Loads in an elastic bolted assembly

The safety of a threaded fastener depends upon the actual load on it and the maximum
load it can withstand. The latter has been considered above. Since the fastener is part of
an indeterminate assembly it is now necessary to analyse such an assembly to find out
just what is the actual load on the fastener itself.
The analysis is very similar to that carried out in an earlier chapter in the context of
indeterminate assemblies.

The nut and bolt b ( i) are used to connect together three joint-members j1, j2 and j3 (
ii). After tightening the nut by a known amount Δ, the external load P is applied
axially to j1 and j2, and tends to separate the joint members. Joint separation must
usually be avoided, so examination of the assembly has two major goals :

• to determine the assembly's tendency towards separation, and

• to ascertain the safety of all components of the assembly.

The load on each component is a function of the initial tightening and the external load,
but the component loads cannot be found immediately because the assembly is statically
indeterminate - this indeterminacy must first be resolved before separation or safety can
be addressed. Resolution requires consideration of compatibility, equilibrium and
the constitutive laws of all deformable components, whose behaviour here is
assumed to be elastic, frictionless and isothermal.
Compatibility
Shown in section ( iii) is the unloaded free assembly with the nut 'snubbed' (
finger tight ) - that is the nut has been tightened to close up all gaps in the
assembly without inducing appreciable loads. An imaginary mark is situated
on the thread a distance Δ from the nut underside. After tightening, this
 mark will coincide with the nut face, so Δ represents the distance moved by
the nut along the bolt thread during the tightening operation. After
tightening and loading by the external force, the disposition of the assembly
elements is shown much exaggerated in ( iv). The extension of the bolt
is δb while the compression of the joint δj is the sum of its elements'
contractions, ie. δj = δj1 + δj2 + δj3.
From the geometry of ( iii) and ( iv), compatibility necessitates :
Δ = δb + δj
Equilibrium
The free body of the bolt and nut ( v) illustrates the unknown forces at the
bolt's two contacts. The upper Fb is the axial resultant of the uniformly
distributed pressure exerted by the top surface of j1 over the annular area
under the bolt head. The other contact - the upper surface of the nut bearing
on the underside of j2 - yields a similar pressure resultant whose magnitude
must also be Fb for equilibrium of the bolt.
The free body of the joint element j3 in ( vi) shows the unknown pressure
resultant Fj due to annular contact with its neighbours. The reactions to the
aforementioned Fb and Fj appear on the remaining free bodies j1 and j2 in
( vi) from either of which results :
P = F b - Fj

Evidently the bolt is under tension Fb.

Parts of the joint components j1 and j2 in contact with the nut and bolt are
also subjected to the bolt load Fb, however for the case considered, the
majority of these components, and all intermediate components such as j3,
are subjected to the compressive load Fj only. We shall here assume that all
joint components are wholly compressed by Fj - this approximation should
be reviewed for other arrangements.

Constitutive laws
Bolt - Since in the previous steps the bolt is loaded by the tensile force Fb
and undergoes the tensile deformation δb, then, if kb is the axial stiffness of
the bolt :
Fb = kb δb
Joint - Since in the previous steps the joint is loaded by the compressive
force Fj and undergoes the compressive deformation δj, then, if kj is the
stiffness of the joint - that is of the three joint- elements in series 1/kj = 1/kj1
+ 1/kj2 + 1/kj3 :
Fj = kj δj
Solving these four equations resolves the indeterminacy, giving the component loads :

( 3a) Fb = Fi + P ke /kj where 1/ke = 1/kb + 1/kj ; Fi = ke Δ

Fj = Fi - P ke /kb

ke is the equivalent stiffness of the assembly ( ke < kb & kj ). Evidently the bolt is in
series with the joint, ie. all four components are in series. Fi is
the initial load ( or preload ) in the assembly due to
tightening the nut by an amount Δ.

The bolt load Fb and the joint load Fj from ( 3a) are plotted in
( vii) versus the external load P, with ke < kb < kj.
When the external load is zero then Fb = Fj = Fi and the load
path is a closed loop through all elements in series. As the
external load increases then the joint- elements become less
tightly compressed - Fj decreases - while the bolt load increases. For the case
considered, the rate of bolt load increase ke /kj is less than the rate of joint load decrease
ke /kb, because kb < kj.

The graph indicates that the joint force becomes zero when the external load reaches
some critical value P*. Since Fj cannot be tensile ( negative by the present convention )
it follows that j3 must lose contact with the other two joint components. Thus joint
separation occurs and the bolt takes all the external load, as may be confirmed by free
bodies. So, after separation, Fj = 0 and Fb = P.

In the arrangement of ( viii) the assembly is required to sustain the external load Po
without separation, but the preload and stiffnesses are such that Po exceeds the
separation load P* so the
requirements cannot be met - a
larger separation load is
necessary.
One way of increasing the
separation
load is to
increase the
preload Fi as in ( ix). The slopes of the bolt and joint load
characteristics are not altered by this extra tightening. Another
approach ( x) uses the same preload as ( viii) but with an increased
stiffness ratio kb / kj. Clearly it is easier to alter the preload ( within the strength
capabilities of the bolt and joint components ) than it is to alter stiffnesses.
In a fatigue situation with given alternating load on the assembly, P, the amplitude of
the damaging fatigue load on the bolt Fb is reduced as the slope of the Fb -P
characteristic is decreased ( xi). Comparing the arrangement ( ix) with ( x) it is
apparent that when designing for bolt fatigue, the low-slope arrangement ( ix) is
preferable - that is a relatively low bolt stiffness kb and high preload Fi are desirable.

The stiffness of an elastic component which is subjected uniformly to tension or

compression is
k = F/δ = AE/L
A bolt may be reckoned as two elements in series, each with a
constant cross-sectional area - the shank, and the exposed
thread whose area is the stress area As. The lengths of these should include half the
head and nut thicknesses respectively, to allow for local deformation. The stiffness of
short bolts is less predictable than that of long bolts.

A gasket is a thin compliant sheet rather similar to j3 above, which is sandwiched

between other joint components to fill up microscopic irregularities thus preventing
fluid leakage. If the fastened components include a
gasket, then determination of their stiffness can pose
problems - we shall consider gasketed joints separately
below.

In a metal-to-metal ( non-gasketed ) joint, calculation

of a fastened component's stiffness is straightforward if
it is a thin tube and the external load is applied
uniformly over the annular end area A as at ( xii) - but
this is unusual. More commonly the component is similar to ( xiii). Known are its
thickness L and the fact that there is extended reactive contact over the face which is
not in contact with the bolt head or nut face. The component may be modelled as a
conical frustum ( xiv) of diameter Do at the small end and cone angle γ, bored
cylindrically with diameter Di to clear the bolt. The deformation dδ of a small element,
thickness dx, will be :
dδ = Fj /kx = Fj ( L/EA )x = Fj dx / E π/4 [ ( Do+2x.tanγ)2 - Di2 ]

Integrating, the total compressive deformation δ over length L is found to be :

δ = ( Fj /π E Di tanγ ) ln[ ( Do - Di + 2L tanγ )( Do + Di ) / ( Do + Di + 2L tanγ )( Do - Di
)]

It is usual to particularise this for some assumed cone angle such as 30o, but a general
result has been obtained by Wileman op cit using finite elements on the basis of Di ≈
d ( small clearances ) and Do ≈ 1.5d - ie. the outer diameter of the annular bearing area
under the hexagon equals the standard width across flats, Table 1. Wileman's results
may be correlated for steel by :

( 4) k = Fj /δ ≈ Ed ( 0.702 +0.654 d/L ) / ( 1 - 0.12 d/L ) ; d/L ≤ 2

Use of ( 4) presumes that there is sufficient material present to allow the lines of force to
develop unfettered by finite boundaries.
 Bolt preloading notes.... Stiffness..... Calculating Thermal loading... Calculating initial bolt tension.....
Shear load developed in tightening bolts.... Methods of setting bolt preload.... Table showing
Accuracy of Bolt tensioning methods

Introduction

Calculating bolt loads is complicated if done correctly. The notes below are very limited and are
reasonable for none critical applications. There are lots of specialists in this field as identified in the
links on this page and on the screw index page. These notes do not include for fatigue loading,
determination of stiffness of joint, joint settlement, load application factors.etc etc.

It should also be noted that the bolt torque required, to achieve the same bolt stress levels, increases
greatly as the bolt size increases (torque = c. d 3). Therefore for larger bolts very high torques are
required and used of specialist bolt tensioning systems such as the "Superbolt multi-jackbolt" option
should be considered.

Nomenclature

• A z = Area of plate - taking load ( m2)

• A b = Bolt Cross Section = Bolt thread root Area (m 2)
• D b = Bolt thread root diameter (m)
• d = Bolt nominal diameter (m)
• F e = External Load (N)
• F t = Thermal Load (N)
• F p = Preload Load (N)
• F = Total Load On Bolt (N)
• E z = Youngs Modulus of item z ( N / m2)
• L = Length of Bolt joint (m)
• L b = Length of Bolt (m)
• L j = Length of joint (m)
• k z = Stiffness of component z (N/m)
• k b = Stiffness of bolt (N/m)
• k j = Stiffness of joint (N/m)
• t z = Thickness of plate z (m)
• T = Bolt Tightening Torque (N.m)
• x z = deflection of item z /unit load (m/N)
• x b = deflection of bolt /unit load (m/N)
• α z= Coefficient of thermal expansion of component z (m/m/Deg.C)

• δ = deflection (m)

Bolt Loading Notes

It is accepted that a bolt preloaded to a fixed value is safer than a bolt simply tightened to an
arbitrary value. A preload of about 80% of the proof strength of the bolt material is normally used.

Assume a bolt is used to clamp a joint to a set preload value and the bolt has a low stiffness and the
joint has a very high stiffness. An external load is applied to tend separate the joint. Part of this load
will cause the further extension of the bolt (increase in bolt load). Part of the load will result in an
increase of the joint thickness reducing of the compressive load on the joint. e.g. If the preload has
 resulted from a stretching of the bolt of 1mm and a compression of the joint by only 0.01mm then an
external load sufficient to achieve joint separation will only increase on loading of the bolt by about
0,01mm/1mm (1%) x preload .

It is clear?? from this example that using longer small diameter bolts to clamp surfaces results in
relatively uniform bolt loading under varying external forces with reduced risk of fatigue loading.

Assuming the assembly is bolted with a bolt preload of Fp and an external load F eis applied..
Joint separation will occur when Fe = F (total load on the bolt) .. i.e when no load is being taken by the
joint
For an infinitely stiff bolt, separation will never occur as all of the external load will be applied directly
to the bolt with no resulting extension..
For a infinitely stiff joint separation will take place when the external load exceeds the preload.

On application of an external force Fe. Some of the force will used to increase the preload on the bolt
and some will be used to reduce the loading on the joint . The bolt loading diagram below shows the
loading regime on the bolt and joint

Bolted Joint diagram

The determination of the proportion of the load taken by the bolt and by the joint is calculated using
the component stiffness values.
The stiffness is effectively the same as the Spring Rate ..

Stiffness = k = F / δ

Stiffness Considerations
Bolt stiffness

The relationship E = stress /strain = σ /e is used to determine the stiffness of a bolt.

Stress = Force (F) /Area (A) and strain = Deflection (δ) / Length (L)
E = (F/A) /(δ/L) Therefore δ = FL/EA .

If the bolt length clamping the joint includes a number of different sections then the resulting
stiffness is determined using the relationship .

To allow for a certain degree of elasticity of the bolt head and nut a correction factor is often used
modify the length used in the stiffness calculations as shown below..

The stiffness of the bolt results from the stiffness of the bolt shank (dia ds ) and the stiffness of the
bolt thread (root dia dr ).
The length used to calculate the shank stiffness = L se = L s + 0,4d s
The length used for the threaded length section = = L te = L t + 0,4d r

Joint Stiffness

Note: It is very difficult to calculated the stiffness of a joint e.g one based on holes drilled in a
plate. A rough approximation can be made by assuming joint is an annulus with and OD of 2,5 times
the bolt dia and an ID = bolt diameter.

Additional notes on evaluating the joint stiffness are provided on page Joint Stiffness

The mitcalc software (links below) is useful for obtaining a stiffness value of a joint.

The relationship E = stress /strain = σ /e is used to determine the stiffness of a section .

Calculation of Load Distribution using Bolt/Joint Stiffness

A joint preloaded with a force Fp is then subject to an additional load Fe which tends to separate the
joint. The resulting deflection of the joint and bolt are the same providing that Fe is less than the
separation force.

It follows that

Following application of the external force the resulting total force on the bolt =

and the total force on the joint =

Thermal Loading

If all of the materials of the joint and the bolt are the same then any changes in temperature will have
negligible effect of the joint loadings. However if the joint materials have coefficients of thermal
expansion different to the bolt material changes in the joint loading result from changes in
 temperature...

Let .. Coefficient of thermal expansion of joint material = α j

Coefficient of thermal expansion of bolt = α b

Change of temperature = ΔT

Length of joint = Length of Bolt ( L j = L b = L )

The expansion of the joint = ΔL j= α j ΔT.L

The expansion of the bolt = ΔL b= α b ΔT.L
The overall stiffness of the joint is calculated as follows.

The resulting change in the joint load is calculated as follows..

The total bolt load following temperature change is thus..

Initial Tension in Bolt

The initial tension in a bolt is crudely estimated for a bolt tightened by hand by an experienced
mechanic as follows. The tension resulting from this equation would be reasonable safe for M8- 8,8
grade bolts and above.

Fp = K*d

• d = nominal diameter of bolt (m)

• Fp = Preload (N)

• K = Coefficient vary from. 1.75 x 10 6

N/m to 2.8 x 10 6
N /m

For a bolt tightened with a torque wrench the torque required to provide an initial bolt tension may be
approximated by the formula..

T = Fp * K * d

Typical K factors

Steel Thread Condition K

as received, stainless on mild or

0,30
alloy
 as received, mild or alloy on
0,20
same

cadmium plated
0,16

molybdenum-
0.14
disulphide grease
PTFE lubrication 0.12

A more accurate value can be determined using the formula

Note: Relevant formulea for calculating Power thread torques and efficiencies are derived on
webpage Power Screw Equations

• F p = Desired bolt Preload (N)

• p = Thread pitch (m)
• d m = Mean diameter of thread (m)
• μ = Coefficient of Thread friction
• μ c = Coefficient of collar friction
• α is the thread angle / 2 (α = 30 o for standard metric threads & α = 29 o/2 for
acme threads).

• r c = Collar friction radius (m)

Note: Friction values are found on this site on the coefficient of friction page..Coefficient of Friction

It can be proved that the majority of the torque is required to overcome the thread and collar friction
forces (approx 90%). Therefore any error in the value of the friction coefficient will have a large
variation on the bolt tensile load. The above formula is in essence not a lot more accurate than the
approximate formulae above.

Note:
A very simplified version of this formula can be derive by assuming μc = μ , d m = 0.92 d , α = 30o. rc
= 0.625 d.
If the denominator is simplified to π.dm The equation reduces to

T = Fp (0,159.p + 1,156. μ.d )

This provides a very crude relationship between the torque and the resulting bolt tension for a
standard hex screw with no washer..

For important bolting applications it is recommended that the bolt preload is is determined using
direct bolt tension measuring techniques - see notes below.
Shear Stress In Bolts

In tightening a bolt stress is induced as a result of the bolt tension and bolt torque.. The combined
resulting shear stress is calculated as follows

• F Bolt Tension (N)

• Tf = Thread torque(N.m)
• A r = Thread Root Area (m 2)

• d r = Thread Root diameter

This formula is relatively conservative. For less conservative designs A r can be replaced by A t as
defined on page Thread calcs
and d r can be replaced by d t = Sqrt( 4.A t/π )

In general for static loading, the maximum shear stress in a bolt should not exceed about 75% of the
shear yield stress of the material. For variable loading the bolt should be designed for endurance
stress levels. Bolts subject to dynamic loading often lose their initial torsion stress because the
nut/bolt head tends to slip back if the collar friction is not sufficient.

Methods of setting bolt preload /tension

High strength friction grip bolts and nuts require to be tensioned in accordance with BS 4604 which
specifies min. loads to be achieved (see Table 1). It also specifies three methods of determining bolt
tension, i.e.:
i) Torque Control
ii) Part Turn of Nut
iii) Direct Tension Measurement

Torque Wrench
This method is sometimes known erroneously as "torque control". The bolts are tensioned in a
tension calibrator on the site. The wrench is then set to cut out at that torque (the wrench becomes
"calibrated"), and then all similar bolts that day are installed to that torque after the joint is snugged
first. Rotation during the tightening process must be limited to a specific value. Actual results of
tension in bolts produced by this method are acknowledged to be highly variable, even when this
method is followed exactly.

Turn Of Nut
After snugging the joint, the bolt shank and nut is marked and then a specific amount of rotation is
induced between the nut and the bolt. The amount of rotation differs for different bolt lengths and
diameters and therefore must be known and understood by the bolt installers in advance. The
success of the method is dependent on a correct snugging of the joint, and is dependent on the bolt
head being held from turning so the bolt does not spin in the hole.
Note: Turn-of-nut does not work correctly when the steel surfaces are coated with a compressible
coating such as high paint thickness or hot dipped galvanized zinc.

Direct Tension Indicator Washers

A number of direct tension indicator systems are available (see links below) the most popular being
the DTI washers. ..The notes below relate to DTI washers..
DTI washers measure the bolt tension developed during tightening, regardless of the torque
resistance of the bolt. By far the simplest method, a DTI washer is put on the head or nut end of the
 bolt. The bolts are then slightly tensioned snugging the joint by partially (but not fully) compressing
the DTI (tightening the nut).
Then all the bolts are tightened such that the DTI's are "crushed" to the point where a feeler gage
cannot be inserted half way around (tightening the nut). DTI's are completely independent of the
torque resistance of the bolt assembly.
If the DTI is put on the nut end of the bolt, tightening can be done by one person because it is not
necessary access the bolt head side.

Other methods of setting Bolt tension

There are a number of more exotic methods of pre-setting the bolt tension including

• Using Strain gauges..Accurate /complicated /expensive. Some skill required

• Using ultrasonics instruments..Accurate and not expensive over the long term.
Some skill required
• Using special bolts with built-in (mechanical or electronic) extension measurement
e.g Rotobolt. Good but relatively expensive
• Using hydraulics (or heat) to pretension bolts See note below

• Using multi-jackbolt system (Superbolt) a variation of torque control.

Note:
Using heat is based on heating the bolt(and nut) to a set temperature. The bolt is inserted quickly
and the nut tightened snugly. The bolt is then allowed to cool and the contraction results in the
required tension. If a tension Fp is required for a bolt with a CSA of Ab then the required bolt stress is
calculated σ= F p / Ab
The bolt is heated to a temperature of

T = [σ /(E.e)] + T o

E= Youngs Modulus (N/m2 )....e = Coefficient of thermal expansion (m/m)/deg.C....To = ambient

temperature (deg. C)

This method is very difficult to implement the bolt has to be heated while the bolted joint has to be
kept at ambient temperature. The accuracy of the heating method is very much limited by quality of
the procedure followed.

Hydraulic bolt tensioners use an annular hydraulic jack placed around the screw, stretching it
axially. When the required stress level is reached, the nut is tightened snugly and then the pressure
released, resulting in a preloaded bolt without any frictional or torsional stresses.

The hydraulic method can provide very accurate preload (+/- 1%) on long bolts but it is less accurate
on short bolts.

Preload Setting Error

Operator "Feel" +/- 35%

Torque Wrench +/- 25%

Angle Torquing (Turn of nut) +/- 15%

Load Indicating Washer +/- 10%

Measuring Bolt elongation +/- 5%

Hydraulic Bolt pretension +/- (1% to 10%)

Strain Gauges / Ultrasonics +/- 1%

Superbolt multi-jackbolt
+/- 5%
tensioners