS total 41.17 6.61 47.01 8.41 14.53*** .13 10.66** .10
NS 23.26 5.57 28.80 7.41 17.68*** .15 13.27*** .12
AR 15.92 3.62 16.04 3.19 <0.01 .00 0.23 .00
SSS-V total 51.44 4.64 55.41 6.65 12.18*** .11 2.44 .02
Dis 12.17 1.66 13.68 2.66 11.32*** .10 5.10* .05
BS 12.44 1.42 13.00 1.72 2.94 .03 0.33 .00
TAS 12.77 2.42 14.18 2.61 7.44** .07 0.51 .01
ES 14.06 1.38 14.56 2.05 2.67 .03 0.37 .00
Notes. NISS total = total score of the NISS; NS = Need for stimulation; AR-Trait = Avoidance of rest; SSS-V total = total score of the SSS-V;
Dis = Disinhibition; BS = Boredom Susceptibility; TAS = Thrill and Adventure Seeking; ES = Experience Seeking. *p < .05, **p < .01; ***p
< .001.

Table 4. Means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of NISS and SSS-Vscores in participants who would like to learn or
switch to a new job (LNJ; n = 38) vs. participants would not like to do so (No-LNJ; n = 61), and results of
MANOVA and MANCOVA (covariate: age)
LNJ No-LNJ MANOVA MANCOVA
M SD M SD F ε² F ε²
NISS total 45.73 8.39 41.18 6.78 8.55 ** .08 5.63 * .06
NS 27.56 7.38 23.20 5.74 10.56 ** .10 7.34 ** .07
AR 16.05 3.78 15.99 3.41 0.01 .00 0.12 .00
SSS-V total 54.45 5.70 51.67 5.24 6.00 * .06 0.59 .01
Dis 13.29 2.30 12.23 1.91 5.83 * .06 2.12 .02
BS 12.79 1.74 12.54 1.48 1.09 .01 <0.01 .00
TAS 14.18 2.53 12.69 2.33 8.20 ** .08 1.36 .01
ES 14.18 1.74 14.21 1.53 0.01 .00 1.19 .01
Notes. NISS-total score of the NISS; NS = Need for stimulation; AR = Avoidance of rest; SSS-V-total = total score of the SSS-V; Dis =
Disinhibition; BS = Boredom Susceptibility; TAS = Thrill and Adventure Seeking; ES = Experience Seeking. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

job. Response options were never and . . . times for the first
question and yes and no for the second question.
Results
To test our assumption that sensation seeking is related to
the willingness for occupational change, we examined
whether participants with greater willingness had higher
scores on the sensation-seeking measures as compared to
participants with low willingness. Analyses were conduct-
ed separately for the variables “intention to change work-
place” (response distribution: never: n = 71; once: n = 19;
twice: n = 15) and “wanting to learn or work in a new job”
(response distribution: yes: n = 38; no: n = 61).
We first divided the sample into “intention to change
workplace” (ICW; n = 34) and “no intention to change
workplace” (no-ICW; n = 71). Differences between ICW
and no-ICW were examined using multivariate analyses of
variance (MANOVA) with ICW/no-ICW as independent
variable and the SSS-V and NISS scores as dependent vari-
ables. We also calculated the effect size ε² in order to de-
termine the meaning of the differences. Dichotomization of
the variable ICW was necessary due to its highly skewed
distribution. As shown in Table 3, significant group differ-
ences were found in the total scale of the NISS and the
subscale NS-Trait, with ε² of .13–.15. We also found sig-
nificant differences in the total scale of the SSS-V and the
Dis and TAS subscales with somewhat smaller effects.
However, respondents who intend to change their work-
place are also younger than those who have no such inten-
tions (ICW: M = 31.38, SD = 10.15; no-ICW: M = 45.35,
SD = 12.70; ANOVA: F = 32.16, p < .001, ε² = .24). Fur-
thermore product-moment correlations between age and
sensation-seeking scores reveal significant correlations be-
tween age and the SSS-V scales (SSS-V total: r = –.40, p
< .001; Dis: r = –.26, p < .01; ES: r = –.22, p < .05; BS: r
= –.20, p = .05, TAS: r = –.41, p < .001), but not between
age and the NISS scales (NS total: r = .18, ns, NS: r = –.19,
ns; AR: r = –.05, ns). It is therefore not surprising that en-
tering age as a covariate causes the differences in SSS-V
scores between ICW and no-ICW to disappear (see Table
3, right-hand column), whereas differences on the NISS-
scales remain stable.

European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18 © 2011 Hogrefe Publishing
 M. Roth & P. Hammelstein: The Need Inventory of Sensation Seeking (NISS)
The same result pattern was found when respondents
were asked whether they would like to learn or switch to a
new job. Here, the sample was divided into participants
who would like to have a new job (LNJ; n = 38) and those
with no such desires (no-LNJ; n = 61). As shown in Table
4, differences on the SSS-V scales again disappeared when
age was controlled for, whereas differences with respect to
the NISS total score and the subscale NS remained stable.
Discussion
The results demonstrate the validity of the NISS with regard
to the willingness for occupational change. Furthermore, the
results indicate that the relationship between the NISS and
the willingness for occupational change was not due to con-
founding effects of age. In contrast, there was no relationship
between sensation seeking measured using the SSS-V and the
willingness for occupational change when age was controlled
for. With respect to several items of the SSS-V which refer to
strenuous physical activities (e.g., “mountain climbing”), we
cannot be certain whether the SSS-V truly measures sensa-
tion seeking or rather a merely age-related activity status.
However, the subscale AR of the NISS also does not differ-
entiate between the two examined groups. This again raises
the question as to whether the AR-subscale really describes
the aim of avoiding tranquility (see General Discussion).
General Discussion
Against the backdrop of a conceptual criticism of the con-
ventional view of sensation seeking as a temperamental
trait (see Arnett, 1994; Roth, 2003) as well as critical con-
siderations concerning the SSS-V and the AISS (e.g., Fer-
rando & Chico, 2001), a new instrument, the Need Inven-
tory of Sensation Seeking (NISS), was presented which
conceives of sensation seeking as a need. The analyses con-
ducted reveal high reliability for both the German and the
English version of the NISS compared to other measures
of sensation seeking. Reliability of the NISS is somewhat
higher than that found for the SSS-V and even the AISS.
However, the interpretation of the factorial structure is
somewhat unclear. Both PCA and CFA reveal a two-di-
mensional structure with all positively poled items loading
onto the first factor and all negatively poled items loading
onto the second factor. At least two interpretations of these
findings are possible. The first is to consider these two fac-
tors in the sense of Grawe (2002), namely, that the first
factor assesses the aim of approach (“need for stimulation”)
and the second the aim of avoidance (“avoidance of rest”).
This interpretation is challenged when taking into account
the following results: The second subscale does not corre-
late in any way with the SSS-V and does not differentiate
between individuals who do and do not intend to change
their workplace. It may, however, be the case that AR as-
© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing
17
sesses something that is not assessed by the SSS-V and is
not related to the intention to change job (furthermore, it
may be a factor that measures an intention to relax as a kind
of antipole to the need for stimulation).
The second possible interpretation is to consider the fac-
torial structure as a methodical artifact. This interpretation
seems likely in light of the fact that the two-factor structure
corresponds to differences in item wording (the negatively
poled items all load onto Factor 2). The second factor may
thus be a result of response behavior to items measuring sen-
sation seeking. In this case, the NISS would assess sensation
seeking by means of a single factor, which would be in line
with the conception of sensation seeking as a one-dimension-
al basic need. Which of the two interpretations applies re-
mains unclear: While the first factor is assumed to be an in-
dicator of the need for sensation seeking, the meaning of the
second factor requires clarification in further studies.
Estimates of validity were consistently satisfactory
throughout the studies presented in this paper for this first
factor, referred to as “need for stimulation.” The advantage
of this scale for measuring sensation seeking can be sum-
marized as follows: First, it shows hardly any age depend-
ence (in contrast to the SSS-V); second, it does not contain
any description of risk situations and can therefore be used
for both functional as well as dysfunctional aspects of sen-
sation seeking; and third, due to the lack of concrete de-
scriptions of behavior, the NISS can be used in a diverse
range of contexts. However, if the expression of sensation
seeking is of interest, the SSS-V seems to be an adequate
method. It depends on the research questions being asked,
which instrument is more appropriate.
Despite the present lack of clarity regarding the role of the
second factor of the NISS, this new method of measuring
sensation seeking clearly shows some advantages over the
SSS-V and opens up new possibilities for research on sensa-
tion seeking. However, the limitations of the present study lie
in selected samples (users of sport forums, women hairdress-
ers) and the fact that only self-report measures are used.
Therefore, future research should choose more samples and
behavioral measures that allow a differential prediction of
NISS and SSS-V. In this context it could also be useful to use
“openness to experience” as a covariate when analyzing how
the NISS predicts outcomes over and above the SSS-V.
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Appendix: NISS (English version)
Directions: Below is a set of statements regarding attitudes
and behavior. Read each statement carefully. Please state
how often in the past 6 months you have felt this way (1 =
almost never; 2 = seldom; 3 = occasionally; 4 = frequently;
5 = almost always). Please do not leave any answer blank.
1. I like to find myself in situations which make my heart
beat faster.
2. I like to test my body’s limits.
3. I know the feeling of wanting to be pepped up and stim-
ulated somehow.
4. I like feeling totally charged.
5. I like the feeling of excitement in my body.
6. I prefer strong and impressive experiences.
7. I sometimes need a certain “kick” in order to feel good.
European Journal of Psychological Assessment 2012; Vol. 28(1):11–18
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Roth, M. (2003). Validation of the Arnett Inventory of Sensation
Seeking (AISS): Efficiency to predict the willingness toward oc-
cupational chance, and affection by social desirability. Personal-
ity and Individual Differences, 35, 1307–1314.
Roth, M. (2009). Social support as a mediator in the relation between
sensation seeking (need for stimulation) and psychological ad-
justment in older adults. Personality and Individual Differences,
47, 798–801.
Roth, M., Hammelstein, P., & Brähler, E. (2007). Beyond a youthful
behavior style – age and sex differences in sensation seeking
based on need theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 43,
1839–1850.
Roth, M., Hammelstein, P., & Brähler, E. (2009). Toward a multi-
methodological approach in the assessment of sensation seeking.
Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 247–249.
Roth, M., Schumacher, J., & Brähler, E. (2005). Sensation seeking
in the community: Sex, age and sociodemographic comparisons
on a representative German population sample. Personality and
Individual Differences, 39, 1261–1271.
Zuckerman, M. (1971). Dimensions of sensation seeking. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 36, 45–52.
Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level
of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases
of sensation seeking. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Published online: September 16, 2011
Marcus Roth
University of Duisburg-Essen
Campus Essen
Department of Psychology
45117 Essen
Germany
E-mail marcus.roth@uni-due.de
8. I like to take time out to relax.
9. I enjoy it when there’s nothing going on for a while.
10. It can be pleasant to close yourself off from the outside
world.
11. I like to just sit back and enjoy a peaceful moment.
12. I know the feeling of being stimulated so much by ex-
ternal influences that I want to retreat.
13. I like to be aware of the excitement in my body.
14. I like to feel boisterous and in high spirits.
15. There are situations in which a can never get enough
external stimulation.
16. I like to be exposed to strong stimulation.
17. I sometimes enjoy doing and experiencing nothing.
Note. The German version of the questionnaire is available
from the corresponding author.
© 2011 Hogrefe Publishing