Types of Noise

Royce Chua
Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering
Technological Institute of the Philippines
royce236@gmail.com
Table of Contents

I. Atmospheric Noise ................................................................................................................................... 1

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 1
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 1
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 1
II. Solar Noise .............................................................................................................................................. 1
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 1
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 1
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 1
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 2
III. Cosmic Noise ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 2
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 2
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 2
IV. Industrial Noise..................................................................................................................................... 3
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 3
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 3
V. Thermal-Agitation Noise ....................................................................................................................... 3
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 3
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 4
VI. Shot Noise .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 4
 Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 4
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 4
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 4
VII. Transit-Time Noise ............................................................................................................................. 4
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 5
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 5
VIII. White Noise ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 5
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 5
IX. Impulse Noise ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 6
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 6

X. Interference Noise .................................................................................................................................. 6

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 6
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 6

XI. Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................................................................ 6

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 7
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 7
XI. Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................................................................ 6
Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 6
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 6
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 7

XII. Intermodulation Distortion ................................................................................................................ 7

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 7
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 7

XIII. Partition Noise ................................................................................................................................... 7

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 8
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 8

XIV. Excess Noise........................................................................................................................................ 8

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 8
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 8

XV. Burst Noise ........................................................................................................................................... 8

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 9
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................... 9

XVI. Avalanche Noise ................................................................................................................................. 9

Descriptions ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Characteristics ............................................................................................................................................. 9
 Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................... 9
Applications ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................. 10

XVII. Bipolar Transistor Noise................................................................................................................ 10

Descriptions .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................. 10
Applications .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................. 10

XVIII. Bipolar Transistor Noise .............................................................................................................. 10

Descriptions .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................. 11
Applications .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................. 11

XIX. Generation-Recombination Noise .................................................................................................. 11

Descriptions .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................. 11
Applications .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................. 11

XX. Phonon Noise ..................................................................................................................................... 11

Descriptions .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Effects in Communication Systems ............................................................................................................. 12
Applications .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Prevention ................................................................................................................................................. 12

References .................................................................................................................................................. 12
1. Atmospheric Noise
Descriptions
Atmospheric noise is a type of noise that occurs as a
result of spurious radio waves which induce voltages in
the antenna. The majority of these radio waves come
from natural sources of disturbance. This type of noise
is generally called static.
Characteristics
It originates in the form of amplitude-modulated
impulses, and because such processes are random in
nature, it is spread over most of the RF spectrum
normally used for broadcasting. An atmospheric noise
consists of spurious radio signals with components
distributed over a wide range of frequencies.
Effects in Communication System
An astonishing variety of strange sounds will be
heard which tends to interfere with the program of
shortwaves of receivers not well equipped to receive
atmospheric noise.
Applications
Atmospheric noise and variation is also used to
generate high quality random numbers. Random
numbers have interesting applications in the security
domain.
Preventions
Atmospheric noise becomes less severe at
frequencies above 30 MHz because of two separate
factors. First, the higher frequencies are limited to line-
of-sight propagation, less than 80 kilometers or so.
Second, the nature of the mechanism generating this
noise is such that very little of it is created in the VHF
range and above. One way to prevent atmospheric noise
is to configure the receivers to handle this type of noise.
2. Solar Noise
Descriptions
Solar noise is a type of noise that is primarily
because of the sun’s radiation. The sun in our solar
system radiates broad range of frequencies at the
temperature of about 6000°C. These frequencies fall
within the band used for various communication
purposes by the mankind.
Characteristics
Under normal "quiet" conditions, there is a constant
noise radiation from the sun, simply because it is a large
body at a very high temperature (over 6000°C on the
surface). It therefore radiates over a very broad
frequency spectrum which includes the frequencies we
use for communications.
Effects in Communication System
However, the sun is a constantly changing star
which undergoes cycles of peak activity from which
electrical disturbances erupt, such as corona flares and
sunspots, even though, the additional noise produced
comes from a limited portion of the sun's surface, it may
still be orders of magnitude greater than that received
during periods of quiet sun.
Applications
Solar noise is used in solar energy that converts
light energy to electricity by the use of photovoltaic
system. It can help to supply electricity in some areas or
1
company by absorbing the light using semiconducting
materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Preventions
Photovoltaic noise barrier represents the
combination of noise barrier systems and photovoltaic
systems. Noise barriers are physical obstructions
designed to lower solar noise levels between noise
sources and sensitive receptors such as hospitals,
schools and residential areas. It uses solar cells to
convert light energy directly into electricity.
3. Cosmic Noise
Descriptions
Is random noise that originates outside the Earth's
atmosphere. It can be detected and heard on radio
receivers. This type of noise is produced by Celestial
objects like Stars, and Quasars, super dense objects that
lie far from Earth, emit electromagnetic waves in its full
spectrum including radio waves. We can also hear the
fall of a meteorite in a radio receiver; the falling object
burns from friction with the Earth's atmosphere,
ionizing surrounding gases and producing radio waves.
Characteristics
Cosmic noise characteristics are similar to those
of thermal noise. Cosmic noise is experienced at
frequencies above about 15 MHz when highly
directional antennas are pointed toward the sun or to
certain other regions of the sky such as the center of the
Milky Way Galaxy.
Effects in Communication System
Space noise is observable at frequencies in the
range from about 8 MHz to somewhat above 1.43
gigahertz (1.43 GHz), the latter frequency
corresponding to the 21-cm hydrogen "line." Apart from
man-made noise it is the strongest component over the
range of about 20 to 120 MHz. Not very much of it below
20 MHz penetrates down through the ionosphere, while
its eventual disappearance at frequencies in excess of
1.5 GHz is probably governed by the mechanisms
generating it, and its absorption by hydrogen in
interstellar space.
Applications
Several different antenna parameters can be, and
have been, measured with the help of cosmic noise
sources because the set of cosmic sources can, therefore
serve as an ideal test source from radio frequencies to
millimeter waves. Another application is that it can be
used to glean information about the sources of this noise
which is well known in radio astronomy.
Preventions
Calibrating the antenna parameters to block cosmic
noises are one way of preventing unwanted cosmic
noise.
4. Industrial Noise
Descriptions
Industrial noise is a type of noise that is produced
by automobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors and
switching equipment, leakage from high-voltage lines
and a multitude of other heavy electric machines.
Fluorescent lights are another powerful source of such
noise.
Characteristics
2
 Industrial noise is in between the frequencies of 1 to
600 MHz (in urban, suburban and other industrial
areas) the intensity of noise made by humans easily
outstrips that created by any other source, internal or
external to the receiver.
Effects in Communication System
The noise is produced by the discharge present in all
these operations, and under these circumstances it is not
surprising that this noise should be most intense in
industrial and densely populated areas. Communication
system may encounter more disturbances from this type
of noise.
Applications
Industrial noise is used to study and measure the
noise levels that would be necessary to know how to
minimize the effects of noise levels in communication
systems that could be affected.
Preventions
Setup of communication systems in areas away from
big contributors of industrial noise such as generators
could be one. The second is to install filters that would
remove the industrial noise.
5. Thermal-Agitation Noise
Descriptions
The noise generated in a resistance or the resistive
component is random and is referred to as thermal,
agitation, white or Johnson noise. It is due to the rapid
and random motion of the molecules (atoms and
electrons) inside the component itself.
Characteristics
Thermal noise is always present in electronic
circuits to a lesser or greater degree. Thermal noise is
a critical parameter within many RF circuits. Thermal
noise is obviously of great importance within receiver
circuits where this form of noise along with other forms
of noise limit the sensitivity of the receiver. Thermal
noise is random and continuous in all devices. That is
why Thermal noise is the most significant of all noise
sources.
Effects in Communication System
Thermal noise appears regardless of the quality of
component used. The noise level is dependent only upon
the temperature and the value of the resistance.
Applications
Thermal noise is a critical parameter within many
RF circuits. Thermal noise is obviously of great
importance within receiver circuits where this form of
noise along with other forms of noise limit the sensitivity
of the receiver
Preventions
Therefore, the only ways to reduce the thermal noise
content are to reduce the temperature of operation, or
reduce the value of the resistors in the circuit.
6. Shot Noise
Descriptions
Thermal agitation is by no means the only source of
noise in receivers. The most important of all the other
sources is the shot effect, which leads to noise in all
3
amplifying devices and virtually all active devices. It is
caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons
(or holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying deice
and appears as a randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output. When amplified, it is
supposed to sound as a shower of lead shot were falling
on a metal sheet. Hence the name shot noise.
Characteristics
Although the average output current of a device is
governed by the various bias voltages, at any instant of
time there maybe more or fewer electrons arriving at the
output electrode. In bipolar transistors, this is mainly a
result of the random drift of the discrete current carriers
across the junctions. The paths taken are random and
therefore unequal, so that although the average
collector current is constant, minute variations
nevertheless occur. Shot noise behaves in a similar
manner to thermal agitation noise, apart from the fact
that it has a different source.
Effects in Communication System
Shot noise is particularly noticeable in many devices
that are semiconductors, such as tunnel junctions,
Schottky barrier diodes and p-n junctions.
Applications
It is important in electronics, telecommunications,
optical detection, and fundamental physics.
Preventions
For metallic resistors, shot noise is virtually non-
existent because the inelastic electron-photons
scattering smooths the current fluctuations that result
from the discrete nature of the electrons, leaving only
thermal noise.
7. Transit-Time Noise
Descriptions
These noises are also known transit time noise. They
are observed in the semi-conductor devices when the
transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a junction
is compared with the time period of that signal.
Characteristics
Once this high-frequency noise makes its presence
felt, it goes on increasing with frequency at a rate
that soon approaches 6 decibels (6 dB) per octave, and
this random noise then quickly predominates over
the other forms. The result of all this is that it is
preferable to measure noise at such high frequencies,
instead of trying to calculate an input equivalent noise
resistance for it.
Effects in Communication System
Transit-time noise is a similar phenomenon to shot
noise in that it affects systems more as they get smaller
due to the quantized nature of electricity. Transit-time
noise results when a signal frequency's period is the
same as the time an electron takes to travel from sender
to receiver.
Applications
Transit-time noise is an important parameter in the
design of transistors to be considered for maximum
efficiency. RF transistors are remarkably low-noise.
Preventions
4
 Proper calculation of transistor parameters can
help in reducing the transit-time noise. Transit-time in
transistors can be as low as 1 dB.
8. White Noise
Descriptions
White noise is a random signal having equal
intensity at different frequencies, giving it a constant
power spectral density. White noise refers to a statistical
model for signals and signal sources, rather than to any
specific signal.
Characteristics
White noise signal may be sequential in time, or
arranged along one or more spatial dimensions. In
digital image processing, the pixels of a white noise
image are typically arranged in a rectangular grid, and
are assumed to be independent random variables with
uniform probability distribution over some interval. The
concept can be defined also for signals spread over
more complicated domains, such as a sphere or a torus.
Effects in Communication System
White noise is a type of noise that can drown out the
main voices. White noise is a special type of sound
signal which is used to mask background sounds.
Applications
White noise is also used to obtain the impulse
response of an electrical circuit, in particular of
amplifiers and other audio equipment. It is not used for
testing loudspeakers as its spectrum contains too great
an amount of high frequency content. When used to
promote healthy sleep, white noise helps to drown out
sounds which might otherwise prevent you from either
falling asleep or waking up whilst asleep.
Preventions
White noise cannot be eliminated completely but it
can be reduced with the aid of software.
9. Impulse Noise
Descriptions
Impulse noise consists of sudden bursts of
irregularly shaped pulses that generally lasts between a
few microseconds and a fraction of a millisecond.
Characteristics
Impulse noise is characterized by high-amplitude
peaks of short duration in the total noise spectrum.
Effects in Communication System
The significance of impulse hits on communications
is often more annoying than inhibitive as impulse hits
produce a sharp, popping, or crackling sound. On data
circuits, however, impulse noise can be devastating.
Applications
Common sources of impulse noise include transients
produced from electromechanical switches (such as
relays and solenoids); electric motors, appliances, and
lights (especially fluorescent lights); power lines;
automotive ignition systems; poor-quality solder joints
and lightning.
5

Preventions
The best method to prevent such noise is to correct
poorly soldered joints and properly shield the wires.
10. Interference Noise
Descriptions
Interference is a form of external noise that means
“to disturb or detract from”. Electrical interference is
when information signals from one source produce
frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth
and interfere with information signals from another
source.
Characteristics
Most interference occurs when harmonics or cross-
product frequencies from one source fall into the
passband of a neighboring channel.
Effects in Communication System
If one person transmits on a CB radio and produces
a high-amplitude second harmonic component, it could
interfere with other people’s television reception.
Applications
An application of interference is active noise
control. It is based on the fact that the pressure
waveform generated by a primary source (such as an
engine) can be cancelled by the pressure waveform
emitted by a secondary source (loudspeakers) driven at
the same frequency as the primary source, but with a
phase shift of 180 degrees so that the acoustic pressures
cancel each other out. This technique has been applied
to reduce the annoying noise inside the cabin of
propeller aircraft. Similar effects can be achieved by
vibrating the fuselage of the aircraft.
Preventions
Interference can be prevented by transmitting in
different places, transmitting at different frequencies,
and transmitting at different times.
11. Harmonic Distortion
Descriptions
Harmonic is when unwanted harmonics of a signal
are produced through nonlinear amplification (mixing).
Characteristics
Harmonics are integer multiples of the original
input signal. The original signal is the first harmonic
and is called the fundamental frequency. Two times the
original signal frequency is the second harmonic, three
times is the third harmonic and so forth. Amplitude
distortion is another name for harmonic distortion.
Effects in Communication System
Harmonic distortion adds overtones that are whole
number multiples of a sound wave's frequencies.
Nonlinearities that give rise to amplitude distortion in
audio systems are most often measured in terms of the
harmonics (overtones) added to a pure sinewave fed to
the system.
Applications
6
 In some situations, however, distortion may be
desirable. For example, in FM broadcasting and noise
reduction systems like the Dolby system, an audio signal
is deliberately distorted in ways that emphasize aspects
of the signal that are subject to electrical noise, then is
symmetrically "undistorted" after passing through a
noisy communication channel, reducing the noise in the
signal. Distortion is also used as a musical effect,
particularly with electric guitars.
Preventions
Many symmetrical electronic circuits reduce the
magnitude of even harmonics generated by the non-
linearities of the amplifier's components, by combining
two signals from opposite halves of the circuit where
distortion components that are roughly the same
magnitude but out of phase. Examples include push-pull
amplifiers and long-tailed pairs.
12. Intermodulation Distortion
Descriptions
Intermodulation distortion is the generation of
unwanted sum and difference frequencies when two or
more signals are amplified in a non-linear device such
as a large-signal amplifier.
Characteristics
Intermodulation is caused by non-linear behavior of
the signal processing (physical equipment or even
algorithms) being used. The theoretical outcome of
these non-linearities can be calculated by generating a
Volterra series of the characteristic, while the usual
approximation of those non-linearities is obtained by
generating a Taylor series.
Effects in Communication System
Practically all audio equipment has some non-
linearity, so it will exhibit some amount of IMD, which
however may be low enough to be imperceptible by
humans. Due to the characteristics of the human
auditory system, the same percentage of IMD is
perceived as more bothersome when compared to the
same amount of harmonic distortion. Intermodulation is
also rarely desirable in radio, as it creates unwanted
spurious emissions, often in the form of sidebands. For
radio transmissions this increases the occupied
bandwidth, leading to adjacent channel interference,
which can reduce audio clarity or increase spectrum
usage.
Applications
IMD is only distinct from harmonic distortion in that
the stimulus signal is different. The same nonlinear
system will produce both THD (with a solitary sine wave
input) and IMD (with more complex tones). In music, for
instance, IMD is intentionally applied to electric guitars
using overdriven amplifiers or effects pedals to produce
new tones at subharmonics of the tones being played on
the instrument.
Preventions
Intermodulation can be prevented by moving or
shielding the wires.
13. Partition Noise
Descriptions
Partition noise is similar to shot noise in its
spectrum and mechanism of generation, but it occurs
only in devices where a single current separate into two
or more paths. Noise that arises in an electron tube
when the electron beam is divided between two or more
electrodes, as between screen grid and anode in a
pentode.
7
Characteristics In electronic devices, it shows up as a low-
frequency phenomenon, as the higher frequencies are
overshadowed by white noise from other sources. In
oscillators, however, the low-frequency noise can be
The amount of partition noise depends greatly on the mixed up to frequencies close to the carrier, which
characteristics of the particular device, so no equation results in oscillator phase noise. Flicker noise is often
will be given. characterized by the corner frequency fc between the
region dominated by the low-frequency flicker noise and
the higher-frequency "flat-band" noise.
Effects in Communication System

Effects in Communication System

Communication systems using a specific model of bjt
transistors can disrupt the signal if its specification does
not meet the required result. Excess noise is found in tubes but it is a more serious
problem in semiconductors and in carbon resistors.
Excess noise is rarely a problem in communication
circuits, because it declines with increasing frequency
Applications
and is usually insignificant above approximately 1
kilohertz.

The mode partition noise causes a serious problem

in mode selective systems such as the optical fiber
communication systems.
Applications

Excess noise is often used for testing and setting up

Preventions audio systems.

To prevent the mode partition noise, we need single-

mode Laser Diodes.
Preventions

A communication circuit with higher frequency will

14. Excess Noise lead to a smaller excess noise.

Descriptions 15. Burst Noise

Excess is also called flicker noise or 1/f noise Descriptions

(because noise power varies inversely with frequency).
Sometimes it is called pink noise because there is
proportionality more energy at the low-frequency end of
the spectrum than with white noise. Another type of low-frequency noise is observed in
bipolar transistors is known as burst noise. It appears
as a series of bursts at two or more levels (rather like
noisy pulsus).
Characteristics

Characteristics

8
 It consists of sudden step-like transitions between
two or more discrete voltage or current levels, as high
as several hundred microvolts, at random and
unpredictable times. Each shift in offset voltage or
current often lasts from several milliseconds to seconds,
and sounds like popcorn popping if hooked up to an
audio speaker.
Effects in Communication System
When present in an audio system, the noise produces
popping sounds, and for this reason is also known as
“popcorn” noise.
Applications
Popcorn noise was first observed in early point
contact diodes, then re-discovered during the
commercialization of one of the first semiconductor op-
amps; the 709. No single source of popcorn noise is
theorized to explain all occurrences, however the most
commonly invoked cause is the random trapping and
release of charge carriers at thin film interfaces or at
defect sites in bulk semiconductor crystal. In cases
where these charges have a significant impact on
transistor performance (such as under an MOS gate or
in a bipolar base region), the output signal can be
substantial. These defects can be caused by
manufacturing processes, such as heavy ion
implantation, or by unintentional side-effects such as
surface contamination.
Preventions
Individual op-amps can be screened for popcorn
noise with peak detector circuits, to minimize the
amount of noise in a specific application.
16. Avalanche Noise
Descriptions
Avalanche noise is a form of noise that occurs in pn
junctions that are operated in a region at or close to the
point of avalanche breakdown. Diodes that operate in
this region are renowned for generating large amounts
of avalanche noise.
Characteristics
Avalanche breakdown occurs in semiconductors
where a very high potential gradient exists. When this
occurs electrons rapidly gain momentum and may hit
the crystal lattice through which they travel with such
energy that they can dislodge other charge carriers
creating hole electron pairs. In turn these carriers are
accelerated and may similarly hit the lattice and
dislodge further carriers. This process can lead to an
avalanche of new carriers, and the breakdown of the pn-
junction. The way that breakdown occurs results in a
very uneven or ragged current flow. This means that
high levels of noise - avalanche noise are generated.
Effects in Communication System
These diodes are often used as noise generators for
a variety of applications. In other circuits, the
avalanche noise must be removed to prevent other
circuits being affected by it.
Applications
Avalanche diodes generate large quantities of radio
frequency noise. As a result, they are widely used noise
sources for RF measurements, e.g. for RF for antenna
analyzer bridges and also in other items such as random
number generators. In these applications either
avalanche diodes or even voltage regulator (Zener)
diodes may be used. When Zener diodes are used, the
diodes must have breakdown voltages above about 5.5
volts because diodes with voltages above this value
9
chiefly use avalanche breakdown, below this value
Zener breakdown is the chief mode.
Preventions
When using circuits that utilize diodes like voltage
reference diodes that may operate using avalanche
breakdown, it may be necessary to remove the
avalanche noise. The avalanche noise can be removed
using simple capacitor based filter or smoothing
networks. Any filters designed to remove the avalanche
noise should be designed so that their operation does
not affect the normal functioning of the circuit.
17. Bipolar Transistor Noise
Descriptions
Bipolar transistors exhibit all sources of noise
discussed previously, that is, thermal, shot, partition,
flicker, and burst noise. The thermal noise is generated
by the bulk or extrinsic resistances of the electrodes, but
the only significant component is that generated by the
extrinsic base resistance. It should be emphasized at this
point that the small-signal equivalent resistances for the
base-emitter and the base-collector junctions do not
generate small-signal equivalent circuit for the
transistor.
Characteristics
The bias currents in the transistors show shot noise
and partition noise, and, in addition, the flicker and
burst noise components are usually associated with the
base current.
Effects in Communication System
Poor design of communication circuits using BJTs
can lead to disruption of the communication since the
previous noises will also occur at different parts of the
circuit.
Applications
Bipolar transistor noise can be used to measure the
amount of noise that occurs within the circuit.
Especially since there are a variety of noises that occur
at different parts of the BJT transistor.
Preventions
One way to reduce the thermal noise level of the
base spreading resistance, rb, is the connection of
several (N) BJTs in parallel and to assure that the total
current of all transistors is the same as for one
transistor. By this way, the level of shot noise stays on
the same level and the thermal noise is reduced to rb/N.
18. Field-effect Transistor Noise
Descriptions
The field-effect transistors (both JFET’s and
MOSFET’s), the main source of noise is the thermal
noise generated by the physical resistance of the drain-
source channel. Flicker noise also originates in this
channel. Additionally, there will be shot noise
associated with the gate leakage current.
Characteristics
JFETs excel in the low-noise department, and a
JFET input op-amp is often the first choice for low noise
amplification. Noise only decreases up to a certain
current. The reason is that the noise from parasitic
source and gate resistances becomes significant. same
for all widths of transistors using the same technology
(and device length).
10

Effects in Communication System
It is relatively immune to radiation. It exhibits no
offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an
excellent signal chopper. It typically has better thermal
stability than a BJT.
Applications
Because base current noise will increase with
shaping time, a FET typically produces less noise than
a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), and is thus found in
noise sensitive electronics such as tuners and low-noise
amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. Field-effect
transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for
example in wireless communications and broadcast
receivers. They are also preferred in circuits and
systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in
general, used for high-power amplification, such as is
required in large wireless communications and
broadcast transmitters.
Preventions
To prevent the noise generated by field-effect
transistors the use of filters like in BJT is often the main
solution and finding the right field-effect transistor that
matches the communication system needs.
19. Generation-Recombination Noise
Descriptions
In semiconductor devices, some impurity centers
will be ionized on a random basis, being energized
thermally; thus a random generation of carriers occurs
in the device.
Characteristics
The carriers can recombine with ionized impurity
centers on random basis, either directly or through
trapping centers. The spectrum density of this type of
noise has not been fully established. Generation-
recombination noise in semiconductors in thermal
equilibrium is treated from the standpoint of thermal
fluctuations in equivalent electrical circuits. For the
general volume recombination model, a method based
on network reduction is presented which allows one to
calculate the spectral density of the electron and hole
fluctuations without solving for the spectra of the
fluctuations in occupancy of the recombination centers
and traps.
Effects in Communication System
This noise is still associated with the effect of
thermal, shot, bipolar junction and field effect transistor
noise, therefore, the noise effects that the previous has
on communication system can have the same effect in
generation recombination noise.
Applications
Generation-recombination noise is used in
modelling semiconductor devices for more low-noise
specifications.
Preventions
There is no accurate way to prevent such noise since
this noise occurs as a product of generation and
recombination of electrons. But it can be suppressed
with the use of filters.
20. Phonon Noise
Descriptions
11
 occasional energy deposition from particles incident on
a detector.
Phonon noise, also known as thermal fluctuation
noise, arises from the random exchange of energy
between a thermal mass and its surrounding
environment. This energy is quantized in the form of Preventions
phonons.

A prevention for thermal fluctuation noise can be

Characteristics slightly mitigated with the use of transition edge sensor
which typically maintains the temperature through
negative electrothermal feedback associated with
changes in internal electrical power.
A general equilibrium model for phonon noise is
usually impossible because different components of the
thermal circuit are nonuniform in temperature and also
often not time invariant, as in the occasional energy References
deposition from particles incident on a detector. The
transition edge sensor typically maintains the
temperature through negative electrothermal feedback
associated with changes in internal electrical power. [1] George Kennedy, Bernard Davis, Electronic
Communication Systems, McGraw Hill Education, Green
Park Extension, New Delhi, India, 2011

Effects in Communication System [2] John Dulin, Victory Veley, John Gilbert, Electronic
Communication, Tab Books, Blue Ridge Summit, 1991

[3] Dennis Roddy, John Coolen, Electronic Communications,

If a device has a temperature-dependent electrical
resistance, then these fluctuations in temperature lead
to fluctuations in resistance. Examples of devices where
phonon noise is important include bolometers and
calorimeters. The superconducting transition edge
sensor (TES), which can be operated either as a
bolometer or a calorimeter, is an example of a device
for which phonon noise can significantly contribute to
the total noise.
Simon & Schuster (Asia) Pte Ltd, Pasir Panjang Road,
Singapore, 1995
[4] Blake, Electronic Communication System, Thomson
Learning, Singapore, 2008
[5] Garry Miller, Modern Electronic Communication,
Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993
[6] Wayne Tomasi, Electronic Communication Systems
Fundamentals Through Advanced, Pearson India, New Delhi,
India 1988

Applications

Although Johnson–Nyquist noise shares many

similarities with phonon noise (e.g. the noise spectral
density depends on the temperature and is white at low
frequencies), these two noise sources are distinct.
Johnson-Nyquist noise arises from the random thermal
motion of electrons, whereas phonon noise arises from
the random exchange of phonons. Johnson-Nyquist
noise is easily modeled at thermal equilibrium, where
all components of the circuit are held at the same
temperature. A general equilibrium model for phonon
noise is usually impossible because different
components of the thermal circuit are nonuniform in
temperature and also often not time invariant, as in the

12