STRESS

Definitions

“Stress is an adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological

and / or behavioural deviations for organizational participants” (Fred Luthans, 1998).

Ivancevich and Matteson have defined stress as, “An adaptive response, medicated by
individual characteristics and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any
external action, situation, or event that place special physical and/or psychological demands
upon a person.”

The physical or psychological demands from the environment that cause stress are called
stressors. They create stress or the potential for stress when an individual perceives them as
representing a demand that may exceed that person’s ability to respond. How an individual
experiences stress depends on (i) the person’s perception of the situation, (ii) the person’s
past experience, (iii) the presence or absence of social support, and (iv) individual differences
with regard to stress reactions (Don Hellriegel, et. al., 2001). This general model regards
stress as part of a sequential process in which objective environmental circumstances (i.e.,
stressors) are appraised by the individual as either having no adaptive significance or as
stressful (i.e., presenting a potential threat, danger, change or challenge to one’s well-being or
survival).

DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRESS:

Acute stress

Sometimes stress can be brief, and specific to the demands and pressures of a particular
situation, such as a deadline, a performance or facing up to a difficult challenge or traumatic
event. This type of stress often gets called acute stress.

Episodic acute stress

Some people seem to experience acute stress over and over. This is sometimes referred to as
episodic acute stress. These kind of repetitive stress episodes may be due to a series of very
real stressful challenges, for example, losing a job, then developing health problems,
followed by difficulties for a child in the school setting. For some people, episodic acute
stress is a combination of real challenges and a tendency to operate like a ‘stress machine’.
Some people tend to worry endlessly about bad things that could happen, are frequently in a
rush and impatient with too many demands on their time, which can contribute to episodic
acute stress.

Chronic stress

The third type of stress is called chronic stress. This involves ongoing demands, pressures
and worries that seem to go on forever, with little hope of letting up. Chronic stress is very
harmful to people’s health and happiness. Even though people can sometimes get used to
chronic stress, and may feel they do not notice it so much, it continues to wear people down
and has a negative effect on their relationships and health.

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

This was developed by Hans Selye (1956) who subjected rats to noxious agents. The same
symptoms appeared in response to a variety of these stimuli and so were considered to be due
to a general state described as 'stress'.

The stress response was thought to comprise three phases:

Alarm reaction:

Stressful event is registered followed by activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal

system as the body is prepared for energy expenditure (fight or flight). Alarm reaction is
characterized by autonomous excitability, adrenaline discharge, increased heart rate, muscle
tone and blood content.

Resistance:

The body copes with a persistent stressor by maintaining high levels of arousal. Maximum
adaptation happens at this stage.

Exhaustion:

Body's defence systems become exhausted and responses to minor additional stresses become
exaggerated. Psychosomatic disorders (e.g. gastric ulcers or chronically raised blood
pressure) may develop.

Stress and illness

Selye's research suggested a link between the exhaustion stage of the general adaptation
syndrome and physical illness. Recent research suggests that it is hormones that are
responsible for the negative effects of stress, their secretion being increased by activation of
the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.

Evidence suggests that stress can reduce the body's resistance to illness by suppressing the
immune system (Riley 1981; Schliefer et al 1983). Stress can also lead to unhealthy lifestyles
involving more smoking and greater alcohol consumption.

Relationships exist between stress and ulcers (Brady 1958), hypertension (Cobb and Rose,
1973), and coronary heart disease (Friedman and Rosenman 1959).
 COPING
The term coping refers to the ways that people respond to and interact with problem
situations. Psychologists (e.g., Pestonjee, 1992) have identified two major ways in which
people cope with stress. In the first approach, a person may decide to suffer or deny the
experienced stress; this is the passive approach. Alternatively, a person may decide to face
the realities of the experienced stress and clarify the problem through negotiations with other
members. This is the active approach.

Table: Ways of Coping Mechanisms used by (Lazarus, et al. 1986)

Problem focused coping: Emotion focused coping:

Confrontative Coping -Seeking Social Self-Control -Seeking Social Support -
Support -Plan full Problem-Solving Distancing -Positive Appraisal -Accepting
Responsibility -Escape/Avoidance

Problem focused coping

Problem-Focused Coping is a rational approach that attempts to change the situation by

changing either something in the environment or how the person interacts with the
environment (Lazarus & folkman, 1987). Therefore, it is very clear that this type of coping
aimed at reducing the demands of the situation or expanding the resources for dealing with it.
And it is clear that often used when the person believes that the demand is changeable.
According to psychologists, Problem-focused coping (take-charge strategies that deal with
the problem at hand or eliminate the stressors through problem solving) often enhances
feelings of control and reduces stress and its adverse consequences, assuming that the
situation can be changed.

Emotional focused coping

Emotion focused coping is used to manage all forms of emotional distress including feeling
of depression, anxiety, frustration and anger. According to Zamble and Gekoski (1994),
individual with emotion-focused coping style tend to make themselves feel better about a
problematic situation without changing the problem itself or the perception of it.

A. Developing a Plan of Action

1. Identify the problem/stressor and the physical, behavioral, and psychological effects

2. Identify possible strategies that can be used to address the problem(s) - BRAINSTORM

3. Choose strategies

4. Take action/implement plan

5. Evaluate effectiveness
6. Modify plan if necessary

B. Coping Strategies

1. Cognitive Coping Strategies - rethinking the problem

a) Cognitive Restructuring - modify or change distorted thinking patterns and irrational

beliefs
b) Social Comparison - identify someone that is worse off than you
c) Reappraisal - what is positive about present challenge
d) Humor - identify absurd or lighter side of challenge. Laugh at yourself. Actually
improves immune functioning and increases endorphin level
e) Self - Efficacy - belief that you can master/cope with any challenge

2. Emotional Focused Coping Strategies

a) Ventilate feelings in a constructive way * Talk to a friend, counselor, minister * Write

in a journal or write letters (do not mail) * Crying - tears are the river to your soul *
Physical Exercise - running, punching a "bop" bag or pillow (do not hit a wall) *
Screaming in a remote or private area
b) Seek/create a social support system

3. Behavioural Coping Strategies

a) Time-Management
Keep a daily planner * Make a "to do" list for each day * Prioritize
yourresponsibilities * Cross off responsibilities when accomplished (provides
reinforcement) * Complete one task at a time * Make use of down - time
(waiting for class to start, sitting in DR's office) * Delegate responsibility *
Just say no! Recognize your limitations * Maintain organization

b) Behavior Modification
Target behavior (example: Study more often) * Identify plan and reinforcers
for success and punishers for failure (Study Psychology 20 minutes 3 x a day 5
days a week) (Reinforcer/Punisher - Watch favorite TV show or go out with
friend.) * Make a contract with self and support system (if needed) * Initiate
the plan * Evaluate success and modify if necessary

c) Physical Coping Strategies

Exercise * Rest and appropriate nutrition, * Progressive relaxation *
Medication * Biofeedback - learn to control your autonomic responses