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WCDMA Fundamentals and UMTS Network Planning:

By : Süleyman Gül
19.09.2007
Table of Contents:
- Basic Concept of WCDMA..............................................................3
- Spectrum....................................................................................................................................3
- Codes.........................................................................................................................................7
- The Spreading Process...............................................................................................................8
- Power.........................................................................................................................................8
- Channel Concept........................................................................................................................9

- UMTS Guidelines..........................................................................11
- Network Architecture...............................................................................................................11
- Up-downlink Codes.................................................................................................................13
- Spreading codes( Channelisation Codes)............................................................................13
- Scrambling Codes............................................................................................................15
- Signal to Noise ratio ( Eb/No).................................................................................................16
- Processing Gain.......................................................................................................................16
- Capacity of a cell.....................................................................................................................17
- Issues Affecting Capacity....................................................................................................18
- Concept of Load......................................................................................................................19
- Pole capacity........................................................................................................................19
- Uplink Loading-factor.........................................................................................................19
- Downlink Load....................................................................................................................20
- UL & DL Load Comparision...............................................................................................20
- Rake Receiver..........................................................................................................................21
- Power Control..........................................................................................................................21
- Uplink power control...........................................................................................................22
- Downlink power control......................................................................................................23
- Admission Control...................................................................................................................24
- Handover Scenarios..............................................................................................................25
- Softer Handover...................................................................................................................25
- Soft Handover......................................................................................................................26
- Hard Handover.....................................................................................................................27
- Different Events regarding Soft (er) Handover...................................................................28
- Event 1A..........................................................................................................................29
- Event 1B.........................................................................................................................30
- Inter frequency Handover....................................................................................................32
- Inter RAT Handover.............................................................................................................33
- Parameter in Handover Algorithm.......................................................................................33
- Bearer Services........................................................................................................................34
- The End-to-End Service and UMTS Bearer Service...........................................................35
- The Radio Access Bearer Service and the Core Network Bearer Service...........................35
- Basic Concept of WCDMA
- Spectrum

For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and time. Division by frequency, so that each
pair of communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time, results in Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each pair of communicators is allocated
all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for part of the time results in Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA). In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), every communicator will be allocated
the entire spectrum all of the time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections.

Multiple Access Schemes

power time time


power

Max. TX-
cn
power .
.
.

c4
c3
c2
c1

f1 f1+

Timef& f2 f3 f4 thef5shared
1 Bandwidth: f6 resources in FDMA-TDMA Power: the shared resources in W-CDMA
frequency frequency
*Divide spectrum into narrow bandwidth carrier &... *divide spectrum into wide bandwidth
carriers
*...Further sub divide the time domain *physical links use same RF-carrier at the same
Time
*Exclusive assign carriers & timeslots to a connection *codes are used to discriminate between links
*Capacity limitation: *capacity limitations:
Bandwidth & number of timeslots DL: Max. BS transmit power
*Hard capacity limit UL: MS power, Max. Noise rise
Available codes, less critical
*Example: GSM
Frequency band: 1920 MHz -1980 MHz and 2110 MHz - 2170 MHz (Frequency
Division Duplex) UL and DL.
Minimum frequency band required: ~ 2x5MHz
Frequency re-use: 1
Carrier Spacing: 4.4MHz - 5.2 MHz
Maximum number of (voice) channels on 2x5MHz: ~196 (spreading factor 256 UL, AMR
7.95kbps) / ~98 (spreading factor 128 UL,
AMR 12.2kbps)
Voice coding: AMR codecs (4.75 kHz - 12.2 kHz, GSM EFR=12.2 kHz) and SID
1.8 kHz)
Channel coding: Convolutional coding, Turbo code for high rate data Duplexer needed
(190MHz separation), Asymmetric connection supported
Tx/Rx isolation: MS: 55dB, BS: 80dB
Receiver: Rake
Receiver sensitivity: Node B: -121dBm, Mobile -117dBm at BER of 10-3
Data type: Packet and circuit switch
Modulation: QPSK
Pulse shaping: Root raised cosine, roll-off = 0.22
Chip rate: 3.84 Mcps
Channel raster: 200 kHz
Maximum user data rate (Physical channel): ~ 2.3Mbps (spreading factor 4, parallel codes (3 DL
/ 6 UL), 1/2 rate coding), but interference limited.
Maximum user data rate (Offered): 384 kbps (year 2002), higher rates ( ~ 2 Mbps) in the near
future. HSPDA will offer data speeds up to 8-10 Mbps (and
20 Mbps for MIMO systems)
Channel bit rate: 5.76Mbps
Frame length: 10ms (38400 chips)
Number of slots / frame: 15
Number of chips / slot: 2560 chips
Handovers: Soft, Softer, (interfrequency: Hard)
Power control period: Time slot = 1500 Hz rate
Power control step size: 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 dB (Variable)
Power control range: UL 80dB, DL 30dB
Mobile peak power: Power class 1: +33 dBm (+1dB/-3dB) = 2W; class 2 +27 dBm, class 3
+24 dBm, class 4 +21 dBm
Number of unique base station identification codes: 512 / frequency
Physical layer spreading factors: 4 ... 256 UL, 4 ... 512 DL
WCDMA GSM
Carrier spacing 5 MHz 200 kHz
Frequency reuse factor 1 1–18
Power control 1500 Hz 2 Hz or lower
frequency
Quality control Radio resource Network planning
management algorithms (frequency planning)
Frequency diversity 5 MHz bandwidth gives Frequency hopping
multipath diversity with
Rake receiver
Packet data Load-based packet Timeslot based
scheduling scheduling with GPRS
Downlink transmit Supported for Not supported by the
diversity improving downlink standard, but can be
capacity applied
- Codes

CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the baseband data before
transmission. The signal is transmitted in a channel, which is below noise level.
The receiver then uses a correlator to despread the wanted signal, which is passed
through a narrow bandpass filter. Unwanted signals will not be despread and will
not pass through the filter. Codes take the form of a carefully designed one/zero
sequence produced at a much higher rate than that of the baseband data. The rate of
a spreading code is referred to as chip rate rather than bit rate.

CDMA spreading

CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but create a uniqueness to enable call
identification. Codes should not correlate to other codes or time shifted version of itself. Spreading
codes are noise like pseudo-random codes, channel codes are designed for maximum separation
from each other and cell identification codes are balanced not to correlate to other codes of itself.
- The Spreading Process

WCDMA uses Direct Sequence spreading, where spreading process is done by directly combining
the baseband information to high chip rate binary code. The Spreading Factor is the ratio of the chips
(UMTS = 3.84Mchips/s) to baseband information rate. Spreading factors vary from 4 to 512 in FDD
UMTS. Spreading process gain can in expressed in dBs (Spreading factor 128 = 21dB gain).

- Power

CDMA is interference limited multiple access system. Because all users transmit on the same
frequency, internal interference generated by the system is the most significant factor in determining
system capacity and call quality. The transmit power for each user must be reduced to limit
interference, however, the power should be enough to maintain the required Eb/No (signal to noise
ratio) for a satisfactory call quality. Maximum capacity is achieved when Eb/No of every user is at
the minimum level needed for the acceptable channel performance. As the MS moves around, the RF
environment continuously changes due to fast and slow fading, external interference, shadowing,
and other factors. The aim of the dynamic power control is to limit transmitted power on both the
links while maintaining link quality under all conditions. Additional advantages are longer mobile
battery life and longer life span of BTS power amplifiers

Power
High bit rate

Frequency

Low bit rate

5MH Time
- Channel Concept
- UMTS Guidelines
- Network Architecture

One of the requirements for the Release 99 Architecture is to support roaming and inter-operation
with the GSM system, hence the GSM system appears as one of the components of the UMTS
Release 99 Architecture.

USIM - UMTS Subscriber Identity Module,


UE - User Equipment,
Node B - UMTS Base Station,
SRNC - Serving Radio Network Controller,
DRNC - Drift Radio Network Controller,
SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node,
GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node,
PDN - Public Data Network,
SIM - Subscriber Identity Module,
ME - Mobile Equipment,
BTS - Base Transceiver Station,
BSC - Base Station Controller,
MSC - Mobile Switching Center,
GMSC - Gateway Mobile Switching Center,
PSTN - Public Switched Telephone Network,
HLR - Home Location Register,
VLR- Visitor Location Register.

CS-Domain

This is the Circuit Switched domain that is traditionally known to provide services such as speech calls. The
Core Network (CN) component that implements the CS services for UMTS is the 3G-MSC.

PS-Domain

This is the Packet Switched domain that is known to provide services such as IP Based traffic. The CN
component that implements the PS services for UMTS is the 3G-SGSN.

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

This consists of the Radio Network Controller (RNC) and the Node B. The UTRAN is responsible for
functions that relate to access, radio mobility and resource utilisation. The Serving Radio Network Controller
(SRNC) is responsible for the logical connection between the UE and the CN. The Drift Radio Network
Controller (DRNC) provides additional radio resources for a UE that is in a dedicated connection and a soft-
handover state. The Node B that is attached to the DRNC will provide the physical resource to the UE, and
the information on the uplink and the downlink is routed towards the SRNC.

User Equipment (UE)

The radio terminal that the subscriber uses to receive service from the UTRAN is known as the UE. This will
arrive in the form of PDA terminals and Handsets similar to current GSM mobiles. The UE's will be
supporting multimode GSM, GPRS and UMTS services. They will be supporting multi-band GSM900,
DCS1800 and PCS1900 systems. The capabilities of these User Equipments will vary hence the UTRAN will
read UE capabilities during set-up.
- Up-downlink Codes

- Spreading codes( Channelisation Codes)


One of these codes is assigned to each connection.
The necessary datarate can change during a connection, whereupon the system can react by changing
the spreading factor used, and thus the code as well. However, as long as a code remains assigned to
a connection, it cannot be used for any other.
The code length corresponds to the necessary spreading factor, thus it can only be chosen in discrete
steps. In the FDD mode, the spreading factor can range between 4 and 256 in the uplink, and
between 4 and 512 in the downlink. In the TDD mode, the spreading factor in both the uplink and
the downlink can vary between 1 and 16.
Because of their mathematical behavior, and the fact that the length of the codes and their spreading
behavior are determined by their spreading factor, these codes are also called Orthogonal Variable
Spreading Factor Codes, or OVSF.
- Scrambling Codes

Synchronisation Channelisation Scrambling Scrambling


Codes Codes Codes, UL Codes, DL
Orthogonal Variable Complex-Valued
Complex-Valued
Gold Codes Spreading Factor Gold Code Segments
(long) or Complex- Gold Code
(OVSF) codes
Type Valued S(2) Codes Segments
Primary Synchronization
Codes (PSC) and Secondary (short)
Synchronization Codes (SSC) Pseudo Noise (PN)
Sometimes called codes
Walsh Codes Pseudo Noise (PN) codes
38400 chips /
Length 256 chips 4-512 chips 38400 chips
256 chips
Duration 66.67 µs 1.04 µs - 10 ms / 66.67 µs 10 ms
133.34 µs
512 primary / 15
= Spreading factor
Number of 1 primary code / 16 secondary for
4 ... 256 UL, 16,777,216
codes secondary codes each primary
4 ... 512 DL
code
No, does not
No, does not change Yes, increases No, does not change
Spreading change
bandwidth bandwidth bandwidth
bandwidth
UL: to separate
physical data and
To enable terminals to control data from
locate and synchronise to same terminal Separation of Separation of
Usage
the cells' main control DL: to separate terminal sectors
channels connection to
different terminals in
a same cell
Physical Layer Bit Rates (DL)

Spreading Channel Channel bit DPDCH Maximumuser


factor symbol rate channel bit data rate with ½-
rate (kbps) rate range rate coding
(ksps) (kbps) (approx.)
512 7.5 15 3–6 1–3 kbps
256 15 30 12–24 6–12 kbps Half rate speech
128 30 60 42–51 20–24 kbps Full rate speech
64 60 120 90 45 kbps
32 120 240 210 105 kbps
16 240 480 432 215 kbps 128 kbps
8 480 960 912 456 kbps 384 kbps
4 960 1920 1872 936 kbps
4, with 3 2880 5760 5616 2.3 Mbps 2 Mbps
parallel
codes

- Signal to Noise ratio ( Eb/No)

The Eb/N0 value is the value that needs to be reached for insuring the targeted service quality. This is
the ratio between the energy per bit for the related service over the noise spectral efficiency over the
whole spreading band.
The spread signal is characterized by the ratio of the energy per chip over the spectral noise density
Ec/N0. The two are related as follows (all quantity expressed in dB):
Eb Ec
 PGdB  where PG is the processing gain.
N0 dB
N0 dB

- Processing Gain

The processing gain term expresses the gain achieved by spreading a narrow band signal over a
wideband spectrum.
This gain is the ratio between the spreading chip rate and the actual service bit rate measured at the
RLC level (this means at the OSI level 3 layer, the network level layer and not the application layer).

Carrier Bandwidth and Spreading Bandwidth


UMTS carrier bandwidth is typically 5 MHz wide.
However, this does not mean that the signal is spread over all the carrier bandwidth. Actually the
UMTS spreading bandwidth has been decided to be 3.84 MHz (spreading at 3.84 Mcps). This allows
some possible adjustments of the spreading bandwidth within the carrier bandwidth when needed.
Processing Gain Calculation
Expressed in dB, the formula is:
3840
PGdB  10  log 10 ( )
Rkbps
Where R, the service data rate, is expressed as the throughput at the RLC level in kbps. Typically, the
rates are 12.2 kbps (maximum AMR throughput), 64 kbps, 128 kbps, and 384 kbps for UMTS
systems without HSDPA/HSUPA.

- Capacity of a cell

Soft Capacity

50 Erlang 800kbps Air Interface (L1) rate

Voice traffic Data Traffic


Not Real Time (NRT) Packet switched
 switched
Real Time (RT) circuit • greater efficiency
Capacity per cell per carrier

• lowpredictable • greater total capacity


delay 
• lower
 total capacity


More Voice More Data


- Issues Affecting Capacity

•Mixture of services makes capacity planning more complex


•Real Time Voice and Data services in Erlang
•Non-Real Time Data services in kbps
•Load calculation is required especially in UL to determine the UL interference (Noise Rise)
•Different Services have different Eb/No requirements
•Traffic is asymmetric between DL and UL
•Different kinds of interferences have to be taken into account (orthogonality factor a, little i, etc.)
•Different Node B maximum Tx power should be considered
•Speed of the Users differs

Relative cell
100%size
128
80% kbps
Increased load 800 kbps
 Decreased coverage

60%
Traffic
Traffic load
load has
has direct
direct effect
effect
8 on
on the
the cell
cell size
size
kbps Radio
144
Radio Resource
Resource
40% 64 Management
Management provides
provides kbps 144
kbps means
means toto control
control cell
cell 64 kbps
breathing
breathing inin network
network kbps
optimisation
optimisation
20% Low load 200 kbps 64
 Large coverage 144 kbps
64
kbps64 kbps
0% kbps

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7


Traffic load factor
- Concept of Load

- Pole capacity

The pole capacity is the theoretical maximum capacity of the system. In CDMA, this capacity is only
theoretical since, once reached, the system goes in an unstable state that leads to its collapse.
However it is still a reference for expressing the load.
For information the uplink pole capacity formula (a.k.a. the N-Pole formula) is:
PG
N Pole  1 
Eb
 AF  (1  i )
N0
Where:
NPole is the theoretical maximum number of RABs of the related service to be served in the cell
PG is the processing gain for that RAB
i is the other cell to inner cell interference ratio in the uplink (usually between 50% and 80%)
AF is the activity factor.
- Uplink Loading-factor

Interference is directly linked with network traffic load and affects the coverage of the cell due to the
dynamic nature of CDMA.
The uplink-loading factor is the percentage of actual traffic load that the system will handle when
fully loaded.
It is expressed as a percentage of the uplink pole capacity.
Due to the potential instability at the pole capacity, a wide margin must be kept to insure both system
efficiency and stability. Usually the uplink loading-factor is set at 50% of the pole capacity and
does not go over 70%. Due to the exponential increase of interferences, at high loads, the
interference level increases a lot compare to the very low capacity increase. This leads to degrading
sensibly each user quality for adding a very low number of new users and is then inefficient in a ratio
quality/capacity perspective. This is why it is recommended to keep the uplink loading-factor to such
values as 50 to 70%.
Its value is not a direct input in the presented link budget, since the effect is directly included in the
noise rise.
18
16
14
12
loss/dB

10
8
6
4
2
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

95

98

loading/%
•UL load affects the noise level at the Node B receiver. FNoise Rise
•A typical cell load value for dimensioning ranges from 30% to 70 %

50% is a good compromise between the number of sites and the offered capacity.
•Breathing effect: UL load limits the Coverage

- Downlink Load

In the downlink it is important to estimate the total amount of Node B transmission power required.
This should be based on a number around the average transmission power transmission power for
the cell edge.
The downlink coverage depends more on the load than in the uplink. The reason lies in that the
maximum downlink transmission power of the Node B is the same regardless of the number of users
and is shared between downlink users, while in the uplink each additional user has its own power
amplifier. Therefore, the coverage decreases as a function of the number of users.

- UL & DL Load Comparison

•DL load always higher than UL load


•Orthogonal codes reduce own cell interference only in DL
•Link performance (Eb/N0) between uplink and downlink differs
•Typically noise figure is higher in UE than in BS
•SHO overhead is only in DL
•DL: all connections share one transmitter
•UL: one transmitter per connection

Do
wn
li nk Capacity limited

Coverage limited

max. path loss [dB]


Upl
in k

Load
- Rake Receiver

•Multipath signals reflected from obstacles and signals from different basestations can be combined
using RAKE receiver
•RAKE receiver takes different factors (attenuation, timing) into account and receiver fingers
combine multipath signals to one signal

RAKE receiver shadowing


delay1 X a1

delay2 f1 a2 X
distance
attenuation
delay3 X a3

Phase adjusting
multipath

- Power Control

•Effective power control is essential in WCDMA due to frequency re-use one


•Fast power control
•Makes Eb/N0 requirements lower
•Equalizes received powers at BS in uplink (avoid near-far)
•Introduces interference peaks in the transmission
•Open loop power control for initial power setting of the MS
•Outer PC loop at a much slower rate, across the Iub interface in uplink
•Adjusts the SIR target to achieve a target FER/BER
•Also similar outer loop power control in MS
- Uplink power control

Open loop power control is the ability of the UE transmitter to sets its output power to a specific
value. It is used for setting initial uplink and downlink transmission powers when a UE is accessing
the network. The open loop power control tolerance is ± 9 dB (normal conditions) or ± 12 dB
(extreme conditions)

Inner loop power control (also called fast closed loop power control) in the uplink is the ability of
the UE transmitter to adjust its output power in accordance with one or more Transmit Power
Control (TPC) commands received in the downlink, in order to keep the received uplink Signal-to-
Interference Ratio (SIR) at a given SIR target. The UE transmitter is capable of changing the output
power with a step size of 1, 2 and 3 dB, in the slot immediately after the TPC_cmd can be derived.
Inner loop power control frequency is 1500Hz.

The serving cells estimate SIR of the received uplink DPCH, generate TPC commands (TPC_cmd)
and transmit the commands once per slot according to the following rule: if SIRest > SIRtarget then the
TPC command to transmit is "0", while if SIRest < SIRtarget then the TPC command to transmit is "1".
Upon reception of one or more TPC commands in a slot, the UE derives a single TPC command for
each slot, combining multiple TPC commands if more than one is received in a slot. Two algorithms
are supported by the UE for deriving a TPC_cmd. Which of these two algorithms is used, is
determined by a UE-specific higher-layer parameter, "PowerControlAlgorithm".

Algorithm 1:
· The power control step is the change in the UE transmitter output power in response to a single
TPC command

Algorithm 2:
· If all five estimated TPC command are "down" the transmit power is reduced by 1 dB
· If all five estimated TPC command are "up" the transmit power is increased by 1 dB
· Otherwise the transmit power is not changed

Transmitter power control range

The transmit power of the downlink channels is determined by the network. The power control step
size can take four values: 0.5, 1, 1.5 or 2 dB. It is mandatory for UTRAN to support step size of
1 dB, while support of other step sizes is optional. The UE generates TPC commands to control the
network transmit power and send them in the TPC field of the uplink DPCCH. Upon receiving the
TPC commands UTRAN adjusts its downlink DPCCH/DPDCH power accordingly.

Outer loop power control is used to maintain the quality of communication at the level of bearer
service quality requirement, while using as low power as possible. The uplink outer loop power
control is responsible for setting a target SIR in the Node B for each individual uplink inner loop
power control. This target SIR is updated for each UE according to the estimated uplink quality
(BLock Error Ration, Bit Error Ratio) for each Radio Resource Control connection. The downlink
outer loop power control is the ability of the UE receiver to converge to required link quality
(BLER) set by the network (RNC) in downlink.

- Downlink power control

Power control of the downlink common channels is determined by the network. In general the
ratio of the transmit power between different downlink channels is not specified in 3GPP
specifications and may change with time, even dynamically.

Additional special situations of power control are Power control in compressed mode and
Downlink power during handover.
- Admission Control

•Checks that admitting a new user will not sacrifice planned coverage or quality of existing
connections

•Determines whether or not a new RT RAB can be admitted to the RAN


•With PS decides whether to admit NRT RABs (PS handles all NRT connections)
•Also sets
•UL/DL BLER, Eb/No targets
•SIR target for outer loop power control
•Initial DL transmission power for the channel
•Radio Link Control parameters, e.g. transmission
mode
•Transport Channel (TrCH) parameters, e.g. TFS
•Provides RLC parameters to PS for NRT users;
•Bearer class
•Traffic handling priority
•Transport Formats
•MS capabilities

BS noise rise

Note:
DL-load control checks
3dB the expected power rise
instead!
Iestimated
Itotal-old

Max. planned
noise rise

load
L 50%
- Handover Scenarios

- Softer Handover

Softer handover is a special case of soft handover where the radio links that are added and removed
belong to the same Node B (i.e. the site of co-located base stations from which several sector-cells
are served. In softer handover, macro diversity with maximum ratio combining can be performed in
the Node B, whereas generally in soft handover on the downlink, macro diversity with selection
combining is applied.

Iub Iu PS
Uu
RNC

handover
area

SGSN

handover
area
handover
area
- Soft Handover

Soft handover means that the radio links are added and removed in a way that the UE always keeps
at least one radio link to the UTRAN. Soft handover is performed by means of macro diversity,
which refers to the condition that several radio links are active at the same time. Normally soft
handover can be used when cells operated on the same frequency are changed.

In a typical UMTS system, the UE is in soft/softer handover around 50% of the time. One of the
very important requirements for the soft/softer handover is that the frames from different cells
should be within 50ms of each other or this would not work.
The last thing one needs to remember is that the soft/softer handover is initiated from the RNC and
the core network is not involved in this procedure.

Iu PS
Uu RNC
Uu
RNC Iub

Iub
SGSN

handover
area
Iur
- Hard Handover

Hard handover means that all the old radio links in the UE are removed before the new radio links
are established. Hard handover can be seamless or non-seamless. Seamless hard handover means
that the handover is not perceptible to the user. In practice a handover that requires a change of the
carrier frequency (inter-frequency handover) is always performed as hard handover.

Hard handover procedure can be initiated by the network or by the UE. Generally it would be
initiated by the network using one of the Radio Bearer Control messages. In case of UE initiated, it
would happen if the UE performs a Cell Update procedure and that Cell Update reaches the RNC on
a different frequency. The Core Network is not involved in this procedure.

C1 C2

Iub Iu PS
RNC
Uu

handover SGSN
Iub area
- Different Events regarding Soft (er) Handover

When UE reaches end of coverage area for UMTS services, it can handover to a 2G service like
GSM (if the UE supports multiple RAT). Inter-RAT handover procedure can be initiated in variety of
ways. RNS might send a Handover From UTRAN command explicitly telling the UE to move to a
different RAT or the UE might select a cell that belongs to a different RAT or the Network may ask
UE to perform Cell Change Order from UTRAN.

Inter-RAT hard handover using Handover from UTRAN command can be performed when there are
no RAB's or when there is at least one CS domain RAB. The state of the UE is CELL_DCH.
Inter-RAT hard handover using Cell change order from UTRAN can be performed when UE is either
in CELL_DCH or CELL_FACH state. The only requirement is that there should be at least a PS
signaling connection and no CS signaling connection.

MS in soft-HO (A, B) MS in soft-HO (B, C)


Pilot Eb/N0
t t t
Pilot Eb/N0 Cell A

remove_hysteresis
handover_hysteresis

Pilot Eb/N0 Cell B replace_hysteresis

Pilot Eb/N0 Cell C


time
add cell B replace cell A remove cell C
with cell C
Event 1A Event 1C Event 1B

Active set not full: If PilotCell BEb/N0 > best_pilot - handover_hysteresis for t, then add cell B
Active set is full: If PilotCell CEb/N0 > PilotCell AEb/N0 + replace_hysteresis for t, then replace cell A
If PilotCell CEb/N0 < best_pilot - handover_hysteresis for t, then remove cell C
- Event 1A

In order to ad an other radio link to Active set, the so-called reporting


Event 1A has to be triggered. This is done if

Measurements report to UTRAN.


- Event 1B
- Event 1C
- Inter frequency Handover

Inter-Frequency measurements are not a must for a mobile handset to support. If and only if the UE
is able to support more than one frequency than this measurements will be used. Some of the reasons
why we need these measurements are as follows:

There could be presence of Hotspots. Say there could be one cell in a large area. But that area has a
race course. During the racing season it is full of people using their mobile phones. Thus this one
cell might not be able to handle all these calls. For this particular race course, during the racing
season there might be a small cell (technically known as micro cell while the cell that covers the big
area is known as macro cell). The users would be handed over to these micro cells during the season
so other users calls wont be much affected.

If a lot of people are camped on a same frequency and they move to the same area then the traffic on
this particular frequency will increase. To evenly balance the traffic between different frequencies
some of the users would be forced to do Inter-Frequency measurements and hence perform Inter-
Frequency handover.

The user might move to an area where the current frequency coverage is about to end. At this
particular point the network would ask the UE to perform the Inter-Frequency measurement and
move to the new frequency as soon as possible to avoid the loss of call.
How are Inter-Frequency Measurements performed?
RNC UE
----- ----
| |
| Measurement Control Message |
| ----------------------------------------> |
| |
| |
| Measurement Report |
| <---------------------------------------- |
| |
The network decides that inter frequency measurements need to be performed and sends the
MEASUREMENT CONTROL MESSAGE with Measurement type set to Inter-Frequency
measurements. Generally it will set an Event as well along with the measurements. The following
are list of Events that can trigger Measurement Report.

Event 2a: Change of Best Frequency


Event 2b: The estimated quality of the currently used frequency is below a certain threshold and the
estimated quality of a non-used frequency is above a certain threshold
Event 2c: The estimated quality of a non-used frequency is above a certain threshold
Event 2d: The estimated quality of the currently used frequency is below a certain threshold
Event 2e: The estimated quality of a non-used frequency is below a certain threshold
Event 2f: The estimated quality of the currently used frequency is above a certain threshold
The most commonly used events from the above list are events 2b and 2d. In case when UE enters
'End of Coverage' area, network will send MCM with event Id set to event 2b and 2d. Event 2d
performs the same function as event 2b for the current frequency but the threshold set in case of 2d
is much lower. When event 2b is triggered a hand over to new frequency is performed without any
problems. In case if event 2b is not triggered while event 2d is triggered that means that the other
frequency is not strong enough but the current frequency has deteriorated very much and the only
option is to handover to new frequency. In this case the results will not definitely be success.

- Inter RAT Handover

When UE reaches end of coverage area for UMTS services, it can handover to a 2G service like
GSM (if the UE supports multiple RAT). Inter-RAT handover procedure can be initiated in variety of
ways. RNS might send a Handover From UTRAN command explicitly telling the UE to move to a
different RAT or the UE might select a cell that belongs to a different RAT or the Network may ask
UE to perform Cell Change Order from UTRAN.

Inter-RAT hard handover using Handover from UTRAN command can be performed when there are
no RAB's or when there is at least one CS domain RAB. The state of the UE is CELL_DCH.
Inter-RAT hard handover using Cell change order from UTRAN can be performed when UE is either
in CELL_DCH or CELL_FACH state. The only requirement is that there should be at least a PS
signaling connection and no CS signaling connection.

- Parameter in Handover Algorithm


- Bearer Services

Network Services are considered end-to-end, this means from a Terminal Equipment
(TE) to another TE. An End-to-End Service may have a certain Quality of Service
(QoS), which is provided for the user of a network service. It is the user that decides
whether he is satisfied with the provided QoS or not.

To realise a certain network QoS a Bearer Service with clearly defined characteristics
and functionality is to be set up from the source to the destination of a service.

A bearer service includes all aspects to enable the provision of a contracted QoS.
These aspects are among others the control signalling, user plane transport and QoS
management functionality. A UMTS bearer service layered architecture is depicted in
Error: Reference source not found, each bearer service on a specific layer offers it’s
individual services using services provided by the layers below.

UMTS

TE MT UTRAN CN Iu CN TE
EDGE Gateway
NODE

End-to-End Service

TE/MT Local External Bearer


Bearer Service UMTS Bearer Service Service

CN Bearer
Radio Access Bearer Service
Service

Radio Bearer Iu Bearer Backbone


Service Service Network Service

UTRA
Physical Bearer
FDD/TDD
Service
Service
- The End-to-End Service and UMTS Bearer Service
On its way from the TE to another TE the traffic has to pass different bearer services
of the network(s). A TE is connected to the UMTS network by use of a Mobile
Termination (MT). The End-to-End Service on the application level uses the bearer
services of the underlying network(s). As the End-to-End Service is conveyed over
several networks (not only UMTS) it is not subject for further elaboration in this
document.

The End-to-End-Service used by the TE will be realised using a TE/MT Local Bearer
Service, a UMTS Bearer Service, and an External Bearer Service.

TE/MT Local Bearer Service is not further elaborated here as this bearer service is
outside the scope of the UMTS network.

Having said that the End-to-End Bearer Service is beyond the scope of this document
it is however the various services offered by the UMTS Bearer Service that the UMTS
operator offers to the end-user. It is this bearer service that provides the UMTS QoS.

A user has a home UMTS operator that provides the UMTS bearer service. When the
user is a visitor in another UMTS operator’s network, it is not necessarily the visiting
operator that provides the UMTS bearer service; it may still be the home UMTS
operator that provides this service.

In addition to the UMTS Bearer Service UMTS also provides a number of


standardised teleservices to the end-user (Speech, Emergency call, Short message
service [ref. 22.05]). UMTS teleservices are not depicted in Error: Reference source
not found And is not regarded as a part of the generic UMTS QoS architecture.

The External Bearer Service is not further elaborated here as this bearer may be using
several network services, e.g. another UMTS Bearer Service.

- The Radio Access Bearer Service and the Core Network Bearer
Service
As described in the previous chapter it is the UMTS Bearer Service that provides the
UMTS QoS. The UMTS Bearer Service consists of two parts, the Radio Access
Bearer Service and the Core Network Bearer Service. Both services reflects the
optimised way to realise the UMTS Bearer Service over the respective cellular
network topology taking into account such aspects as e.g. roaming, mobility and
mobile subscriber profiles.

The Radio Access Bearer Service provides confidential transport of signalling and
user data between MT and CN Iu Edge Node. When the service offered to the end-
user is an UMTS bearer service the QoS of the Radio access bearer is obtained from
to the negotiated UMTS Bearer Service or with the default QoS for signalling. When
the service offered to the end-user is an UMTS standardised teleservice, the QoS may
be a default QoS profile defined for the teleservice, or be obtained from attributes
negotiated when establishing the teleservice. The Radio Access Bearer service is
based on the characteristics of the radio interface and is maintained for a moving MT.
The role of the radio access bearer for different end-user services is shown in table 1.

End-to-end UMTS service The Radio access bearer service provides:


service

Teleservice UMTS teleservice A transport, between the MT and CN Iu Edge


speech speech; 1 Node, of compressed speech frames.

ISDN circuit UMTS bearer A transport, between the MT and CN Iu Edge


switched service; 1 Node, of the assembled data frames, i.e.
data transparent frames or RLP frames.

Internet UMTS bearer A packet transport service between the MT and


access - IP service; CN Iu Edge Node.
network
service CN Iu Edge Node UMTS bearer service and Radio Access Bearer
and CN gateway service are provided by the same UMTS service
belongs to the provider.
same UMTS
service provider.

Internet UMTS bearer An packet transport service between the MT and


access - IP service; CN Iu Edge Node.
network
service CN Iu Edge Node The Radio Access Bearer is the service provided
and CN gateway from one service provider (the owner of the CN Iu
belongs to different Edge Node) to another service provider (the
UMTS service owner of the CN gateway).
providers.
1
It is assumed that CN Iu Edge Node and Transcoder/IWU belongs to the same UMTS
service provider.

Table 1: the radio access bearer role in different end-user service scenarios.

The Core Network Bearer Service of the UMTS core network connects the UMTS CN
Iu Edge Node with the CN Gateway to the external network. The role of this service is
to efficiently control and utilise the backbone network in order to provide the
contracted UMTS bearer service.
- Cell Planning

 Link Budget Calculation

 Cell Coverage

 Neighbour Planning

 Code Planning

 Antenna
 Heights
 Azimuths
 Types
 Tilts ( Elek. / Mech)

- Optimisation

 Call Set-up
 Cell Selection Re-selection
 Active Set update

 Active Set is defined as the set of Node-Bs the UE is simultaneously connected to (i.e., the
UTRA cells currently assigning a downlink DPCH to the UE constitute the active set).
 Cells, which are not included in the active set, but are included in the CELL_INFO_LIST belong
to the Monitored Set.
 Cells detected by the UE, which are neither in the CELL_INFO_LIST nor in the active set
belong to the Detected Set. Reporting of measurements of the detected set is only applicable to
intra-frequency measurements made by UEs in CELL_DCH state.

 Pilot Pollution
 CPICH Power reduction
 Antenna parameters changes
 Tilts
 Azimuths
 Types
 Heights
 Location

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