Power systemoverview, power systemanalysis murthy, theoryand problems of electrical,

electricalpowersystem by C.L, power systemnice

Unit 1: The power system overview and modeling

Structure of electric power system: Generation, Transmission and Distribution

The electrical power system is a complex network consisting of generators, loads, transmission
lines, transformers, buses, circuit breakers etc. For the analysis of a power system in operation

Power system analysis introduction

The evaluation of power system is called as power system analysis which involves the determination of
voltages at various buses and the currents that flow in the transmission lines operating at different voltage
levels.

The electrical power system is a complex network consisting of generators, loads, transmission
lines, transformers, buses, circuit breakers etc. For the analysis of a power system in operation
a suitable model is needed. This model basically depends upon the type of problem on hand.
Accordingly it may be algebraic equations, differential equations, transfer functions etc. The
power system is never in steady state as the loads keep changing continuously.
However, it is possible to conceive a quasistatic state during which period the loads
could be considered constant. This period could be 15 to 30 minutes. In this state power flow
equations are non-linear due to the presence of product terms of variables and trigonometric
terms.

The solution techniques involves numerical (iterative) methods for solving non-linear
algebraic equations. Newton-Raphson method is the most commonly used mathematical
technique. The analysis of the system for small load variations, wherein speed or frequency
and voltage control may be required to maintain the standard values, transfer function and state
variable models are better suited to implement proportional, derivative and integral controllers
or optimal controllers using Kalman's feed back coefficients.

For transient stability studies involving sudden changes in load or circuit condition due to faults,
differential equations describing energy balance over a few half-cycles of time period are required. For
studying the steady state performance a number of matrix models are needed. Consider the power System
shown in Fig. 1.1. The equivalent circuit for the power system can be represented as in Fig. 1.2. For
study of fault currents the equivalent circuit in Fig. 1.2 can be reduced to Fig. 1.3 up to the load terminals
neglecting the shunt capacitances of the transmission line and magnetizing reactances of the transformers.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2
 Figure 3.3
While the reactances of transformers and lines which are static do not change under
varying conditions of operation, the machine reactances may change and assume different
values fot different situations. Also, composite loads containing 3-phase motors, I-phase
motors, d-c motors, rectifiers, lighting loads, heaters. welding transformers etc., may have
very different models depending upon the composition of its constituents.

The control of a turbo generator set to suit to the varying load requirement requires a
model. For small variations, a linearized model is convenient to study. Such a model can be
obtained using transfer function concept and control can be achieved through classical or
modern control theory. This requires modeling of speed governor, turbo generator and power
system itself as all these constitute the components of a feedback loop for control. The
ultimate objective of power system control is to maintain continuous supply of power with
acceptable quality. Quality is defined in terms of voltage and frequency

Functions of power system analysis

 To monitor the voltage at various buses, real and reactive power flow between buses.
 To design the circuit breakers.
 To plan future expansion of the existing system
 To analyze the system under different fault conditions
 To study the ability of the system for small and large disturbances (Stability studies)

Components of power system : Generators, Power transformers, Transmission lines, Distribution lines,
Loads and compensating devices

Major components in power system that are to be modelled for different

system problems are:
1. Synchronous generators
2. Transmission lines
3. Transformers
4. Loads

1. Synchronous generator
Synchronous generator is a device which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The required
mechanical energy is supplied by a prime mover which usually a steam or hydraulic turbine. The stator
and rotor are the two principal parts of a synchronous generator. The stationary part which is essentially a
hollow cylinder is called the stator or armature. It has longitudinal slots in which the coils of armature
winding are placed. This winding carries the current supplied to an electrical load when it is functioning
as an individual generator. The armature winding carries the current supplied to the system when it is
synchronized to the grid.

The rotor of the synchronous generator is mounted on the shaft and rotated inside the hollow stator. The
winding on the rotor is called the field winding and is supplied with dc current. The very high
magnetomotive force (mmf) produced by the current in the field
winding combines with the mmf produced by the current in the armature winding. The resultant flux
across the air gap between the stator and the rotor generates voltage in the coils of the armature winding.

The rotor flux Φf is the only one to be considered when the armature current is
zero. The flux Φf generates the no-load voltage Ea0 which we shall designate
here as Ef . The flux Ea0 due to armature reaction mmf will be in phase with the
current ia . The sum of Φf and Φar , is Φr the resultant flux which generates the
voltage Er in the coil winding composing phase a. The phasor diagram for
phase a is shown in Fig. 1.5.Voltages Ef and Ear lags the fluxes Φf and Φar
which generate them by 90°. The resultant flux Φr is the flux across the air gap
of the machine and generates Er in the stator. Voltage Er lags the flux Φr by
90°. Similar phasor diagram can be drawn for phase b and phase c also.

Figure 1.5 Phasor diagram for phase a of a synchronous generator

Figure 1.6 Phasor diagram for phase a of a synchronous generator

Observing the phasor diagrams, that 𝐸𝑎𝑟 is lagging Ia by 90°. The magnitude of 𝐸𝑎𝑟 is determined by Φ𝑎𝑟
which in turn is proportional ta І I𝑎 І since it is the result of armature current. The inductive reactance 𝑋𝑎𝑟
can be specified by:

𝐸𝑎𝑟 = −𝑗𝑋𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑎 (1.1)

Knowing that the voltage generated in phase a by the air gap flux is 𝐸𝑟

𝐸𝑟 = Ef + Ear = Ef − 𝑗𝑋𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑎 (1.2)

The terminal voltage Vt will be less than Er by the voltage drop due to armature
current times the armature leakage reactance 𝑋ₑ if the armature resistance is
neglected, Then
Vt = 𝐸𝑟 − 𝑗𝑋ₑ 𝐼𝑎 (1.3)
Use of question 1.2 in the above results
Vt = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝑗𝑋𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑎 − 𝑗𝑋ₑ 𝐼𝑎 (1.4)
Thus Vt = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝑎 (1.5)
Where 𝑋𝑠 (synchronous reactance) is equal to 𝑋𝑎𝑟 + 𝑋ₑ . If the resistance of the armature 𝑅𝑎 is to be
considered, Equation (1.5) becomes
Vt = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝑎 − 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑓 − (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠 )𝐼𝑎 (1.6)

Armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 is usually so much smaller than 𝑋𝑠 that its omission is acceptable.
 Figure 1.6 equivalent circuit of an ac generator
Generally modelling of components depends on the study. The model of ac
generator discussed is used for steady state analysis. While performing short circuit analysis for transient
and sub-transient period, the steady state reactance of the generator will be replaced by transient reactance
or sub-transient reactance of the ac generator.n While conducting power flow analysis, generators are
modelled as equivalent complex power injection.

2. Modelling of transmission lines

Transmission lines are represented by a two-port model whose parameters correspond to the positive
sequence equivalent circuit of the transmission lines. A transmission line with a series impedance of R + j
X and total line charging susceptance of j B, will be modelled by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
1.7.

Figure 1.7 Equivalent circuit for a transmission line

3. Modelling of transformer
Transformer is a static device used to step-up or step-down the voltage level. Power transformers and
distribution transformers are used power system network. The parameters of the equivalent circuit of a
transformer should always be referred either the primary or the secondary side of the transformer. For
instance, if we refer all voltages, currents and impedances to the primary side, the equivalent circuit will
of the transformer will be as shown in Fig. 1.8 where a is the ratio of primary rated voltage to secondary
rated voltage.

Figure 1.8 Transformer model referred to primary Figure 1.9 simplified Transformer model
Very often the magnetizing current is neglected because it is too small as compared the usual load
currents therefore
𝑅1 = 𝑟2 + a2 𝑟2 and 𝑋1 = x2 + a2 x2

To obtain the parameters in the equivalent circuit of Fig 1.8, all impedances and voltages in the
part of the circuit connected to the secondary terminals should be referred to the primary side.

4. Modelling of loads
Loads will absorb real and reactive power. In power flow study, loads are modelled as equivalent
complex power injections represented by − 𝑃𝐿 + 𝑗𝑄𝐿 .
Define the following : Complex power Concepts of real and reactive power

In case of transient stability study, loads are included as shunt admittances at the corresponding buses.
Shunt admittance corresponding to load (𝑃𝐿 + 𝑗𝑄𝐿 .) can be obtained as
𝑃𝐿 − 𝑗𝑄𝐿
𝑌L =
|𝑉|2

Loads are neglected in short circuit study as the pre fault currents are very small compared to fault
currents.

5. Single line or one-line diagram

Electric power systems are supplied by three-phase generators. Ideally, the generators are supplying
power to balanced three phase loads. Fig.1.10 shows a star connected generator supplying star connected
balanced load.

Figure 1.10 Y- connected generator supplying balanced Y- connected load

A balanced three-phase system is always solved as a single-phase circuit composed of one of the three
lines and the neutral return. Single-phase circuit of three-phase system considered above is shown in Fig.
1.11.

Fig. 1.11 Single-phase circuit

Often the diagram is further simplified by omitting the neutral and indicating the component parts by
standard symbols rather than by their equivalent circuits. Such a simplified diagram of electric system is
called a one-line diagram or single line diagram. The one-line diagram of the simple three-phase system
considered above is shown in Figure. 1.12
 Figure 1.12 One-line diagram / single line diagram

Figure 1.13 One-line diagram of a sample power system

The one line diagram of a sample power system shows that the system have two generators, one solidly
grounded and the other grounded through a resistor, that are connected to a bus 1. A transmission line is
fed through a step-up transformer installed at bus 1. A step-down transformer is connected at the other
end of the transmission line. At its low voltage side a generator, grounded through a reactor, is connected
at bus 2. Load A and load B are connected at buses 1 and 2 respectively. On the one-line diagram
information about the loads, the ratings of the generators and transformers, and reactance of different
components of the circuit are often given.

6. Impedance and reactance diagram

To calculate the performance of a power system under load condition or upon the occurrence of a fault,
the one line diagram is used to draw the single-phase or per phase equivalent circuit of the system.

The following per phase impedance diagram is for the one-line diagram of a sample power system shown
in Figure 1.13 . The impedance diagram does not include the current limiting impedances shown in the
one-line diagram because no current flows in the ground under balanced condition
 Figure 1.14 Per-phase impedance diagram of a sample power system

When the inductive reactance of different system component is much larger than its resistance generally,
the resistances are omitted. Static loads have little effect on the total line current during the fault and are
usually omitted. The resulting diagram as shown in Fig. 1.15 and is called as per-phase reactance diagram
of the system.

Figure 1.15 Per-phase reactance diagram

Current scenario

Per unit system , Advantages of per unit system ,

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the any quantity to the base
value of the same quantity as a decimal. In a large interconnected power system with various voltage
levels and various capacity equipments it has been found quite convenient to work with per unit (p.u.)
system of quantities for analysis purposes rather than in absolute values of quantities. Sometimes percent
values are used instead of p.u. but it is always convenient to use p.u. values.

The actual value

𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 =
The base or reference value

The actual value

𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (%) = × 100
The base or reference value

In power system we shall deal with voltage, current, impedance and apparent power. When they are large
values, we may use kV, ampere, ohm and kVA as their units. It is to be noted that out of the four
quantities voltage, current, impedance and apparent power if we specify two quantities, other two
quantities can be calculated. Generally, base volt-ampere in MVA and base voltage in kV are specified.
For a single-phase system, the following formulas relate the various quantities.

base voltamperes
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( in amperes)
base voltage

base voltage
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (in ohms)
base current
 actual voltage
𝑃𝑒𝑟 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ( in per unit or pu)
base volage

actual current
𝑃𝑒𝑟 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ( in per unit or pu)
base current

actual impedance
𝑃𝑒𝑟 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ( in per unit or pu)
base impedance

Advantages of per unit system

i. Per unit data representation yields valuable relative magnitude information.
ii. Circuit analysis of systems containing transformers of various transformation ratios is greatly
simplified.
iii. The p.u systems are ideal for the computerized analysis and simulation of complex power system
problems.
iv. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance values of equivalent in per unit of the equipments rating.
If the any data is not available, it is easier to assume its per unit value than its numerical value.
v. The ohmic values of impedances are refereed to secondary is different from the value as referee to
primary. However, if base values are selected properly, the p.u impedance is the same on the two sides of
the transformer.
vi. The circuit laws are valid in p.u systems, and the power and voltages equations are simplified since the
factors of √3 and 3 are eliminated.

Change of base , calculations of per unit system

Primitive network and network matrices

Y-bus formulation by direct inspection and singular transformation methods.