NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

Module 7
(Lecture 27)
RETAINING WALLS

Topics
1.1 RETAINING WALLS WITH METALLIC STRIP
REINFORCEMENT
 Calculation of Active Horizontal and vertical Pressure
 Tie Force
 Factor of Safety Against Tie Failure
 Total Length of Tie
1.2 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE (METALLIC STRIP
REINFORCEMENT
 Internal Stability
 External Stability
 Internal Stability Check
 Tie thickness
 Tie length
 External Stability Check
 Check for overturning
 Check for sliding
 Check for bearing capacity
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

RETAINING WALLS WITH METALLIC STRIP REINFORCEMENT

Reinforced earth walls are flexible walls. Their main components are

1. Backfill, which is granular soil

2. Reinforcing strips, which are thin, wide strips placed at regular intervals
3. A cover on the front face, which is referred to as the skin

Figure 25 is a diagram of a reinforced earth wall. Note that, at any depth, the reinforcing stripes
or ties are placed with a horizontal spacing of 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 center-to-center; the vertical spacing of the
strips or ties is 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 center-to-center. The skin can be constructed with sections of relatively
flexible thin material. Lee et al. (1973) showed that, with a conservative design, a 0.2-in.thick
(≈ 5 mm) galvanized steel skin would be enough to hold a wall about 45-50 ft (14-15 m) high.
In most cases, precast concrete slabs can be used as skin. The slabs are grooved to fit into each
other so that soil cannot flow out between the joints. When metal skins are used, they are bolted
together, and reinforcing strips are placed between the skins.

Figure 7.25 Reinforced earth retaining wall

Calculation of Active Horizontal and vertical Pressure

Figure 26a shows a retaining wall with a granular backfill having a unit weight of 𝛾𝛾1 and a
friction angle of 𝜙𝜙1 . Below the base of the retaining wall, the in situ soil has been excavated and
reccopacted, with granular soil used as backfill. Below the backfill, the in situ soil has a unit
weight of 𝛾𝛾2 and a friction angle of 𝜙𝜙2 , and cohesion of 𝑐𝑐2 . A surcharge having an intensity of q
per unit area lies atop the retaining wall. The wall has reinforcement ties at depths 𝑧𝑧 =
0, 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 , … . . , 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑉𝑉 . The height of the wall is 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑉𝑉 = 𝐻𝐻.
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

Figure 7.26 Analysis of a reinforced earth retaining wall

According to the Rankine active pressure theory

𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 − 2𝑐𝑐�𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎

Where

𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = Rankine active pressure at any depth 𝑧𝑧

For dry granular soils with no surcharge at the top, 𝑐𝑐 = 0, 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧, and 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 = tan2 (45 − 𝜙𝜙1 /2).
Thus

𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(1) = 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 [7.30]

When a surcharge is added at the top, as shown in figure 29,

𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(1) +𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(2)
↑ ↑ [7.31]
= 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧
Due to soil only Due to the surcharge

The magnitude of 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(2) can be calculated by using the 2:1 method of stress distribution described
in equation (14 chapter 4) and figure 6 (from chapter 4). It is shown in figure 27a. According to
Laba and Kennedy (1986),
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

Figure 7.27 (a) notation for the relationship of 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(2) - equations (32 and 33); (b) notation for the
relationship of 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(2) - equations (35 and 36);
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ′
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(2) = 𝑎𝑎 ′ +𝑧𝑧 (for𝑧𝑧 ≤ 2𝑏𝑏 ′ ) [7.32]

And
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ′
𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(2) = 𝑧𝑧 (for𝑧𝑧 > 2𝑏𝑏 ′ ) [7.33]
𝑎𝑎 ′ + +𝑏𝑏′
2

Also, when a surcharge is added at the top, the lateral pressure at any depth is
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(1)
+𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(2)
↑
= 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧 ↑ [7.34]
Due to soil only Due to the surcharge

According to Laba and Kennedy (1986), 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(2) may be expressed (figure 30b) as

2𝑞𝑞
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(2) = 𝑀𝑀 � 𝜋𝜋 (𝛽𝛽 − sin𝛽𝛽cos2𝛼𝛼)�
↑ [7.35]
(in radius)

Where
0.4𝑏𝑏′
𝑀𝑀 = 1.4 − 0.14𝐻𝐻 ≥ 1 [7.36]

The net active (lateral) pressure distribution on the retaining wall calculated by using equations.
(34, 35 and 36) is shown in figure 29b.

Tie Force

Refer again to figure 29. The tie force per unit length of the wall developed at any depth z is
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

𝑇𝑇 = active earth pressure at depth 𝑧𝑧 × area of the wall to be supported by the tie

= (𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 )(𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 ) [7.37]

Factor of Safety Against Tie Failure

The reinforcement ties at each level and thus the walls cold fail by either (a0 tie breaking or (b)
tie pullout.

The factor of safety against tie breaking may be determined as

yield or breaking strength of each tie
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝐵𝐵) = maximum tie force in any tie

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
= 𝜎𝜎 [7.38]
𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻

Where

𝑤𝑤 = width of each tie

𝑡𝑡 = thickness of each tie

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 = yield or breaking strength of the tie material

A factor of safety of about 2.5-3 is generally recommended for ties at all levels.

Reinforcing ties at any depth, z, will fail by pullout if the frictional resistance developed along
their surfaces is less than the force to which the ties are being subjected. The effective length of
the ties along which the frictional resistance is developed may be conservatively taken as the
length that extends beyond the limits of the Rankine active failure zone, which is the zone 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 in
figure 29. Line 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 in figure 29 makes an angle of 45 + 𝜙𝜙1 /2 with the horizontal. Now, the
maximum friction force 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 that can be realized for a tie at depth z is

𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 2𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 tan 𝜙𝜙𝜇𝜇 [7.39]

Where

𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = effective length

𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = effective vertical pressure at a depth 𝑧𝑧

𝜙𝜙𝜇𝜇 = soil − tie friction angle

Thus the factor of safety against tie pullout at any depth z is

𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) = [7.40]
𝑇𝑇

Where 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) = factor of safety against tie pullout

 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

Substituting equations (37 and 39) into equation (40) yields

2𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 tan 𝜙𝜙 𝜇𝜇
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) = [7.41]
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻

Total Length of Tie

The total length of ties at any depth is

𝐿𝐿 = 𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟 + 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 [7.42]

Where

𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟 = length with the Rankine failure zone

𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = effective length

For a given 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) from equation (41),

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃 ) 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻
𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 = [7.43]
2𝑤𝑤 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 tan 𝜙𝜙 𝜇𝜇

Again, at any depth z,

(𝐻𝐻−𝑧𝑧)
𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟 = 𝜙𝜙 [7.44]
tan �45+ 1 �
2

So, combining equations (42, 43, and 44) gives

(𝐻𝐻−𝑧𝑧) 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑃𝑃 ) 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻
𝐿𝐿 = 𝜙𝜙 + 2𝑤𝑤 𝜎𝜎 [7.45]
tan �45+ 1 � 𝑣𝑣 tan 𝜙𝜙 𝜇𝜇
2

STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE (METALLIC STRIP REINFORCEMENT)

Following is a step-by-step procedure for the design of reinforced earth retaining walls.

General:

1. Determine the height of the wall, H, and the properties of the granular backfill material,
such as unit weight (𝛾𝛾2 ) and angle of friction 𝜙𝜙1 ).
2. Obtain the soil-tie friction angle, 𝜙𝜙𝜇𝜇 and the required values of 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝐵𝐵) and 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) .

Internal Stability:

3. Assume values for horizontal and vertical tie spacing. Also assume the width of
reinforcing strip, w, to be used.
4. Calculate 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 from equations (34, 35, and 36).
5. Calculate the tie forces at various levels from equation (37).
6. For known values of 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝐵𝐵) , calculate the thickness of ties, t, to resist the tie breakout:
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
𝑇𝑇 = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
(𝐵𝐵 )

Or

(𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 )[𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝐵𝐵 ) ]

𝑡𝑡 = [7.46]
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑦𝑦
The convention is to keep the magnitude of t the same at all levels, so 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 , in equation
(46) should equal 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(max ) .

7. For the known values of 𝜙𝜙𝜇𝜇 and 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) , determine the length, L, of the ties at various
levels from equation (45).
8. The magnitudes of 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 , 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 , 𝑡𝑡, 𝑤𝑤, and 𝐿𝐿 may be changed to obtain the most economical
design.

External Stability:

9. A check for overturning can be done as follows with reference to figure 28. Taking the
moment about B yields the overturning moment for the unit length of the wall.

𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑧𝑧′ [7.47]

 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

Figure 7.28 Stability check for the retaining wall

Where
𝐻𝐻
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = active force = ∫0 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The resisting moment per unit length of the wall is

𝑎𝑎′
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊𝑊1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑊𝑊2 𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ . +𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞′ �𝑏𝑏 ′ + 2 � [7.48]

Where

𝑊𝑊1 = (area 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)(1)(𝛾𝛾1 )

𝑊𝑊2 = (area 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹)(1)(𝛾𝛾1 )

So
𝑀𝑀
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(overturning ) = 𝑀𝑀 𝑅𝑅
𝑂𝑂
𝑎𝑎 ′
𝑊𝑊1 𝑥𝑥 1 +𝑊𝑊2 𝑥𝑥 2 +⋯.+𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 ′�𝑏𝑏 ′ + �
2
𝐻𝐻 [7.49]
�∫0 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑧𝑧′

10. The check for sliding can be done by using equation (11), or
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

�𝑊𝑊1 𝑥𝑥 1 +𝑊𝑊2 +𝑞𝑞𝑎𝑎 ′ �[tan ⁡

(𝑘𝑘𝜙𝜙 1 ]
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(sliding ) = [7.50]
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎

Where

𝑘𝑘 ≈ 23 .
11. Check for ultimate bearing capacity failure. The ultimate bearing capacity can be given as

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐2 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐 + 12𝛾𝛾2 𝐿𝐿′2 𝑁𝑁𝛾𝛾 [7.51a]

The bearing capacity factors 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐 and 𝑁𝑁𝛾𝛾 correspond to the soil friction angle, 𝜙𝜙2 (table 4
chapter 3). In equation (51a) 𝐿𝐿′2 is the effective length, or

𝐿𝐿′2 = 𝐿𝐿2 − 2𝑒𝑒 [7.51b]

Where

𝑒𝑒 = eccentricity
𝐿𝐿2 𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 −𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂
𝑒𝑒 = − [7.51c]
2 Σ 𝑉𝑉

Where

Σ 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑊𝑊1 + 𝑊𝑊2 … + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞′

The vertical stress at 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻, from equation (31), is

𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(𝐻𝐻) = 𝛾𝛾1 𝐻𝐻 + 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣(2) [7.52]

So the factor of safety against bearing capacity failure is

𝑞𝑞
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(bearing capacity ) = 𝜎𝜎 ult [7.53]
𝑣𝑣(𝐻𝐻)

Generally, minimum values of

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(overturning ) = 3, 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(sliding ) = 3, and 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(bearing capacity failure ) = 3 to 5 are
recommended.

Example 6

A 30-ft-high retaining wall galvanized steel-strip reinforcement in a granular backfill has to be

constructed. Referring to figure 29, given:

Granular backfill: 𝜙𝜙1 = 36°

 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

𝛾𝛾1 = 105 lb/ft 3

Foundation soil: 𝜙𝜙2 = 28°

𝛾𝛾2 = 110 lb/ft 3

𝑐𝑐2 = 1000 lb/ft 2

Galvanized steel reinforcement:

Width of strip,

𝑤𝑤 = 3 in.

𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 = 2 ft center − to − center

𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 = 3 ft center − to − center

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 = 35,000 lb/in2

𝜙𝜙𝜇𝜇 = 20°

Required 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝐵𝐵) = 3

Required 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) = 3

Check for the external and internal stability. Assume the corrosion rate of the galvanized steel to
be 0.001 in./year ad the life span of the structure to be 50 years.

Solution

Internal Stability Check

a. Tie thickness: Maximum tie force, 𝑇𝑇max = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(max ) 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻

𝜙𝜙 1
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎(max ) = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾tan2 �45 + �
2

So

𝜙𝜙 1
𝑇𝑇(max ) = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 tan2 �45 + � 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻
2

From equation (46), for tie break,

𝜙𝜙
(𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 )[𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝐵𝐵 ) ] �𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 tan 2 �45+ 1 �𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 �
2
𝑡𝑡 = =
𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

Or
36
�(105)(30)tan 2 �45− �(2)(3)�(3)
2
𝑡𝑡 = 3 = 0.0117 ft = 0.14 in.
� ft�(35,000×144 lb /ft 2 )
12

If the rate of corrosion is 0.001 in./yr and the life span of the structure is 50 yr, then
the actual thickness, t, o the ties will be

𝑡𝑡 = 0.14 + (0.001)(50) = 0.19 in.

So a tie thickness of 0.2 in. would be enough.

b. Tie length: Refer to equation (45). For this case, 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 and 𝜎𝜎𝑣𝑣 = 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧, so

(ℎ−𝑧𝑧) 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑃𝑃 ) 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻

𝐿𝐿 = 𝜙𝜙 +
tan �45+ 1 � 2𝑤𝑤 𝛾𝛾1 𝑧𝑧 tan 𝜙𝜙 𝜇𝜇
2

Not the following table can be prepared. (Note:

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(𝑃𝑃) = 3, 𝐻𝐻 = 30 ft, 𝑤𝑤 = 3 in. , and 𝜙𝜙𝜇𝜇 = 20° ).

𝑧𝑧(ft) Tie length, L (ft) [equation

(45)]
38.45
5
35.89
10
33.34
15
30.79
20
28.25
25
25.7
30

So use a tie length of 𝑳𝑳 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟

External Stability Check

a. Check for overturning: Refer to figure 29. For this case, using equation (49),
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(overturning ) = 𝐻𝐻 1 1
�∫0 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑧𝑧′

𝑊𝑊1 = 𝛾𝛾1 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = (105)(30)(40) = 126,000 lb

𝑥𝑥1 = 20 ft
 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

𝐻𝐻
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = ∫0 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 12𝛾𝛾1 𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻 2 = �12�(105)(0.26)(30)2 = 12,285 lb/ft

30
𝑧𝑧 ′ = = 10 ft
3

(126,000)(20)
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(overturning ) = (12,285)(10)
= 20.5 > 3 − OK

Figure 7.29

b. Check for sliding: From equation (50)

2
𝑊𝑊1 tan ⁡
(𝑘𝑘𝜙𝜙 1 ) 126,000tan �� �(36)�
3
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(sliding ) = = = 4.57 > 3OK
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 12,285

c. Check for bearing capacity: For 𝜙𝜙2 = 28° , 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐 = 25.8, 𝑁𝑁𝛾𝛾 = 16.78 (Table 4 from
chapter 3). From equation (51a),

𝑞𝑞ult = 𝑐𝑐2 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐 + 12𝛾𝛾2 𝐿𝐿′𝑁𝑁𝛾𝛾

 NPTEL - ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-1

𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 −𝑀𝑀𝑂𝑂 40 (126,000×20)−(12,285×10)

𝑒𝑒 = 2 − = −� � = 0.975 ft
Σ 𝑉𝑉 2 126,000

From equation (52),

𝜎𝜎𝑉𝑉(𝐻𝐻) = 𝛾𝛾1 𝐻𝐻 = (105)(30) = 3150 lb/ft 2

𝑞𝑞 60,791
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹(bearing capacity ) = 𝑞𝑞 ult = = 19.3 > 5 − OK
𝑣𝑣(𝐻𝐻 ) 3150