Introduction to Vibration Problems

at Compressor Stations

Presented by:
Gary Maxwell, Chris Harper, Shelley Greenfield
(Beta Machinery Analysis)
Welcome…

Purpose: Introduction to compressor vibration

(for more detail, recommend the 2.5 day GMRC Course in May)

Focus on practical issues.

Audience participation…demo’s, case studies,
questions, etc.
(We can’t take you to the field, so we are bringing the field to the classroom)

Presenters introductions

Questions for the parking lot?
Vibration Induced Pipe Fatigue Failure
Compressors, Pumps, Engines, Turbines and other Rotating Machines
Cause Vibration Related Problems

HIGH IMPACT FAILURES:

• Significant financial costs
• Safety/environmental liabilities
Today’s Topics

1. Vibration Overview
2. Sources of Vibration
3. Pulsation Control
4. Mechanical Resonance
5. Torsional Analysis
6. Pipe Strain
7. Small Bore Piping
8. Start-up Vibration Survey
9. Summary
1. Vibration Overview

Presented by: Chris Harper

How Equipment Fails

Vibration is the leading cause of mechanical

problems

Equipment and piping fail due to excessive
STRESS (fatigue failure)

Pulsation Forces Vibration Stress Failure

What is vibration?

Vibration = periodic motion about an

equilibrium position

Vibration can be described with:
 Amplitude and

 Frequency (number of
cycles per time) or
 Period (time to
complete one cycle)
Vibration frequency

Number of cycles per unit of time

 CPM = cycles per minute

 Hz = cycles per second (cps)

 RPM = rotations per minute

For simplicity, frequency is measured in Hz

Convert from CPM or RPM to Hz by dividing
by 60
 3600 RPM  60 Hz
Vibration amplitude

Three related units

 Displacement
(µm, mils)
 Velocity
(mm/s, in/s or
ips)
 Acceleration
(mm/s2, in/s2,
g’s)

Only related when
vibration is simple,
like in a spring-
mass system
Two Ways to Look at Vibration
Time domain amplitude
typically higher …

Time-domain
Units = seconds
Overall vibration
… than frequency
domain amplitude

Frequency-domain
Individual vibration
Units = Hz
Time domain  frequency domain
Another way to visualize it

Time domain and frequency domain show the

same information, just in different ways

Frequency domain breaks out the
components of the time domain

Time domain is
measured

Frequency domain
is calculated
Overall time-domain vibration -
terminology

peak
peak

Peak-to-peak
Peak-to-peak
RMS

RMS

Peak (measure of deflection) is used more

often than RMS (measure of energy)

Frequency domain is either peak or RMS (not
peak-to-peak)
Vibration Directions (common terminology)

Vertical
Axial: along crankshaft

Horizontal: direction
of piston motion
Video #1 – Vibration Equation
Demo #1 – Scrubber Vibration
BETA guidelines - velocity

Dashed lines
adapted from
SwRI

Piping guideline
also applicable for
vessels, and for
small bore
piping (≤ 2“ NPS)

At individual
frequencies, not
overall (time-
domain) vibration
Comparison

Many different
vibration guidelines

Remember than
vibrations over
guideline mean
more
investigation
needed

Use 1 ips (FD) or
1.5 ips (TD) as a
screening guideline
for piping
18
2. Sources of Vibration

Presented by: Shelley Greenfield

Vibration Risk Areas
Mechanical
Pulsation Torsional
(Acoustics)

Small Bore

Skid & Foundation (Dynamics)

Risk Areas and Design Considerations

Thermal Expansion:
Piping Layout and
Supports

Off-skid Pulsations

Interaction
Between Other Units
Risk Areas and Design Considerations

Thermal Expansion;
Piping Layout and Supports

System Pressure
Drop (performance
issue, losses)
Off-skid
Pulsations
Responsibility Owner

Engineering firm

Pulsations and thermal growth cross
Packager
boundaries of responsibility

Vibration consultant hired by packager Vibration consultant
may be acceptable for small gathering
systems
 good specifications
and communication

Large critical pipeline,
storage, or
offshore units -
recommend vibration
consultant hired by
owner
Dynamic force on
reciprocating compressor

Unbalanced Forces and Moments

Pulsation Shaking due to Reciprocating Motion
Forces in Piping

Crosshead Guide Gas Forces

Forces (Cylinder
Stretch)
Forces occur at “multiples of runspeed”

1x Compressor primary forces & moments

Cylinder gas forces (rod load)
Pulsation shaking forces (single-acting)
2x Compressor secondary forces & moment
Crosshead guide forces
Cylinder gas forces
Pulsation shaking forces (double-acting)
3x … Cylinder gas forces
Pulsation shaking forces
How High Can Pulsation Forces Get?

Cooler Nozzle Failure

System:
• Ariel JGK/2 compressor
• Booster service (0.605 specific gravity)
• Waukesha L7042GSI engines (700-1200
RPM)
• 880 - 1000 psig suction pressure, 1058 -
1270 psig discharge pressure
• HEVV pockets, double acting, 1 stage

Problem:
• The cooler nozzle cracked shortly after
start-up
• Many other problems

Beta Mobilized to Site

• Collected vibration and pulsation data
Pulsation Shaking Forces Can Be Very
High

Guesses as to how high force

could be in this run of piping?
6” pipe - area = 26 in2

Original
Bottles

No acoustical study had been performed

To solve problem, Beta conducted acoustical study

and recommended new bottles
 As Found Unbalanced Forces

11000 lbf pk-pk at 38 Hz

What speed?

Vertical 38 Hz x 60 s/min ÷ 2
Riser to = 1140 RPM
Cooler
Gas Forces Cause Cylinder Motion

Act on cylinder, bottles, scrubber and piping

Create high vibrations around compressor

Example:
ODS Field Data
Vibration Risk: Compressor APPLICATION

Lower Risk Vib. Risk Factors Higher Risk

1 # of Units Online Many

Offshore or
Convenient Location
Remote
Critical to the
Not Unit Criticality
Process
Not
Efficiency Important
Important
Vibration Risk: Compressor CONFIGURATION

Lower Risk Vib. Risk Factors Higher Risk

Sweet Gas Composition Sour, Heavy

1 Step, DA Load Steps DA + SA
(>50% turndown)

Fixed Suct./Disc. Pressure Wide range;

Fixed Speed Wide Range
2 stg (4 or Compressor Stages 1 stg (many
6 cylinder) cylinders)
CR > 1.7 Compression Ratio < 1.3
< 150 HP/ Cylinder > 750
 Vibration Study Scope
Compressor •Pulsation/mechanical analysis
Package •Torsional vibration analysis
•Options: thermal, skid analysis

Off-Skid Piping •Pulsations & other units

Vibration •Mechanical analysis (supports)
•Transient analysis

Foundation •Dynamic analysis to

& Structure avoid resonance

Small Bore •Design review

Piping and/or field audit
3. Pulsation Control

Presented by: Shelley Greenfield

Pulsation animation

Pulsations in non-flowing gas

 Notice change in pressure and velocity
Video #2 - Pulsations and Other Forces
Pulsation Forces In Piping System
Example: Interstage System

Cooler

Suction
Discharge
Piping
Piping
Pulsation Forces – DA vs. SA
Cylinder vertical forces

Can be significant

Pulsations controlled
with orifice
plates

Vibration controlled
with outboard
supports
Case Study:
Compressor Vibration

Before - Vibration Problem After Modifications

Compressors Installed – Vibration Problem

6 Compressors – 1700 HP each

Vibration Problems

Customer tried to fix problem – no success

Units not fully operational … very expensive

… called BETA for help
Unacceptable
Vibration

Vibration Test Points (from Client)

 Example: Piping to Cooler (Riser)
Excessive Pulsation Forces (lbf Pk-Pk)

As Found:
Forces > 3 time guideline

guideline
Excessive Vibration
(forced response model)
Other Problem Locations
(Unbalanced Forces, lbf pk-pk)

Suction Discharge
Bottle Forces Bottle Forces

guideline
guideline

• Excessive forces in suction & discharge system

• Major changes required
Recommendations
Modify Piping and
New Bottles
Supports (including
(Suction; Discharge)
off-skid)
Recommendations Implemented

BEFORE AFTER

Location: Piping
Riser to Cooler
Case Summary

Vibration problems are expensive

Small errors during design stage are avoidable

Illustrates how vibration analysis techniques
used to solve or prevent problems (compared
to trial and error fixes)
What Happens to Pulsations if
Operating Envelope Changes?
Design Change: Increased #
Initial Operating Points of Load Steps and Ps Range

ACCEPTABLE Bottle
Shaking Forces Bottle Shaking Forces >200% of
Guideline. High Risk of Vibration
Problem
Bottle sizing

Risks of incorrect bottle sizes:

 Oversized bottles:

Mechanical problems (i.e., low MNF  bracing)

Expensive – materials and welding

 Undersized bottles:

Pulsations/forces not controlled  secondary volumes

Orifice plates  pressure drop  lost capacity, fuel
gas costs
Pulsation mitigation

Surge volumes and resistive elements (orifice

plates) are simple but can be costly (capital
and pressure drop)

Acoustic filtering offers much more pulsation

control with some capital cost but very little
pressure drop
Factors affecting pulsation mitigation

Difficulty Difficulty
Speed Valve
controlling controlled
range unloaders
pulsations vibration
Fixed Very low Low
Narrow Low Medium
Wide Medium High
Fixed  Medium Low
Narrow  High Medium
Wide  Very high High
For example, fixed speed =1200rpm, narrow speed range = 900 - 1200rpm,
wide speed range = 600 - 1200rpm
Optimizing Pulsation Control
Case study - Impact of off-skid piping

Case study:
 One stage, two-throw Dresser-Rand 5BVIP2

 1200 RPM, gas speed of sound 1200 ft/s

 Both single-acting (SA) and double-acting (DA)

 Off-skid piping comes several weeks after pulsation

study was completed - two units with two coolers

Stages of analysis:
 Bottle sizing with a “damper check”

 On-skid design with “infinite pipe” termination

 Off-skid piping added

On-skid design is volume-choke filter

Piping layout

Damper Check Piping Layout

On-Skid Piping Layout
Off-Skid Piping Layout

Pulsations:
- Cylinder nozzle
- Bottle outlet nozzle
- Skid edge

Shaking Forces:
- Cylinder
- Bottle
- Crossover piping
 Pulsations - discharge nozzle

25
Damper Check
On-Skid
Pulsations, psi pk-pk

20
Off-Skid
15

10

0
1x, SA 1x, DA 2x, SA 2x, DA
 Shaking force - crossover piping

450
On-Skid
400
Shaking Forces, lbf pk-pk

Off-Skid
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2x, SA 2x, DA
What was the difference?

Hint: the length between

the discharge bottle and the
cooler header is 15 feet

Half-wave between bottle
and cooler header box
volume amplified pulsations
 Multiple compressors – beat frequency
Unit A and B run at slightly different speeds

Because of this, the pulsations go in and

Unit A out of phase

Unit A

Unit B

Unit B

Total pulsation amplitude is sum

of pulsations from each unit

Beat frequency is related to the Combined Pulsations

speed differential between Unit A
and B Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University
Summary

Shaking forces are more important to control

than pulsations

Acoustic filters are more effective than orifice
plates for controlling pulsations

More pressure drop is required to filter
pulsations when wider speed ranges are used
or unit single-acting

The more information included in a pulsation
study improves accuracy and reduces risk
4. Mechanical Resonance

Presented by: Chris Harper

Summary
Example of Mechanical Analysis Model
Mechanical Analysis - MNFs

Frequencies where
small forces result
in large vibration
response of
structure
Modal Analysis

Finite Element Analysis

(FEA) used to calculate
Mechanical Natural
Frequencies (MNFs)
 Elastic Modulus

 Geometry

 Density

Measure MNFs with Bump

Test
Demo #2 – Mechanical Natural Frequency
 Mechanical Resonance

• We define resonance when force frequency is +/- 10% of MNF

• At resonance, displacement can be magnified by 40 times – can cause fatigue
failure
• What happens at 3X? What about 4X? 6X? Potential resonance,
but insufficient force
to cause problems

MNFs

Forces

| | | | | |
1x 2x 3x 4x 5x 6x
Frequency Change design to shift
MNF away from resonance
Mechanical Analysis Design Goal

Forces

MNF
| | | |
1x 2x 3x 4x
API 618 Design Goal
MNF > 2.4 x
Wide speed range

Frequency avoidance becomes challenging as

speed range is increased

Blocking out speeds may help avoid
resonance
Magnitude
Speed of
No room for
of Force
driver
MNF to hide
1200 rpm

700 rpm

MNF

| |
1x 2x
Frequency (orders of run speed)
MNFs of Main Components in Relation to
Compressor Harmonics

2.4 X 900 RPM 2.4 X 1200 RPM

Bottle MNFs:
40-70 Hz Typ.
Cylinder MNFs:
30-50 Hz Typ.

Scrubber Example: Scrubber Design

MNFs: Move MNF to Higher Frequency
15-30 Hz Typ. = Extra costs; design modification

20 Hz 40 Hz 50 Hz 60 Hz 70 Hz
Load Path Considerations

Poor Installation/Design: Better Design:

Cylinder compressor
and
piping

skid
Pile

foundation
Example: Mechanical Analysis

Demonstrates MNF (Mechanical Natural

Frequency), resonance, cylinder gas loads, forced
response Analysis, LWN (Long Weld Neck) solution
for suction bottles.

Ariel KBZ-6, Gas Load of 7,500 lbs (0-pk) at 3x on
stage 3
Case Study – 3rd Stage MNF (API 618 Step
3a)
Case Study – 3rd Stage MNF
Case Study – Cylinder Gas Loads at 3x?

TABLE L.2 - Cylinder Gas Forces (kips,0-Pk) in Horizontal direction

Unit: Ariel KBZ/6

STAGE#3 CYLINDER# 2
COND# 01X 02X 03X 04X 05X 06X 07X 08X 09X 10X
1 75.0 5.7 4.3 0.7 3.4 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8
2 69.6 5.5 6.5 1.1 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.8
3 67.8 5.4 7.0 1.2 2.7 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
4 65.8 5.3 7.5 1.3 2.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.8
5 49.1 4.5 5.2 4.1 1.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6
6 48.4 4.3 5.5 4.1 1.6 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5

 Therefore 7500 lbs (0-pk) at 3x compressor run speed.

 (Weight of large SUV fully reversing 43.5 times per second!)
 Causes “cylinder stretch”
Case Study – Forced Response Analysis
(API 618 Step 3b1)
Case Study – 3rd Stage MNF, with LWN
Case Study – 3rd Stage MNF, with LWN
Case Study – Cylinder Gas Loads at 4x?

TABLE L.2 - Cylinder Gas Forces (kips,0-Pk) in Horizontal direction

Unit: Ariel KBZ/6

STAGE#3 CYLINDER# 2
COND# 01X 02X 03X 04X 05X 06X 07X 08X 09X 10X
1 75.0 5.7 4.3 0.7 3.4 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8
2 69.6 5.5 6.5 1.1 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.8
3 67.8 5.4 7.0 1.2 2.7 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
4 65.8 5.3 7.5 1.3 2.5 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.8
5 49.1 4.5 5.2 4.1 1.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.6
6 48.4 4.3 5.5 4.1 1.6 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5

 Gas Loads are less at 4x compressor run speed than at 3x

Case Study – Forced Response Analysis
Conflict Between Thermal and Dynamic Study

Thermal solution has large distance between

clamps, thermal loops, and resting supports

Dynamic solution has short distance between
clamps and avoids elbows

Balanced solution has clamps
and thermal loops

API 618 recommends same
company conduct
both studies
Solutions - Scrubber Bracing

Increase MNF of scrubbers

to guideline levels, or
inter-tune if possible

May be required on some
high RPM compressors

Scrubber attachments
more likely to fail
5. Torsional Vibration

Presented by: Chris Harper

Torsional Vibration – Crank Failures
Torsional Vibration – Coupling Failures
Video #3 – Torsional Vibration
Purpose of Torsional Analysis

To predict excessive vibratory stress or amplitude

problems in driveline of driver / coupling /
compressor

Potential Torsional Problems

 Compressor/Engine Crankshaft failure
 Motor Shaft Failures or Spider Failure (welded joints)
 Coupling Failure (Disk Pack, Rubber, Other)
 Damper/Coupling Heat Loads
 Compressor auxiliary drive amplitudes
 Engine Free End Amplitudes (Gear Problems)
 Motor Free End Amplitudes (Fan)
 Current Pulsation
Torsional Vibration - Applications

A TVA should be done for:

Any new driver or compressor combination

Any change in compressor configuration (different cylinders)

Different motor (same frame rarely means same rotor inside)

Different operating conditions (than what was originally studied)

Drive trains experiencing failures

VFD applications

Critical applications

Risk Chart May help to determine if a Study is required

http://www.betamachinery.com/uploadedFiles/001_-
_Design_Services/001_-
_Reciprocating_Compressors/Recip_RISK_Chart_Vibration_Control_3.
1.xls
Thorough Checks Required

Analyze full operating map PLUS upset conditions

Include tolerance band to consider fabrication and
installation uncertainty

Motor stub shaft to be the
same diameter as the
compressor stub

Risk of Failure
at some
pressures and
speeds
6. Pipe Strain

Presented by: Chris Harper

Pipe Strain

Several recent jobs where

we encountered unexplained
high frequency vibrations
and failures

Isolated the cause as pipe
strain
Effects

Pipe strain can:

 Increase natural frequencies (like a
guitar string)
 Reduce damping (high frequency
vibrations increase)
 Increase mean stress in system (making
it more likely to fail due to vibrations)
Contributing Factors

Misaligned flanges

Gaps between pipe and support
Flange Misalignment

ASME B31.3 offers guidance for flange

alignment
Solutions

Custom or modified spool pieces, orifice

plates, etc.

Shim between piping and supports, rather
than just tightening clamp bolts

Post-weld heat treating (e.g., vessel nozzles)

Designing more flexibility into system

Small details are

important!
7. Small Bore Piping Vibration

Presented by: Chris Harper

Small Bore Piping - Introduction

Also called Branch Connections

Generally 2 inches (50mm) or less

Instrumentation connection (taps, thermowells, gauges), vent
lines, drains, site glasses, etc.

Common on piping and vessels
near compressors, pumps, etc.
Demo #3 – Small Bore Piping
Video #4 – Small Bore Piping Vibration
Why is SBP a High Risk Problem?

Small bore piping is often overlooked:

 May not be explicitly designed - field
installed
 Not shown on compressor package GAs

 Not included in typical pulsation/vibration

study

Difficult to measure properly in the field

Failure can lead to significant downtime
Field Measurements

Measure Relative Vibration,

if required

Steady State (Running)

Transient (Start-up)

Further check/investigation if
exceeds screening guideline
Assessment Methods

Energy Institute
 Need dynamic force & poor design & poor
location = high likelihood of failure

GMRC
 Tables of lengths
and weights

FEA
 Calculate allowable
vibration before failure
8. Start-up Vibration Survey

Presented by: Chris Harper

Steps for Commissioning

Note the operating condition (speed, loading,

pressure, temperature, SG)

Take vibration readings (remember units!) at
consistent locations

When to call an expert

Solutions
Typical vibration measurement points

Scrubber: Top seam

Both ends of bottle (seam); sometimes
Bottle:
middle
Cylinder: Cylinder head end

Compressor frame Crank height drive and

& engine: non-drive ends

Pipe: Elbows, between supports

PSV: Top of valve body
Main skid: Front and rear corners
Small Bore Piping: End of cantilever; between supports

Plus other points if vibrations at above points are suspect!

Not all vibrations are alike

Be clear what is being measured and what

guideline is being applied
 Overall vs. individual frequencies

 Units: mm/s vs. inches/second

 Peak or RMS (or pseudo RMS)

 Frequency range

Apply appropriate guidelines (time-domain

vs. frequency domain guidelines)
When do I call an expert?

Basic repairs/modifications do not work

 Try temporary bracing first

Very high vibration levels

Vibrations are high in multiple areas

Vibrations are high for multiple operating
conditions

Suspect pulsations are high
 High vibrations away from compressor

Need help measuring or interpreting data

Solutions

Vibration = Dynamic Force x Dynamic Flexibility

Control forces
 Pulsation control devices like orifice plates

 Moving acoustic natural frequencies

Control flexibility
 Gussets

 Bracing

 Modified or additional clamping

 Moving mechanical natural frequencies

Braces – Test temporary brace

Add wooden brace

as field test
9. Summary

Presented by: Shelley Greenfield

Video #5 - Summary
Summary - Vibration

Vibration = Dynamic Force x Dynamic Flexibility

Vibration cannot be eliminated, but can be
controlled through a balance between cost,
performance and reliability

The earlier vibration risk is identified, the
easier (and cheaper) it is to deal with
Draft Vibration Specification (GMRC)
Scope of Work for Compressor System (Pipeline, Gas Injection/Withdrawal, Critical Application)
Study Analysis Step Description
A. Preliminary Design Review & Project Planning Stage:
Preliminary Pulsation Bottle Sizing Assess operating range, unloading plan, piping
layout options.
Provide preliminary pulsation control scheme and estimated vessel sizing.

B. Torsional Vibration Analysis (TVA) Assess stress and vibration on crankshaft(s) (driver and compressor system), and coupling dynamic torque
effects.
C Pulsation Analysis Pulsation study of compressor and piping system (including package and station piping). Provide final
recommendations on pulsation control solution.

D Pressure Drop and Performance Evaluate pressure drop of pulsation control devices and piping system concurrently. Evaluate impact on
Report compressor performance.

E Mechanical Mechanical dynamic analysis of on-skid piping, supports, and vessels. FEA modelling can be applied where
Analysis necessary.

Provide recommendations for small bore piping support and vibration control.

Optional: Forced Response Analysis of the Compressor Manifold and Vessels when necessary.
(Proper design practices using resonance avoidance can eliminate the need for this task.)

Optional: Forced Response Analysis of Off-Skid Piping System when necessary.

(Proper design practices using resonance avoidance can eliminate the need for this task.)

F Piping Flexibility (Thermal Stress) Static Analysis of piping and vessels to evaluate stress and equipment loads due to weight, pressure and
Analysis temperature changes.

G Skid Dynamic and Static Analysis Evaluate vibration of the skid and equipment mounted on the skid due to dynamic loads from the compressor
and driver. The foundation and the geotechnical properties should be considered. Evaluate skid design relative
to lifting.

H Commission Testing Evaluate vibration of compressor, piping, skid, foundation and small bore piping. Evaluate pulsation, pressure
drop, performance, and torsional vibration.
Key Take-Aways

Properly specify vibration studies (scope, etc.)

Assess vibrations on-skid and off-skid (across
operating envelope)

Thermal/Mechanical: performed by same group

Consider small bore vibration survey

Attention to details (alignment, installation, etc.)

Start vibration study early

Attend GMRC’s 2.5 day course, “Compressor Station

Vibration,” for more training.
Questions?

Chris Harper (charper@betamachinery.com)

Shelley Greenfield

Gary Maxwell