04BitumenRID-ENSTP 2016

Road Infrastructures Design
L4 - Bitumen
ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD
UNIVERSITY OF PADUA
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ARCHITECTURAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Historical background
Bitumen (asphalt cement) and tar are considered bituminous materials and these two terms are
often wrongly used as synonyms due to their similarity in appearance and in some similar
applications.
However bitumen and tar are two distinctly different materials with their own origin, chemical
and physical characteristics.
Bitumen has a dark brown to black color and is either naturally occurring or is produced
by petroleum distillation.
Tar is obtained from the destructive distillation of organic materials such as coal. Tar is no longer
used in paving because of some undesirable physical characteristics (high temperature
susceptibility, low softening temperature) and significant health hazards (eye and skin irritation
when exposed to its fumes, considered toxic and carcinogenic). The terms “tar pits”
or “tar sands” are improperly used, indeed, they describe substances which contain asphalt or
heavy crude oil rather than tar.
Since the dawn of civilization bitumen has known for its adhesive and waterproofing
properties.
Applications in shipbuilding, mortar for building or paving blocks, public baths or tanks date
back to 3.000 B.C.
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 2

Commercial types of asphalt
1- Natural asphalts: they occur as relatively soft asphalt material like heavy petroleum
(Trinidad lake deposit) and as a hard, friable material in veins of rock formations (gilsonite) or
impregnated in various limestones, sandstone formations. When native asphalts occur as solid
or semi-solid materials, fluxing materials are added to reduce their consistency.
2- Petroleum asphalts: they are colloidally dispersed hydrocarbons in crude petroleum and are
obtained by refining petroleum crudes (date back to early 1900s).

Asphalt refining
Almost all paving bitumens used today are obtained by processing crude oils (nowadays
the natural asphalts is relatively less important than refined asphalts).
The crude oil used in Italy is mainly imported from foreign countries.
Crude petroleum varies in composition from source to source.
Venezuela Arabian Nigeria

Gasoline [%] 3 21 33
Kerosene [%] 6 14 20
Light gas oil [%] 7 10 16
Heavy gas oil [%] 26 28 30
Bitumen [%] 58 27 1

Elementar analyses
Even the bitumen quality varies from source to source.
Mexican Arabian
Carbon (C) 84 % 82 %
Hydrogen (H) 9% 10.50 %
Nitrogen (N) 0.28 % 0.78 %
Sulfur (S) 5.25 % 5.43 %
Oxygen (O) 0.77 % 0.24 %
Vanadium (V) 180 ppm 1380 ppm
Nickel (Ni) 22 ppm 109 ppm

Asphalt refining
The crude oil is divided into different fractions which have different boiling ranges
(distillation). The crude oil is heated in a large furnace to about 350 °C and partially vaporized.
In the distillation tower the lightest components vaporize, rise to the top, cool, condense and are
drawn off for further processing. At various heights in the tower, different fractions reach their
boiling temperature and then, as the temperature is reduced, condense on trays.
The residuum from this distillation is usually fed into a vacuum distillation unit.
The reduced pressure (typically 55 mm Hg) in the vacuum tower assists in treating these heavy
oils preventing thermal cracking of the asphalt cement.

Bitumen
At ambient temperatures bitumen is a black, sticky, semisolid and highly viscous material.
It has excellent adhesive and waterproofing characteristics.
The largest use of bitumen is in the production of hot mix asphalt (HMA) or asphalt concrete
(AC), which is used in the construction of road (and airfields) pavements throughout the world.
The bitumen can be liquefied by applying heat and mixed with mineral aggregates (typically
T > 160 °C).
Being sticky, it adheres to the aggregates and binds them to form AC. After cooling to
ambient temperatures, bitumen gives cohesion to aggregate mix which can withstand shear and
flexural stresses. Thus, AC is a strong paving material which can sustain heavy traffic loads
such those experienced on highways and heavy duty airfields.

Bitumen chemistry
Carbon and hydrogen are the principal elements in bitumen molecules. Sulfur is the next most
abundant element.
Most bitumen molecules, consisting of carbon and hydrogen, contain one or more heteroatoms
(sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen). The type of molecular structure is more important than the
total amount of each element. Bitumens have extremely diverse molecular structures
depending on the crude source.
The heteroatoms are attached to carbon atoms in different configurations forming different
compounds that are polar because of electrochemical forces (like charges repel each other and
unlike charges attract each other). Molecular interactions (interactions among bitumen
molecules or with surface or molecules of other materials) influence the physical properties of
bitumen.
These configurations of heteroatoms give functionality and polarity to bitumen molecules and
are hence called functional or polar groups.
The non-polar components act as solvents or dispersents for polar groups.
The compatibility and relationships of difference components control the behaviour of

bitumen rather than the quantitative amount of any single component.

Conceptual composition model
Bitumen is considered to be made up of asphaltenes and maltenes (resins and oils).
Asphaltenes are generally dark brown, friable solids. Asphaltenes are the most complex
components with the highest polarity (high tendency to interact and associate) and play a
major role as viscosity-building component (“bodying”). Basically, the more asphaltenes there
are in a bitumen, the harder and more viscous the bitumen is.
Resins are generally dark and semi-solid or solid materials (nitrogen bases, quite aromatic,
unsaturated ring). Resins are fluid when heated and become brittle when cold. They work
as agents that disperse (peptize) the asphaltenes throughout the oils to provide
homogeneous liquid. On oxidation they yield asphaltenes type molecules.
Oils are usually colourless or white liquids (alifatic or paraffinic types which are nonreactive,
saturates and ligth non-polar fraction giving fluidity). Oils have paraffinic structures with
no oxygen and nitrogen present. On oxidation they yield asphaltenes and resins molecules.
Bitumen
Asphaltenes Maltenes
Resins Oils

Colloidal system
Bitumen is considered a colloidal system with a dispersion of micelles in an oil medium.
The relative amount and characteristics of asphaltenes, resins and oils influence physical
properties of the bitumen and make it act as “sol”, “sol-gel” or “gel”. The degree to which
bitumen behaves as a sol or as a gel influences its physical properties and aging process.
Sol: bitumen is a system in which the resins keep the asphaltenes highly peptized in the oil
phase and show Newtonian flow characteristics.
Gel: bitumen is a system in which the resins are not very effective in peptizing asphaltenes
leading to separation of the dispersed and dispersing phases. Gel bitumen exhibit non-
Newtonian behaviour.
resins peptizzate Sol bitumen Gel bitumen
A A Asphaltenes
A A
oils

Rheology of bitumen
Rheology studies the mechanical behaviour of materials as temperature and loading frequency
change. Depending on the temperature and rate of loading, a bitumen could behave as an
elastic material (low temperatures or high loading frequencies) or as a viscous material
(high temperatures or low loading frequencies) or in a way that combines both of them
(intermediate temperatures and loading frequencies) showing a viscoelastic behaviour.
visco-elastic solid visco-elastic liquid

solid liquid
Tg T*
Service temperatures: from - 15 °C to + 60 °C
Mixing and laying temperatures: from 140 °C to 180 °C

The elastic solid
The elastic solid has a definite shape and it can be deformed by external forces. On removal of
these external forces it turns to its original shape. This solid stores the energy produced by
the external forces and uses it to restore its original shape when the external forces are
removed. The behaviour of an elastic solid can be described by the Hooke’s law.
Elastic behaviour; E = elastic modulus
The stress is linearly related to the strain
σ = E ⋅ε
σ
t0 t1 t
ε
t0 t1 t
The viscous liquid
A viscous liquid has no definite shape and, when external forces are applied, flows
irreversibly. The behaviour of a viscous liquid can be described by the Newton’s law.
Newtonian liquid, η = viscosity

The stress is linearly related to the rate of change of strain (strain rate)
τ = η ⋅ γ
γ t0 t1 t
t0 t1 t
Dynamic Viscosity
Viscosity: the ratio between the applied shear stress and the rate of shear.
Viscosity provides a limited estimation of fundamental material properties.
The easiest way to picture shear is to visualize a deck of cards which have a vertical line
marked on the side. As pressure is applied to the top of the deck, the cards slide over one
another and the marked dots on the individual cards start to separate.
The shear rate is the rate at which these dots separate.
τ = η ⋅ γ τ
τ  mPa  tan α = η
η=  s −1  or [cP]
γ α
γ

Linear viscoelastic solid
The behaviour of a viscoelastic body can be obtained by combining the previous two ideal
models. Therefore the shear stresses are related to both strain and strain rate.
For a viscoelastic body, it can be distinguished the immediate elastic deformation (γe), the
delayed elastic deformation (γve) and the Newtonian flow (γv).
The dominant part or the general behaviour depends on the time scale.
∂exy
σ xy = (σ xy )E + (σ xy )V = E ⋅ exy + η ⋅
∂t
τ
t
γ
γv γe
γve γve
γe γv
t
Viscoelasticity
z = x + iy
z = ρ ⋅ (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ )
z = ρ ⋅ e iϕ Stress, Strain
σ = σ 0 sin (ω ⋅ t )
Stress
ε = ε 0 sin (ω ⋅ t − φ ) Strain
σ 0 sin (ω ⋅ t )
E=
ε 0 sin (ω ⋅ t − φ ) Time
σ * = σ 0 ⋅ e i (ϖt )
ε * = ε 0 ⋅ e i (ϖt −φ )
σ 0 iφ
E =*
⋅ e = E0 ⋅ (cos φ + i sin φ ) = E1 + iE2
ε0

Viscoelasticity, phase angle
Bitumen behaves like elastic solids at low temperatures (or short periods of loading) and like a
viscous fluid at high temperatures (or long periods of loading). These behaviours can be
analysed by measuring the phase angle (δ) and the complex modulus (G*) under specific
testing conditions.
The lag between the shear stress and shear strain is called phase angle and can range from
0°, for a perfectly elastic material to 90° for a perfectly viscous material.
Stress, Strain Elastic Viscous
Stress
Stress
Strain
Strain
Time
Strain in-phase (δ = 0°) Strain out-of-phase (δ = 90°)

Viscoelasticity, complex modulus
G* is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. G* can be represented in a
complex plain as a complex number or vector having two components (i.e. the elastic and
viscous component).
The norm of G* (|G*|) represents the stiffness and, basically, is the absolute magnitude of
shear stress divided by the absolute magnitude of shear strain (ignoring any time lag due to
viscous effects). In other words, |G*| is the ratio of peak stress to peak strain in harmonic
sinusoidal oscillation.
The stiffness must be known not only to assess the behaviour of the material itself but also to
evaluate the performance of the road structure in which the material is a part.
Viscous Modulus, G2
Complex Modulus, G*
Storage Modulus, G1

G* consists of two components: storage modulus G1 or elastic (recoverable) part, loss
modulus G2 or viscous (non-recoverable) part. Complex Modulus is the vector sum of the
storage and viscous modulus.
The elastic component (real part: G1=|G*|·cosδ) is related to the amount of energy stored in
the sample during each testing cycle. The viscous component (imaginary part: G2=|G*|·sinδ)
is related to the energy lost during each testing cycle through permanent flow or deformation.
A significant amount of delayed elastic response, which is recovered completely when the
sample is no longer loaded, is contained in both storage and loss moduli. For this reason the
storage and loss moduli cannot be considered purely elastic or viscous respectively.
Stress, Strain
Viscous Modulus, G2
Stress Viscoelastic
Complex Modulus, G*
Strain
Time
Storage Modulus, G1

Bitumen A and B have the same G*(indicated by the length of the diagonal) but different δ.
Bitumen B has a larger elastic component compared to bitumen A.
The complex modulus (stiffness) is not sufficient to characterize bitumen, phase angle is
also needed.
Stress Stress
Strain Strain
A B
Viscous Modulus, G2B

Viscous Modulus, G2A
Complex Modulus, G*
Complex Modulus, G*
δA
δB
Storage Modulus, G1A Storage Modulus, G1B

Viscoelasticity
τ 100000
Complex modulus G* [Pa]

T=4°C
10000 T=16°C
T=28°C
1000
T=40°C
t 100 T=52°C
γ T=64°C
10
γv γe T=76°C
γve γve 1
γe γv
0,1
t 0,1 1 10 100
Frequency [Hz]
E*(t1, T1) = E*(t2, T2)

t 1 > t2
T1 < T2

Age hardening (aging)
Aging is an evolutive process that affects the bitumen since from the mixing phase for the
production of AC. The aging process can be distinguished in short-term aging and long-term
aging. The former take place during the mixing, transportation, laying and compaction
of AC. The latter develops during the service life of the road.
Therefore the first significant aging occurs when hot bitumen is mixed with heated aggregates
in the pugmill (or drum mixer). In this phase the bitumen, which coats aggregates in a very
thin film, is exposed to temperatures which generally range from 150 to 180 °C. Although at a
slower rate, aging continues while AC is stored in a silo, transported to the paving site, laid
and compacted (temperatures between 130 and 150 °C).
After the AC has cooled and been opened to traffic, the age hardening continues at a
significantly slower rate over years. In this phase, the air void content in the AC, water, light,
climatic conditions, thickness of bitumen film around the aggregates, depth from the surface
influence the aging.
In the aging process important chemical and physical properties change, due to both air
oxidation and loss of volatile components, and cause a general bitumen hardening
(decrease in penetration, increase in viscosity).
Six factors contribute to the bitumen aging: oxidation, volatilization, polymerization,

thixotropy, syneresis and separation.

Factors that contribute to aging
• Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen with bitumen. Asphalt binder components oxidize and
form heavier and more complex molecules, increasing its stiffness and decreasing its
flexibility. The rate of oxidation is affected by the temperature and the asphalt binder film
thickness, with higher temperature and thinner films facilitating oxidation.
• Volatilization is the evaporation of the lighter constituents from bitumen and is primarily a
function of temperature and surface area exposed. It is not significant for long-term aging.
• Polymerization is a combining of like molecules to form larger molecules causing a
progressive hardening.
• Thixotropy is a progressive hardening due to the formation of a structure within the bitumen
which can be destroyed by reheating and working the material.
• Syneresis is an exudation reaction in which the thin oily liquids are exuded to the surface.
• Separation is the removal of the oily constituents, resins or asphaltenes from bitumen as
caused by selective absorption of some porous aggregates.

Methods of classifying bitumens
Bitumen is classified (standard grade) using three methods based on penetration, viscosity,
performance. Bitumens are divided into different grades (consistency). The consistency
describes the degree of fluidity of bitumen at any temperature.
The penetration grading is controlled by penetration test (EN 1426) and involves
measurement of penetration of a standard needle into a sample of bitumen under standard
temperature, time and load. The higher the penetration, the softer the bitumen.
The specifications for paving grade bitumens are reported in EN 12591.
The second method of classifying bitumen is by viscosity grading, as specified in ASTM D3381.
This grading is based on the viscosity at 60 °C.
The performance based method of classifying asphalt cements was developed in the
Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP). The method is specified in ASTM D6373

Penetration grading system
• Grading is based on the consistency of the bitumen at 25 °C, which is close to the average
pavement service temperature;
• testing time relatively short and equipment costs are relatively low;
• precision limits are well established;
• temperature susceptibility (i.e., the rate of change in material properties with a change in
temperature) can be determined by measuring penetration at different temperatures;
• penetration is an empirical test and does not measure the bitumen consistency in
fundamental units (i.e., no stress or strain measurements);
• shear rate is variable because it depends on the consistency of bitumen rates (i.e., the needle
penetrates the bitumen faster for softer as compared to harder bitumens);
• lack of information for selecting appropriate mixing and compaction temperatures
(no viscosity is available to establish mixing and compaction temperatures);
• inability to evaluate shear rate dependent materials (e.g., polymer modified asphalt binders);
• similitude at 25 °C can be deceptive to predict performance at higher or lower temperatures.
Two sources of bitumen can have the same

penetration at 25 °C but different properties
Stiffness
above and below this temperature.

Low temperature susceptibility
This helps explain the differences in observed
High temperature susceptibility pavement performance even though the same
penetration grade of asphalt binder is specified.
25 °C (Temperature)

Penetration test (EN 1426)
The penetration test is an empirical test intended to indicate the
consistency of bitumen at 25 °C. A container of bitumen is
brought to the testing temperature. The sample is placed under a
needle loaded with a 100 g weight which is allowed to penetrate
the sample for 5 seconds. The depth of penetration is measured
in 0.1 mm (dmm).
Container dimensions: h 35 - 100 mm; d 55 -70 mm
Needle diameter: 1.00 - 1.02 mm
Conditioning method: 1h@25°C
Test repetitions: 3
Penetration classes: 35/50 – 50/70 – 70/100 – …

Softening point (EN 1427)
Softening point is measured by ring and ball method. It can be defined as the temperature
TR&B [°C] at which the bitumen cannot support the weight of a steel ball and starts flowing.
This should describes a phase change (from visco-elastic to viscous).
Bitumen is poured in a steel ring (d = 19 mm; h = 6 mm) and, after cooling, it is suspended in
a baker filled with water (or ethylene glycol) at 5 °C. A steel ball (w = 3.5 g; d = 9.5 mm) is
placed in the center of the sample. The bath is heated at controlled rate of 5 °C/min. While the
bitumen softens, the ball and bitumen sink toward the bottom (depth of 25 mm). When the
bitumen touches the bottom the temperature is recorded.
Typical values: 35 °C – 60 °C (good inverse correlation with penetration)

Penetration index (Pen/R&B)
The penetration index (PI) is an indicator used to determine the temperature susceptibility
of bitumen. The temperature susceptibility is calculated by the parameter A.
PI is included between -10 and 20 and decreases as the temperature susceptibility increases.
Typical PI values are included between -1 and 1 (Bitumen with a PI below -2 are highly
temperature susceptible). PI = 0 if pen. 200 dmm and TR&B = 40 °C.
Pfeiffer and Van Doormael’s hypotesis: TR&B → pen. 800 dmm.
log 800 − log( pen @ 25°C ) 20 − 500 ⋅ A

A= PI =
TR & B − 25 1 + 50 ⋅ A
log(pen.)
[dmm]
20 − PI 1
tgα = A
A= ⋅
log(800) (10 + PI ) 50
20 ⋅ TR & B + 500 ⋅ log Pen − 1952
log(pen@25°C)
PI =
TR & B − 50 ⋅ log Pen + 120
25 T R&B T [°C]
Stiffness
Van der Poel Nomograph (1954)

Fraass test (EN 12593)
The Fraass test measures the low-temperature fragility of bitumen determining the breaking
point of a thin film of bitumen (weight ≈ 0.4 g) loaded by cycling bending (1 bending cycle
per second).
A thin film of bitumen (thickness = 5 mm) is spread on a brass support (41 x 20 x 0,15 mm3)
and is slowly bent and released repeatedly while the temperature is constantly reduced at a
rate of 1 °C/min. The test starts at about 10 °C above the predicted breaking temperature.
When the bitumen cracks the temperature is recorded (Fraass breaking point).
Typical values: -6 °C – -14 °C

Ductility test (ASTM D113)
The ductility (tensile properties) of bitumen is measured by the distance to which it will
elongate (stretch) before breaking when two ends of a briquette specimen of bitumen are
pulled apart at a specified speed (50 mm/min) and at a specified temperature (25 °C).
The sample has to be conditioned at the testing temperature for 90 minutes.
Typical values: 70 cm – 100 cm

Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (EN 12607-1)
The test allows the resistance to hardening under the influence of heat and air to be
determined (simulation of short term aging exhibited during mixing, laying and compaction).
The effects of this treatment are determined from measurements of selected bitumen
properties before and after the test.
The test is conducted by placing a 35 g of bitumen in a cylindrical container (8 containers can
be accommodated in the ventilated oven). The containers are placed in rotating rack (rotation
rate of 15 rev/min). The sample container passes in front of an air jet (4 l/min) during each
rotation. The samples are kept in the oven for 75 minutes and then transferred for other testing
(weight, pen., R&B, viscosity).
This test is run at 163 °C.

Thin Film Oven Test (EN 12607-2)
The Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) is similar to the RTFOT and measures the combined effects
of heat and air on a film of bitumen simulating its short-term aging due to mixing,
transportation and compaction.
50 g asphalt sample is placed in a flat-bottom pan (film of 3.2 mm thickness) on a shelf in a
ventilated oven maintained at 163 °C. The shelf is rotated at 5–6 revolutions/min for 5 h. The
loss in penetration or increase in viscosity as well as change in weight of the sample are
usually measured after the heating. The use of this test is to evaluate the effect of heat and
air on asphalts, and identify those that would harden excessively due to volatilization and/or
oxidation.

Short-term aging
P2 P1 and P2: penetration values,

Residual penetration (25°C): 100 ⋅ before and after short-term aging,
P1 respectively
Changing in softening point : T2 − T1 T1 e T2: R&B values, before and

after short-term aging, respectively
η2 η1 e η2: viscosity values, before

Viscosity ratio (60°C):
η1 and after short-term aging,
respectively
M0: mass of the container
M 2 − M1 M1: bitumen + container mass
Changing in mass: 100 ⋅ before short-term aging
M1 − M 0 M2: bitumen + container mass
after short-term aging
Specifications (EN 12591)
This standard specifies properties and test methods for bitumen to be used in road
construction and maintenance. The mentioned bitumen are produced by refining petroleum
crudes.
The following table describes the bitumen classes manly used in Europe.
“Stiff”: penetration ↓; softening point ↑; Fraass breaking point ↑; aging ↓
“Soft”: ↑ penetration; softening point ↓; Fraass breaking point ↓; aging ↑


Pen@25°C:
250 ÷ 900 dmm
Soft bitumens

Classification (EN 12591)

Exercise
• comment the results comparing the bitumens characteristics

• do bitumen characteristics comply with EN 12591?
• What is the retained penetration after RTFOT?
• What is the bitumen grading?
• What is their Penetration Index?
• What is the temperature susceptibility?
Bitumen A B C D
Penetration P1 @25°C [dmm] 40 63 75 180
Softenining point R&B1 [°C] 55 51 46 48
Fraass breaking point [°C] -4 -6 -8 -10
After RTFOT
Mass variation [%] 0.4 0.8 0.7 1.5
Penetration P2 @25°C [dmm] 25 30 55 57
Softening point R&B2 [°C] 60 65 51 59

Performance-based characterization
Why?
 Road materials testing conditions (traffic loading increase, climatic conditions)
 Innovative, more complex materials
 Better understanding of materials properties and mechanics of pavement structures
Rheology
 Complex stiffness modulus and phase angle
 Relaxation and ductility
 Viscosity
(the behavior of a viscoelastic material depends on temperature, time of loading and aging)
Structural requirements for road pavements

 Resistance to permanent deformations
 Structural strength (bearing capacity)
 Resistance to cracking (fatigue and thermal cracking)
Fatigue

SHRP Designation
• Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)

• 5 years research program (1989-1993)
• New test methods for binders and asphalt mixtures developed
• Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements (SUPERPAVE) binder specifications

SHRP Designation

SHRP Designation
• Classification system based on climate conditions
Minimum design temperature

Performance Grade of the pavement
Maximum design
temperature of the pavement

Rheological properties (EN 14770)
A known oscillatory shear stress (or strain) is applied to the temperature controlled test
geometry in which the specimen is held. The bitumen strain (or stress) response to the
stress is measured. The test is generally performed by means of a Dynamic Shear Rheometer
(DSR) in the region of linear viscoelastic behavior and it is intended to measure the complex
modulus and phase angle (evaluating rutting and cracking potential).
25 mm plate is suitable for stiffnesses in the range 1 kPa to 100 kPa (above about 34 °C) and 8
mm plate is suitable for stiffnesses in the range 100 kPa to 10 MPa (below about 34 °C).
The gap between parallel plates is 1 mm for 25 mm plates and 2 mm for 8 mm plates.
Generally the temperature range lies between 25 and 85 °C with no temperature increment
being greater than 10 °C (10 to 20 minutes as equilibrium time to homogenize the
temperature).
Usually 10 equally spaced logarithmic steps including 0.1 and 10 Hz are suitable.
Oscillating B
Plate
Time
B C
A
A
A C
Fixed Plate 1 cycle

Permanent deformation requirements


Permanent deformation requirements
• G*/senδ of unaged binder ≥ 1 kPa (@10 rad/s)

• G*/senδ of RTFOT (short term) aged binder ≥ 2.2 kPa (@10 rad/s)
• Short term issue since with long term aging the binder stiffens being less prone to rutting
• A stiffer binder is less prone to permanent deformations (high G*)
• A more elastic binder is less prone to permanent deformations (low δ)
Stress Stress
Strain Strain
A B

Complex Modulus, G*
Complex Modulus, G*
δA
δB

Fatigue requirements


Pressure Aging Vessel (EN 14769)
The Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) was developed to simulate the asphalt binder aging that
occurs during 5-10 years of in-service HMA pavements (long term aging). Since the asphalt
binder in the HMA pavement has undergone short-term aging during production and
construction, the PAV is used to age RTFOT residue.
This residue is exposed to high pressure (2070 kPa) and temperature (90-110 °C) for 20 hours
in the PAV to simulate the effect of long term aging. The vessel accommodate a sample rack
on which ten sample pans accommodating 50 g sample can be placed. The sample rack is
placed in an unpressurized PAV preheated to the desired test temperature depending on the
design climate. When the PAV reach the desired temperature, a pressure of 2070 kPa is
applied. The test is run for 20 hours.

Fatigue requirements
• G*·senδ of PAV (long-term) aged binder ≤ 5000 kPa (@10 rad/s)
• Long term issue since with long term aging the binder stiffens being more prone to cracking
• A softer binder is less prone to cracking (low G*)
• A more elastic binder is less prone to cracking (low δ)
Stress Stress
Strain Strain
A B

Complex Modulus, G*
Complex Modulus, G*
δA
δB

Thermal cracking requirements


Bending Beam Rheometer (EN 14771)
The Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) is used to evaluate the stiffness of asphalt binder and its
cracking potential at low temperatures. It consists of a loading mechanisms in which an
asphalt beam (125 mm in length × 6.25 mm in width [h] × 12.5 mm in height [b]) is subjected
to a transient creep load, applied in bending mode, at a constant low temperature. The
temperature is maintained by a fluid bath. The BBR apply a midpoint load P (100 g for 240 s)
to the asphalt beam resting on two end supports. The data acquisition system records the load
(P) and deflection (δ) test results and calculate the creep stiffness (S) and the rate at which the
stiffness changes with loading time (m) through the classic beam analysis theory. These two
parameters give and indication of the cracking potential of the asphalt at the test temperature.
3
S (t ) = PL
4bh 3δ (t )
Control and Deflection transducer
data
acquisition
Air bearing
Load cell
Fluid bath

• S (t= 60 s) of PAV (long-term) aged binder ≤ 300 MPa

• m (t= 60 s) of PAV (long-term) aged binder ≥ 0.3
• A softer binder is less prone to cracking (low S)
• A higher m means an enhanced ability of the asphalt binder to relieve thermal stress by flowing

Direct Tension Test (EN 13587)
In some cases, such as modified binders, a measure of stiffness is not adequate to characterize
the cracking potential. This is because these binders may have a high creep stiffness S (more
than 300 MPa), but they may not be susceptible to cracking, as they are more ductile and can
stretch without breaking.
Thus, the Direct Tension Test (DTT) is used to characterize any binder that has a stiffness
exceeding the specified S value at low temperature.
The DTT consists of a tensile-testing machine which measures the strain at failure of a dog
bone-shaped asphalt binder specimen (long term aged), which is subjected to tensile load at a
constant rate (1 mm/min).
Stress
Strain = ΔL/Le

• Failure strain εf of PAV (long-term) aged binder ≥ 1%
• A more ductile binder is less prone to cracking (high εf)

Workability requirements


Dynamic Viscosity (EN 13302)
The dynamic viscosity is the measure of the resistance to flow of the liquid.
The sample is contained in a beaker into which a cylinder is placed (coaxial cylinders
viscometer). The sample (30 g) is stressed by rotation of the cylinder. Fixed a shear rate, the
torque applied is measured and the dynamic viscosity is calculated. Rotate the moveable part
at the prescribed shear rate and allow to stabilize for 60 s and then take the reading.
Determination of the dynamic viscosity of a bitumen over a range of temperatures.
Testing temperatures: 90 °C – 180 °C (ASTM D 4402-02: 135 °C); Share rate: 1 s-1 – 103 s-1
τ = η ⋅ γ
Viscosity: 10-2 Pa·s – 103 Pa·s
Viscosity [mPa*s]
Viscosità [mPas]
100000
1000
10
60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperatura[°C]
Temperature [°C]

Workability requirements
• Vicosity η of unaged binder @ 135°C ≤ 3 Pa·s
• Test conducted on unaged binder since it evaluates the mixing and compaction workability
• A less consistent binder is more workable (low η)

SHRP Designation
• Classification system based on climate conditions
Minimum design temperature

Performance Grade of the pavement
Maximum design
temperature of the pavement

SHRP Designation

Exercise
• Of the three different asphalts for which DSR results are shown next, pick the one(s) that
is(are) suitable for a project in a climate where the maximum pavement temperature is 76°C:
Asphalt Aging Temperature, °C Complex Modulus, kPa Phase angle, °
Unaged 1.20 87
A 76
RTFOT aged 2.19 84
Unaged 0.90 86
B 76
RTFOT aged 2.04 82
Unaged 1.08 88
C 76
RTFOT aged 2.15 83

Viscosity [mPas] Viscosity range
1000000
70/100
35/50
Italian Motorway
Autostrade S.p.A.specification
100000
Mixing phase
Compaction phase
10000
Example
70/100:
1000 mixing temperature > 145 °C
compaction temperature > 135 °C
100 35/50:
mixing temperature > 155 °C
compaction temperature > 140 °C
10
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Temperature [°C]
Mixing phase: 1.7 ± 0.2 P = 0.17 ± 0.02 Pa·s = 170 ± 20 mPa·s

Compaction phase: 2.8 ± 0.3 P = 0.28 ± 0.03 Pa·s = 280 ± 30 mPa·s
Italian specification η @ 160 °C: 50 mPa·s < η < 200 mPa·s
Viscosity-Temperature Chart for Bitumens
Viscosity is a fundamental property and therefore is independent of the test system and the
sample size. However these viscosity measurements cannot be used for assessing non-
Newtonian (shear rate dependent) properties.
The viscosity-temperature chart is a useful tool for estimating the viscosity of bitumens at
any temperature within a limited range.
Conversely, the chart may be used to ascertain the temperature at which a desired viscosity
is obtained.
The chart is appropriate for use at higher temperatures, where bitumens are primarily
viscous. At lower temperatures most bitumens become visco-elastic. When this occurs,
viscosity alone is insufficient to describe an bitumen’s flow properties. Most bitumens are
primarily viscous at temperatures above 60 °C. Caution should be used when applying this
procedure below that temperature or when testing polymer modified bitumens.
Viscosity at 60 °C cannot predict performance at service temperatures.
The viscosity values represented by the data points can be obtained at different shear rates
(within the respective linear region).
The parameter c is called the Complex Flow Index, and is an indicator of the rheological
character of the material. For Newtonian liquids, whose viscosity does not vary with shear
rate, c = 1. If c < 1, the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate, and if c > 1,
the apparent viscosity increases with shear rate.
τ = η ⋅ γ c

Viscosity-Temperature Chart for Bitumens
1. Newtonian liquid
2. non-Newtonian liquid (shear thinning)
3. non-Newtonian liquid (shear thickening)

Exercise <1>
Viscosity η [Pa·s]
• plot a viscosity-temperature T [°C] 60 80 100 120 135 150 160 180
Aged bitumen 322713 27455 2998 17.015 6.435 3.963 2.122 1.953
chart using the data in the Virgin bitumen 13199 760 44 3.027 1.305 0.655 0.349 0.132
table; Aging effect
T [°C] 60 80 100 120 135 150 160
• interpolate the data with a η (aged bit.) / η (virg. bit.) 24 36 68 6 5 6 6
power law; Temp. range [°C] 0 200
Max lim [Pa·s] 0.190 0.190 T min [°C] 166
Mim lim [Pa·s] 0.150 0.150 T max [°C] 170
• show the regression factor;
1000000,0 Aged bitumen
Viscosity [Pa·s]
• calculate the effect of long-term
100000,0
Virgin bitumen
ageing expressed as ratio between
viscosity of aged bitumen and 10000,0
η = 2,506E+29 · T-1,327E+01
viscosity of virgin bitumen; R² = 9,611E-01
1000,0
• comment the experimental data

100,0
(which is the bitumen with higher
viscosity? How does the viscosity 10,0
change when the temp. increases? 1,0

y = 1,854E+23x-1,080E+01
R² = 9,901E-01
What is the mathematical model that
0,1
better fits the experimental data?);
0,0
• determine the mixing and compaction 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
temperature for the virgin bitumen. Temperature [°C]
Exercise <2>
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity
[no.]
1
[s]
0
[°C]
60
[1/s]
0.005
[Pa·s]
7,000
• calculate the average after 60 seconds
2
3
10
20
60
60
0.005
0.005
9,280
10,600
• represent viscosity vs time
4 30 60 0.005 11,600
5 40 60 0.005 12,400
6 50 60 0.005 13,100
7 60 60 0.005 13,600
8
9
70
80
60
60
0.005
0.005
14,100
14,600
• are the viscosity values steady over time?
10
11
90
100
60
60
0.005
0.005
15,000
15,400
• does shear rate influence the viscosity?
12 110 60 0.005 15,700
Mean Value (after 60 s): 14,960
20.000
T = 60 °C
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
Viscosity [Pa*s]
1 0 60 0.01 13,100 18.000
2 10 60 0.01 14,300
3 20 60 0.01 15,000 16.000
4 30 60 0.01 15,600 14.000
5 40 60 0.01 16,000
6 50 60 0.01 16,400
12.000
7 60 60 0.01 16,700 10.000
8 70 60 0.01 17,000 8.000
9 80 60 0.01 17,300 SR=0.005 [1/s]
10 90 60 0.01 17,500 6.000
SR=0.01 [1/s]
11 100 60 0.01 17,700 4.000
12 110 60 0.01 17,900
2.000 SR=0.05 [1/s]
Mean Value (after 60 s): 17,480
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity 0
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
1 0 60 0.05 10,000
2 10 60 0.05 11,800 Time [s]
3 20 60 0.01 12,600
4 30 60 0.01 13,100
5 40 60 0.01 13,500 Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity C.V.
6 50 60 0.01 13,700 [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] [%]
7 60 60 0.01 14,000
8 70 60 0.01 14,100
60 0.005 14,960
9 80 60 0.01 14,300 60 0.010 17,480 11
10 90 60 0.01 14,400 60 0.050 14,400
11 100 60 0.01 14,500
12 110 60 0.01 14,700

Exercise <3>
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity • calculate the average after 60 seconds
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
1 0 100 0.005 43.5 • represent viscosity vs time
2 10 100 0.005 44.2
3 20 100 0.005 45.2
4 30 100 0.005 45.8
5 40 100 0.005 46.4 • are the viscosity values steady over time?
6 50 100 0.005 46.8
7
8
60
70
100
100
0.005
0.005
47.2
47.4
9 80 100 0.005 47.9 60
T = 100 °C
Viscosity [Pa*s]
10 90 100 0.005 48.4
11 100 100 0.005 48.8
50
12 110 100 0.005 49.1
Mean Value (after 60 s): 48.3
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity 40
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
1 0 100 0.01 45.9 30
2 10 100 0.01 46.4
3 20 100 0.01 46.4 SR=0.005 [1/s]
4 30 100 0.01 46.8 20
5 40 100 0.01 47.1 SR=0.01 [1/s]
6 50 100 0.01 46.7 10
7 60 100 0.01 46.9 SR=0.05 [1/s]
8 70 100 0.01 46.8
9 80 100 0.01 47.0
0
10 90 100 0.01 46.9 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
11 100 100 0.01 46.9
12 110 100 0.01 47.0
Time [s]
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity C.V.
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
1 0 100 0.05 40.4
[°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] [%]
2 10 100 0.05 40.2 100 0.005 48.3
3 20 100 0.05 39.9 100 0.010 46.9 13
4 30 100 0.05 39.5
5 40 100 0.05 39.2 100 0.050 37.5
6 50 100 0.05 38.8
7 60 100 0.05 38.4
8 70 100 0.05 38.1
Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity C.V.
9 80 100 0.05 37.8 [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] [%]
10 90 100 0.05 37.5 100 0.005 48.3
11 100 100 0.05 37.2 2
12 110 100 0.05 36.9 100 0.010 46.9
Mean Value (after 60 s): 37.5 Mean value 47.6
Exercise <4>
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity • calculate the average after 60 seconds
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
1 0 135 50 1.75 • represent viscosity vs time
2 10 135 50 1.83
3 20 135 50 1.84
4 30 135 50 1.84
5 40 135 50 1.84 • are the viscosity values steady over time?
6 50 135 50 1.84
7
8
60
70
135
135
50
50
1.84
1.84
9 80 135 50 1.84
10 90 135 50 1.83
11 100 135 50 1.83
12 110 135 50 1.83
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity 2,0
Viscosity [Pa*s]
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] 1,8
1 0 135 100 1.81
2 10 135 100 1.81 1,6
3
4
20
30
135
135
100
100
1.81
1.81
1,4 T = 135 °C
5 40 135 100 1.81
1,2
6 50 135 100 1.81 1,0
7 60 135 100 1.81
0,8 SR=50 [1/s]
8 70 135 100 1.81
9 80 135 100 1.81 0,6
10 90 135 100 1.81
SR=100 [1/s]
0,4
11 100 135 100 1.81 SR=150 [1/s]
12 110 135 100 1.81 0,2
Mean Value (after 60 s): 1.81 0,0
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
1 0 135 150 1.79 Time [s]
2 10 135 150 1.79
3 20 135 150 1.79
4 30 135 150 1.79 Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity C.V.
5 40 135 150 1.79
[°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] [%]
6 50 135 150 1.79
7 60 135 150 1.79 135 50 1.834
8 70 135 150 1.79 135 100 1.810 1
9 80 135 150 1.79
10 90 135 150 1.79 135 150 1.792
11 100 135 150 1.79 Mean value 1.812
12 110 135 150 1.80

Exercise <5>
• calculate the average after 60 seconds
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
1 0 160 50 0.575
• represent viscosity vs time
2 10 160 50 0.586
3 20 160 50 0.588
4 30 160 50 0.589
5 40 160 50 0.589 • are the viscosity values steady over time?
6 50 160 50 0.590
7 60 160 50 0.590 • does shear rate influence the viscosity?
8 70 160 50 0.590
9 80 160 50 0.591
10 90 160 50 0.592
11 100 160 50 0.592
12 110 160 50 0.592
1,0
T = 160 °C
Viscosity [Pa*s]
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity 0,9
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s]
1 0 160 100 0.583
0,8
2 10 160 100 0.582 0,7
3 20 160 100 0.58
0,6
4 30 160 100 0.579
5 40 160 100 0.579 0,5
6 50 160 100 0.578
0,4 SR=50 [1/s]
7 60 160 100 0.577
8 70 160 100 0.577 0,3
9 80 160 100 0.576
SR=150 [1/s]
0,2
10 90 160 100 0.575 SR=100 [1/s]
11 100 160 100 0.574 0,1
12 110 160 100 0.574 0,0
Meas. Pts. Time Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
[no.] [s] [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] Time [s]
1 0 160 150 0.566
2 10 160 150 0.565
3 20 160 150 0.564
4 30 160 150 0.563
5 40 160 150 0.562
6 50 160 150 0.561
Temperature Shear Rate Viscosity C.V.
7 60 160 150 0.561 [°C] [1/s] [Pa·s] [%]
8 70 160 150 0.560
160 50 0.591
9 80 160 150 0.560
10 90 160 150 0.560 160 100 0.575 3
11 100 160 150 0.559 160 150 0.560
12 110 160 150 0.559
Mean Value (after 60 s): 0.560 Mean value 0.575

Exercise <6>
• determine the relationship between viscosity and temperature
100,0 T [°C] η [Pa*s]

SBS modified
100 47.6
Viscosity [Pa*s]
bitumen
135 1.812
160 0.575
10,0
1,0
η = 5,85128E+20*T-9,56765E+00
R² = 9,87510E-01
0,1
0 50 100 150 200
Temperature [°C]

Polymer modified bitumen
Synthetic polymers are used to modify (improve) the performance of conventional bitumen.
These binders have low temperature susceptibility, high cohesion and modified rheological
characteristics. Generally thermoplastic polymers are used to modify bitumen. They can be
classified as elastomeric (styrene butadiene styrene - SBS) or as plastomeric (ethylene vinyl
acetate - EVA). Elastomeric polymers are able to enhance the elasticity of bitumens (higher
cracking resistance) whereas plastomeric polymers will increase rutting resistance.
Bitumen with polymer modification exhibits greater resistance to rutting and thermal
cracking, and decreased fatigue damage, stripping and temperature susceptibility.
Bitumen Mixing and laying

temperatures
Consistency Modified bitumen
Ideal behaviour
Exercise
temperatures
Temperature
Use in: HMA, SMA, porous asphalt, bituminous emulsion (slurry seals, chip seals, tack coat, …)
Polymer modified bitumen
microstructure
Polymer < 5% Polymer ≈ 5% Polymer > 5%

Bitumen continuum Two distinguished phases Polymer continuum
phase with polymer phase with asphaltene
dispersion dispersion

Elastic recovery test (EN 13398)
The sample is poured in a specific mould and elongated to 200 mm.
The two ends of the briquette specimen of bitumen are pulled apart at a specified speed
(50mm/min), at a specified temperature (25 °C) reaching an elongation of 200 mm. The sample
is cut by scissor. After 30 minutes the distance (d) between the sample ends is measured.
The sample has to be conditioned at the testing temperature (10 °C – 25 °C) for 90 minutes.
The result RE is an indicator of the elastic properties of the bitumen (polymer modified
bitumen).
d
RE = 100 ⋅ [%]
200
Typical values : 50% – 90%


Classifications (EN 14023)

Classifications (EN 14023)
Example, PMB 45-80/60

Bituminous emulsion
A bituminous emulsion is a dispersion of small droplets of bitumen (0.1–10 micron in
diameter) in water (two immiscible liquids). The droplets are suspended in water due to the
presence of an emulsifying agent that impart an electric charge to them causing the mutual
repulsion. This mixture of asphalt, water and emulsifying agent is brown liquid (at ambient
temperature) with consistencies similar to that of milk, which depends mostly on the bitumen
content and the particle size.
The stability of their behavior depends on the amount of emulsifiers which control the
interaction among bitumen droplets. Emulsion can be classified as anionic (negatively
charged) or cationic (positively charged) depending on the electric charge provided by the
emulsifier. Today, almost exclusively cationic emulsions are used.
Use in: slurry seals, chip seals, tack coat, cold recycling, cold asphalt mixtures, crack sealing, …
Bituminous emulsion
The breaking of emulsion occurs when water separates from bitumen. Breaking starts
when emulsion come in contact with aggregates or pavement and it is generally accompanied
by the formation of black and sticky material from the more fluid and brownish emulsion.
The breaking characteristics of an emulsion can be affected by the asphalt content,
composition of the aqueous phase, droplet size distribution, environmental conditions, type of
aggregates, and use of breaking agents. The rate of breaking can be increased with an increase
in asphalt and emulsifier content, and by reducing the size of asphalt droplets. Note that the
breaking process is accelerated by the evaporation of water from the emulsion, as well as by
the absorption of the emulsifier into the aggregates. High temperatures and low humidity are
favorable to breaking, while the presence of dust coating on the aggregate surface could
accelerate the breaking process without causing any adhesion of the asphalt binder to the
aggregate surface.

Bituminous emulsion
The emulsions can be classified on the basis of:
 Surface charge (anionic or cationic)
 Bitumen content (usually between 45% and 69%)
 Rate of breaking or setting (from slow to very fast)
 Type of bitumen (plain, modified, penetration, …)
The knowledge of such properties is needed for the proper choice of the product related to the
corresponding use. Different types of emulsion exist to match different construction needs.
The desirable properties of emulsion include adequate stability during storage, transportation
and application, proper viscosity to facilitate application, optimum breaking characteristics in
a timely manner, and strong adhesion with the aggregates.

The EN 13808 specifies the requirements for performance characteristics of cationic
bituminous emulsion classes which are suitable for use in the construction and maintenance of
roads, airfields and other paved areas. Abbreviation terms, providing an expression in letters
and numbers, are used to describe important characteristics of cationic bituminous emulsions.

The EN 13808 specifies the requirements for performance characteristics of cationic
bituminous emulsion classes which are suitable for use in the construction and maintenance of
roads, airfields and other paved areas. Abbreviation terms, providing an expression in letters
and numbers, are used to describe important characteristics of cationic bituminous emulsions.

Breaking value (EN 13075-1)
Breaking value is a dimensionless number that corresponds to the amount of reference filler
(g) needed to coagulate 100 g of bitumen emulsion.
A reference filler is added at a steady rate of 0.25÷0.45 g/s to 100±1 g of cationic emulsion
with simultaneous constant stirring of the mix by a spatula at a rate of 1 rpm. The emulsion is
considered broken when the mix comes off completely (or substantially) from the enameled or
stainless steel mixing dish.
The quantity of filler used (g) divided by the quantity of emulsion used (g) in percentage gives
the emulsion breaking value. This value must be multiplied by 1.4 to be converted to the
breaking value calculated with the type of filler which was the reference filler initially used
for this test (the limiting value specified in EN 13808 are based on the use of this latter filler).

Bitumen residue by evaporation (EN 13074-1)
This test does not require a specific apparatus and the residue from evaporation may be tested.
The test consists of the recovery of binder from a bituminous emulsion after proper
conditioning in such a way that will enable further testing with minimum changes of the
binder characteristics.
According to the test method, a thin layer of a bituminous emulsion is spread onto a suitable
sheet of material. It is conditioned for 24 h in the laboratory at ambient temperature and then
transferred into a ventilated oven for 24 h at 50 °C. The mass of the emulsion depends on the
surface area and bitumen content.
Then, the recovered binder from the plate(s) is collected using an appropriate tool but without
applying any extra heat to the sample. To facilitate the removal of binders from the non-stick
material, it may be necessary to cool the plates in a refrigerator or freezer.

Foamed bitumen
Foamed bitumen is produced by injecting cold water (2-6% by mass) into hot bitumen
(above 160°C) resulting in a foaming effect. Water temperature reaches 100°C, causing
immediate and sudden expansion. The bubble, hindered by the surface tension due to the
bitumen, expands with a decreasing pressure.
Bitumen in foam state (temporary state) shows a low viscosity and bitumen can be mixed with
mineral aggregates at ambient temperatures and at in situ moisture contents. The foam
dissolves in less than 1 minute and binder gets back to its original characteristics.

Foamed bitumen
By apposite nozzles, foamed bitumen is injected in the expansion chamber to be subsequently
mixed with aggregate.
During the milling the water is sprayed inside the mixing chamber and mixed with RA to
reach the optimum moisture content for compaction and cement hydration.
FOAMED BITUMEN
WATER
Milling – mixing rotor

Foamed bitumen
Bitumen dispersion: Non-continuously bound (spot-welding)

Asphalt Rubber
Disposal of end-of-life tire stockpiles is a very serious environmental issue.
10 t of tires = 1 t of reclaimed tire rubber for binder modification

Asphalt Rubber
According to the ASTM D 8, Vol. 4.03: asphalt rubber is “a blend of asphalt cement,
reclaimed tire rubber, and certain additives in which the rubber component is at least 15
percent by weight (typically about 20%) of the total blend and has reacted in the hot asphalt
cement sufficiently to cause swelling of the rubber particles”.
The asphalt rubber is produced at elevated temperatures (> 177 °C), under high agitation to
promote the physical interaction of the asphalt binder and rubber constituents, and to keep
the rubber particles suspended in the blend (reaction time of 45-60 minutes).
Crumb Rubber
Modifier (CRM)

Asphalt Rubber
Reaction is the commonly used term for the interaction between asphalt binder and crumb
rubber modifier when blended together at elevated temperatures.
The reaction is more appropriately defined as polymer swell that is not a chemical reaction but
a physical interaction in which the crumb rubber absorbs aromatic oils and light fractions (small
volatile or active molecules) from the asphalt binder, and releases some of the similar oils used
in rubber production into the asphalt binder.
Differently from PmB, there is not a continuum polymer phase but swelled CRM particles stay
reciprocally separated.

Asphalt Rubber
Specific movable production equipment

Asphalt Rubber
Same preparation of asphalt concrete

Asphalt Rubber
Higher film thickness (due to higher viscosity) lead to higher durability and mechanical
properties but also increased costs.
5 % Plain Bitumen
7.5 % Asphalt Rubber
9.0 % Asphalt Rubber

Asphalt Rubber
The use of asphalt rubber binder to prepare bituminous mixtures can lead to:
 Higher cracking resistance (fatigue, thermal and reflective phenomena)
 Enhanced durability and aging resistance
 Less noise
 Increased safety (friction)
 Reuse of waste material

Asphalt Rubber
However, several limitations on use of asphalt rubber exist:
 Construction may be more challenging, as temperature requirements are more critical
 Potential odor and air quality problems
 Asphalt rubber materials are often difficult to hand work because of stiffer (more viscous)
binder and coarser mixture gradations
 Mobilization costs for asphalt rubber production equipment (for large projects this cost can be
spread over enough tonnage so that increased unit price may be offset by increased service
life, lower maintenance costs, and reduced lift thickness, but for small projects, mobilization
cost is the same, resulting in greater increase in unit price that may not be fully offset)

Clear/colored binders
Clear pavements are mainly used with aesthetic purposes in order to integrate road pavements
with the surrounding landscape in important natural and historical places.
Moreover, clear pavements can serve the purpose of improving urban climate by working on
the mitigation of the urban heat island effect and other local warming phenomena.
A recent development consists of the application in road tunnels in order to reduce the power
consumption for electric lighting and improve safety conditions.

Clear/colored binders
Clear binders are characterized by a very clear amber color and a marked transparence.
Such binders can be manufactured through three different techniques:
 extraction of asphaltenes from traditional bitumen;
 production of synthetic binders containing transparent polymeric materials;
 blending resins with particular bio-oils in order to obtain clear materials with rheological
properties similar to those of bitumen.
In some cases clear asphalts are used with pigment addicted. These additives, generally
metallic oxides in form of powder, have the effect to make the pavement clearer or give it a
particular color (red, yellow…).

Fuel-resistant bitumens
Asphalt mixtures with fuel-resistant bitumen are used in places were fuel leaks are expected
(airports aprons, gas stations, parking areas, …)
 Brush test (EN 12697-43)

 Cantabro test (EN 12697-17)


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Road Infrastructures Design

ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 2

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 4

Crude petroleum varies in composition from source to source.

Venezuela Arabian Nigeria

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 5

Even the bitumen quality varies from source to source.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 6

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 7

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 8

The compatibility and relationships of difference components control the behaviour of

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 9

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 10

resins peptizzate Sol bitumen Gel bitumen

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 11

visco-elastic solid visco-elastic liquid

Service temperatures: from - 15 °C to + 60 °C

Mixing and laying temperatures: from 140 °C to 180 °C

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 12

Newtonian liquid, η = viscosity

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 15

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 17

Stress, Strain Elastic Viscous

Strain in-phase (δ = 0°) Strain out-of-phase (δ = 90°)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 18

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 19

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 20

Viscous Modulus, G2B

Storage Modulus, G1A Storage Modulus, G1B

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 21

Complex modulus G* [Pa]

E*(t1, T1) = E*(t2, T2)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 22

Six factors contribute to the bitumen aging: oxidation, volatilization, polymerization,

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 23

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 24

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Bitumen 25

Two sources of bitumen can have the same

above and below this temperature.

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Penetration classes: 35/50 – 50/70 – 70/100 – …

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Typical values: 35 °C – 60 °C (good inverse correlation with penetration)

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log 800 − log( pen @ 25°C ) 20 − 500 ⋅ A

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Typical values: -6 °C – -14 °C

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Typical values: 70 cm – 100 cm

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P2 P1 and P2: penetration values,

Changing in softening point : T2 − T1 T1 e T2: R&B values, before and

η2 η1 e η2: viscosity values, before

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• comment the results comparing the bitumens characteristics

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E(t1, T1) = E(t2, T2)