01 - HATA Module 1

EASA Part 147 Approved Courses
EL 147.XXX
Part 66 Syllabus
Module 1 – Mathematics
For B1 & B2 Categories
MANUAL CODE: BM1_01

ISSUE VERSION: Initial Issue
ISSUE DATE: 15.04.2010
MANUAL CODE: BM1_01
ISSUE VERSION: Initial Issue
ISSUE DATE: 15.04.2010
This Manual has been created and published by
on April 2010
The content of this Manual is property of
It is supplied in confidence and commercial security on its contents must be maintained.
It must not be used for any purpose other than that for which it is supplied, nor may information contained in
it be disclosed to unauthorised persons.
It must not be reproduced in whole or in part without written permission of
COPYRIGHT
The copyright notices appearing in this publication protect the compilations of text and data,
and other copyrightable works embodied herein. Such protected works may not be copied,
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, and retransmitted in whole or in part, in any form or
by any means, whether electrical, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the written permission of .
Hellenic Aviation Training Academy

33 K. Papadimitriou st,
19003 Markopoulo,
Athens, GREECE.
Tel.: +30 22990 41314
Fax: +30 22990 41313
Web: http://www.hata.edu.gr
e-mail: info@hata.edu.gr
Part 66 Training Syllabus
Module 1 Mathematics
Table of Contents
1. USING THIS BOOK………………………………………………………………………………………pg.3

1.1.General Concepts
1.2 As a guide
1.3 The use of x and x
1.4 Length
1.5 Scientists
1.6 Units, Weights and Conversion Factors…………………………………………..…………pg.4
2. ARITHMETIC……………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.5
2.1 Arithmetical Terms and Signs
2.2 Prime Numbers
2.3 In arithmetic four basic operations are performed.
2.4 Basic operations involving numbers…………………………………………………... pg.6
2.4.1 Addition
2.4.2 Subtraction
2.4.3 Multiplication
2.4.4 Division……………………………………………………………………………. pg.7
2.4.5 Brackets
2.4.6 Mixed Operations………………………………………………………………… pg.8
Activity 1
2.4.7 Fractions………………………………………………………………………... pg.9
2.4.7.1 Addition and Subtraction
2.4.7.2 Multiplication…………………………………………………………… pg.10
2.4.7.3 Division ………………………………………………………………… pg.11
2.4.7.4 Mixed Operations……………………………………………………... pg.12
Activity 2
2.4.8 Decimals……………………………………………………………….…………..pg.13
2.4.8.1 Decimal Addition and Subtraction
2.4.8.2 Decimal Multiplication………………………………………………...pg14
3.4.8.3 Decimal Division
2.4.9 Rounding…………………………………………………………………………. pg.15
2.4.10 Estimating……………………………………………………………………….. pg.16
Activity 3
3. UNITS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES &CONVERSION FACTORS……………………………………... pg.17

Activity 4............................................................................................................................. pg.21
4. RATIO & PROPORTION………………………………………………………………………………… pg.22

Activity 5…………………………………………………………………………………………… pg.23
5. PERCENTAGES…………………………………………………………………………………………. pg.24
Activity 6…………………………………………………………………………………………… pg.25
6. AVERAGES……………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.26
7. MENSURATION………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.27
Activity 7…………………………………………………………………………………………… pg.36
8. POWERS AND ROOTS…………………………………………………………………………………. pg.37

8.1 Squares and square roots
8.2 Cubes and Cube Roots………………………………………………………………….. pg.38
9. LINES & ANGLES………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.39

Activity 8…………………………………………………………………………………………… pg.44
Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

Part 66 Module 1
Issue Date: 15.04.2010
Page 1
Amdt. / Date: Copyright © 2010 - Unpublished Work
10. ALGEBRA……………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg. 46

Activity 9…………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.49
10.1 Distributive property……………………………………………………………………… pg.50
Activity 10………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.52
10.2 Factorization……………………………………………………………………………… pg.53
Activity 11………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.54
10.3 Solving Quadratics using an Equation………………………………………………… pg.55
Activity 12
10.4 Linear Equations…………………………………………………………………………. pg.56
Activity 13………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.58
10.5 Indices and Powers……………………………………………………………………… pg.59
Activity 14………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.61
10.6 Simultaneous Equations ………………………………………………………………… pg.62
Activity 15…………………………………………………………………………………………. pg.63
10.7 Second Degree and Quadratic Equations…………………………………………….. pg.64
Activity 16…………………………………………………………………………………………. pg.65
10.8 Common Logarithms (logs)…………………………………………………………….. pg.66
10.8.1 Multiplication…………………………………………………………………….. pg.69
10.8.2 Division
10.8.3 Powers and Roots
Activity 17………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.71
11. OTHER NUMBERING SYSTEMS………………………………………………………………. pg.72

11.1 The Decimal System
11.2 The Binary System………………………………………………………………………. pg.73
11.2.1 Addition of Binary Numbers…………………………………………………… pg.75
11.2.2 Subtraction……………………………………………………………………… pg.76
11.2.4 Division
11.2.5 Positive and Negative Numbers………………………………………………. pg.77
11.2.6 Converting Denary into Binary
11.3 The Octal System………………………………………………………………………… pg.79
11.4 The Hexadecimal System……………………………………………………………….. pg.80
11.5 Binary Coded Decimal BCD……………………………………………………………...pg.81
Activity 18………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.82
12. GEOMETRY………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.84

12.1 Graphs…………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.87
12.1.1 Straight line graphs
Activity 19………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.93
12.1.2 curved graph…………………………………………………………………….. pg.94
12.2 Plane trigonometry……………………………………………………………………….. pg.96
Activity 20………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg.101
12.3 Polar co-ordinates………………………………………………………………………... pg.102
Revision Questions………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.103

Part 66 Module 1
Page 2
1. USING THIS BOOΚ

1.1. General Concepts
This book has been written to the B1/B2 level of the EASA part 66 syllabus.
Mathematics is a form of modelling - taking data from the real world, converting it into numbers (and letters
and symbols) and working on them in accordance with a set of rules to produce an outcome. For example -
there are 8 identical boxes of cargo to be loaded onto an aircraft; each one has a mass of 60kg. The total
mass is 8 x 60kg = 480kg. This equation could be written as:
y×x=w
where:
y = is the number of boxes
x = their individual mass
w = the total mass
With the above equation w is the unknown but is found by multiplying y by x. If w is known (i.e. the total
mass) and if the number of boxes are known then the mass of each box can be found by dividing the total
w
mass by the number of boxes, i.e. x = w/y or x =
y
Almost everyone will have studied mathematics before, and understanding the subject for some people does
not come easy, for others it does not present a particular problem. For the former group of people these
books will have to be studied carefully - re-reading, and re-reading again, any subject that is not fully
understood. For the latter group the books may be used as revision - and as a guide to the syllabus
coverage.
1.2. As a guide:
1. Study each section after each classroom session and make sure you fully understand the material
before moving on to the next section. If you have difficulties, re-read it. If it is still a problem contact
your instructor.
2. Complete each activity as you complete each section.
3. Complete the revision questions at the back of the book.
1.3. The use of x and ×
To try and avoid confusion between “x” the times sign and 'x' the unknown, we use '×' for the times sign and
'x' for the letter as in xyz.
There is a letter in the Greek alphabet which is used to denote a constant when dealing with circles. It is
equal to 3.142 approximately or 22/7 to be more precise. It may be written as π or Π. Either of these symbols
may be found in this book depending on whether normal text is used or Maths text is used. You should
commit 3.142 to memory. Pronounced as 'pie'.
1.4. Length
On some drawings the upper case letter L is used to denote length but in many books the lower case l is
used. We have used L where we think there might be confusion with the letters l or i or the number 1.
Calculators
Not allowed in any CAA examination so it would be advisable to avoid their use here (but
during your studies they can be used to verify your answers).
1.5. Scientists
Details of various scientists are given in the text. This is to provide some historical perspective and details
need not be remembered.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 3
1.6. Units, Weights and Conversion Factors
There is some overlap with this topic between modules 1 and 2 but it has been included in this module in its
entirety for the sake of completeness.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 4
2. ARITHMETIC
2.1 Arithmetical Terms and Signs
A whole number is technically called an INTEGER and they can exist as either a positive number or a
negative number.
'Positive' numbers are recognized by a positive sign in front of the number, eg:
+2 +4 +7 +15 etc
'Negative' numbers are recognized by a negative sign in front of the number, eg:
-3 -6 -12 -28 etc
The negative version of a positive number is referred to as its negation. For example, −3 is the negation of
the positive number 3
If no sign is shown then the number is considered to be positive, eg:
247 15 etc
2.2 Prime Numbers
A prime number is an integer that is exactly divisible by itself and 1. For example 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc are prime
numbers. Numbers such as 4, 6, 8, etc are called Composite Numbers. For example 11 can only be divided
by 1 and 11, 8 can be divided by 1, 2, 4 and 8.
2.3 In arithmetic four basic operations are performed.

These are:
i. Addition (+)
ii. Subtraction (-)
iii. Multiplication (×)
iv. Division (÷)
When carrying out these operations the following rules apply:
1. When there is a number in a bracket that has a negative sign in the frond then the result is the
negation of the number in the bracket.
e.g.: -(+3) = -3
-(-3) = 3
2. When there is a number in a bracket that has a positive sign in the frond then the result is the same
number as in the bracket.
e.g.:+(+3) = 3
+(-3) = -3
3. a + b is the same as b + a.
4. a × b is the same as b × a.
5. When two numbers with unlike signs are multiplied, or divided, with each other the result is a number
with a negative sign.
e.g.: 1. -5 × 6 = -30
2. 12 ÷ (-3) = -4
6. When two numbers with like signs are multiplied, or divided, with each other the result is a number
with a positive sign.
e.g.: 1. -7 × (-6) = 42
2. -40 ÷ (-5) = 8
3. 40 ÷ 5 = 8

Part 66 Module 1
Page 5
2.4 Basic operations involving numbers
2.4.1 Addition
When adding numbers the result is called the SUM, e.g.:

1. 6 + 4=10
(the sum of 6 & 4 is 10).
2. 6 + (-4) = 2
The addition of + 6 and - 4 is written as: 6 + (-4)
Applying rule 1 this becomes 6 - 4, the sum of which is 2
2.4.2 Subtraction
This is the process of finding the difference between numbers, e.g.:

1. 10 - 6 = 4
2. -10 - 6 = -16
Example:
Add together the following numbers: +5, -3, -7, and +4.
+5 + (-3) + (-7) + (+4)
(applying rules 1 & 2 becomes)
5-3-7+4
gives an answer of -1
written as 5 -3 -7 +4 = -1
The equal sign (=) means that the quantity on the right is equal to that on the left.
Figure 1 POSITIVE & NEGATIVE NUMBERS

The signs positive (+) and negative (-) can also be thought of as indicators of direction. Conventionally it is
accepted that the positive direction is to the right of some datum and the negative direction is to the left of
the datum (Figure 1).
Thus if zero (0) is considered as the datum in Figure 1, the sum (+5 -3 -7 +4) would follow the path as shown
finishing at -1.
Multiplication is the name given to the process of repeated addition of identical numbers (which is the way a
computer does it anyway).
So 5 × 4 can be shown as 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 which equals 20. Shown as 5 × 4 = 20. Rule 5 applies to
multiplication.
i.e. Multiplying 6 and -8 (6 × (-8))
gives the answer -48, and
Multiplying -3 and -7 (-3 × (-7))
gives the answer +21.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 6
Be careful when multiplying more than 2 negative numbers. For example:

(-6) × (-3) × (-2) = ?
Note that we always have to use brackets with negative brackets in equations.
Multiply the first 2 numbers gives +18 so the equation becomes:

(+18) × (-2) = ?
Multiplying the 2 numbers above gives:
(+18) × (-2) =-36
When multiplying larger numbers by hand (no calculator) it is important to keep the numbers in their
respective columns.
Consider 62 × 14
This is written as 62
14 ×
To solve this problem the following procedure is adopted:
62
14×
620 62 × 10
248 62 × 4
add 868 62 × 14
2.4.4 Division
This is the name given to the process of determining the number of times one number (the DIVISOR) is
contained within a second number (the DIVIDEND), the result being known as the QUOTIENT.
There are several ways to show division.
i.e. Divide 12 by 4 may be written as: 12 ÷ 4
12
or as or 12 / 4
4
The answer, the quotient, is 3 in all cases. If one of the numbers had a negative sign then the answer would
have been negative, e.g. -3.
Consider a further example 569 ÷ 4.
For convenience this may be written as 4 569
142
Which may be solved thus 4 569
400 4 × 100
169 Difference
160 4 × 40
9 Difference
8 4×2
1 Difference
2.4.5 Brackets
Brackets are used in mathematics to group terms that are to undergo a common operation. Brackets are
always used in pairs of the same type. A wide range of shapes exist including the following: [ ], { }, ( ).
A number, positioned immediately outside a bracket, will be multiplied by the term or terms inside the
bracket, as the bracket is removed.
i.e. 3(7 + 2) = 3(9) = 3 × 9 = 27

Part 66 Module 1
Page 7
The multiplying number written in the previous question in front of the bracketed terms has the same effect if
written immediately behind.
Thus (7 + 2)3 also gives an answer of 27.
The solution could be found by multiplying 3 by 7 to give 21, then multiplying 3 by 2 to give 6.
Adding 21 to 6 = 27.
3(7 + 2) = 3 × 7 + 3 × 2 = 21 + 6 = 27
If no number is shown immediately outside the bracketed term, then it is understood to be 1.

Thus (7-3) is understood as 1(7 - 3) = 4
However -(7 - 3) is understood as -1(7-3) = -1 × 4 = -4
Adjacent bracketed terms indicate multiplication.
Thus (8 - 5)(6 +2) = (3)(8) = 3 × 8 = 24
Problems that involve multiple brackets are solved by working outwards from the innermost bracket.
For example: 2[6(7 - 4)]
= 2[6(3)]
= 2[18]
= 36
2.4.6 Mixed Operations
In arithmetic the operations required, when the signs are mixed, must be carried out in a particular order (in
effect the signs have different strengths). The sequence of operations follow the pattern below:
Firstly 'Brackets' must be removed.

Then any 'Division' must be carried out.
Followed by 'Multiplication'
Then 'Addition'
And finally 'Subtraction'
Example 1. Solve 2 + 6 × 9 ÷ 3(2 + 5) - 8

Answer = 2 + 6 × 9 ÷ 3(7) - 8 Brackets
=2+6×9÷3×7-8
=2+6×3×7-8 Division
= 2 + 126 – 8 Multiplication
= 128 – 8 Addition
= 120 Subtraction
Example 2. 162 ÷ (-18) + (-5 - 10) - 2(-33 +6)

Answer = 162 ÷ (-18) + (-15) -2(-27) Brackets
= -9 + (-15) - 2(-27) Division
= -9 + (-15) + 54 Multiplication
= -9 + 39 Addition
= 30 Subtraction
Now try activity 1. Do not look at the answers until you have completed the questions.
Activity 1
1) Find the product of 24 and 13.
2) Solve 6390 ÷ 15.
3) What is the answer to the following problem: 9 + 4 × 30 ÷ 3(6 + 4) -4.
Answer to Activity 1
1. 312
2. 426
3. 9

Part 66 Module 1
Page 8
2.4.7 Fractions
A fraction is part of a whole.

i.e. 3 is (one half) of 6.
Similarly 1mm is (one tenth) of 1cm.

Quantities expressed in a way that involves one integer divided by another integer are called VULGAR or
COMMON FRACTIONS. The term vulgar is used to distinguish them from decimal fractions which we will
cover later.
The fraction 7/8 (or ) indicates that the whole has been divided into 8 equal parts and that 7 of these parts
are being considered. The number above the line, 7 in this example, is known as the NUMERATOR and the
number below the line, 8, as the DENOMINATOR.
Vulgar fractions may be further classified into the following groups: Proper Fractions, Improper Fractions and
Mixed Fractions.
A Proper Fraction has the numerator smaller than the denominator e.g. and etc. Proper fractions are
therefore always less than 1.
An Improper Fraction is one in which the numerator is the same as or greater than the denominator e.g.
and etc.
1 7
Mixed fractions are a combination of a proper fraction and whole numbers eg, 1 · and 15 ·etc.
4 8
Mixed fractions are therefore always greater than 1.
18 5
Improper fractions can be changed into either 1, as with , or into a mixed number as with which can be
18 3
2
expressed as 1 .
3
We will now consider the four basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, as applied
to fractions.
2.4.7.1 Addition and Subtraction

In order to add or subtract fractions, it is first necessary to express them with a common denominator.
When this has been achieved then the numerators may be simply added or subtracted.
As previously shown, unity or 1 can be represented by a fraction in which the numerator and denominator
3 7 10
are the same i.e. , , etc, thus the value of any fraction remains the same if both the numerator and
3 7 10
denominator are multiplied by the same integer.
1 2 3 12
i.e. = = =
2 4 6 24
The value also remains the same if the numerator and denominator are divided by the same number.
36 18 9
i.e. = =
80 40 20
This process is known as SIMPLIFICATION and can reduce the fraction to a simpler form.
Consider the following examples.
2 1
Example 1: +
3 9
6 1
= + (both fractions now have the same common denominator)
9 9
6 1
=
9
7
=
9

Part 66 Module 1
Page 9
5 5
Example 2: -
6 12
10 5
= -
12 12
10  5
=
12
5
=
12
1 15
Example 3: 4 - 1
8 16
1 15
=3 - (subtracting first the integer part of the mixed fraction)
8 16
2 15
=3 -
16 16
Here, although both the denominators are the same, 15 cannot arithmetically be subtracted from 2, therefore
2 18
it is necessary to convert 3 to 2 .
16 16
18 15
Hence: 2 -
16 16
18  15
=2
16
3
=2
16
So for adding or subtracting fractions a common denominator is found.
If all else fails this can be found by multiplying both denominators. For example, solve:
3 1
+
5 3
(common denominator = 5 × 3 = 15).
5 into 15 go 3.
3 times 3 = 9.
3 into 15 go 5.
5 times 1 = 5.
So:
3 1 9  5 14
+ = =
5 3 15 15
2.4.7.2 Multiplication
The product of two or more fractions is obtained by multiplying the numerators together to form the
numerator of the product and by multiplying the denominators together to form the denominator of the
product. The final fraction is then reduced to its lowest form.
2 12 1
Example 1: × ×
5 15 4
Multiplying the numerators together, i.e. 2 × 12 × 1, equals 24.
Multiplying the denominators together i.e. 5 × 15 × 4 equals 300.
24
Hence the resulting fraction is
300
Reducing this to its lowest form (in this case dividing both top and bottom by 6 then by 2) gives:
4 2
=
50 25

Part 66 Module 1
Page 10
2 21
Example 2: ×
7 40
The solution to this multiplication may be obtained as in the previous example. Multiplying the top line across
and then the bottom line across:
= reducing this to its lowest form.
21
= (dividing both numerator and denominator by 2)
140
3
= (dividing both numerator and denominator by 7)
20
Alternatively a cancellation method may be used before multiplication takes place. The 21 in the numerator
and the 7 in the denominator can both be divided by 7.
Likewise the 40 in the denominator and the 2 in the numerator can both be divided by 2.
1 3
= ×
1 20
3
=
20
Multiplication of fractions involving mixed numbers is best dealt with by changing the mixed number into an
improper fraction before the multiplication takes place.
2 4
Example 3: 1 ×
3 25
1 4
= ×
3 5
4
=
15
2.4.7.3 Division
With division of fractions, the rule to follow is, 'invert the divisor and then proceed as for multiplication'.
6 2 2
Example 1: ÷ ( being the divisor)
11 5 5
6 5
= ×
11 2
15
=
11
4
=1
11

Part 66 Module 1
Page 11
2.4.7.4 Mixed Operations

Where addition, subtraction, multiplication and division occur in the same calculation involving fractions the
basic rule of BODMAS applies. For example, solve:
5 7 3
÷ -
6 8 7
There are no Brackets so Division comes first. Solving the first two fractions first:
5 7 5 8 40
÷ = × =
6 8 6 7 42
Substituting 40/42 for the first two fractions in the equation gives:
40 3 40  18 22 11
- = = =
42 7 42 42 21
Now try some problems for yourself.
Activity 2
Solve following, expressing your answer in the lowest fractional form.
3 3
1) +
4 16
2 1
2) 1 +2
3 12
3) 2 -
4) ×
5) 3 ×
6) 2 ÷
Answers to activity 2
1. 2. 3 3. 1 4. 5. 2 6. 7
If you have manage to do these correctly, well done. If not, look back over the areas in which you have had
the difficulty, and attempt the problems again.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 12
2.4.8 Decimals
Decimals are fractions whose denominators are 10, or some multiple of 10, such as 100, 1000, 10,000 etc. They
are indicated by writing one, or more digits to the right of a decimal point.
Thus may be expressed in decimal form as 0.2
Decimal point
= 0.02
= 0.002 etc.
Decimal fractions written as above, that is without a whole number, are called “pure decimals”. When a whole
number is combined with the decimal fraction, such as 2.2, 15.4, 120.65 etc. then the number is known as a
“mixed decimal”.
A Decimal such as7.459 may be written in the fractional form as:
7+ + + =
=7 =
=7
2.4.8.1 Decimal Addition and Subtraction

When computing decimals, the rule of likeness requires that addition or subtraction is carried out only with like
denominations. This means that the decimal point of each number must be kept in line as the example below
shows.
Consider the addition of 2.57, 34.8 and 0.04
2.57 Aligning the decimal points, puts the number into their correct position.
34.8 Addition can then be carried out as with whole numbers.
+ 0.04
37.41
Subtraction is carried out in a similar way.
ie. Subtract 1.370 from 2.620
2. 20
- 1. 70
1.2 50

Part 66 Module 1
Page 13
2.4.8.2 Decimal Multiplication
Decimal multiplication is carried out in the same way as that used for whole numbers.
Thus 100 × 6.542 = 654.2
This is achieved by ignoring the decimal point until the multiplication is completed.
I.e. (for the same example) 100 × 6542 =654200
The position of the decimal point can then be found by counting, from right to left, the total sum of the decimal
places, in the original problem, (three in this case) and inserting it into the final product.
i.e. 654.200
3 decimal digits from the right
Example 1 : multiply 0.216×2.31
216 Ignoring the decimal points

× 231
43200
64580
+ 216
49896
Summing the number of decimal places involved in problems gives a total of five (three for 0.216 and two for
2.31)
Moving the decimal point from its position at the right of the 6 five places to the left and the answer becomes :
0.49896. initial place of decimal point
5 places of decimal from the right
3.4.8.3 Decimal Division
Once again this procedure is performed the same way as for long division. However,, if the divisor (the number
on the bottom line) is in decimal form, the problem may be simplified by making it a whole number and correcting
the dividend (the number on the top line) accordingly. In other words moving the decimal point for both, several
places to the right to create at least one whole number.
I.e. Divide 72.828 by 2.52
To make the divisor a whole number, the decimal point is moved two decimal places to the right (in this case). In
order that the mathematical problem remains unaltered, the decimal point of the dividend must also move the
same number of places in the same direction (to the right). So:
28.900
252)7282.800
-504
22 2
-20 6
2268
-2268
So = 28.9

Part 66 Module 1
Page 14
2.4.9 Rounding
In the last example the problem happened to terminate after one place of decimals, however in many problems
an exact answer will not always occur and will be necessary to terminate the problem after a suitable number of
decimal places has been reached. This number will depend on the requirements of the question or situation, and
the operation performed is known as “rounding off”.
Example: If a budget was being worked out for the running of a machine and the hours were estimated
at 23.75 running hours and the hourly running costs for electricity were £8.3357, then the total cost
would be £197.972875
For budgeting purposes the sum 197.972875 must be rounded to pounds and pence. In other words to
---.—(up to 99 pence). Starting with the last digit on the right (5), it is “5 or grater” so this makes the next
digit (7) into an 8. The 8 is “5 or grater” and this makes the next digit into a 9. The 9 is greater “5 or
greater” and this makes the next digit (2) into a 9. The 3 however is “less than 5” so the next digit (7) in
not rounded up.
So the nearest price after “rounding” is 197.97. Of course the accountants might like to round it up
further for all sorts of reasons, but the above is the mathematical answer.
Consider the number 15.7508. This becomes 15.751 if rounded off to three decimal places, or 15.75 if rounded
off to two decimal places, or 15.8 if rounded off to one decimal place.
Note: The last decimal place number required, is increased by one if it is followed by “5 or greater” digit
The answer to decimal and non-decimal problems are often required in the form of a number of “significant
figures”.
The number 3172 is 3000 rounded off to one significant figure, or 3200 rounded off to two significant figures, or
3170 rounded off to three significant figures.
The count of the number of significant figures starts with the first number that holds a value (i.e. 1, 2, 3 etc.
anything other than a zero) and is obtained by counting left to right. Zeros before this value do not signify
anything, but zeros within the number are significant.
Thus 0.004283=0.00428 rounded off to three significant figures.

18.00718=18.0072 rounded off to six significant figures.
293.275=293.28 rounded off to five significant figures
As with decimal places, the last significant figures required in the number is increased by one if it is followed by a
“5 or greater” digit.
Before leaving this section on decimals, the relationship between vulgar fractions and decimal fractions should
be understood. If it is necessary to convert a vulgar fraction into a decimal fraction, then alla that is required is to
divide the numerator by the denominator.
Thus becomes 0.5, becomes 0.75 and becomes 0.3125

0.5 0 .75 0 .3 1 2 5
2 1.0 4 3 .00 16 5 .0 0 0 0
-1.0 - .8 - .8
0 20 2 0
-20 - 6
0 0
- 2
8 0
-8 0
0

Part 66 Module 1
Page 15
2.4.10 Estimating
It is always a good idea to estimate an answer during an examination. In some cases with multi choice exams all
that is needed is an estimate.
Example: What is the product of 3.142 × 8.831?
(a) 277.47
(b) 2.77
(c) 27.74
3.124is nearly 3 and 8.831 is nearly 9 and 3 × 9 = 27 so the answer must be near to 27. So the
answer must be (c).
Some examiners realize this and they may put all the alternative answers closer to 27 something, so you cannot
always rely on estimates – but sometimes you can.
When completing a non-estimate calculation it is always best to carry out an estimate afterwards just as a check.
Now try activity 3:
Activity 3
Solve the following problems
1 27.65 + 4.012
2 60.25 - 4.71
3 Multiply 0.142 by 2.93 and correct to four significant figures
4 Divide 0.455 by 0.14 stating your answer correct to one decimal place
5 Divide 367.2 by 1.2 stating your answer correct to two significant figures.
(a) convert to a decimal

6
(b) convert 0.875 to a fraction
1. 31.662
2. 55.54
3. 0.4161
4. 3.3
5. 310
6. (a) 0.625
(b)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 16
3. UNITS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES &CONVERSION FACTORS

This section has some overlap with the Physics module 2.
In UK two systems of units exist: the imperial system and the metric system.
The imperial system is one that has existed from ancient times and units such as the “inch”, a unit of length
(defined in early records as the length of three barleycorns round and dry), and the “pound, a unit of mass
(incorrectly called weight) (defined by William the Conqueror as 7000 grains of wheat, taken from the middle of
the ear of corn) are part of this system of units.
Although, of course, these were modified and standardized over the centuries, with the inch being standardized
and the pound taking the form of a cylinder of platinum is now known as the “British Standard Pound”.
The metric system was devised by French in 1791 and has now been adopted for general use in many
countries. This system is based on the unit of length called the “meter” and a unit of mass called the “kilogram”.
The meter was originally defined as one ten-millionth of Earth’s quadrant (a quarter of the circumference),
however it is now defined in terms of wavelengths of light.
A simplification of the metric system now exist known as the “System International d’Unit” (the SI system), and
this is the system most commonly used in engineering in Europe and UK - as well as other countries around the
world.
There are six fundamental quantities in the SI system, from which all others are derived, these are:
Quantity Units Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature (thermodynamic) Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance Mole mol
The above units can be used in combination to produce “Derived Units”.
Examples: Velocity = length divided by time = = = m/s
Area = length × length = metre × metre =
This system is a coherent system in that the product or quotient of two or more unit quantities will in itself
produce a unit quantity.
Example: 1N (unit of force) = 1kg 1m/

Part 66 Module 1
Page 17
To make the writing of large numbers easier (and use up less space) the unit can be raised (or lowered) by 10 to
a power. The power can be any value but is normally in units of 3.
Value raised to a
Prefix Symbol value
Power of 10
Tera T 1,000,000,000,000
Giga G 1,000,000,000
Mega M 1,000,000
kilo k 1,000
mili m 0.001
micro μ 0.000,001
nano n 0.000,000,001
pico p 0.000,000,000,001
Non SI multiples and sub-multiples that may be encountered include:
hecta h 100
deca da 10
deci d 0.1
centi c 0.01
As it can be seen from the SI table above the values are of ten raised to a power divisible by 3. For some
quantities, in particular length, this means there is no division between the metre and the millimeter. Because of
this, centimeter, a non-SI unit is occasionally used. .
In the introductory paragraphs on this topic, some terms were used which you may not be familiar with, for
instance: “mass”. This is a term, which is used as a measure of the quantity of matter which a substance
possesses, whether it is solid, liquid or gas.
In calculations, if “mass” is quoted, then it is assumed that this value will remain constant, even though the
volume, state or location of the mass may change
Note: In the SI system the fundamental units is kilogram (kg) not gram. Of course, these two terms are related,
the gram being one thousandth of kilogram.
So if mass is used in calculations and the values are given in anything other than kg then the units given must be
converted to kg
Example: 15gr = = 15 × kg

Part 66 Module 1
Page 18
Weight is also a term that you familiar with and although it will be discussed in more detail in Module 2 (Science
Module), an understanding here it is useful. The weight of a quantity of matter on Earth is the force of attraction
between the Earth’s center and the mass in question. As the weight of a body varies slightly in different latitudes,
due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, weight is not constant. Thus the piece of platinum used as the British
Standard pound is a standard mass and not a standard weight.
The unit of weight (and force) is the “Newton” symbol “N”, 1N may be thought of as the weight of a small apple
approximately, so it is quite small that’s why its multiples are more usually used.
(Remember, Sir. Isaac Newton was supposed to have an apple fall on his head when he discovered the law
relating to gravity).
If you are still unsure of the term “mass” and “weight” then consider a bag of sugar. In UK the standard bag of
sugar mass is 1kg. If it is placed on a set of weighing scales (using an internal spring) they will, or should, read
1kg. In fact the scales are measuring the force of attraction between the bag of sugar and the Earth not the mass
of the bag of sugar. The force in fact is about 1N.
If the scales and the bag of sugar were to be taken to the moon, the mass of the bag of sugar would remain
unchanged at 1kg, although on the scale you would get at about 0.2kg (1.6N). In other words the bag of sugar
th
would produce a force about 1/6 of that which it exerted on the Earth although its mass has not altered.
Below are some units in use in metric and imperial systems.
Imperial units
Length: inch (in), foot(ft), yard(yd) and mile (m)
12 in = 1 ft
3 ft = 1 yd
1760 yd = 1 mile
Mass: ounce (oz), pound (lb), stone (st), hundredweight (cwt) and ton (ton)
16 oz = 1 lb
14 lb = 1 st
8 st = 1 cwt
20 cwt = 1 ton
Fluid volume: fluid ounce (oz), pint (pt), quart (qt) and imperial gallon (imp gal)
20 oz = 1 pt
2 pt = 1 qt
4 qt = 1 imp gal
Metric Units
Length: millimeter (mm), centimeter (cm) (non SI unit), metre (m) and kilometer (km)
10 mm = 1 cm
100 cm = 1 m
1000 m = 1 km
Mass: gram (gm), kilogram (kg) and tonne (t) (sometimes called the metric ton).
1000 gm = 1 kg
1000kg = 1 t
Fluid Volume: millilitres (ml), centiliters (cl) (non SI unit) and litres (l)
10 ml = 1 cl
100 cl = 1 l

Part 66 Module 1
Page 19
It is frequently necessary to convert between units, particularly It is frequently necessary to convert between
units, particularly from larger to smaller units and vice versa. On occasions conversions are also required
between metric and imperial units. The table below provides some of the multiplying factors that will allow
this conversion to take place.
Note: when working on aircraft it is most important to verify conversion factors and not try to remember them
- memories are not reliable and verification can easily be made by reference to:
 The AMM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual) .
 Published conversion tables and graphs.
 Conversion tables/ graphs on data plates attached to the
 appropriate part of the aircraft - refueling points for example for
 conversion from gallons to litres and vise-versa.
 On-board computer data.
 Pocket or desk-top calculators.
Having said this, it is still necessary to remember the most important ones as the CAA are likely to ask
questions on them in the multi-choice paper.
TO CONVERT FROM TO MULTIPLY BY

Length inches millimetres 25.4
metres inches 39.37
statute mile nautical mile (nm) 0.87
kilometre statute mile 0.62137
Mass pounds kilograms 0.45

kilograms pounds 2.2
tonnes kilograms 1000
tonnes ton (imp) 0.9842
tonnes ton (US) 1.1032
Fluid Volume imp gallon litres 4.54

litres imp gallon 0.22
US gallon imp gallon 0.83
imp gallon US gallon 1.2
Pressure & Stress bar pounds per square inch (psi) (lb I in2) 14.5
psi Pa (Pascal) 6895
Pa Njm2 1.0
kPa psi 0.145
kPa bar 0.01
Note: There is a US ton (sometimes called a short ton) which equals 2000lb and there is a long ton (used in
the UK) which equals 2240lb.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 20
Examples:
Express 20 millimetres in metres. 20mm = 20 ÷ 1000m = 0.02m
How many feet are there in 10yd? 10yd = 10 x 3ft = 30ft
Convert 0.25 tonnes into kilograms. 0.25t = 0.25 x 1000kg = 250kg
Convert 30 inches into millimetres. 30in = 30 x 25.4mm = 762mm
If you feel confident with this section, then try Activity 4.
Activity 4
1. Express 210 mm in terms of m.
2.
How many in are there in 3 yd.
3. Convert 150mm into in, giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
4. Convert 20l into gal
5. How many pounds are there in 15kg
6. Convert 30in into mm
Answers to Activity 4
1. 0.21m
2. 126in
3. 5.91in
4. 4.4gal
5. 33.3lbs
6. 762mm

Part 66 Module 1
Page 21
4.RATIO & PROPORTION

In previous work, we covered vulgar fractions and you should remember that they are written as , ,
etc. Written in this way they also form ratios, so that is the ratio of 3 to 4, is the ratio 7 to 16
and the ratio 1 to 8. These may be written as 3:4, 7:16 and 1:8, where the symbol : means 'is to' and is a
corruption of the (÷) division sign.
Ratios are often used as a means of comparison of two or more quantities of the same kind, that is in terms
of weight or size or cost etc. A lift to drag ratio of 10 to 1, (10:1) (for a wing for example) would indicate that
for every 1 unit of drag force the lift value would be 10 times as great.
The laws that are related to fractions may also be applied to ratios, hence since may be cancelled
down to a ratio of 12:16 should be expressed in the smallest possible numbers as 3:4.
In some circumstances ratios may appear inconveniently large, such as 15:72. In such a case it is
acceptable that the smallest value is represented by 1 and, the other as whole numbers and decimals.
Example: 15:72 becomes 1:4.8 (dividing both by 15)
Ratios are not always confined to two elements.

Example: The ratio of £12,000 to £8, 000 to £4,000 is in the ratio of 3:2:1.
As with all the previous examples, note that the ratio is a number independent of the nature of the quantities
involved.
Ratios are in direct proportion when the ratios are equal.

Example: the ratios 4:6 and 6:9 have the same ratios and may be written as 4:6 :: 6:9 (where :: means “as”)
or 4 is to 6 as 6 is to 9
or 4:6 = 6:9
or =
If you are not sure about this divide 6 into 4 and then divide 9 into 6. The answer in each
case is 0.666.
On occasions you will come across the term “inverse proportion”. In this case, if two quantities are involved
an increase in one results in a decrease in the other. A practical example of this occurs in the cylinder of an
internal combustion engine between the pressure and volume of the gas. As the piston moves in,
compressing the gas, the volume reduces but the pressure increases.
we write it: the pressure (P) is inversely proportional to the volume (V) P V
Example 1: In mechanics the mechanical advantage is defined as the ratio of the load that is to be moved,
to the effort that has to be applied in order to move the load. Hence, determine the mechanical advantage of
a machine if an effort of 20N is required to move a load of 600N.
Mechanical advantage: Load: Effort
600 : 20
30 : 1
Example 2: Divide £630 in the ratio of 7:3.

If the ratio is of the order 7:3 then there are 7 + 3 = 10 parts
a single part will equal = £63
so 7 parts = £63 x 7 = £441
and 3 parts = £63 x 3 = &189

Part 66 Module 1
Page 22
Example 3: Five cleaners can clean an aircraft in 1 hours. Determine how long it will take two cleaners
working at the same rate.
If five cleaners take 1 hours,
One cleaner will take five times as long 5 x 1 =7 hours.
Two cleaners will therefore take half this time 7 ÷2=3
Example 4: Express 3 inches as a ratio of 1 foot.

A ratio can only be made if the units are of the same kind. We know that 1ft = 12in.
Therefore the ratio is 3:12 or 1:4.
Example 5: Two meshing gearwheels have 20 teeth and 60 teeth respectively. How far does the larger
wheel rotate for 1 complete rotation of the smaller one.
Gear ratios are 60:20, which is equal to 6:2 or 3:1.
The smaller one has to rotate 3 times to the larger one's single rotation.
So for 1 rotation of the smaller one the larger one rotates:
of a revolution = 0.333 of 360° = 119.9° (nearly 120°) .
Now try Activity 5.
Activity 5
1. In machines the velocity ratio is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by
the load. Determine the velocity ratio if the effort moves through a distance of 6m causing the load to
move a distance of 200mm
2. Divide £253 in the ratio 12:8:3
3. Express 16 months as a ratio of 3 years
4. If it takes 3 persons to paint the livery on an aircraft in 5 days, how long will it take 2 persons working
at the same rate.
5. Divide the following into the ratio of 3:2

(a) 250 litres. (b) 370rnm. (c) 25gms.
1. 30:1
2. £132:£88:£33
3. 4:9
4. 7 days.
5. (a) 150:100
(b) 222:148
(c) 15:10

Part 66 Module 1
Page 23
5. PERCENTAGES
A percentage is a fraction with a denominator of 100, although this is not written, instead the symbol %
meaning 'per cent' or 'for every hundred' is used on the right of the number
Thus 25% (twenty five per cent) means 25 parts in every hundred and as a fraction is written as or,
better .
75% as a fraction would be written as or better .
To convert a proper fraction into a percentage it is necessary to multiply the denominator by a suitable
number to make it 100. Having achieved this, the numerator is then multiplied by the same number.
Example: = = = 25%
When converting decimal numbers into percentages it is only necessary to multiply by 100 and attach the
percentage sign.
Example: 0.63 is 63%
and 0 .375 is 37.5%
If the proper fraction is such that it is not easy to convert the denominator to 100 then convert the proper
fraction to a decimal number first. The percentage can then be obtained by multiplying by 100 as before.
Example: = 0.3125 = 31.25%
Example 1: Express 35% as a proper fraction.
35% = =
Example 2: Find 8% of 720.
× 720 = 57.6
Example 3: Express as a percentage.
= 0.1875
As a percentage: 0.1875 × 100 = 18.75%
Example 4: Express 50mm as a percentage of 2m.
= 0.025
As a percentage : 0.025 × 100 = 2.5%

Part 66 Module 1
Page 24
Example 5: What is 30% of 180
× 180 = 54
Example 6: The total fuel tank capacity of an aircraft is 6500 imperial gallons. Number 1 tank holds 22% and
uumber 2 tank holds 38%. How much fuel (in gallons) is in the remaining tanks?
Total fuel in 1 and 2 tanks = (22% + 38%) x 6500 gals
= x 6500 gals
= 60 X 65
= 3900 gals
Remaining fuel = 6500 - 3900 = 2600 gals
If you feel confident about this section then try Activity 6.
Activity 6
1. Calculate % of £560
2. Express 28% as a proper fraction
3. What is 25 seconds as a percentage of 1 minute
4. What percentage is 30mA of 0.6A (a “mA” is of an “A”
5. A particular steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, has a carbon content of 0.25% by mass. Find the mass of
iron in 600kg of this steel.
6. An engine is able to generate 30kW of power. Of this 2 5kW is usefully engaged. Find the percentage of
the power lost.
1. 2.8
2.
3. 41.67%
4. 5%
5. 598.5%
6. 16.67%

Part 66 Module 1
Page 25
6. AVERAGES
Often to make sense of, or simplify, a mass of numerical data, an average value or mean is determined. This
is a single value that can be used for comparison or estimation. You will have heard of 'average rainfall' for
the month of ******* , or the 'average family' size.
The average family in the UK consisted of 2.4 children. In reality this is not possible but it does allow
governments to calculate population growths, school allocations etc.
Very often we talk about the 'average speed' perhaps of an aircraft or car which is the total distance covered,
divided by the total time taken, even though this may involve the aircraft or car being stationary at
intermediate airports or service stations en route.
Example 1: In an examination of six students the resulting marks obtained were 98, 73, 92, 65, 77
and 30. Determine the average mark.
Average = = =72.5
Comparisons can now be made. Those with marks above 72.5 can be considered to be above
average and those with marks less than 72. 5 below average.
Example 2: What is the average speed of an aircraft in miles per hour if it travels 7,680 miles in 12
hours?
Average speed = = = 640 miles/hour
Given the average speed of an aircraft no w allo ws estimations of time to be made for other
journeys, ie the· time taken for the aircraft above to travel a distance of 2 500 miles would be:
Time taken = = = 3.9 hours
Example 3: A person driving to work uses main roads, motorways and side roads. The total journey
distance is 25 miles and this is broken down as shown below:
Side roads 3 miles (4. 8 km), time taken: 6 minutes.
Motorway (freeway) 1 5 miles (24 km), time taken: 1 5 minutes.
Main roads 5 miles (8 km), time taken: 15 minutes.
What is the average speed (miles/hour) for the whole journey?
Average speed = or =
= =
= =
= 38.3 miles/hour = 61.3 km/hour

Part 66 Module 1
Page 26
7. MENSURATION
Mensuration deals with the measurement of length, area and volume. All shapes can be broken down into
simpler basic forms. It is therefore important that you can recognize some of these forms and be able to
apply the correct formula when an area or volume is required.
An area is a measure of the region contained within the boundaries of a two-dimensional figure. The SI units
of area are 'square metres', written as '' ” (metres x metres) . The imperial unit of area is square inch,
square yard or square foot.
A volume is a measure of the region contained within the outside surfaces of a three-dimensional shape.
The SI unit is 'cubic metres', written as '' ” (metres x metres x metres). The imperial unit is cubic inch,
cubic foot or cubic yard.
A ratio exists when it comes to the circle or shapes of which a circle is part. This ratio is between the
circumference of the circle and its diameter. It is denoted by the Greek symbol π (pi).
Such that π =
Irrespective of the size of the circle this ratio remains constant and approximates to 3.142 . The fractional
form of is often used as it is more accurate.
Below are listed some of the more common shapes together with the formula for their area and volume as
appropriate.
The first five forms are all polygons ie, plane closed figures bounded by straight lines, in addition these are
further defined as quadrilaterals, ie bounded by four sides. The sum of the interior angles equals 360°.
FORM AREA VOLUME
Square: All four sides are of equal length and the corners are all right
angles (90°)
a×a
The centroid is the centre of the area of the square.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 27
FORM AREA VOLUME
Rhombus: All four sides are of equal length and the opposite sides
are parallel. The opposite interior angles are equal but not .
a×a
Rectangle: Opposite sides are of equal length but adjacent sides are
not. All angles are
a×b
Parallelogram: Opposite sides are of equal length and parallel.

Adjacent sides are of different lengths. The opposite interior angles are
equal but not
b×h

Part 66 Module 1
Page 28
FORM AREA VOLUME
Trapezium: Four sided figure with two sides parallel.

The area is calculated from one-half the sum of the lengths of the
parallel sides, times the perpendicular distance between them.
Trapezoid: Four sided figure with no parallel sides.
A=
A=
Triangle: A 3-sided figure, the sum of the interior angles equals 180°
(or π radians).
ACUTE & OBUTE ANGLED TRIANGLE

The area of an acute & obtuse triangle is calculated from one-half the
base length (b) times the perpendicular height (h)
ACUTE ANGLE TRIANGLE OBUTE ANGLE TRIANGLE
FORM AREA VOLUME

Part 66 Module 1
Page 29
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE
Where all sides are of equal length then thetriangle is known as

equilateral. All the interior angles of an equilateral triangle are 60°.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE
If just two sides are of equal length, then the triangle is known as an
isosceles triangle. In an isosceles triangle the two base angles are
equal.
RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE
When one angle in a triangle is 90°, then the triangle is known as a

right-angled triangle.
FORM AREA VOLUME

Part 66 Module 1
Page 30
Circle: A plane figure enclosed by a curved line which is always

equidistant from a single point (the centre). This is also the centroid.
The length of the curved line, forming the circle, is called its
Circumference. The distance from the centre to this is called the
Radius of the circle and the straight line distance from one side of the
circle to the other, passing through the centre, is called its Diameter.
A=
or
A=π
Circular Sector:
Circular Segment:
FORM AREA VOLUME

Part 66 Module 1
Page 31
Annular Ring;
The area of the ring (the shaded portion) is the area of the small
circle diameter (d) taken away from the area of the large circle
diameter (D)
Rectangular Prism:
a×b×c
Pyramid: If the tip is over the centre of the base it is called a Right
Pyramid.
The volume of any pyramid is one-third of the product of the base
area (A) and the perpendicular height 'h'. The area is the base
(L x L) plus the four sides. Each side is calculated as a triangle
( base x slant height measured at right an les to the base)
FORM AREA VOLUME

Part 66 Module 1
Page 32
Right Cone: Where the tip lies above the centre of the circle
This formula also applies to the cone which is a circular pyramid.

Curved area
π×r×L
curved surface area
πr
Sphere:
4×p×
Right Cylinder: Where the cylinder ends are square with the sides.
Two ends
2(π )
+ π× ×L
2πrL
Curved surface
FORM AREA VOLUME

Part 66 Module 1
Page 33
Regular Hexagon:
(≈2,598 )
(≈2.598 )
Regular Octagon:
2 (≈2.828 )
=
2(1+ )
(≈4.828 )
Prism:
h×A
(where “A” is the

end surface
area)
Wedge:

Part 66 Module 1
Page 34
WARNING: Trapezium. The American definition is no sides parallel (on a four sided figure), the UK definition
is two sides parallel. With no sides parallel, in the UK this is called a Trapezoid. If you get a Q on this on the
CAA exam and it is not clear - put your hand up and have a word. Remember, the CAA do use books
published in the US and the examiners may not be aware of the finer points of the definitions.
Centroid
Sometimes called the Centroid of Area and is the centre of area of a two dimensional figure. The centroid of
a circle, for example, is the centre of the circle, the centre of a square is where the two lines intersect that
join alternate comers. Centroids for triangles and other shapes are worked out using equations - which
should not be necessary to know for this level.
Centre of Gravity
Applies to three dimensional objects and is the position where all the weight is said to act. For a solid uniform
sphere, for example, it is in the middle of the sphere. For a horse-shoe it in the space between the two sides
of the shoe. For an aircraft it is a point where the lateral, longitudinal and normal (vertical) datum lines meet.
On a conventional jet airliner this would be somewhere in the fuselage near the centre section.
Triangles
Several triangles have been shown above but two further points should be noted. Similar Triangles are
triangles that have a similar shape but their size may be different. Congruent Triangles have the same shape
and are the same size.
The Circle
A circle is easily constructed using a compass to produce a continuous arc from a centre through 360°.
Figure 2: Properties of circle

Part 66 Module 1
Page 35
The properties of a circle include:
Segments: Drawing a chord from one side to the other will create two segments. If the chord is not the
diameter there will be a minor segment and a major segment.
Sectors: Are bounded by two radius subtending an arc to each other.
Diameter: A straight line drawn from one side to the other through the centre.
Radius: A straight line drawn from the centre to one side. Equals halve the length of the diameter.
Centre: is at the centroid of the circle. The centroid is the centre of the area.
Tangent: A straight line drawn to touch the side of the circle. A line drawn at right angles at the point where
the tangent line touches the circle will cross the centre of the circle.
The above covers most of the common shapes that you are likely to come across, so lets now use these
formulae and attempt activity 7.
Activity 7
1. Determine the area of the following, assuming n = 22 J 7 where appropriate.

(a) A triangle with a base length 4cm and perpendicular height 6cm.
(b) A circle of diameter 1 2cm.
(c) A sphere of radius 6cm.
2. Determine the area of the trapezium shown below.
3. Determine the volume of a sphere of diameter 5 em.
1. (a) 12
(b) 113.14
(c) 452.57
2. 19.5
3. 65.48

Part 66 Module 1
Page 36
8. POWERS AND ROOTS

8.1 Squares and square roots
The shape below is a square of side 4cm. Its area is therefore : 4 x 4 = 16 The statement 4 x 4 = 16 may be
written as = 16 (four squared equals sixteen).
Figure 3: A Square
The suffix '’2’' positioned to the top right of the digit 4 is known as the index and indicates the number of times the 4 (or
base number) is multiplied by itself.
When we talk about ‘'squaring'’ a number this is the process that is referred to, thus:
two squared is =2x2=4

three squared is =3x3=9
ten squared is = 1 0 x 10 = 100
Frequently we need to reverse this operation and this is known as finding the ‘'square root’' of a number. To indicate
that this is required, a '’square root'’ sign is used. It appears as . If the square root is required a small number 2 is
positioned just outside and to the top of the sign thus:
With square roots, and only square roots, the small number 2 is often omitted.
So, working in reverse, we see that:
the square root of four: =2
the square root of nine: =3

and the square root of one hundred: = 10

Part 66 Module 1
Page 37
8.2 Cubes and Cube Roots

Consider the cube below with sides of 4cm. The volume of the cube: 4 x 4 x 4 = 64
In a similar way as that described for a square, the statement 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 may be written as = 64 (four cubed
equals sixty four).
4cm
Figure 4 : A cube
Similarly:
two cubed: =2x2x2=8

three cubed: = 3 x 3 x 3 = 27
and ten cubed: = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000
As before, the ‘'cube root'’ of a number is the reverse of this process and uses the same symbol but with a small '’3'’
positioned just outside and at the top of the root sign.
Hence: the cube root of sixty four: =4
the cube root of eight: =2
the cube root of twenty seven: =3
and the cube root of one thousand: = 10
The examples chosen in this section have been selected to give a whole number answer. Obviously this will not always
be the case, and you may need to seek the use of calculators or tables to solve such problems (not allowed on the CAA
examination - but of course, when doing calculations with reference to aircraft a calculator will almost certainly be used).

Part 66 Module 1
Page 38
9. LINES & ANGLES

A line is defined as a long narrow mark whereas an angle is the space between two straight intersecting lines usually
measured in terms of the amount of rotation.
Figure 5: Lines & Angles
In the majority of cases, angular measurement is made in degrees, the symbol of which is a small “ ” ie, 20°, 45° etc.
In a full circle or one complete revolution there are 360 divisions or degrees. So one revolution = 360°. Thus in a
semi-circle or one-half a revolution there are 180°, and in one-quarter of a circle there are 90°.
Figure 6: Angles on a circle
A 90° forms what is known as a right angle and is often indicated by a small square situated at the intersection of the
two straight lines.
Figure 7: A Right angle
The lines which form a right angle are said to be perpendicular to each other.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 39
To make one complete revolution, irrespective of the radius, the number of degrees moved through will always be 360.
Making two complete revolutions would mean moving through 720°, three revolutions 1080° and so on.
The degree may be subdivided into smaller divisions of minutes (') which can then be further divided into seconds (") of
a degree.
One degree (1°) = sixty minutes (60')
And one minute (1') = sixty seconds (60")
In some instances, particularly in science, angles are measured in RADIANS.
A radian is a ratio and as such has no units, it is just a number. However its name, abbreviated to RADS may occur in
certain units for the purpose of clarity,
E.i.: angular velocity has units of , angular acceleration .
Figure 8: The radian
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle when the arc-length formed between two radial lines, is
equal in length to the radius.
If the arc length is made the length of the circumference (2πr), where “r” is the radius,
then the number of radians =
=2
So one revolution or 360° is equal to 2π radians. Radians are frequently quoted as multiples of π, so:
360° = 2π radians
then 180° = π radians
and 90° = radians
As a guide as to how big a radian is; since π = 3.142 then 2π = 6.284, so in one revolution or 360° there are just over
six radians, each approximately 57°.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 40
Example 1:
Convert 120° into radians.
Since 360° = 2π rad and 120° as a fraction of 360° is then:
120 = × 2π
= rad
Example 2:
Convert 66°33'22" to radians.
Here it is necessary to convert the minutes and seconds to degrees, so converting the seconds to minutes first:
22” = = 0.37’
Adding this to the original 33' gives a total of 33.37' . Converting the minutes to degrees:
33.37’ = = 0.556°
Adding this to the original 66° gives a total of 66.556°. So now we can convert into degrees:
360° = 2π rad
Then 66.556° = × 2π
=1.162 rad
Example 3:
Convert 4.761 radians to degrees, minutes and seconds.
2π rad = 360°
so 4.761 rad = × 360° = 272.785°
0.785° = 0.785 × 60’ =47.1’

0.1 = 0.1 × 60” = 6”
4.761rad = 272° 47’ 6”
Example 4:
Convert radians to degrees.
2π rad = 360°
rad = × 360°
= × 360°
= 102,9°

Part 66 Module 1
Page 41
The following part of the book deals with the angular relationships that are formed when straight lines intersect. Much of
this section is confined to the definitions of these relationships.
An angle that lies between 0° and 90° is known as an ACUTE ANGLE. Angles lying between 90° and 180° are called
OBTUSE ANGLES, whilst angles greater than 180° but less than 360° are referred to as REFLEX ANGLES.
Figure 9: Obtuse & acute angles
When 90° is formed from two angles, i.e. 60° and 30° or 42° and 48° etc., then the angles are known as
COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES, with each angle being the COMPLEMENT of the other.
Figure 10: Complimentary angles
When the sum of two angles make an angle of 180°, then the angles are known as SUPPLEMENTARY ANGLES with
each angle being the SUPPLEMENT of the other.
Figure 11: Supplementary angles

Part 66 Module 1
Page 42
In the figure 12 below, two straight lines intersect. The angle w and y (also z and x) are equal in value and are called
VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES.
Figure 12: Vertically opposite angles
In figure 13, a straight line cuts two parallel lines. Angles d and y (1 and 5 or 4 and 6) are equal in value and are
named ALTERNATE ANGLES.
Angles a and x (1 and 7 or 2 and 8 or 5 and 3 or 4 and 6) , as a pair are also equal in value to each other and are
known as CORRESPONDING ANGLES.
Figure 13:Alternate and corresponding angles

Part 66 Module 1
Page 43
Activity 8
1. Lines PQ and RT are parallel, the angle PQS is equal to:

(a) 30°
(b) 60°
(c) a right angle
2. The sum of angles ABC and BAC is equal to:

(a) 50°
(b) 130°
(c) 180°
3. If AB and DE are parallel, the angle BAC is equal to:

(a) 30°
(b) 60°
(c) 40°
(Hint, put a horizontal line through C)
4. Αngle 'b' relative to angle 'a' is called:

(a) The supplement of angle 'a'.
(b) The complement of angle 'a'.
(c) The corresponding angle.
5. The pair of angles, x and y are called:

(a) Vertically opposite angles
(b) Alternate angles.
(c) Corresponding angles
6. In a straight line, that represents 180°, there are:

(a) 2π rad
(b) π rad
(c) rad

Part 66 Module 1
Page 44
7. The sum of the internal angles of a triangle in terms of radians is equal to:
(a) 3π rad
(b) 2π rad
(c) π rad
8. A right angle in terms of radians is equal to:
(a) rad
(b) π rad
(c) 2π rad
9. If a point 'P' on a wheel makes 2 complete revolutions, this in radians, is equal to :

(a) 2π rad
(b) π rad
(c) 4π rad
10. An angle greater than 90° but less than 180° i s called:
(a) An acute angle.
(b) An obtuse angle.
(c) A reflex angle
11.
rad in degrees is:
(a) 120°
(b) 60°
(c) 20.9°
12, 45° in radians is:
(a) rad
(b) 0.013 rad

(c) 0.785 rad
1. (b) 8. (a)
2. (b) 9. (c)
3. (c) 10. (b)
4. (a) 11. (a)
5. (c) 12. (c)
6. (b)
7. (c)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 45
10. ALGEBRA
In the mensuration section of this module we used letters instead of words to produce equations that provided a general
expression for the required area or volume. For example, the area of a rectangle (A) is equal to the breadth (b)
multiplied by the depth (d).
Thus, written algebraically this becomes A = b x d, providing a general expression into which any positive value of
breadth and depth can be substituted and the area thus determined. Algebra is a field of mathematics that deals with
the relationships of numbers using general terms. Equations formed using this method are called 'algebraic equations'
and below are some examples. As they stand, they cannot, of course, be solved, as this would require additional
information - such as the value of x, y, t, W etc.
(i) 2x + 3y = 7
(ii) s = ut +
(iii) E = ( - )
(iv) R =
Within the same problem, 'like' terms will carry the same value, as both ts do in equation (ii) or both Vs in equation (iv) .
Numbers such as '2' [part of 2x in equation (i)] are called coefficients, so '3' is the coefficient of y, in the same equation.
The laws and signs that were adopted for arithmetic are also applicable when dealing with algebraic expressions, as we
will see.
Often, given a general algebraic expression, a particular solution is required by allocating numerical values to each
symbol.
Example 1: Find the value of 3xy - 2xz + yz ,where x = 2, y = 4 and z = 1
Substituting the numbers for the symbols:
(3 X 2 X 4) - (2 X 2 X 1) + ( X 4 X 1)
= 24 – 4 + 16
= 36
Example 2: Find the value of 7y(x + 2z) ,when x = 3 , y = 2 and z = 4
7y(x + 2z) = (7 X 2)(3 + 2 X 4)
= 14(3 + 8)
= 154

Part 66 Module 1
Page 46
As we know, different units cannot be added together (or subtracted), so, for example a unit of mass (the kilogram)
cannot be added to, or subtracted from, a unit of length (metres). Only those of the same unit can be added or
subtracted. Likewise with algebraic expressions, only like symbols can be added together or subtracted apart.
Thus: 2x + 4x + 3y - y
= 6x + 2y (adding the x's and y's separately)
and 5p + 7q - p + 6q
= 4p + 1 3q (adding the p's and q's separately)
However multiplication does combine symbols.
Hence 2x × 3y × x
=6 y
With division, only like symbols may be cancelled as seen below.
8x × x × y ÷ 2x
= 4xy
In this last example, a procedure known as 'cancelling' is applied. This used to simplify the expression. In arithmetic a
fraction such as can be simplified by cancelling to Since:
= =
Applying this process to the following
Example:
Cancelling may also be applied to bracketed terms, provided that the contents of the brackets are identical
Example 1:

Part 66 Module 1
Page 47
Example 2: Simplify the expression x +2(3x + x) - 6x 2x
=x +2(4x) -
= x + 8x -3
= 9x – 3
which may be written as 3(3x - 1) since 3 is common to both terms.
When dealing with the addition and subtraction of fractions in arithmetic, you will remember, it was necessary to have a
common denominator, thus when adding and a common denominators of 3 x 5 (= 15) is used. Note the
multiplication of the initial denominators ensures that a common denominator is obtained.
Thus +
= +
= +
In algebra, fractions are dealt with in a similar way.
Example 1: +
The common denominator is x × y = xy
So +
Example 2: Express + as a single fraction
Common denominator = x =
= +

Part 66 Module 1
Page 48
Example 3: Express + - 5 as a single fraction.
= + -
Example 4: Express the following as a single fraction
= -
= -
This section has covered a lot of ground, so to check your progress try activity number 9.
Activity 9
1. Find the value of: (a) 2x + 3xyz - 5zy , when x = 2 , y = 3 and z = 1
1. (a) 7
(b) xy - yz – z , when x = 3 , y = 4 and z = - 1 (b) 25
(c) 4
(c) , when x = 2 , y = 3 , a = 4 and b = 5.
2. (a) 26p - 14q
2. Simplify the following expressions: (a) 38p - 20q - 12p - 8q + 14q (b) 3x + y
(b) x + 2y - 3z + 2x - y + 3z (c)
(c) (d) 6x - 4y - 4
(d) 2(3x - 2y) + 2y ÷ y - 6 (e) 7y – 1
(e) 7y + 3 - (2x + 4) + 2x
3. (a)
3.
Write each of the following as a single fraction. (a) +
(b)
(b) + +2
(c)
(c) -
(d)
(d)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 49
10.1 Distributive property

As we have previously seen the bracket is a useful device for grouping terms or quantities, however care must be
exercised when removing brackets.
Consider a rectangle with sides of 5 and 3 units respectively (figure14). The area of this rectangle is the product of the
two sides: 5 x 3 = 15
Figure 14 Rectangular - 1
If however, the sides are now expressed as (3 + 2) and (2 + 1) , then the area would still be obtained from their product,
but to achieve this a particular sequence of operations would be required.
Figure 15 Rectangular – 2
Multiplying the sides together may be written as: (3 + 2) (2 + 1)
The sequence of operations to solve this would be:
(3 + 2) (2 + 1)
Sequence: (3 × 2) + (3 1) + (2 2) + (2 × 1)
= 6 + 3 + 4 + 2
= 15

Part 66 Module 1
Page 50
If the sides o f the rectangle are now expressed in algebraic form as shown in figure 16, the removal of the brackets
would still require the same sequence to be followed.
Figure 16: Rectangular – 3
(x + 4) (x + 2)
Sequence: (x × x) + (x × 2) + (4 × x) + (4 × 2)
= + 2x + 4x + 8
= + 6x + 8 (collecting like terms)
Example 1: Multiply (x - 3) by (x - 7)
(x - 3) (x - 7)
= - 7x - 3x +21
= - l0x + 21
Example 2: Multiply (2x - 5) by (4x + 3)
(2x - 5) (4x + 3)
=8 + 6x - 20x - 15
=8 - 14x - 15
Example 3: Remove the brackets from (3y - 7) (2y - 2)
=6 - 6y - 14y + 1 4
=6 - 20y + 14

Part 66 Module 1
Page 51
Activity 10
1. Multiply the following bracketed terms together, collecting like terms.

(a) (7x + 4) (2x + 3)
(b) (2x - 1) (2x + 1)
(c) (3y - 2) (2y - 4)
2. Remove the brackets:

(a) (2x - 5) (2x + 5)
(b) (3x - y) (2x - y)
(c) (5x + 3) (3x + y)
1. (a) 14 + 29x + 12
(b) 4 -1
(c) 6 - 16y + 8
2. (a) 4 - 25
(b) 6 - 5xy +
(c) 15 + 5xy + 9x + 3y

Part 66 Module 1
Page 52
10.2 Factorization
The multiplication of bracketed terms is fairly straightforward provided the rules are followed. On occasions, however
the reverse process is sometimes required. This is not so easy, and may require a trial and error approach.
Consider the example of (x + 4) (x + 2)
Multiplying the brackets together gives: + 2x + 4x + 8

= + 6x + 8
To return to the original bracketed pairs it is necessary to first start with a pair of brackets: ( ) ( ) given that the first
term, in the expression + 6x + 8 is and that this is the product of x and x, an x may be placed in each of the
brackets:
(x ) (x )
The last term is 8 and this is obtained either from the product of 8 x 1 or 4 x 2 , but only the sum combination of 4 and 2
will provide 6 , the value of the middle term. So, inserting 4 and 2 into the bracketed pair gives:
(x 4)(x 2)
As every term in x2 + 6x + 8 is positive there are no complications with sign allocation. Both the 4 and 2 will be positive.
(x + 4) (x + 2)
This process is known as '’factorization'’ with the quadratic expression
+ 6x + 8 being factorised into (x + 4) (x + 2)
Example 1: Factorize + 8x + 15
= (x ) (x )
Now 15 is obtained from the product of 15 x 1 or 5 x 3 , but only the sum of 5 and 3 will give 8, thus the
solution is
= (x + 5) (x + 3)
Example 2: Factorize - 9x + 14
= (x 7) (x 2)
For the product of 7 and 2 to be +14 and their sum to be -9, both must be negative, thus the solution is
=(x - 7) (x - 2)
Example 3: Factorize - x - 12
= (x 4) (x 3)
4 and 3 are chosen since their product is twelve and their sum is minus one if considered as -4 and
+3. Note that it is the larger of the two quantities which takes the sign of the middle term of the original
quadratic.
= (x - 4)(x + 3)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 53
Example 4: Factorize 6 -x-15
This example is much more complicated that the preceding ones and can only be tackled by trial and
error. This is because 15 may be formed by the product of 15 x 1, or 5 x 3, and that 6 may be
formed by the product of 6x and x or 3x and 2x. This leads to many combinations.
(6x ) (x )
or (3x ) (2x )
with ( 15) ( 1)
or ( 3) ( 5)
Here the solution is (2x + 3)(3x - 5) but there is no easy path to factorize such a quadratic equation.
Example 5: Factorize -9
This is a special type of quadratic and should be recognized as being 'the difference between two
squares'. Factorizing such an expression is relatively easy and needs only for the root of the number
part to be found. It should be noted however that the signs associated with these roots must be both
positive and negative as shown below.
(x - 3) (x + 3)
Activity 11
Factorise the following:

(a) - 9x + 20
(b) - 9x - 22
(c) - 25
(d) 6 - 22x + 12
(a) (x - 4) (x - 5)
(b) (x - 11) (x + 2)
(c) (x - 5) (x + 5)
(d) (2x - 6) (3x - 2)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 54
10.3 Solving Quadratics using an Equation

To save time in factorizing by trial and error an equation can be used. This equation is:
This is probably the best method but factorization does provide an alternative method until sub-module 10.7 that you
would be familiarized with equations’ solving.
Consider the quadratic equation - 10x + 16 = 0
Factorizing the LHS (Left Hand Side) of the equation gives:
(x - 8) (x - 2) = 0
It follows that either x - 8 = 0 from which x = 8
or x - 2 = 0 from which x = 2
the roots of - 10x + 16 = 0 are
x = +8 or x = +2
Activity 12
Solve the following quadratics using any method you like. (factorizing or formula)
(a) - 16x + 39 = 0
(b) - 1x + 24 = 0
(c) + 15x + 36 = 0
(d) - 81 = 0
(e) 4 + 6x - 28 = 0
(a) x = +13 or +3
(b) x = +6 or +4
(c) x = -3 or -12
(d) x = +9 or -9
(e) x = 2 or x =

Part 66 Module 1
Page 55
10.4 Linear Equations

An equation is a statement that shows equality between two expressions, for example 1m = 1000mm. Equations may
be thought of as a simple beam balance with the fulcrum of the balance situated at the equals sign (=).
If balance is to be maintained, and a weight is removed from one side the same weight must be removed from the other
(at the same distance from the fulcrum) to maintain balance. If the weights are doubled (x2) on one side then they must
be doubled on the other. The equals sign (=) is important so that what is done to one side must be done to the other.
Like a balance, anything may be done to one side of the equation, provided that exactly the same is done to the other
side, so that equilibrium is maintained.
Examples of linear equations are:
7 - x = 2 1 and 5x - 6 = 20
You will notice that linear equations contain x (or any other symbol) raised only to the power 1 ( ) . This index is
almost never written. Higher powers such as , etc, do not occur in linear equations.
Linear equations are also known as “equations of the first degree” or just “simple equations”. When presented with a
linear equation, such as x + 1 = 5, it may be necessary to “solve” the equation for x. This means that the unknown term
“x” is to be isolated on one side of the equation. For the example given it would be necessary to remove the +1 from the
left-hand side. To do this subtract 1 , but remember, what is done to one side, exactly the same must be done to the
other, so 1 is also subtracted from the right-hand side leaving x = 4 .
Example: x+1=5
(to isolate x) x+1-1=5-1
x=4
The equation is now said to have been “solved”, and the value of x = 4 is said to “satisfy” the equation.
Example 1: Solve the equation 5y + 6 = 21

5y + 6 - 6 = 21 - 6
5y = 1 5
(Dividing both sides by 5 to isolate y)
Note. For clarity, it is always advisable to keep all equal signs in the same vertical line.
If like terms occur in an equation, these need to be collected together on one side.
Example 2: Solve the equation 4x - 7 = 5 - 2x
Following the above procedure
4x - 7 + 7 = 5 - 2x + 7
4x = 5 - 2x + 7
4x + 2x = 5 - 2x + 7 + 2x
6x = 5 + 7
6x = 12
x=2

Part 66 Module 1
Page 56
This may appear complicated. A simpler way is to realize that a change of side involves a change of
sign. Thus for the last equation:
4x - 7 = 5 - 2x
4x + 2x = 5 + 7
6x = 12
x= 2
Example 3: Make “R” the subject of the equation
Before the right hand side can be inverted, it must be written as a single fraction, you may remember
this from an earlier example. Terms cannot be inverted if they are connected by a plus or a minus sign
- only if they are connected by a times or a division sign.
On the right hand side the common denominator is x =
. Thus:
R (inverting both sides)
Note: This is worth remembering as it is the solution for finding the total resistance of a pair of resistors and
connected in parallel.
Example 4: Solve the equation = 10
Multiplying both sides by 3 × 3 = 10 × 3
5x = 30
Dividing both sides by 5
x=6
Example 5: Make x the subject of the equation 2 (x - 4) = 6
Method 2
Method 1
2(x - 4) = 6
2 (x - 4) = 6
2x - 8 = 6 (opening the brackets first)
= (dividing each side by 2) 2x = 6 + 8
x-4=3 2x = 1 4
x=3+4
x= 7
x=7

Part 66 Module 1
Page 57
Now try Activity 13
Activity 13
1. Solve the following equations.

(a) 3x - 6 = 15
(b) +3=7
(c) =4
(d) 2y - 1 = 3y + 4 - 6y
(e) 3(x + 2) = 30 + 2(x - 4)
(f) + 4 = 12
2. Make x the subject of the following equations.
(a) = +
(b) =4
1. (a) x = 7
(b) r = 8
(c) s = 24
(d) y = 1
(e) x = 16
(f) x =
2. (a) x =
(b) x = 3

Part 66 Module 1
Page 58
10.5 Indices and Powers

In previous work on areas and volumes it was shown that 3 × 3 = and 2 × 2 × 2 = . You may remember that the
small digit is known as the index and the number to which the index is attached was called the base.
The index is the power to which the base is to be raised and indicates the number of times the base is multiplied by
itself.
There are six basic laws that relate to indices. Note that these laws only apply to indices with the same base. The six
laws are:
4 3 7
(1) for example: x × x = x
3 2 1
(2) for example: x ÷ x = x = x
3 2 6
(3) for example: (x ) = x
(4) = for example: =
(5) = for example: =
0 0
(6) =1 anything raised to the power of zero will equal 1. i.e.: a = 1 , 2 = 1 .
2 ( - 2) 0
The reason for this is seen when you consider using the second law x = x , however we know that =1
0
hence x = 1
One of the uses of indices is to simplify expressions. Study the following examples.
Example 1:
=
=
Example 2:
=
=
=
Example 3: simplify
= (Note: + = = )

Part 66 Module 1
Page 59
Example 4: Simplify
Example 5: Simplify
=
=
Example 6: Simplify
=
=
Example 7: Solve for x: 4 =
4= (46 × 46 × 46 = 97336 and 32 × 32 = 1024)
4 × 1024 =
=x
X= ≈ 23

Part 66 Module 1
Page 60
Activity 14
1. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
2. Express the following with a positive index

(a)
(b)
3. Express the following as fractional indices.
(a)
(b)
(c)
4. Simplify the problems below to a single index, and hence solve.
(a)
(b)
(c)
8 5
1. (a) x 4. (a) 2 = 32
4 0
(b) a (b) 2 =1
3
(c) (c) 10 = 1000
2. (a)
(b)
3. (a)
(b)
(c)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 61
10.6 Simultaneous Equations

Equations will often contain more than one unknown. The equation x + y = 6 is an example, and cannot be solved
without further information. It simply provides a relationship between two unknowns. If however, another equation could,
at the same time or simultaneously, be formed containing the same unknowns, then a solution would be possible. For
example, if, under the same conditions, a further relationship of say 2x + 3y = 1 5 was obtained then a solution for x and
y could be obtained thus:
Example 1: x + y = 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . equation (1)

2x + 3y = 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . equation (2)
To eliminate 'y' from both equations, equation 1 is multiplied throughout by 3, this will cause y to
become 3y. Subtracting equation 2 from equation 1 will remove all the 'y' terms.
x + y = 6……….(×3)
2x + 3y = 15
3x + 3y = 18
( - ) 2x + 3y = 15
x = 3
Having obtained a value for x =3 this value can now be substituted into either of the original equations
to obtain the value of y.
Thus substituting x = 3 into equation 1
3+y=6
y=6-3
y=3
A final check can now be made by substituting the values of x and y into the remaining equation 2 .
2x + 3y = 1 5
Hence the left hand side value is 2 × 3 + 3 × 3 (a value of 15) and equal to the right hand side.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 62
Example 2: Solve the following simultaneous equations for x and y.
4x - 3y = 18 . . . . . . . . . . (1)
x + 2y = - 1 . . . . . . . . . . (2)
To eliminate “y”: 4x - 3y = 18 . . . . . . . . . . × 2
x + 2y = - 1 . . . . . . . . . . × 3
8x - 6y = 36
Adding (+) 3x + 6y = -3
11x = 33
x =3
Substituting x = 3 into equation (1) to find 'y':
(4 × 3) - 3y = 18
12 - 3y = 18
-3y = 18 - 12
-3y = 6
y=
y = -2
Check, substituting for x and y in equation 2
Left hand side = 3 + (2 x -2)

=3-4
= -1 which equals the right hand side.
If you feel happy with this section then try activity 12 on the next page.
Activity 15
Solve the following simultaneous equations. If you use the check, you will be able to see if your answers are correct.
1. 6s - t = 17…(1) , 4s + t = 13….(2)
2. p + q = 5….(1) , 2p + 3q = 13….(2)
3. 21 - 3m + 4 = 0….(1) , 31 - 2m + 1 = 0….(2)
4. 3x - 4y = 7…..(1) , 5x - 11y = 29…..(2)
5. 5s + 7t = - 17….(1) , t - 5s = 13……(2)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 63
10.7 Second Degree and Quadratic Equations

So far we have solved equations where the unknown “x” has had one value. However, equations of the Second Degree
2
or Quadratic Equations contain terms of x and when solved these will provide two answers. For example consider
2
x =1.
The solution for x is which has two answers +1 and - 1 . (because: 1 × 1 = 1 and -1 × -1 = 1 )
Often you will find that quadratic equations take the general form of
ax2 + bx + c = 0
2
The quadratic equation x - 5x - 6 = 0 is an example. By substitution and working out the correct answer, it can be seen
that a = 1 , b = -5 and c = -6.
There are several ways to solve such equations, but one fairly straightforward method involves the use of the “quadratic
formula”.
The formula:
Example 1: When used for the equation above:
or
or
or
2
This method can be used to solve any quadratic equation provided it is, or can be put into the form ax + bx + c = 0.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 64
2
Example 2: Solve the quadratic equation x - x = 20.
2 2
In the form ax + bx + c = 0, this becomes: x - x - 20 = 0
where a = 1 , b = -1 and c = -20
Using the formula:
or
or
or
A check on your answers can easily be made by inserting each value of x in the original equation and
checking that the equation still works out
2 2
for x = 5, the left-hand side of the equation x - x = 20 is 5 - 5 = 20, equal to the right-hand side.
2
for x = -4, the left hand side becomes (-4) - (-4) = 16 + 4= 20, again equal to the right-hand side.
Note: Should you, at any time in your solution of quadratic equations, arrive at a situation which requires you to find the
square root of a negative quantity, then you will be unable to proceed any further, as a solution is not possible using the
mathematical principles we have considered so far in this unit.
Now try the following problems (Activity 16). As before you will be able to check your answers for yourself.
Activity 16
Solve the following quadratic equations.

2
1. x - 3x + 2 = 0
2
2. x + x+2=0
2
3. 2x - x = 3
2
4. x - x = 20
2
5. 4x - 4x = -1

Part 66 Module 1
Page 65
10.8 Common Logarithms (logs)

Used extensively in the days when there were no electronic calculators or computers. They made the process of
division and multiplication simpler (in particular when dealing with large numbers). Since the introduction of calculators
common logarithms (logs to the base 10) are little used, but other logs (logs to the base e for example) are part of some
equations and therefore in current use).
Indices, as you will have appreciated, are used to simplify problems, and you will remember that the problems you
encountered required the indices to have the same base. This is a similar situation to that used with Common
Logarithms, or Logarithms in which numbers are written to a common base of 10 and raised to some power.
3
For example since 1000 = 10 we say that the Logarithm of 1000 is 3.
or log101000 = 3
2
Similarly 100 = 10
log10100 = 2
1 1
Ten itself is ten raised to the power 1, (10 ) . The one is not usually written hence since 10 = 10
then log1010 = 1
0
also, since 1 = 10 (see laws of indices)
then log101 = 0
Of course, any value may be expressed to base 10 and raised to a suitable power.
0.3010
Example: 2 = 10
so therefore log102 = 0.3010
1.699
also 50 = 10
therefore log1050 = 1.699
Considering this last example, log1050 = 1.6990, the logarithm itself, can be seen to be made up of two parts, the 1 and
0.6990. Special names are given to each part.
The 1 (in this case), or number in front of the decimal point is called the characteristic of the logarithm, whilst the
number behind the decimal point, 0.6990 (in this case) is called the mantissa.
Tables of common logarithms (logarithms to the base 10) (log tables) are available for any number. These provide the
value for the mantissa but leave the value of the characteristic to be decided by inspection.
(These tables are supplied in booklet form to include log tables, antilog tables, and possibly many other mathematical
tables and data. Many calculators have log and antilog functions built in) .
Example 1: 753 = 100 × 7.53

2 0.8768
= 10 × 10
log10753 = 2.8768 (the characteristic is 2)
Example 2: 4732 = 1000 × 4.732

3 0.675
= 10 × 10
log104732 = 3.675 (the characteristic is 3)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 66
Example 3: 3 = 1 × 3
0 0.4771
= 10 × 10
Log103 = 0.4771 (the characteristic is 0)
Studying these examples you will probably have noticed that the characteristic is simply one less than the number of
digits to the left of the decimal point in the original number.
Examples: the number 257 would have a characteristic of 2.

the number 7460 would have a characteristic of 3.
the number 97642 would have a characteristic of 4.
A most important fact to remember is that the mantissa is always positive, but as we shall see, the characteristic may
be either positive or negative.
Example 1: What is the log10 of 0.07.
-2
Now 0.07 is the same as or or 7 × 10 (see laws of indices) .
-2
Thus 0.07 = 10 × 7
-2 0.8451
= 10 × 10
Log100.07 = 2.8451
You will notice that the negative sign now appears above the characteristic instead of in front. This is deliberate and is
to avoid making the whole number negative (remember that the mantissa is always positive). Written in this way it is
termed “bar” and the above logarithm is spoken as “bar two point eight, four, five, one”.
Example 2: What is the log10 of 0.000471

-4
0.000471 = 10 × 4.71
-4 0.6730
= 10 × 10
log100.000471 = 4.6730
A negative characteristic will always occur with numbers of less than 1. Again this can be obtained quickly by
inspection. Simply count the number of zero's, including the one before the decimal point, the total will be the value of
the bar number.
Examples: 0.4 characteristic is 1
0.04 characteristic is 2
0.004 characteristic is 3
Putting numbers into logarithmic form is done to make calculations easier, however, before attempting questions that
make use of logarithms we must understand the reverse process, that is how to obtain an ordinary number from a log
number.
To do this antilogarithms are used. Again tables of antilogarithms (antilogs) exist, which eliminates the need to search
through the main body of numbers in the log tables.
If, for example, having made your calculations in logarithmic form, you end up with a log of 3.7521, then using the
antilog tables and the mantissa part of the log only, 5650 is obtained.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 67
Now consider the characteristic of 3 the answer is 0.00565. (moving the decimal point three places to the left from the
standard form 5.650.
Note: You may find that in many situations that log10 is now abbreviated to simply lg or log.
Now let’s look at the use of logarithms in solving problems.
This operation is achieved by adding the logarithms of the quantities involved.
Example: 57.43 x 2651
By reference to log tables log57.43 = 1.7591

log2651 = 3.4234 (+)
Adding the log numbers gives 5.1825
Using the antilogs, to convert this logarithmic value back into an ordinary number, gives 1523.
Considering the position of the decimal point from the characteristic gives an answer of 152300.
moving it 5 places to the right from the standard form of 1.523
10.8.2 Division
Division requires the subtraction of logarithms
Example 2: 25.34 + 0.0751

1 1 1
log25.34 = 1.4 0 3 8
log0.0751 = 2.89785 6 (-)
Subtracting gives 2.5 2 8 2
Antilog = 3375
Number = 337.5
This question has become more complex, due to the “bar” quantity involved. Remember that the mantissa is always
positive, so during the subtraction of 9 from 4, just after the decimal point, 10 had to be “borrowed” from the next column
to make the 4, 14. Having “borrowed” ten it was then necessary to “pay” this back. This made the 2 or (-2) become 1
since -2 + 1 = - 1. Subtracting 1 from 1 gave a characteristic of 2, (because: 1 - [- 1 ]).
10.8.3 Powers and Roots

3
Example: Solve 4.732
log 4.732 = 0.6751

3
( ) × 3
2.0253
Antilog = 1060
Number = 106.0

Part 66 Module 1
Page 68
5
Example 4: Solve (0.2531)
log 0.2531 = 1.4033

5
( ) × 5
32.0165
Note here that in the multiplication of 4 x 5 = 20 the 2 is carried over, this is positive, of course. When 1
is multiplied by 5, giving 5 the addition of +2 gives an answer of 3.
Antilog = 1039
Number = 0.001039
Example 5: Solve
log 0.05731 = 2.7583

÷ 3
To divide 2 by 3, could prove difficult, however by changing 2 into 3 makes it easier to divide by 3, but this changes the
value, so to return to the correct value, 1 is added to the 3 because 2.7583 is the same as 3 + 1.7583 now dividing
through by 3 gives 1.5863
Antilog = 3858
Number = 0.3858
Recapping on the operations we have performed using common logarithms.
1. log(A x B) = logA + logB
2. log = logA - logB
n
3. logA = n × logA
4. log = log
Finally, before leaving this section on logarithms, you may encounter Naperian or natural logarithms. These have a
base “e” where “e” is a mathematical constant of value approximately equal to 2.718. The use of “e” is often related to
the field of growth and decay and is a more convenient base than 10 when dealing with higher mathematics. The
symbol ln is used for natural logarithms and like common logarithms, tables of values are available.
Note that before the advent of readily available calculators common logs where used extensively when multiplication
and division was involved - together with the slide rule. The cheap scientific calculator made common logs and the slide
rule out-of-date almost over-night.
This particular section has been quite intensive, so let’s see how much you have understood by trying Activity 17.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 69
Activity 17
1. Write down the characteristics of the logarithms for the following:

(a) 4270
(b) 73.4
(c) 5.74
(d) 0.613
2. Given that the mantissa of log105.243 is 0.7195, write down the logarithms for the following numbers.
(a) 0.5243
(b) 52430
(c) 52.43
(d) 0.005243
3. In the following, the antilogarithm is given, write down the ordinary number it represents.
(a) The antilogarithm of 3.4781 is 3007
(b) The antilogarithm of 2.3162 is 2071
(c) The antilogarithm of 0.6143 is 4114
(d) The antilogarithm of 1.4688 is 2943.
4. Given that log3.71 = 0.5694

log532 = 2.7259
and log 0.0721 = 2.8579
Solve in logarithmic form:
(a) 3.71 × 532
(b) 3.71 ÷ 532
(c)
2
(d) (532)
1. (a) 3 3. (a) 0.003007

(b) 1 (b) 207.1
(c) 0 (c) 4.114
(d) 1 (d) 0.2943
2. (a) 1.7195 4. (a) 3.2953
(b) 4.7195 (b) 3.8435
(c) 1.7195 (c) 1.6 1 93
(d) 3.7195 (d) 5.4518

Part 66 Module 1
Page 70
11. OTHER NUMBERING SYSTEMS

The mathematics covered so far has dealt with numbers from 0 to 9 and since it uses ten figures it is called the Decimal
or Denary system. Ten is the radix of decimal numeration and of common logarithms (a radix is the number or symbol
used as a basis of a numeration scale)
There are many other numbering systems - mostly associated with computers. These include:
 Binary
 Octal
 Hexadecimal
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
11.1 The Decimal System

This is the system in everyday use; there are 10 digits (0 to 9 inclusive) so it has a “base” or “radix” (number of digits
used in the system) of 10. Taking the number 72306, it can be written as:
(7 × 10,000) + (2 × 1000) + (3 × 100) + (0 × 10) + 6 × 1

4 3 2 1 0
= (7 × 10 ) + (2 × 0 ) + (3 × 10 ) + (0 × 10 ) + (6 × 10 )
= 72306
Each digit is effectively multiplied by a power of 10.
Note that to write 19.526 in powers of 1 0 then:

1 0 -1 -2 -3
1 × 10 + 9 × 10 + 5 × 10 + 2 × 10 + 6 × 10
= (10) + (9) + (5 × = 0.5) + ( = 0.02) + ( = 0.006)
= 10 + 9 + 0.5 + 0.02 + 0.006

= 19.526
0
Note that 10 = 1. In fact any number to the power of zero is 1.
It can be seen that the decimal system is based on successive powers of 1 0, the number with the smallest value ( 1
00) is known as the least significant digit (LSD) and the number with the highest value ( 1 04 in my example) is known
as the most significant digit (MSD) .
The disadvantage of the decimal system for use in digital technology is that the circuits which would be used, e.g.
transistors, would have to have 10 discrete levels of collector current. For example 0rnA (milliamps) = 0, 1mA = 1,
2mA = 2, 3mA = 3 etc. Such a system would be difficult an slow to operate.
Where accuracy and speed are important it would be better to use a system that has just two states, either HIGH
(voltage level) and LOW (voltage level) or ON and OFF.
The system that is the basis of today's digital processing is the "two states" BINARY SYSTEM.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 71
11.2 The Binary System

The Binary system and has only two figures or digits 0 and 1. These are known as “bits”, the name being formed from
the words .Binary and digits. The system has a base or radix of 2. As in the decimal system, we can represent any
number in successive powers of the radix, in this case 2.
4 3 1 0
Example: 27 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
= 16 + 8 + 2 + 1
4 3 2 1
further expanded: = 1×2 + 1×2 + 0×2 + 1×2 + 1 × 2°
1 1 0 1 1
means the binary number for 27 = 110112
To avoid confusion between systems with different radix this would be written as 110112 to identify it as a binary
number.
What about the fractio expressed as a power of 2?
-1
0.12 = 2 = = 0.5
-2
0.012 = 2 = = 0.25
-3
0.0012 = 2 = = 0.125
-4
0.00012 = 2 = = 0.0625
Example: Convert 17.75 decimal to binary.
Expanded this gives:

4 3 2 1 -1 -2
1×2 + 0×2 + 0×2 + 0×2 + 1 × 20 + 1×2 + 1×2
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
So 17.75 = 10001.112

Part 66 Module 1
Page 72
The table below shows the relationship between Binary and Decimal numbers up to decimal 21 (2110) . The table could
be continued.
Decimal Decimal
5-bit binary number (word) 5-bit binary number (word)
number number
4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 12 0 1 1 0 0
2 0 0 0 1 0 13 0 1 1 0 1
3 0 0 0 1 1 14 0 1 1 1 0
4 0 0 1 0 0 15 0 1 1 1 1
5 0 0 1 0 1 16 1 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 1 1 0 17 1 0 0 0 1
7 0 0 1 1 1 18 1 0 0 1 0
8 0 1 0 0 0 19 1 0 0 1 1
9 0 1 0 0 1 20 1 0 1 0 0
10 0 1 0 1 0 21 1 0 1 0 1
Table 1: binary and decimal numbers

Part 66 Module 1
Page 73
11.2.1 Addition of Binary Numbers
When adding binary numbers the rules are similar to those when adding denary numbers, eg 5 + 5 = 0 and carry 1 .
Rules
SUM CARRY
0+0=0 0
0+1=1 0
1+0=1 0
1+1=0 1
The procedure for adding binary numbers follows that for denary numbers but the carry bits are moved one place to the
left.
Example: Find the value of the sum of the binary numbers 110 and 1101.
1 1 0
+ 1 1 0 1
1 (carry 0) 0 (carry 1) 1(carry 0) 1(carry 0)
+ 0 1 0 0
0(carry 1) 0(carry 0) 1(carry 0) 1(carry 0)
+ 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
A check may be carried out by converting the binary numbers to denary and adding the denary numbers:
1102 = 610
+ 11012 = 1310
100112 = 1910
Total = 19
I n an exam situation, if in doubt about adding binary, convert to denary and add normally then re-convert.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 74
11.2.2 Subtraction
Again, the rules are similar to decimal subtraction except 0 - 1 = 1 borrow 1
Rules
0-0=0
1-0=1
1-1=0
0 - 1 = 1 borrow 1
Example: Subtract 10101 from 11011
11011
- 10101
00110
Rules
0×0=0
0×1=0
1×0=0
1×1=1
Example: Multiply 1100 × 11
1100
× 11
1100
+ 1100
100100
A computer cannot multiply, so this operation is carried out by repeated addition, e.g. in decimal 2 x 4 = 8 and
computed it is 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8.
11.2.4 Division
Rules 1 0
1) 0 1) 0
Example: Divide 111100 by 110 {60 divide by 6)
1010
1 1 0) 1 1 1 1 0 0
110
001100
1100
000000
Check this by converting binary 1 0 1 0 to denary to see if the answer is correct.
Computers cannot divide; they carry out division by repeated subtraction, which is in itself actual carried out by an
addition process.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 75
11.2.5 Positive and Negative Numbers
The computer needs to distinguish between positive and negative numbers. This usually involves an additional bit
added to the word which identifies whether the number is positive or negative, e.g. “0” for positive numbers and “1” for
negative numbers.
How a Computer Does It?
Probably outside the scope of this book but to satisfy any that are curious.
For subtraction, by inverting the binary number and adding 1 we get the negative of the number. This process is called
TWO's COMPLEMENT.
Example 1: Find the negative binary number of +5 decimal
+5 as a 4 bit word is 0101

Invert (change “0” s to “1”s and “1”s to “0”s) 1010
Add 1 + 1
1011
Example 2: Subtract 5 from 7 (7 - 5)
+7 = 0111
-5 = 0101 invert: 1010
Add 1 + 1
0010 (the carry 1 of the MSB is carried "off the page")
Proof 00102 = 210
11.2.6 Converting Denary into Binary
Method 1: The denary number is successively divided by 2 with the remainder (1 or 0) recorded each time. So taking
Example 1 (below). 2 into 796 = 398 remainder 0. 2 into 398 = 199 remainder 0. 2 into 199 = 99 remainder 1 etc.
Example 1: Convert 796 to binary Example 2: Convert 217 to binary
2 796 2 217
2 398 remainder 0 2 108 remainder 1
2 199 » 0 2 54 » 0
2 99 » 1 2 27 » 0
2 49 » 1 2 13 » 1
2 24 » 1 2 6 » 1
2 12 » 0 2 3 » 0
2 6 » 0 2 1 » 1
2 3 » 0 2 0 » 1
2 1 » 1 Read up to obtain the binary number
0 » 1 11011001
Read up to obtain the binary number
1100011100

Part 66 Module 1
Page 76
Method 2: It is best to write down the successive values of the powers of 2 then, by inspection, calculate the denary
number from these. For example:
Convert 45 w to binary, write down the successive powers of 2 (up to the largest number smaller than 45, e.g.:
5 4 3 2 1 0
(2 ) (2 ) (2 ) (2 ) (2 ) (2 )
32 16 8 4 2 1
Then make up the number (45) by the addition of the denary numbers starting from the largest:
(1 × 32) + (1 × 8) + (1 × 4) + (1 × 1) = 45
So 32 16 8 4 2 1 is
1 0 1 1 0 1
The binary number is 1011012

Part 66 Module 1
Page 77
11.3 The Octal System

In the binary system the number of bits in a word can be quite lengthy and problems can occur such as the high
possibility of an error in manipulating so many digits.
The octal system helps lessen these difficulties, being more compact and easily converted back to decimal or binary.
The system uses the base or radix 8, this means, to convert from decimal to octal we divide by 8 then record the
remainders as before and read upwards to get the octal number.
To convert this number to binary split each octal number into its three figure binary number and join together.
Example 1 . Convert 796 to octal and then convert octal to binary.
a. Conversion of decimal to octal b. Conversion of octal to binary
8 796 (to convert 1434s to binary)
8 99 remainder 4 The binary number is obtained by taking each octal digit
8 12 remainder 3 and converting it to a three figure binary number
8 1 remainder 4 1 4 3 4
0 remainder 1 001 100 011 100
therefore 79610 = 14348 therefore 14348 = 0011000111002
= 11000111002
therefore 79610 = 14348 = 11000111002
To convert from binary to octal, start from the right and group into threes, if the final group does not have three bits then
add noughts to make it up to the three.
Example 2: Convert 10101002 to octal
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
001 010 100
Convert to octal digit 1 2 4
Read from left to right 10101002 = 1248

Part 66 Module 1
Page 78
11.4 The Hexadecimal System

This system has a base or radix of 16 and is used where large binary numbers are handled to cut down possible errors.
Since we have only ten different digit symbols (0 to 9 inclusive) six other symbols have to be used and these are letters
A to F inclusive. The table below shows the three numbering systems already considered and the hexadecimal system.
Decimal Octal Binary Hexadecimal

0 0 0000 0
1 1 0001 1
2 2 0010 2
3 3 0011 3
4 4 0100 4
5 5 0101 5
6 6 0110 6
7 7 0111 7
8 10 1000 8
9 11 1001 9
10 12 1010 A
11 13 1011 B
12 14 1100 C
13 15 1101 D
14 16 1110 E
15 17 1111 F
Table 2: Comparison of numbering system
Conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary
Example: Convert 76210 to Hexadecimal Example: Convert 2BC16 to Binary
16 762 group 2 B C
16 47 remainder A of 4 0010 1011 1100
16 2 remainder F digits 2BC16 = 10101111002
0 remainder 2
76210 = 2FA10
Comparing the length of a binary number to Octal or Hexadecimal
111100001111101100011 .00010011012
= 7417543.04648
= 1E1F63.13416

Part 66 Module 1
Page 79
11.5 Binary Coded Decimal BCD

There are several forms of this system but we shall concentrate on the 8421 code. It is used in display read-out
systems, decoders and counters
BCD
DECIMAL 3 2 1 0
2 2 2 2
8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
Table 3:Decimal –BCD Equivalent
It is called 842 1 code as each digit is weighted from left to right in powers of 2 . You might be thinking that this is the
same as the binary code; however, with numbers from 1 0 upwards each number is represented by the 4 bit code.
Example 1: Convert 1110 in BCD
Is 0001 0001 leaving a space between each group of four digits.
Example 2: Convert 42910 to BCD
0100 0010 1001
Converting from BCD to Decimal is again quite easy.
10000101
Split into groups of four 1000 0101 So 10000101BCD= 8510
8 5
By way of a summary and to enable a comparison to be made between a number representation in the various
systems and codes, consider the decimal number 347.
DECIMAL 347
BINARY 101011011
8421 BCD 0011 0100 0111
OCTAL 533
HEXADECIMAL 15B
When a number such as decimal 34 7 is converted into any binary form the corresponding group of
binary digits is known as a WORD. Each word is formed by a number of BITS and this represents the word
length.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 80
Activity 18
1. Convert the following denary numbers into binary numbers.

(a) 5
(b) 12
(c) 18
(d) 210
2. Convert the following binary numbers into denary numbers.

(a) 1011
(b) 101
(c) 101110
3. Determine the value of the following binary numbers, using the binary method of addition.
(a) 111 + 101
(b) 1111 + 1111
(c) 10010 + 10110
4. Convert the following decimal numbers into hexadecimal form:

(a) 97410
(b) 256310
(c) 8610
5. Express the following numbers, which are in denary form, in octal:

(a) 80010
(b) 25010
(c) 6010
6. What would the following decimal numbers be in binary coded decimal (BCD)?
(a) 60010
(b) 8410
(c) 246010
7. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary:

(a) 5AC16
(b) ABC16
(c) 2CE16
8. Express the following numbers, which are in BCD form, as decimals :

(a) 001110000000
(b) 100101110010
(c) 00010000

Part 66 Module 1
Page 81
9. What would be the equivalent denary form for the hexadecimal numbers shown below?
(a) 2CD16
(b) 7AB16
(c) 4EF16
10. Calculate the denary equivalent of the following octal numbers :

(a) 648
(b) 108
(c) 3208
1. (a) 101 6. (a) 011000000000
(b) 1100 (b) 10000100
(c) 10010 (c) 0010010001100000
(d) 11010010 7. (a) 0101101011002
2. (a) 11 (b) 1010101111002
(b) 5 (c) 0010110011102
(c) 46 8. (a) 38010
3. (a) 1100 (b) 97210
(b) 11110 (c) 1010
(c) 101000 9. (a) 71710
4. (a) 3CE16 (b) 196310
(b) A03I6 (c) 126310
(c) 5616 10. (a) 5210
5. (a) 14408 (b) 810
(b) 3728 (c) 20810
(c) 748

Part 66 Module 1
Page 82
12. GEOMETRY
The following section deals with basic geometric constructions. All straight lines should be drawn using a rule and all
arcs drawn using a compass. To draw parallel lines as in dividing a line into a number of equal divisions two set
squares are used.
To construct a parallel line to another: The compass radius (r) is set to the required distance apart for the parallel line
and two arcs are constructed (a and b) at the longest reasonable distance apart on line 1. A line (line 2) is drawn to just
touch the top of the arcs. Line 2 will be parallel to line 1
Figure 17: Paraller lines
To bisect a line: The compass radius (r) is set to greater than half the line (A, B) length and arcs are constructed (arc 1
and arc 2) above and below the line from each end of the line A and B, leaving the radius unaltered. A line
perpendicular to line A, B is drawn through the arc intersections. This line bisects line A, B.
Figure 18: To dissect a line
To construct a perpendicular from a point on a line: The compass is opened to any radius and with the compass point
placed at A where the perpendicular is to be erected. Two arcs ( 1 st arc) are struck on each side on the line. These
then form the centres of two further arcs {arc 2 and 3), drawn with the compass radius increased. Where these intersect
a line can be drawn to A which will be perpendicular to the line.
Figure 19: perpendicular from a point on a line

Part 66 Module 1
Page 83
To erect a perpendicular from a point to a line: An arc is drawn from the point (A) with the compass set at a radius
greater than the distance to the line, to cut the line at C and D. The radius of the compass is now reduced and two
further arcs {3rd and 4th) are drawn with the compass point at C and D to intersect at E. A line drawn from A through E
and drawn to the line will form a perpendicular to the line.
Figure 20: erect a perpendicular from a point to a line
To bisect an angle ( ): Using the point where the two lines intersect as a centre A, an arc is drawn cutting both lines
nd rd
at B and C. These form the centres of two additional arcs (2 and 3 ) drawn with the same but reduced radius that
intersect at D. A line drawn through this point to A, bisects the angle .
Figure 21: bisect an angle
To construct an angle of 60° to a line: The compass point is centred at the point A to which the angle is to be drawn and
set to any radius AB. An arc BC is drawn. Without changing the radius, the compass is now centred at B and an arc is
drawn to cut CB at D . A line drawn through D to A will form an angle of 60° with AB.
30° can be obtained by bisecting the 60°.
Figure 22: construct an angle of 60° to a line

Part 66 Module 1
Page 84
To divide a line into a number of equal parts: To the required line (AB), a second construction line (AD) , is drawn at
any angle. Using a compass set at any radius the number of required divisions (in this case 9) is stepped off equally
along the construction line. The final point D is then joined to the end of the original line (AB). Parallel lines are then
drawn to this line from each of the stepped-off points, dividing the line into the required number of equal parts.
Figure 23: divide a line into equal parts
It is interesting to note that engineers have been able to accurately divide lines for hundreds of years. This lead to the
early development of the Vernier caliper to give accuracies in measurement down to a thousandth of an inch.
To divide a line proportionally: The same method, as in the previous construct, may be used. For this example the line
is required to be divided proportionally into a ratio of 2 :3 : 5. The construction line AD is therefore divided into 10 parts
(2 + 3 + 5 = 1 0) and parallel lines drawn in the same ratio as that required.
Figure 24: divide a line proportionally

Part 66 Module 1
Page 85
12.1 Graphs
12.1.1 Straight line graphs
Graphs provide a visual representation of data and show, in many cases, the variation of one quantity with another. The
most common form of graph is one which uses a pair of straight lines, known as axes, that are drawn at right angles to
each other. Such a pair of axes are known as rectangular or Cartesian axes.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the x-axis, and the vertical axis as the y-axis (y for high) . The point where these two
axes 1neet or cross is called the origin and is given the symbol '0'. Conventionally, values along the x-axis and to the
right of the origin are considered positive, whilst those to the left are negative. With the y-axis, values above the origin
are considered positive, whilst those below negative.
To locate a point on the graph a value of both x and y are required. These are often written in brackets with the x-value
always written first (x,y).
POSITIVE ALUES
NEGATIVE VALUES
POSITIVE VALUES
NEGATIVE VALUES
Figure 25: Rectangular / Cartesian Axes
Values of x and y that locate a point on a graph are called the “co-ordinates” of the point, further, the x-distance from the
y-axis is called its “abscissa” and the y-distance from the x-axis is called its “ordinate”. Co-ordinates measured in this
way are called “Cartesian co-ordinates”.
The graph (figure 25) shows the location of two points with co-ordinates (5,4) and (-2,-6) . Note that the x value is
always quoted first followed by the y value.
Many relationships between two quantities are directly proportional and when plotted produce a straight line graph. That
is, if one quantity (independent variable) is changed then the other quantity (dependent variable) is changed in
proportion, e.g. double one and the other also doubles .

Part 66 Module 1
Page 86
An example is the results obtained from a tensile test on a metal test piece. This involves the slow extension of the test
piece by the application of a gradually increasing load.
As the load is applied so the test piece behaves elastically and it gets longer. At intervals the extension is recorded
(using a micrometer, vernier or dial test indicator) and at the same time the load is also recorded (indicated on the
testing machine) .
Figure 27: Test piece extansion
Comparing the values of load against extension shows that for every unit of load applied the test piece extends one unit
of length (say 1kN for every 0.05mm).
Plotting values of applied load against the corresponding extension (while the material remains elastic) produces the
type of graph shown below (figure 28).
The graph is a straight line which passes through the origin. This shows that values of load are directly proportional to
the extension produced (Hooke's law - Robert Hooke English physicist 1 635- 1 703) .
load = extension x constant
= constant
Figure 28: Straight line Graph passing through origin
That is, if any load is selected and is divided by the extension it produces, then a value will be determined that will be
the same for any other load divided by its corresponding extension i.e. a constant value will be obtained.
Of course, the above only remains true if the test piece is not loaded too much such that it is stretched beyond its elastic
limit. Once this happens it will take on a permanent set (and the graph will not be a straight line any more). If the load
continues to be increased then the test piece will break.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 87
On a straight line graph this constant (value) is often achieved by selecting any two points on the graph, as shown in
figure 29
Figure 29: Load/Extension graph
In a general sense, with the x and y axes, the relationship of is constant is similarly obtained. This constant is a
measure of the slope of the graph and is given the symbol 'm'.
Figure 30: x-y relationship
Thus =m or y = mx
With straight line graphs that do not pass through the origin, the relationship y = mx changes to y = mx + c. Where 'c' is
a value measured on the y-axis, from the origin to where the graph cuts the y-axis. This relationship is an important one
and is called the “straight line law”.
Figure 31:Straight line graph (1)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 88
Of course not all straight line graphs will have a positive gradient, as the one at figure 31, (thas because the line is rising
from left to right) and not all values of c will be positive. The graph below has a negative gradient (falling from left to
right.) and a negative value of c.
Figure 32: Straight line graph (2)
As we have seen the straight line graph is a pictorial representation of the equation y = mx + c (in general terms).
Graphs can be plotted for other types of equations, for example:
Example 1: Design the graph of 2y - 4x = 6
Rearranging this into the form y = mx + c, we obtain 2y = 4x + 6 (transposing the -4x to the other side changes it's sign.
y = 2x + 3 (dividing through by 2)
By comparison with the straight line law, y = mx + c, it can be seen that
(a) the gradient 'm' has a value of +2.
And (b) the value of c is +3
A gradient of 2 would be 2 units vertical for every 1 unit horizontal (figure 33). Thus the drawing of the graph that
represent the equation is made easy, requiring the location of only two points (figure 34).
Figure 33: Slope Figure 34: Graph of y=2x+3

Part 66 Module 1
Page 89
Example 2: Design the graph of 9x + 3y = 1 2

3y = -9x + 1 2
y = -3x + 4
Again, by comparison with the straight line law y = mx + c. The gradient is -3 and c = +4
The gradient of -3 is as shown in figure 35 and the complete graph in figure 36
Figure 35: Negative slope Figure 36: Graph of 9x +3y =12

Part 66 Module 1
Page 90
Simultaneous equations of the form y = mx + c may be solved using this graphical method. In general terms both
equations are plotted on the same graph and where the two lines intersect is the solution for x and y.
Consider x + y = 6 ……………(1)
And 2x + 3y = 15…………(2)
Rearranging these equations into the form y = mx + c we obtain:
y = -x + 6 (gradient m = -1)
and y=- x+5 (gradient m = - )
Gradients of -1 and - is shown in figure 37 and the graphs for both equations is shown in figure 38.
Figure 37: Gardients of -1 & - Figure 38: Graph of simultaneous equations
The point where the two graphs cut each other provides the solution to the simultaneous equations, for this question
x = 3 and y = 3.
It is worth studying how coefficients and constants affect the position of the graph representing algebraic equations,
So try activity 16 now.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 91
Activity 19
1. Draw the graphs that represent the following equations, showing clearly the value of “c” and “m” by first
putting them into the form
y = mx + c where necessary.
(a) y = x
(b) y = -x
(c) y = x + 1
(d) y = -x - 1
(e) y = x + 2
(f) y = x + 3
(g) y = 4x + 2
(h) -2x + 8y = 10
2. Using 1 cm squared graph paper (provided), solve graphically thexfollowing simultaneous equations.
4x - 3y = 18
x + 2y = - 1
1cm 1cm

Part 66 Module 1
Page 92
12.1.2 curved graph
If you feel confident with straight-line graphs let’s move on to some that are a little more complicated. You will
probably have realised by now that if x, raised to the power of 1 (understood but rarely written) occurs in the
equation, then the equation is a linear equation, which means when represented graphically will produce a straight
line.
2 2
Now if x is replaced by x the graph will become curved. Quadratic equations take the form of ax + bx + c = 0.
These can be solved graphically and will produce a curve when a range of values, both negative and positive, are
selected for x and plotted against the corresponding values of y.
2
Let’s consider the quadratic equation y = x - 5x + 6.
By giving x values from -3 to +5, the corresponding values of y can be obtained using the formula. In each case put
a value of x into the equation (say -3 for the first equation) and work out the value of y (in this case 30) . Do this for
all other values of x to give all the values of y as shown in the table below.
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 30 20 12 6 2 0 0 2 6
Each pair of values is then plotted as a point on a graph (-3 with 30, -2 with 20 etc) and all the points joined up to form a
smooth curve. This process may not be easy as it may have to be done by hand - or the careful use of French curves
(curves that have a continuous changing radius). Figure 39 results.
2
Figure 39: Graph of y = x – 5x + 6
The values of x when y = 0 in this case +2 and +3 are the "roots" of the equation. This graph forms a curve known as a
parabola. It is a shape that frequently occurs in engineering and you should recognize equations that form it.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 93
Other common engineering situations, such as a gas being compressed in a cylinder, produce curves known as
hyperbola when pressure is plotted against volume. Refer to the piston/cylinder arrangement figure 40 - it shows the
rise in pressure as the cylinder compresses the gas in the cylinder with a reduction in volume.
Figure 40: Volume/Pressure relationship
Curves known as sine waves represent simple harmonic motion and electrical alternating currents (ac) and voltage.
The sine wave or sine curve is obtained by calculating the sine of an angle for all angles from zero to 360° and plotting
on a graph. The sine of any angle can be obtained from tables or from a scientific calculator.
Figure 41: Sine curve

Part 66 Module 1
Page 94
12.2 Plane trigonometry

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that deals primarily with the relationships between the sides and angles of a
triangle. To study these relationships, consider an arm AB, of unit length, revolving in an anticlockwise direction about
point A, which is fixed (figure 42). As it revolves it can be imagined that a right angled triangle ABC is formed with the
right angle at C.
Figure 42: Revolving arm
As the arm revolves the lengths of the sides, BC and AC, change. These lengths, are of course, related to the angle 8
formed at the centre. If this is the included angle, then the side BC is known as the opposite (to the angle) and the side
AC is known as the adjacent (to the angle) . If the arm itself, is considered as the third side of the triangle then it is called
the hypotenuse and is always the longest side.
Three basic relationships are made that involve the angle and the sides of the triangle.
The first is the sine ratio (often shortened to 'sin' but still pronounced sine).
The second is the cosine ratio (often shortened to cos) .
The third ratio is the tangent ratio and is obtained by dividing the sine ratio by the cosine ratio. (The tangent ratio is often
shortened to tan).
o o
Tables exist for all three ratios between the angles of 0 and 90 and they can be found using scientific calculators. The
tables are used in a similar way to log tables although care should be taken with the mean difference columns.
The mean differences for sine and tangent are added but those for cosine are subtracted. Instructions to this effect are
usually written above the mean difference columns.

Part 66 Module 1
Page 95
It is useful to know some of these ratios, for instance consider the arm in figure 43.
o ο ο ο
 At (a) it is horizontal and in this position = 0 , sin0 = 0, cos0 = 1 and tan0 = 0.
o o o
 At (b) it is vertical so = 90 , sin90 = 1, cos90 = 0 and tan is not defined.
ο ο ο
 At (c) it is 30° to the horizontal so = 30°, sin30 = 0.5 , cos30 = 0.866 and tan30 = 0 .577.
ο ο ο
 At (d) it is 60° to the horizontal so = 60°, sin60 = 0.866, cos60 = 0.5 and tan60 = 1.732.
ο ο ο
 At (e) it is 45° to the horizontal so = 45°, sin45 = 0.707, cos45 = 0.707 and tan45 = 1 .
Figure 43: Ratios of common angles

Part 66 Module 1
Page 96
Now let’s see how these ratios are applied.
As an example. All that is known about the right-angled triangle BAC in figure 44, is the length of the hypotenuse AB
and the included angle ( = 30°)· It is required that the lengths of the other sides of the triangle, AC and CB, are
calculated.
Figure 44: Right angle triangle
To find BC first we can use the sine ratio:
o
BC = 20 sin30
20 × 0.5 (from table)
10cm
To find AC, the adjacent side, the cosine ratio may be used.
cos =
o
cos30 =
o
AC = 20 cos30
= 20 × 0.866 (from tables)
=17.32cm
If the third angle is required, this can be calculated, as the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is always 180°.
ο ο ο ο
Hence = 180 - (90 + 30 ) = 60

Part 66 Module 1
Page 97
At this point it is worth noting one of the most important relationships that exists concerning right angled triangles, that is
Pythagoras' Theorem.
The theorem states that in any right angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square on
the other two sides (figure 45) .
2 2 2
In general AB = BC + AC
The example in figure 45 shows this relationship

2 2 2
Example:5 = 3 + 4
25 = 9 + 1 6
Figure 45: Pythagorious
Before leaving this section you should make sure that you can use sets of trigonometrical tables. The following
examples show their use by using extracts from such tables.
Example 1: Find the sine of 25°20'.
Selecting a table of NATURAL SINES
sin25°20' = 0.4274 + 5
= 0.4279

Part 66 Module 1
Page 98
Example 2: Find the cosine of 42°39'
Selecting a table of NATURAL COSINES
Cos42°39' = 0.7361 - 6
= 0.7355
Example 3: Find the tangent of 73°50'
Selecting a table of NATURAL TANGENTS
tan 73°50' = 3.4420 + 72

= 3 .4492

Part 66 Module 1
Page 99
Armed with this and the former ratios it is obvious that many different approaches are now available in solving right
angled triangles for either sides or angles. So now try Activity 20.
Activity 20
1. Calculate the value of:

(a) tan 90°
(b) tan 0°
(c) tan 60°
2. In the triangle ABC shown below calculate the length of

(a) AC and (b) BC
3 Given the length of the two sides in the right angled triangle ABC below, determine the length of the hypotenuse
using Pythagoras' theorem.
Answers to activity20
1. (a) It is not defined

(b) 0
(c) 1.7321
2. (a) 20cm
(b) 34.64cm
3. 10cm

Part 66 Module 1
Page 100
12.3 Polar co-ordinates

From our work on graphs we are aware that a point on the graph may be located by knowing it's co-ordinates, the value
of x and the value of y, which we expressed as (x,y) . These are known as Cartesian or rectangular co-ordinates.
However, there is another way of locating a point on a graph and this uses the distance (r) from the origin and an angle
( ) measured anticlockwise from the x axis to the line joint the point to the origin. Such co-ordinates (r, ) are known as
“polar co-ordinates” and are shown below.
Figure 46:Polar co-ordinates
It is also useful to be able to convert from polar c-ordinates to rectangular coordinates and vice-versa. Using the
trigonometrical ratios of the previous section it can be seen that:
sin = from which y = r sin
and cos = from which x = r cos
αlso tan =
Example: Express in polar co-ordinates the point expressed in rectangular coordinates as (4,2).
Using Pythagoras’ theorem r=
=
= 4.472
tan = = 0,5
ο
= 26,57 (found by looking at natural tangent tables).
Thus in polar co-ordinates the point is located at (4.472, 26.57°)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 101
Revision Questions
1. The answer to 10 + 6 + 2 - 2 - 3 (8 + 6) is:

(a) -26
(b) -31
(c) 58
2.
The solution of is
(a)
(b)
(c)
3.
expressed as a decimal is:
(a) 0.007
(b) 0.0143
(c) 0.07
4. Written correct to four significant figures 16.0524 is:

(a) 16.05
(b) 16.052
(c) 16.0524
5. £750 divided into the ratio of 6:4 is:

(a) £624 : £126
(b) £450 : £300
(c) £600 : £150
6.
expressed as a percentage is:
(a) 37.5%
(b) 24%
(c) 26.7%
7. The marks of eight students are as follows: 95, 87, 60, 73, 45, 82, 65 and 52. What is the number of students
below average?
(a) two
(b) three
(c) four

Part 66 Module 1
Page 102
8. The surface area of a sphere is obtained from the formula:

3
(a) πr
2
(b) 4πr
2
(c) 2πr (where 'r' is the radius)
3
9. The value of 5 is:
(a) 15
(b) 5
(c) 125
10.
+ expressed as a single fraction is :
(a)
(b)
(c)
11. By solving the equation 5x - 5 = 30, x is equal to :

(a) 7
(b) 5
(c) 30
12. expressed as a fr actional index would be:
(a)
(b)
(c)
0.3010
13. If 2 = 10 the common logarithm of 2 is:
(a) 0.3010
(b) 2.3010
(c) 0.6020
14. In common logarithmic form, the characteristic of the number 0.00521 is:
(a) 5
(b) 3
(c) 0

Part 66 Module 1
Page 103
15. The equivalent denary number of the binary number 1110 is:
(a) 14
(b) 3
(c) 30
16. Given the Cartesian co-ordinates of (15,4) what is the value of the abscissa?
(a) 15
(b) 4
(c) 19
17. Given that sin = 0.8 and cos = 0.2, the value of tan would be:
(a) 0.16
(b) 4
(c) 0.25
18. The equivalent polar co-ordinates of the Cartesian co-ordinates (2,2) are:
(a) (16 , 30°)
(b) ( , 45°)
(c) (4, 45°)
19. To find the vertical height of a triangle you would multiply the area by:
(a) Twice the base length.
(b) Two and divide by the base length.
(c) Half the base length
20. The shape of the graph that would result from the equation 5x - 3y = 12 would be a:
(a) Parabola
(b) Hyperbola
(c) Straight line
21.
The fraction expressed as a ratio would be:
(a) 1:0.2 5
(b) 1:4
(c) 4%
22. 5.645 written correct to one decimal place would be:

(a) 5.6
(b) 6.0
(c) 5.7

Part 66 Module 1
Page 104
23. The solution of is:

6
(a) 3
5
(b) 3
(c)
24.
If = + then R equals:
(a)
(b)
(c)
25. What i s the denary number 10 expressed in binary form?

(a) 101
(b) 10
(c) 1010
Answers to Revision Questions

1. (a)
2. (a)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (b)
6. (a)
7. (c)
8. (b)
9. (c)
10. (b)
11. (a)
12. (b)
13. (a)
14. (b)
15. (a)
16. (a)
17. (b)
18. (b)
19. (b)
20. (c)
21. (b)
22. (c)
23. (a)
24. (b)
25. (c)

Part 66 Module 1
Page 105

01 - HATA Module 1

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

01 - HATA Module 1

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

EASA Part 147 Approved Courses

MANUAL CODE: BM1_01

The content of this Manual is property of

It is supplied in confidence and commercial security on its contents must be maintained.

It must not be reproduced in whole or in part without written permission of

Hellenic Aviation Training Academy

1. USING THIS BOOK………………………………………………………………………………………pg.3

3. UNITS, WEIGHTS, MEASURES &CONVERSION FACTORS……………………………………... pg.17

4. RATIO & PROPORTION………………………………………………………………………………… pg.22

8. POWERS AND ROOTS…………………………………………………………………………………. pg.37

9. LINES & ANGLES………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.39

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

10. ALGEBRA……………………………………………………………………………………………….. pg. 46

11. OTHER NUMBERING SYSTEMS………………………………………………………………. pg.72

12. GEOMETRY………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.84

Revision Questions………………………………………………………………………………………... pg.103

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

1. USING THIS BOOΚ

1.3. The use of x and ×

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

1.6. Units, Weights and Conversion Factors

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

2.2 Prime Numbers

2.3 In arithmetic four basic operations are performed.

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

2.4 Basic operations involving numbers

When adding numbers the result is called the SUM, e.g.:

This is the process of finding the difference between numbers, e.g.:

Figure 1 POSITIVE & NEGATIVE NUMBERS

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

Be careful when multiplying more than 2 negative numbers. For example:

Multiply the first 2 numbers gives +18 so the equation becomes:

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

If no number is shown immediately outside the bracketed term, then it is understood to be 1.

2.4.6 Mixed Operations

Firstly 'Brackets' must be removed.

Example 1. Solve 2 + 6 × 9 ÷ 3(2 + 5) - 8

Example 2. 162 ÷ (-18) + (-5 - 10) - 2(-33 +6)

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

A fraction is part of a whole.

Similarly 1mm is (one tenth) of 1cm.

2.4.7.1 Addition and Subtraction

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

2.4.7.4 Mixed Operations

Now try some problems for yourself.

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

Thus may be expressed in decimal form as 0.2

A Decimal such as7.459 may be written in the fractional form as:

2.4.8.1 Decimal Addition and Subtraction

Consider the addition of 2.57, 34.8 and 0.04

Subtraction is carried out in a similar way.

ie. Subtract 1.370 from 2.620

Issue: 1 Doc No: BM1_01

2.4.8.2 Decimal Multiplication

Thus 100 × 6.542 = 654.2

I.e. (for the same example) 100 × 6542 =654200

3 decimal digits from the right

Example 1 : multiply 0.216×2.31

216 Ignoring the decimal points

0.49896. initial place of decimal point

5 places of decimal from the right