CMHCtlSCHL

Helping to house Canadians

BUILDERS' SERIES

Concrete
Foundations

• TH
5201
.C3
1988
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 Concrete
Foundations

The material for this publication was developed in consultation

with the Canadian Home Builders' Association for a series of
seminars held across the country.

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Cette publication est aussi disponible en fran9ais sous le titre

Les fondations de beton (LNH 5893)

Canada
 Introduction
Basement cracks and leaks are among the most common sources of
callbacks and warranty claims.

The cost of repairs to foundations exceeds the cost of good construction

practice.

This guide identifies causes and provides solutions to problems in founda-

tion walls, basement slabs and garage slabs. The recommended solutions
are for poured concrete construction, but the principles can also be applied
in general to concrete block construction.

Above all, remember, there is no substitute for good supervision.

iv
Problem Cracks and spalling from understrength or underdesigned concrete.

Cause Insufficient design strength.

Codes set minimum standards only Since construction practices and site
conditions may reduce concrete strengths, builders should consider up-
grading their design mix.

Solutions • Codes require a minimum compressive strength of 15 MPa (2200 psi) for
foundation walls and basement slabs. The Canadian Home Builders'
Association (CHBA) and the Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
recommend using 20 MPa (2900 psi) for greater strength and
watertightness {fig. 1).

20 MPa
(min 15 MPa) - ----+--+
5-8% air
entrainment
) .

. .

30 MPa
(min 25 MPa)
5-B% air
' (J entrainment

·;A ,·. t' ' • I . • ., · .•.. · ..

3-6% air
20 MPa entrainment
(min 15 MPa)

Fig. 1. Concrete strengths

• Codes require a minimum of 25 MPa (3600 psi) for garage slabs. Many
builders recommend 30 MPa (4400 psi) as the minimum for concrete
exposed to freeze-thaw cycles (fig. 1).
• For basement slabs, the Canadian Portland Cement Association recom-
mends using concrete with a higher cement content of 285 kg/m 3 . This
provides sufficient paste for durability and ease of finishing.
• Use air entrainment to improve durability and resistance to freeze-thaw
cycles. CSA requires 3-6 percent for footings and 5-8 percent for walls,
garage slabs and other exterior concrete (fig. 1).
• Specify a maximum slump of 100 mm (4") for slabs and 150 mm (6") for
walls to minimize bleeding and shrinkage.
• To improve quality, CHBA encourages the use of ready-mixed concrete
rather than on-site volume batching.

1
 Problem: Cracks and spalling from understrength or underdesigned concrete

Cause Inadequate dimensions.

Solutions • Concrete is relatively inexpensive. Skimping on thickness of walls and

width and depth of footings is unwise- or "penny-wise, pound-foolish."
Some builders use 275-300 mm (1 0-12") thick walls and 300 mm ( 12")
deep footings , especially where problem soils exist.
• Ensure sufficient thickness where slabs slope to a floor drain. Minimum
depth should be 75 mm (3") .
• For footings, ensure a minimum of 100 mm (4") on each side of the
foundation wall to prevent eccentric loading (fig. 2).

W/2

min 100 mm
(4")

key for
lateral
support

2W
>
Fig. 2. Footing dimension relationships

Cause Lack of reinforcement.

Solutions • Although not required by codes , the use of wall reinforcement is becom-
ing standard with good builders in areas where problem soils exist.
Typical reinforcement may include two 10 m bars near the top of the
fou ndation below the window opening, or one bar 300 mm (12") from the
top and one bar at grade level.
• Footing reinforcement helps counteract uneven bearing conditions.
• Mesh reinforcement for slabs must be placed at or slightly above mid-
depth to be effective. Mai ntain height with chairs or spacers.
• There is a growing use of fibreglass or polypropylene mesh. Manufacturers
claim that this can reduce crack widths and surface spalling. Fibres are
usually added to the mix at th e rate of one kilogram per cubic metre of
concrete. Check for a type that disperses well in the mix and has good
binding properties.

2
Problem Cracks and spalling from poor construction practices.

Cause Poor placement and finishing techniques.

Solutions • Dampen earth, and moisten or oil forms to prevent water being sucked
out of the concrete. Oil forms before erecting them to prevent puddling of
oil on top of the footing.
• Place concrete within two hours of batching.
• Use a puddling stick or vibrator to consolidate each lift, especially around
openings, corners and form ties.
• To prevent horizontal cold joints in walls, roughen the top of the previous
pour, and puddle or vibrate the next pour (fig. 3).
• To prevent cold joints in slabs, direct concrete into previously placed
concrete.

Vertical section

second
lift

++- - formwork

W/4

first
lift

key formed using shovel

or puddling stick

Fig. 3. Horizontal construction joint

• Minimize concrete drops to prevent the segregation of aggregate, which

causes loss of strength and watertightness. CSA prescribes a maximum
drop of 2.5 m (8'). CHBA recommends drops of no more than 1.5 m (5')
where reinforcing is used (fig.4).
• Use chutes or buckets to get concrete as close as possible to its final
destination. The use of pumped concrete is a good solution for tight or
awkward sites.
• Do not move concrete with a rake or vibrator - this also causes
segregation.
• Avoid overtrowelling . This removes entrained air and reduces durability.
• Do not finish concrete surfaces when bleed water is present. Remove
excess b leed water with burlap or a squeegee . Do not add dry cement.
3
 Problem: Cracks and spalling from poor construction practices

chutes or
0.5 m long
/buckets~
drop chute
for wall
higher
than 3m 6-7 m 3-4m
(10')

~ '· ..
... '·,
.. ....

maximum
/
concrete
free fall
2.5 m (8')

Fig . 4. Concrete drops

Cause Improper curing.

Concrete will reach its full design strength only if it is allowed to cure
properly in conditions that prevent the loss of original moisture (fig. 5).

>-
('(l .£:
'0 C»
c:
co 125%
(\J ~
(i)
0
<ft. c:
Ol
('(l 'iii 100
Q)
rJl
'0
~
..r:::. 75
C»
c:
~
U5 50
Q)
>
'iii
,I

rJl
Q) 25
Q_
E
0
u
0 3 7 28 90

Age of Concrete (in days)

Fig . 5. Effect of cu ring

4
 Problem: Cracks and spalling from poor construction practices

Solutions • CSA req uires concrete to be kept continuously moist or formwork left in
place for a minimum of 24 hours, but recommends that slabs be moist-
cured for three days and formwork for walls be left in place for two days
(fig. 6). This will also prevent dusting.

Fig. 6. Curing increases strength

• Use proper curing methods:

- fogging or sprinkling
- ponding or immersion
- burlap and other coverings (which must be kept wet)
- polyethylene sheets (may cause discolouration) or waterproof paper
- curing compounds (they need sunlight- do not use in basements or
garages)
• Some bui lders provide curing by dampproofing both exterior and interior
faces of walls immediately after stripping forms .

Cause Inadequate cold weather precautions- below 5°C (41 "F).

If concrete freezes before adequately curing, it suffers permanent loss of
strength and watertightness.

Solutions • Maintain concrete temperatures above 1ooc (50°F) during placement and
for three days after placement. For walls, leave forms in place for at least
two days to take advantage of the heat of hydration. For flatwork, cover
with coated insulation blan kets or with straw covered by tarpaulins or
polyethylene.
• Insulate concrete from rapid temperature changes.
• In Western Canada, builders often cast floor joists into foundation walls.
The basement can then be easily covered with tarps and heated.
• Use a mix with a low water content. Add a plasticiser if necessary.
• Specify high early strength concrete.
• Have supplier provide heated concrete by using hot water and dry
aggregates.
• If calcium chloride is used as an accelerator, limit it to 2 percent of the
weight of the cement. Note that an accelerator may increase shrinkage
cracks. Do not use calcium chloride in excavations to melt ice.
• If heaters are used indoors, ensure that sufficient ventilation is provided ;
heaters can produce large amounts of carbon dioxide which can cause
carbonation (dusting) of the concrete surface. Because carbon dioxide is
heavier than air, ventilation should draw from near floor level.

Cause Overwatering.
4 L (1 gal.) of water added to a cubic metre of concrete will decrease its
strength by more than 1 MPa (150 psi). 5
 Problem: Cracks and spalling from poor construction practices

r\
L/. ecreases: strength
durability

1ncreases: shrinkage
cracking

Fig. 7. Effects of overwatering

Solutions • Never add water on site during placement or finshing. "Giving the con-
crete a drink" changes the water-cement ratio, which reduces strength,
increased cracks from shrinkage, ar:1d decreases durability and
watertightness (fig. 7).
• Use pumped concrete if workability is expected to be a.problem , or have
the supplier increase the slump by changing the proportions of aggre-
gates or by adding a super-plasticizer. Air entrained concrete will also be
easier to finish.
• Pour basements from a number of entry points to avoid having to "flow"
soupy concrete around forms .
• Shovel or pump out wet sites to prevent standing water and mud from
mixing with poured concrete.

Note: The combined effects of improper curing and overwatering can result
in very weak concrete. For example, if you start with a minimum strength
design mix of 15 MPa (2200 psi), add 18 L (4 gals.) of water per cubic metre
on site, pour in the afternoon and strip the forms the following morning, the
result could be as low as 5 MPa (700 psi) at 28 days.

Cause Inadequate hot weather precautions - above 3o·c (86.F).

Solutions • Dampen the subgrade and formwork before placing .
• Have the supplier reduce the concrete temperature or add set-retarder to
the mix. Fly ash will also slow the setting process.
• Avoid delays in transport and placement.
• Place concrete during the early morning or in the evening .
• Protect fresh concrete from rapid drying, direct sun , and winds. Erect
sunshades and windbreaks. Cover with white polyethylene between
fin ishing operations. Apply tog spray immediately after placement and
before finishing.
• Finish slabs as soon as the concrete can support the weight of a person,
and when bleed water has disappeared.
• Begin curing immediately after trowel ling.
• Suppliers can calculate the correct amount of water to be added during
mixing by using graphs to determine the rate of water loss , based on
temperature , relative humidity, wind speed and concrete temperature .
6
Problem Shrinkage cracks.

Cause Normal drying shrinkage.

All cast-in-place concrete walls and slabs will crack, typically after approxi-
mately 40 days, when shrinkage stress exceeds the concrete tensile
strength. Shrinkage is caused when excess water evaporates from the
concrete and the particles of cement and aggregate are drawn closer
together.

Solutions • Minimize shrinkage by:

- using a mix with a low water content ;
- avoiding high concrete temperatures (since hot concrete requires more
water to be added for workability);
- adding air entrainment to reduce water requirements:
- using maximum allowable aggregate size;
- curing properly; and
- preventing rapid drying.
• Some builders add fly ash to slow the setting time and reduce shrinkage
• Use control joints to prevent random cracking and leakage. CHBA claims
that this will reduce founda,tion callbacks by 90 percent.
• Walls: CSA recommends vertical control joints every 5 m (17'), 3m (10')
from corners, and at window openings (fig. B). Put them at the weakest
points in the wal l.

grade
line

protect caulking
from backfill with
asphalt strip
fill with
caulking
compound on a bond
breaker

Fig. 8. Foundation control joint

• Control joints, to be effective, must reduce the wall thickness by 25%.

Bevelled wood strips can be attached to the sides of formwork. Alterna-
tively, joints can be sawcut immediately after forms are removed (fig. 9).
• Seal the joints at the exterior with gun-g rade, oil-based cau lking on a
bond breaker (fig. 10). Protect caulking from backfill with asphalt paper,
heavy polyethylene, or rigid insulation up to grade.
• Slabs: tool in control joints at time of fini shing. Sawcut 6-16 hours after
placement, or place vertical boards or plastic Vs just below the eventual
surface elevation. Space at 4.5-6 m {15-20') for basements, 3.5-4 .5 m
( 12-15') for garages. The depth of the joints should be a quarter of the
slab's thickness. 7
 Problem: Shrinkage cracks

Note that slab reinforcement will not prevent shrinkage cracks, but will
merely limit crack widths, according to the Canadian Portland Cement
Association.

W/8

W/8 outside face W/4

wood strips
installed
in formwork
Plan view

Fig . 9. Vertical control joint detail

sealant in concrete
control joint foundation wall

crack closed

.., : ·~·.
.
<
{)
() . .) ..

~
-~
.. co·:·
. .
,. . ..
·.
crack opened - no bond breaker

o'9·.
..• ... .. ••
· .....
o·

crack opened - with bond breaker

8 Fig. 10. Effect of a bond breaker

Problem Deterioration from salt attack.
Compare garage slabs and residential driveways to adjacent municipal
sidewalks after several years of exposure to de-icing salts. The difference is
in the quality of the concrete and the placement techniques used in com-
mercial work.

Cause Weak, permeable concrete.

Solutions • Strive for dense high-quality concrete. Use 30 MPa higher-strength

design mix with air entrainment. Add no water on site and allow to cure
properly.
• Do not overtrowel, especially with a steel trowel. This removes entrained
air and increases the water-cement ratio at the surface, reducing dura-
bility. Use a wood float and a broomed finish.
• Do not use calcium chloride as an accelerator in cold weather when
reinforcing steel is used.
• Following initial curing , allow at least 30 days of air drying before expos-
ing garage slabs and driveways to de-icing salts.
• Seal control joints and saw cuts in garage slabs to ~revent salt penetra-
tion and deterioration from freeze-thaw cycles .
• Slabs can be protected by the application of boiled linseed oil with
turpentine or kersosene, but this needs to be reapplied yearly . More
durable commercial sealers may last for five to ten years, but are more
expensive. Avoid silicone-based and other non-breathable sealers.

9
 Problem Cracks in foundation and superstructure from settlement and movement.

Cause Settlement from inadequate bearing.

Solutions • If the subgrade is disturbed, provide granular fill and consolidate. Money
saved by substituting debris is not worth the problems that may occur
later. Some builders fill low areas with concrete to avoid any differential
settlement.
• Wet subgrade may cause excessive settlement later.
• Never pour over frozen soil. Cover and protect the subgrade prior to
the pour. In cold weather, pour as soon as possible after excavation .
• Where settlement may occur over sewer lines, compact backfill or use
concrete fill. Short lengths of rebar may be necessary. Do not run
services under foundation corners (fig. 11).

'f>
.. I

. ·., . :.'

potential
settlement
Vertical section

Fig. 11 . Settlement over underground services

• For stepped footings, CHBA recommends that vertical steps should not
exceed three quarters of the horizontal step. Provide generous haunches
to prevent shear failure at weak points (fig. 12).

ground level

not more
than 3/4
,__ _ _ _ of horizontal
max 600 mm
(24")

•
min 600 mm (24")
Vertical section

Fig. 12. Stepped footings

10
Problem: Cracks in foundation and superstructure from settlement and movement

Cause General building movement and differential settlement.

Solutions • Provide an isolation joint or bond breaker at the intersection of d ifferent

elements. Separate the slab from the wall with premoulded joint fil ler.
Separate the slab from the footing with 25 mm (1") sand, joint filler or
polystyrene . Separate the slab from columns (fig. 13).

wal l isolation joint column isolation joint

building paper or
premoulded

L joint material
---.--,o.~

sand or premoulded
joint material

Vertical section

Fig . 13. Isolation joints

• If possible, have all footings at the same elevation.
• CHBA recommends excavating to a minimum depth of 1 m (40") under
the garage. If this is not done, the backfilled perimeter will settle more
than the unexcavated mound in the centre, causing the slab to crack
(fig. 14).

potential
crack
greater
settlement
j
t
......

unexcavated mound

11
Fig. 14. Garage slab cracking
 Problem: Cracks in foundation and superstructure from settlement and movement

• Use grade beams and piles for garage support to avoid garage deflec-
tions. Provide void forms and good drainage around the garage. Isolate
the slab from grade beams and allow it to float.

Cause Problem soil conditions.

Foundation problems can include cracking of walls and ceilings, distorted
door and window frames, and porch deflections.

Solutions • Be willing to modify designs and specifications to suit specific sites. Have
soil tests done if you th ink there may be proble111S.
• Avoid rock faults, abandoned river channels, steep hills , outside bends of
rivers, and high water tables.
• Peat and organic soils will settle as water is squeezed out. Use flexible
service connections.
Alternatives:
- end bearing or deep friction piles
- raft foundations
wide reinforced footings (fig. 15)
- replacement of shallow peat deposits with granular fill

extra width

-·-·-·-·- ·-·-·-·-
• • •
re inforcement at
300-500 mm (1-2')

Fig. 15. Peat footing

• Normally consolidated clays (Windsor, Lake St. Clair, parts of Northern

Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec): use piles to prevent long-term settle-
ment.
• Swell ing clays (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) shrink and expand
as they absorb water or dry out.
Foundation alternatives:
- piles to support walls and teleposts
- reinforced walls that act as grade beams , with piles under corners and
teleposts (fig. 16)
- rigid foundation system, consisting of reinforced walls and hollow-core
floor, designed to withstand differential settlement and twisting
12 - substitution of a suspended wooden floor for the basement slab to avoid
problems with uplift pressures on the basement floor
Problem: Cracks in foundation and superstructure from settlement and movement

- backfilling with a mixture of sand and bentonik (usually 20 percent by

weight) to reduce soil pressures on basement walls and to prevent
extreme fluctuation in the water content of the soil at the base of the
foundations
- saturation of subgrade prior to pour to prevent uplift pressures on slabs
- prevention of changes in the water content of the soil by keeping trees
away from the house
• Sensitive clays (St. Lawrence lowlands) lose strength easily: do not
d isturb the subgrade below the footings or allow to become wet or frozen.
The weight of the building should not exceed undisturbed soil (weight of
excavated material). See fig. 17.
• Alkaline soil: use sulphate-resistant cement.
• Landfill sites: extend footings or piles down to undisturbed soil. ~void
bui lding near former garbage dumps because of the danger of methane
gas leaking into basements.

rei nforced foundation walls act

as grade beams ~~~......
piles under
teleposts

II

,.
II

II
II
II
II

"II
II

piles under _ _ __ grade

corners II
,,
II

Fig. 16. Reinforced foundation for clay soils

weight of
building

~
weight of
[
\:
excavated soil

7 - J

Fig. 17. Building on sensitive clays

13
 Problem: Cracks in foundation and superstructure from settlement and movement

Cause Frost heaving.

Two mechanisms are at work here. The first is adfreezing, the freezing of soil
to foundation walls and piles. The second is general upward movement
caused by the formation of ice lenses in the soil. Recent studies have ~.
indicated that adfreezing occurs only with unheated structures such as
garages and porches. and does not affect heated walls. Note: Internally
insulated block walls can occasionally behave like unheated structures
because of convection currents in the wall cavities.

Solutions • Footings must bear below the frost line - a potential problem for walkout
basements (fig. 18).

....
..........
walk-out potential
basement problems

extend all footings 1 ·-•,

below frost line - - --+L-- _,

Fig. 18. Footing depth

• Use well-drained granular backfill to the depth of frost penetration.

• Keep frost-susceptible soils, clays, and silty sands away from foundation
walls.
• Use a capillary break such as exterior fibrous insu lation to drain water
from walls (fig. 19). There are also new products that can be applied to
exterior basement walls, such as dimpled or corrugated plastic drainage
cores covered with a filter fabric (geotextile) .

14
Problem: Cracks in foundation and superstructure from settlement and movement

r---.~-.--- found.ation
6" wall -
6 - ,

(>
' &.
{)

• p

- 0

~
.

/
J
' ; .. tJ
.. :

~ exterior fibrous
insulation drains
water away from wall
Fig. 19. Capillary break

• Repair honeycombed concrete to prevent interlocking of backfill and wall.

• Western builders erect garages on grade beams and piles to minimize
the area over which adfreezing can occur.
• Use a void form below grade beams.
• Garages and other unheated structures can also be protected with
horizontal perimeter insulation and with insu lation below the slab.
• Separate the garage and house foundations with isolation joints (rigid
insulation , fo r example) to allow movement to take place.

15
 Problem Cracks arising from excessive pressures on foundation wall.
I
:'
Cause Improper backfilling procedures.
Early backfilling against "green" concrete exerts great pressures on founda-
tion walls and is one of the major causes of cracking.

Solutions • Delay backfilling until concrete has reached specified strength (approxi-
mately two-thirds of strength at seven days). Use high early-strength
concrete if necessary.
• Backfill diagonally to distribute soil pressures. Start at the corners, then fill .
in the sides (fig. 20).
• Avoid driving heavy equipment parallel to or at right angles to the walls
(fig. 21).
• Avoid drops in narrow sideyards .
• Prevent local pressure concentrations by avoiding backfill material larger
than 150 mm (6") (fig. 22).
• Place backfill in thin layers and tamp lightly.

45°Y

Fig. 20. Backfill diagonally

16
 ~-
-
--~-- --- .. .....-:: . .,.......,. .... ~ .. ,\ . -- -

Problem: Cracks arising from excessive pressure on foundation wall

I,
but rather
th iS

position of concrete truck

when pouring basement slab

Fig. 21. Heavy equipment

I
boulder or frozen soil
) causing p ressure concentration

Fig. 22. Pressure concentration

17
 Problem: Cracks arising from excessive pressure on foundation wall

Cause Lack of lateral support.

Solutions • Do not backfill until walls have adequate lateral support (fig. 23), such as:
- diagonal bracing,
- floor joists cast into top of wall, or
- floor joists attached to sil l plate fixed to top of concrete with anchor bolts.
• Provide a key in the footing (use a bevelled 2 x 4 after pouring) .

I floor
joists

i....__ _

diagonal floor joists floor joists

bracing attached to cast into top
sill plate of wall

Fig. 23. Lateral support

18
Problem Leakage and moisture.

Cause Inadequate site drainage.

Solutions • The commonly specified 2 percent slope away from walls may not be
adequate, because of natural settlement. CHBA recommends a
10 percent slope for first 2m (8"in 6'6"). It may be necessary to return at
the end of the first year to regrade (fig. 24).

downspout

splash block

less porous
cap

well-drained
backfill

Fig. 24. Site drainage

• Don't leave the installation of eavestroughing to the owner.

• Make sure that rainwater leaders direct water away from walls. Provide
splashblocks to prevent erosion and ponding.
• On a sloping site, place the building at an angle to the slope to prevent
the house from acting as a dam to natural runoff- or grade from the
centre out to the corners of the house (fig. 25). Provide a swale.
• Some builders pour footings an9 slabs over a bed of crushed rock and
slope the excavation to a sump pit.

19
 Problem: Leakage and moisture

)J~\
direction of
runott

grade to
corners

OR
B
Plan view

Fig. 25. Sloping sites

Cause Improperly instal led weeping tile.

Solutions • Leave 35-50 mm (1 1/2-2") clearance between the tile an d the footing to
reduce clogging in the "V" formed at this junction and to provide more
drain surface.
• Set tile at the bottom of footing on undisturbed soil or on compacted
granular fill. The tile bed must be level.
• The highest point of the tile should still be below the und erside of the slab
or the floor of the crawlspace.
• Cover the tile with at least 150 mm (6") of granular material. To prevent
fines from accumulating, use a filter fabric or glass fibre batt to cover the
granular material or the tile itself (fig. 26).

crushed stone
I or gravel
highest tile location
below underside of slab
or floor of crawlspace I

- -- - - -
0~
Oo ____ c

~~{
150 mm 50mm
(6") (2")

Fig. 26. Weeping-tile detail

20
 Problem: Leakage and moisture

• Direct drains from window wells away from the wall-footing junction .
Provide a "french drain" or a gravel-filled vertical weeper or a strip of
fibrous insulation (fig. 27)
• Sump pits should be at least 300 mm ( 12") below the level of the floor
slab to drai n the perimeter tile adequately.
• Install an additional line of weeping tile under the middle of the slab to
rel ieve some of the build-up of hydrostatic pressure .
• Use a "haligonian drain" which is a trough around the inside perimeter of
the foundation wall and beh ind the finished wall. It collects water that
leaks through the foundation and drains it to a sump.

window
well
200mm
(8") min

Fig. 27. Window-well drainage

Cause Inadequate dampproofing and waterproofing.

Solutions • Remove scale from the walls before dampproofing. Otherwise, the scale
and dampproofing may be scraped off during backfilling. Brush walls to
remove dirt, dust and oil.
• Walls: CHBA recommends two coats of dampproofing sprayed or rolled
on at right angles. Carry the dampproofing over the top of the footing.
The final coat should be firm before backfilling is done. For superior
protection, investigate the use of new dampproofing products such as
fiberglass-reinforced towel-on membranes.

21
 Problem: Leakage and moisture

• Slabs: provide a moisture barrier such as 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene

under the slab. Carrying moisture barriers across footings prevents future
wicking action but may not provide sufficient bond between the wall and
the footing . Although Fig. 28 shows the common practice of placing the
concrete slab directly on the polyethylene, better practice is to separate
the concrete and the polyethylene with a 50 mm (2") layer of sand. This
makes finishing the slab easier by reducing excessive bleed water, and
also protects the polyethylene from damage.
• Don't confuse asphalt dampproofing with true waterproofing. Where
hydrostatic pressure may occur, or where damp basements are common,
investigate waterproofing methods; for example, bitumen-saturated
membranes, liquid-applied membranes, or urethane or clay-based
products. The best approach is to drain the site to eliminate
hydrostatic pressure.

2 coats
damp proofing
carried over
footing

moisture
barrier

sand

Fig. 28. Dampproofing

Cause Form tie holes and poor repair work.

I
Solutions • Patch form tie holes before dampproofing. Dampproofing itself will not
seal holes. Use rapid-set concrete, stiff Portland cement mortar, or mastic
("bung"). Note that mastic will not stick to green concrete
• Make sure that patches are flush with the surface to prevent them from
being scraped off during backfilling (fig.29).
• Use a relatively dry sand-cement mix with zero slump or an expanding
concrete for repairs. Cut back tie holes and edges of repairs 15 mm
(5/8").
• Prevent voids below form ties with good placement and consolidation.

22
 Problem: Leakage and moisture

form tie
cut back
...
~·
•••
(yJ •. • • A. '·
",\..). • I
'
.. ./:
patch flush ___________..
with surface
·.").

;~'-1'
_;, .d • .
z:
··.~.od a ~o·
.·
. 0 •
, - <)'0 .'

15 mm
Vertical section (5/8")

Fig . 29. Form-tie patching

Cause Condensation on interior face of foundation wall.

Studies have indicated that basement condensation is almost inevitable in
the spring and early summer when warm moist air from outside meets walls
and slabs that are still cold from the previous winter. This problem can be
more acute during the first year after construction, since the concrete may
still be saturated and therefore has no capacity to absorb additional moisture
from condensation.

Solutions • Use external insulation to keep the wall surface warm.

• If internal insulation is used, install continuous air and vapour barriers to
ensure that there is no air circulation behind the insulation.
• Advise the homeowner about the need to dehumidify the basement in
summer. Ventilating the basement should be avoided until midsummer.
• Delay finishing the basement walls for one year to allow the concrete to
dry fully.
• If foundations are poured in the winter, ensure that the concrete does
not freeze and is properly cured. See "lnadaquate cold weather
precautions," page 5.
• If dampproofing is required on the interior face of the foundation wall,
avoid dampprooging material such as polyethylene, which will also act as
a second vapour barrier.

23
 Problem Entry of radon and soil gases into basements.
Recent concern has been focused on the health effects of "soil gases. " In
addition to containing radon, which can cause lung cancer, any air drawn
into the house from below grade may also contain moulds, methane, lawn
chemicals and excessive moisture.

Cracks and openings in foundation walls and slabs.

Cause
• Follow the good concreting practices outlined in this booklet to produce a
Solutions
crack-free airtight basement.
• Provide 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene, with all joints lapped and caulked ,
below the slab. The polyethylene can be carried up around the slab
edges and sealed to the walls .
• Install gas traps or self-priming traps at floor drains.
• Seal sump covers.
• Seal all penetrations for underground services, form ties and teleposts.
• Seal the gap at the floor-wall intersection.
• Provide a layer of crushed stone or coarse gravel below the slab for a
future sub-slab ventilation system to extract radon.
Refer to Radon Control in New Houses (NHA 6067) for more information.

24
 Slab-on-Grade
Construction
The use of slab-on-grade construction is not common practice in Canada
since the depth of frost penetration in most areas- and thus the required
depth of footings- warrants the construction of a basement. However, in
situations where a basement is undesirable- a senior citizens' residence
or a home for the physically disabled, for example- structural slab-on-
grade construction can be economical. Structural slabs can also be used
when unstable problem soils are encountered.
The usual method of constructing a structural slab-on-grade is to use a
"thickened" slab. At the edges of the slab, where most of the load will be
carried, the slab is thickened , the th ickened portion being cast integrally
with the rest of the slab. Slabs-on-grade can also be constructed as non-
structural or "floating" slabs with exterior walls supported on grade beams
and piles, which are common in western Canada, or on shallow foundation
walls, which are common in Scandinavian countries.

Problem Cracking of the slab.

Cause Poor construction techniques and practices.

Poor construction techniques and practices include poor placement and
finishing techniques, improper curing, overwatering, and inadequate cold
weather and hot weather protection.

Solution • Follow good construction practices as outlined in the earlier sections of

this booklet:
- Dampen earth before placing concrete to prevent water from being
sucked out of the concrete.
- Place concrete into previously placed concrete to avoid cold joints.
- Avoid overtrowelling.
- Do not finish concrete surfaces when bleed water is present.
- Keep concrete continuously moist for a minimum of 24 hours.
- Never add water on site during placement or finishing.
- Maintain concrete temperature above 10°C (50°F) during placement and
for three days after placement.
- In hot, dry weather protect fresh concrete from rapid drying, direct sun
and wind.

Cause Differential or uneven settlement.

Differential or uneven settlement is caused by variations in the subgrade.
When loaded, the slab will tend to bridge over soft spots (such as
underground utilities where the soil has not been sufficiently compacted)
and to rest on hard spots (such as rocks or denser soil). This can cause
cracking (fig. 30).

I • '

25
 Problem: Cracking of the slab

·rock or soft spot

over
hard spot
utility
(a) trench

( b}

Fig. 30. Uneven settlement

Solution • Ensure that the subgrade is uniform.

Take care to excavate and backfill properly to prevent localized hard or
soft spots in the subgrade. Make sure that soil is properly compacted
over underground utilities. If possible, do not allow underground utilities
to pass under the corner of a slab.
For further information on subgrade preparation, see the appendix.

Cause Curling of the slab.

As new concrete dries, it shrinks or shortens in all directions. In the case of
concrete slabs on grade, the top surface dries and shrinks much faster than
the bottom surface so that the slab tends to curl or dish. The tensile stresses
created in the top of the slab and loads on the unsupported corners can
cause the concrete to crack (fig. 31). Most slabs curl so little that the effect
is not noticeable. Nevertheless, curling can cause bumps and spa/ling at
the joints and joint deterioration, as well as cracking of the slab.

Solutions • Minimize shrinkage of the concrete.

• Minimize curling by avoiding shrinkage. This can be accomplished in
several ways:
- Use the stiffest mix (lowest slump) possible that can still be worked and
consolidated satisfactorily.
- Use the largest maximum size aggregate that is practical so that less
water is required.
- Cure the concrete as long as possible- moist curing for seven days is
recommended.
- Reduce moisture loss from the surface by using coatings, sealers and
waxes immediately after finishing.
- When polyethylene dampproofing is used under the slab, place a layer of
sand at least 50 mm (2") thick over the poly to allow some moisture loss
at the bottom of the slab.

26
 Problem: Cracking of the slab

Ensure that there are sufficient control joints spaced no more than
3.75 m (12'6") for 125 mm (5") slabs, and 6.0 m (20') for 200 mm (8")
slabs. Control joints should be at least one quarter the depth of the slab.
They can be sawcut, tooled-in, or formed with vertical boards or plastic
Vs (fig. 32)
Use thicker slab - thinner slabs tend to curl more.

culled slab ~ / contmltoint

r;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
> > , , , , , , , , , , ) ; ;),
>; >) 5 ' ) '
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
> > >·, > , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,, ,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,, , ,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

(a)

cracked slab ~ ! deterioration at

control joints

~)
,,,,,
.,,,' , , , ,,,,,,,,,,, ,···, ; ; ; ' ; :;Jf;; > ) , , ;
, , , ' } } > > > ; ' ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,, , , , , , , , , , , ,. , , ,
~ ~

(b)

Fig. 31. Slab cu rling

ellQ

Fig. 32. Slab control joint

27
 Problem: Cracking of the slab

Cause Inadequate structural strength of slab.

Cracking occurs if the structural strength of the slab is inadequate to sup-
port the applied loads.

Solutions • Ensure that the slab is properly designed.

Section 9.16 of the 1985 National Building Code (NBC) deals with slabs-
on-ground, but structural slabs must be designed in conformance with
Part 4 of the NBC, Structural Design. Further, Part 4 stipulates that the
designer must be a professional engineer or architect as appropriate
under provincial or territorial legislation. Therefore , any builder deciding
to construct a structural slab-on-grade must contact the appropriate
p rofessional.
• Use concrete with sufficient compressive strength .
A minimum of 25 MPa (3600 psi) concrete should be used. CMHC
recommends 30 MPa (4400 psi) concrete.

Cause Frost heave.

Solutions • Never pour concrete on a frozen subgrade. A frozen subgrade is un-

stable and may settle unevenly, causing the concrete to crack.
• Maintain above-freezing temperatures in the house during construction.
Heaving may occur when fine-grained soil (such as clay or silt) that is
saturated freezes after placement of the concrete. It is important to
maintain above-freezing temperatures in the house during construction
to help prevent freezing of the soil and to provide drainage for the soil
beneath the slab so that it has an opportunity to dry out.
• Use coarse granular material below the slab that will not promote the
growth of ice lenses.
• Use adequate insulation. In most cases in Canada, insulation can be
used to reduce the depth of the frost line so that shallow construction can
be used.
Figure 33 shows the typical pattern of isotherms in the soil around an
uninsulated slab. Isotherms are lines of equal temperature. As can be
seen, freezing temperatues in the soil can reach below the footing level
and cause frost heaving. Through the use of the appropriate amounts of
insulation, as illustrated in figure 34, the depth of frost penetration can be
reduced so that frost heaving is unlikely. Heat loss to the cold exterior air
is minimized and the heat generated by the earth is retained.(This same
principle is used in insulating below highways to prevent frost heave.)
Figures 33 and 34 represent typical isotherms. The actual depth of frost
penetration depends on many factors, including variations in the outside
air temperature, the inside temperature, soil type, soil moisture content,
the location of the ground water table, the height of the slab above grade
and the type of ground surface cover. Many of these conditions are site-
dependent, which means that the amount of insulation required will vary
from site to site. Table 1 suggests approximate amounts for most urban
locations in Canada. However, an engineer should be retained to ensure
that the amount of insulation used is sufficient to prevent frost from
reaching the bottom of the footing, thus preventing frost heaving.

28
 Problem: Cracking of the slab

+20' C

·4
¢,...
.·· '1.::,

+2' C

Fig . 33. Typical isotherms around an uninsulated slab

-2' C o·c +2'C +4' C

Fig. 34. Typical isotherms around an insulated slab

29
 p,oblem: c,acking of the slab

Table 1. Suggested Horizontal Pe,imeter Insulation to' Shallow Foundations.

Climate Walls Corners

Mild winters 50 mm (2") extending 50 mm (2") extending

(coastal B.C., outward 250 mm ( 10") outward 500 mm (20") for
Southern Ontario) 1.0 m (40")

Moderate winters 50 mm (2") extending 75 mm (3") extending

(Ontario, Quebec, outward 500 mm (20") outward 750 mm (30") for
Atlantic Provinces) 1.5 m (60")

Severe winters 50 mm (2") -extending 75 mm (3") extending

(Prairies) outward 750 mm (30") outward 1.0 m (40") for
1.5 m (60")

N ote: Based on thermal resistance values of expanded polystyrene.

In addition to placing vertical insulation on the exterior of the foundation wall,

grade beam or thickened slab edge, install insulation to extend horizontally
from the foundation perimeter, forming an insu lation skirt, to reduce the
depth of frost penetration (fig.35). This use of insulation became possible
with the introduction of moisture-resistant p lastic foam insulations, like
closed-cell or expanded polystryene. The thickness of this horizontal insula-
tion at the corners of the building should be increased by 50 percent over
the amount used around the rest of the building, and should extend 250 mm
(10") further horizontally for a distance approximately double the width of the
insulation skirt. These measures are required to counteract the greatest rate
of heat loss at corners (fig. 36). This exterior insulation skirt should be
slightly sloped to drain water away from the slab. A cover of 200 to 300 mm
(8 to 12") shoul d be provided over the insulation.

30
 ,,,
Problem: Cracking of the slab
I

I
sand

damp proofing

granular layer
horizontal insulation
skirt (sloped) A~ shallow foundation
"#"
"'l
~~------ wall or grade beam

perimeter~
drainage
or

tile

Fig. 35. Frost-protected shallow foundation

horizontal insulation skirt

I \ I

..._ r-
foundation wall, grade
beam or slab edge

1-

I
I
r- LL
wider insulation
I I ...- l---- skirt at corners

Fig. 36. Perimeter insulation skirt

31
 Problem: Cracking of the slab

In basement construction insulation is sometimes placed under the floor

slab to prevent heat loss ~nd reduce energy costs. This practice is not
recommended for slab-on-grade construction. The heat loss from the slab
into the soil helps keep the soil warm, reducing the depth of frost penetra-
tion. If this heat loss is reduced, the builder runs the risk of frost heave.
Similarly, placing insulation above the floor slab is not recommended.
Heaving failures can also occur in an unheated bu ilding that was designed
to be heated ; it is important, therefore, to maintain the interior temperature in
the building.

Fig. 37. Reinforcement

Cause Improper placement of reinforcing and mesh.

Solution • Use proper installation techniques.

Because the loads imposed by residential house construction are small,
wire mesh is usually not required unless the slab is structural. When
mesh is used, its purpose is to control the width of shrinkage cracks .
Since the cracks will usually be wider at the top than the bottom, the
mesh should be supported at no more than 50 mm (2") below the
su rface of the slab. Mesh should be lapped at least one square.
The worst way to install wire mesh is to hook it while it is on the ground
and pull it up from the surface as the concrete is placed . If this method is
used, the mesh can bring earth up into the concrete as it is pulled into
place. At the same time, the mesh is seldom pulled to the correct height,
and may also be forced downward because of the foot traffic (the con-
crete finishers).
A good method of placing the mesh is to use concrete, steel, or plastic
chairs to raise the mesh to the correct height. Do not use broken brick-
it has a high water absorption rate and can cause cracking.
Another method of placing the mesh is to lay most of the slab thickness,
screed it off, place the mesh, then place the remaining two inches of con-
crete . This method is more costly.
When reinforcing steel is used , the min imum concrete cover should be
75 mm (3") (fig. 37). The steel should be lapped at least 24 bar diame-
ters, but not less than 300 mm (12"), wired together, and supported on
chairs.
32
Problem Damp or wet floor slab, excessive humidity.

Cause Moisture migration through the slab.

If a porous material such as concrete is placed in contact with water, some
of this water will rise up into the pores of the concrete, like water soaking
into a sponge. This is called capillary action. The soil itself generally has a
higher vapour pressure than the air in the house, and therefore, water
vapour is continually diffusing through the concrete floor slab. It is possible
to determine whether there is moisture migration through the slab by taping
polyethylene over it and seeing whether water vapour condenses on the
back of the poly. A saturated slab can cause excessive humidity in the
house.

Solutions • Provide a capillary break by placing a layer of crushed stone or coarse

gravel below the floor slab (fig. 38).
• Follow good concreting practices to obtain a dense non-porous slab that
will resist capillary action.

sump
200 mm min slab-on-grade

j_f----
~--=-·- - - + -

dampproof edge
of slab layer of sand

well-compacted
granular layer

perimeter dampproofing
drainage tile

Note: Insulation not shown

Fig. 38 Dampproofing and capillary break

Cause Water vapour diffusion through the slab.

Solution • Dampproof the slab.

Apply dampproofing to the top of the slab, where a separate finished
floor is provided , or install under the slab.
When dampproofing over the slab, cover the concrete floor surface with
at least two mopped-on coats of bitumen, 0.05 mm (2 mil) polyethylene
(or other material providing similar performance to prevent or reduce the
amount of moisture entering the house - many new products are being
sold for this purpose). Lay a separate finished floor over the dampproof-
ing.
When installed below the slab, the dampproofing should consist of at
least 0.15 mm (6 mi l) polyethylene. Lap the dampproofing not less than
100 mm (4") at the joints. Place a layer of sand over the granular fill to
prevent puncturing of the dampproofing .
33
 Problem: Damp or wet floor slab, excessive humidity

• Dampproof the exterior edge of the floor slab as well, to prevent moisture
from entering through the side of the slab (fig. 38).
• Another method of dampproofing is to pour the floor in two layers, placing
a dampproofing layer between the two. This method is more expensive
and is rarely used.
• Provide good site drainage:
- Slope the subgrade away from the house when grading and preparing
the subgrade.
- Slope all surface grades away from the house.
- Drain downspouts away from the side of the side of the house and
provide a splashblock.
- Provide permieter drainage tile.

For further information on moisture problems, see CMHC's Moisture

Problems (NHA 6010).

Cause Air leakage through the slab .

Air will often infiltrate through any openings or cracks in the floor slab. As the
air flows through the moist soil to reach these cracks, it often becomes
saturated. In addition, radon and other undesirable soil gases can be
carried into the house.

Solution • Eliminate cracks and holes in the slab, as follows:

- Seal all pipes, drains and ducts that penetrate the concrete floor.
- Follow good construction practices and techniques to prevent cracking
of the slab.
- Ensure that air is not leaking in from the floor drain (install a gas trap or a
trap primer to ensure that the trap never gets dry).
- Install 0.15 mm (6 mil) polyethylene below the slab, with joints lapped
and caulked. (To protect the poly and to avoid excessive bleed water,
place 50 mm (2") of sand over it.)

34
Problem Cold floors.

Cause Heat loss from the slab.

The primary route for heat loss is outward at the slab perimeter. The secon-
dary route is through the entire surface area of the slab downward to the soil
{fig. 39,a).

Solutions • Provide adequate insulation at the slab perimeter. Install insulation on the
exteri or of shallow foundation walls, grade beams and thickened slab
edges. Protect the insulation with parg ing, flashing or a rigid board, such
as pressure-treated plywood (fig. 39, b).
• Reduce heat loss through the slab downward to the soil by installing a
perimeter skirt of horizontal insulation around the foundation. See the
section on frost heave for more details. Insulating below the slab is
generally not recommended because of the risk of frost problems.
• As long as the slab is several degrees cooler than body temperature ,
heat will flow from a person's body into the slab, creating a perception of
coldness. A good solution is to install carpet. A false floor raised on
sleepers will create an even warmer floor, particularly if the air space
is used.
• Provide radiant heating, another solution that has proven successful.
Typically, hot water is circulated within 12 or 19 mm (1/2 or 3/4") polybu-
tylene pipes spaced at 300 to 450 mm (12 to 18 ")under or embedded
within the slab.

heat loss

·'vg .·.,·
(a)

flashing\

protect1on
board
or parging

,,,,,,,,.
' ' ' ..' ' ' '
~
'min 150 mm

(b)

Fig. 39. Perimeter heat loss 35

 Appendix : Preparation of
the Subgrade
The most important aspect to achieving a trouble-free concrete slab-on-
grade is the preparation of the subgrade. The subgrade is the natural
ground, graded and compacted, on which the floor is built. To assure the
success of the slab-on-grade, the subgrade should be completely uniform
in firmness (no hard or soft spots), grade and dampness. If the subgrade is
not uniform, stresses may develop in the slab, causing it to crack
(see fig . 30). To attain uniformity, the quality of the natural subgrade can be
improved by drainage, compaction or soil stabilization.
The first step in preparing the subgrade is to remove topsoil and any or-
ganic material, exposing the natural ground. (The topsoil can be kept for
future use in landscaping.) Next, it is important to determine the charac-
teristics of the subgrade material. This is important for three reasons: 1) the
support provided by the subgrade influences the expected stresses in the
concrete and the resulting structural design of the slab; 2) the type of soil
and the depth of the water table affect the amount of heat transfer and thus
the amount of insulation required; and 3) the condition of the natural soil
determines how much preparation is required.
The strength of the soil, or its ability to carry or support the structure
and resist settlement, is a function of the degree of its compaction and its
moisture content. In general, the higher the degree of compaction, the
greater the strength of the soil and the lower its compressibility.
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by packing
particles closer together with a reduction in the volume of air in the soil. It is
the least costly way to improve the structural properties of the soil, and can
be achieved by rolling, tamping or vibrating the soil with the appropriate
rollers or compactors. Driving cars, trucks or bulldozers over the soil will not
compact the soil uniformly and may do more harm than good.
The degree of compaction of soil is measured in terms of dry density,
or the mass of solids per unit volume of soil. The compaction
characteristics of a soil can be assessed by means of standard laboratory
tests, such as the Proctor test, the Modified AASHTO test, or the vibrating
hammer test. The required standard of field compaction can then be
specified in terms of a minimum percentage of the maxim um dry density
obtained in one of the standard laboratory tests . In addition, water content
limits should be specified and compaction should proceed only if the
natural water content of the soil is within t hese limits. The engineer
designing the slab should specify the degree of compaction required.
The bptJndaries of the compacted area should be the entire area of the
building , plus a 1500 to 3000 mm (5 to 10') perimeter border (fig. 40).
Testing is carried out as compaction proceeds to help ensure uniformity.
Any fill material added to improve the subgrade, to fil l in depressed
areas or to raise the existing grade shou ld be a stable material that can be
thoroughly compacted. At transition areas, where soil types or conditions
change abruptly, the replacement soil should be thoroughly mixed with the
surrounding soil by crosshauling and blending to form a transition zone with
uniform support conditions. The area around the slab-on-grade should be
sloped so that water will drain away from the slab.

36
 Appendix: Preparation of the Subgrade

1 5-3.0 m

Fig. 40. Subgrade compaction

Buried utility lines, water pipes, sewers, and so on , should be covered

with at least 50 mm (2") of soil . Backfill soil should be similar to the soil sur-
rounding the utility trench and be compacted in layers to dupl icate the
moisture and density conditions of the adjacent soil. Every attempt should
be made to restore as much as possible the original uniformity of the sub-
grade over the utility.
After the subgrade is compacted to the specified density and graded,
well-graded rock or gravel can be spread over the entire sub-base, includ-
ing the perimeter area. While this sub-base is not an absolute requirement,
its use is recommended because it provides a cushion for more uniform
support for the slab by equalizing minor subgrade differences. The granular
sub-base also provides a capillary break, helping to dampproof the slab .
The sub-base material should be a granular material, like crushed stone,
gravel or slag. Do not use cinder, c lay, or vegetation because these materi-
als will not give firm and uniform support. A sub-base layer of 100 mm (4") is
recommended. If a thicker layer is used, there is a risk of densification under
vibration. It is very important that the sub-base is compacted to a minimum
of 98 percent maximum density at optimum moisture content to prevent
settlement.

37
 Terms and Definitions

admixture
any material (other than water,
cement or ag.gregate) added to the
concrete mix to modify its properties
accelerator- speeds initial setting
retarder - delays initial setting
air entrainment - creates small air
bubbles throughout the cement
paste to improve resistance to
freeze-thaw cycles
plasticizer - increases slump and
workability without causing
significant loss of strength
bleeding
the movement of mix water to the
surface of freshly placed concrete
curing
the provision of moisture (and heat
in cold weather ) to concrete sur-
faces for a period of time after
placement, to ensure that the
cement will react chemically with
the mix water to produce a strong,
durable concrete
design strength
the potential compressive strength
of a concrete mix that will be
reached after a period of con tinuous
moist curing (usually specified as
28 days)
joints
cold joint
an unintentional joint that forms
when a concrete surface hardens
before the next batch is placed
against it
construction joint
the proper keying of one pour into
the next to prevent a cold joint
control joint
a deliberate groove or saw cut that
allows for contraction caused by
drying shrinkage (also: contraction
joint)
i solation joint
the separation of different parts of a
structure to allow for differential
movement (also: pe rimeter or
expansion joint)
slump
a measure of the consistency and
ease of placement of fresh con-
crete, determined in a standard test
using a truncated slump core

heat of hydration
the heat generated when concrete
cures and hardens, due to the
chemical reaction of cement and
water

38
Additional Reading
Source Publication

Canada Mortgage and Housing Problem Land Series, 1984:

Corporation Conditions to A void. NHA 5698
700 Montreal Road Building on Clay. NHA 5699
Ottawa, Ontario Building on Peat. NHA 5700
K1A OP7 Building in a Flood-Risk Area.
(613) 748-2000 NHA 5701
Price: $1 each

Canadian Home Builders' Association Basement Installation Practice Manual.

Suite 502, 200 Elgin Street HUDAC, 1980
Ottawa, Ontario
K2P 1L5 Design Criteria for Basement
(613) 230-3060 Foundation Systems in Canadian
Housing. HUDAC, 1975

External Insulation of Basements.

CHBA, 1984

Canadian Portland Cement Concrete Basements for Residential

Association and Light Building Construction, 1980
Suite 609
116 Albert Street Design and Control of Concrete
Ottawa, Ontario Mixtures, 1984
K1P 5G3
(613) 236-9471 Concrete Floors on Ground, 1978

Canadian Standards Association Concrete Construction for Housing

178 Rexdale Boulevard and Small Buildings. CAN3-A4 38-M84
Toronto, Ontario
M9W 1R3
(4 16) 747-2287

Ontario New Home Warranty Program Construction Practice Manual -

600 Eglinton Avenue East Foundation Walls, 1985
Toronto, Ontario
M4P 1P3
(416) 488-6000

National Research Council Principles of Foundation Design.

Institute for Research in Construction CBD80
Publications Section Selecting the Foundation. CBD 81
Ottawa, Ontario Adfreezing and Frost Heaving of
K1A OR6 Foundations. CBD 128
(613) 993-9101 Foundation Movements. CBD 148
Drainage around Buildings. CBD 156
Frost Action and Foundations.
CBD 182
Foundations on Swelling or Shifting
Soils. CBD 184
39
 Additional Reading

Source Publication

National Association of Home Residential Concrete, 1983

Builders
15 and M Streets N.W. Frost-Protected Shallow Foundations
Washington, D.C. for Houses and Other Heated
United States Structures, 1988
(202) 452-0200

40