See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251950916

Mineral potential mapping based on GIS

technology and fractal method

Article · July 2010

DOI: 10.1109/ESIAT.2010.5567314

CITATIONS READS

0 44

8 authors, including:

Gongwen Wang
China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
59 PUBLICATIONS 259 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

3D modeling View project

3D Geological Modeling of Pulang Copper Deposit, Yunnan Province of China View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Gongwen Wang on 02 April 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document
and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
GEXPLO-05026; No of Pages 13
Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Geochemical Exploration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp

Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models

Gongwen Wang a,⁎, Emmanuel John M. Carranza b, Renguang Zuo a, c,⁎⁎, Yinglong Hao a, Yangsong Du a,
Zhenshan Pang d, Yue Sun a, Jianan Qu a
a
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
b
Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, Enschede, 7500 AE, The Netherlands
c
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
d
China Geological survey, Beijing 100037, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Available online xxxx The Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit is one of the most important copper deposits discovered in China in the last
five years. In this deposit, the irregular distributions of high concentrations of metals are associated with four
Keywords: intrusive complexes and fault structures. In the present study, fractal models including box-counting dimen-
Mineral exploration sion (Bd), power-law frequency and Hurst exponent are applied to characterize the vertical distributions of
Fractal Cu values along boreholes in the deposit, and to delineate target areas in the Pulang copper district. The
Box-counting dimension
resulting box-counting model shows that the vertical distributions of Cu in both mineralized and non-
Power-law frequency
Hurst exponent
mineralized boreholes exhibit self-similarity, with values of Bd ranging from 1.01 to 1.43, and mineralized
Porphyry-Cu deposit boreholes have values of Bd higher than those of non-mineralized boreholes. The resulting power-law
frequency model shows that the vertical distributions of Cu in mineralized boreholes are bifractal whereas
they are monofractal in non-mineralized boreholes. The bifractal vertical distributions of Cu values are
generally associated with multiple ore-forming stages/periods or complicated ore-forming functions of
geological background. The Hurst exponents of Cu data from all continuously mineralized boreholes are
> 0.5, indicating that the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit has good vertical continuity of mineralization, or that
the development of orebodies was relatively stable in this geological setting. High Hurst exponents
(> 0.85) can be utilized to identify subsurface mineralized targets, whereas lower Hurst exponents (b 0.85)
represent discontinuous mineralized rocks along the margins of the porphyry-Cu deposit near country
rocks. Based on calculated values of average Cu grade, coefficient of variation, Bd and Hurst exponent for
the Cu data along boreholes, interpolated values of these variables are excellent for mapping of potential
targets. The results show that the Complex II (intrusive body) is a potential copper target in the north of
the Pulang district, because it has a similar Bd as the Complex I that hosts the Pulang porphyry-Cu orebody
in the south of the Pulang district. In addition, the Complex I has a potential porphyry-Cu target at depth be-
tween explorations lines 7 and 15 based on high Hurst exponents and favorable geological setting. The appli-
cation of the fractal models discussed in this study is convenient, simple, rapid and direct for outlining
potential exploration targets without processing multiple geological, geophysical, and geochemical datasets
from disparate sources.
Crown Copyright © 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction applied for quantifying properties of mineralized areas to aid mineral

Mandelbrot's (1983) fractal geometry provides advantages for de-
scribing and simulating many complex forms and patterns in nature.
Fractal models are well established and have been effectively applied
for describing the distributions of geological objects (Cheng, 1995;
Raines, 2008; Zuo et al., 2009c) and for identifying geochemical
anomalies (Cheng et al., 1994, 2000). Fractal models have also been
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 86 10 82323271.
⁎⁎ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral
Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China.
E-mail addresses: gwwang@cugb.edu.cn (G. Wang), zrguang@cug.edu.cn (R. Zuo).
resource evaluation, mineral prospectivity mapping, and geochemical
exploration (e.g., Agterberg, 1993; Carranza, 2009, 2011; Carranza
and Sadeghi, 2010; Carranza et al., 2009; Li et al., 1994; Sanderson
et al., 1994; Shi and Wang, 1998; Turcotte, 1997, 2002; Wang et al.,
2011; Zuo, 2011; Zuo et al., 2009a, 2009b).
Like the distributions of geochemical elements in surficial materials
(Cheng et al., 1994), the distributions of geochemical elements in bore-
holes also exhibit fractal properties, which assume power-law charac-
teristics (Monecke et al., 2001; Sanderson et al., 1994; Zuo et al.,
2009a). Characterization of the distributions of geochemical elements
in boreholes is essential for evaluating the quality and quantity of min-
eral resources (Zuo et al., 2009a). Fractal models are gradually being

0375-6742/$ – see front matter. Crown Copyright © 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
2 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
adopted for effective analysis of spatial structures in metallic geochem-
ical systems. Fractal modeling of the spatial distributions of geochemical
data can provide useful information and appropriate criteria for recog-
nition and classification of mineralized and barren zones within a
study area. Various log-log plots in fractal modeling are proper methods
for separation and classification of populations in geochemical data be-
cause threshold values can be recognized as breakpoints in those plots.
Geochemical threshold values recognized though fractal analysis are
usually explainable by geological features or processes. This provide
strong basis for the proposed application of fractal modeling to identify
and map various zones in porphyry-Cu deposits (Afzal et al., 2011).
Porphyry-Cu deposits usually display consistent, broad-scale zoning
patterns comprising of sodic-calcic, potassic, chloritic-sericitic, sericitic,
and argillic alteration assemblages (Lowell and Guibert, 1970; Meyer
and Hemley, 1967; Sillitoe, 1973). Intrusive porphyries in one district
may have similar features (e.g., lithology and alteration mineral assem-
blage), but in every porphyry-Cu deposit the degree of mineralization
may vary from the core of potassium silicate zone to the peripheral
phyllic zone. Therefore, various alteration zones in a porphyry-Cu
deposit are expected to exhibit self-similarity fractal characteristics,
whereas mineralized and non-mineralized zones are expected to exhib-
it distinct self-similarity fractal characteristics. Yu (2006) researched
the fractal features of some porphyry-Cu deposits, and the results
showed that both orebody and mineralized boundaries have continu-
ous fractal characteristics. Therefore, this case study aims to demon-
strate the usefulness of fractal modelling for district-scale recognition
and mapping of mineralized zones using borehole datasets. The Pulang
copper district in the Yunnan Province, southwestern China, is the focus
of this case study.
2. Methodology
Fractal and multifractal analyses have been demonstrated to be
useful in identifying irregularity in spatial distributions of natural
objects (Mandelbrot, 1983). Ore deposits are examples of natural ob-
jects and many types of ore deposits were produced by magmatic-
hydrothermal systems, which represent a special type of singular pro-
cess that occurs in the Earth's crust (Mandelbort, 1985; Cheng, 2008;
Ċ
Fig. 1. Transparent 3D model of geology and boreholes in the Pulang district.
Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
Cheng et al., 1994). Irregular distributions of high concentrations of
metals in ore deposits are characterized by fractal and multifractal
properties. Therefore, in this paper, methods for analysis of fractal
dimensions including box dimension, power-law frequency and
Hurst exponents were utilized to (1) characterize the vertical distri-
butions of Cu grades in borehole data from Pulang district (China),
and (2) define potential targets for further evaluation of porphyry-
Cu resources.
2.1. Box-counting method
Box counting is one of most popular methods to estimate fractal
dimensions. It can be used to measure irregularity of spatial patterns,
and it can be implemented with the aid of a GIS or Matlab software. If
spatial patterns are fractal in terms of the box-counting method, the
relation between the number of boxes and the side length of the
boxes follows a power-law:
−Bd
NðδÞ∝δ ; ð1Þ
which can be rewritten as
log½NðδÞ ¼ C−Bd logðδÞ ð2Þ
where N(δ) is the number of boxes or cells of side δ and containing
metal grade curves, C is a constant, and Bd is the box-counting fractal
dimension. Separate grids, each with a different cell size δ, were used
to cover the areas enclosed by metal grade curve vector layers, and
these grids were used for counting the corresponding the N(δ)
enclosed by metal grade curves. Data pairs for δ and N(δ) are plotted
on a log-log graph and linear regression is applied to fit the plots with
at least one straight line, from which Bd can be estimated. For a one-
dimensional borehole profile in two-dimensional space, the range of
possible Bd is from 1 to 2.
2.2. Power-law frequency model
The power-law frequency model was used to measure the fre-
quency distribution of element concentration data. This model has
ĉ
 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 2. Geological cross section along exploration Line 0 in the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit.

been demonstrated by many studies (e.g., Li et al., 1994; Sanderson et where N(≥c) is the number of samples with element concentrations
al., 1994; Shi and Wang, 1998; Turcotte, 1997; Zuo et al., 2009a), and greater than or equal to c, C is a constant and Pd is the fractal dimension.
can be expressed as
2.3. Hurst exponent model
−P d
Nð≥cÞ∝c ; ð3Þ
The Hurst exponent proposed by Hurst (1951) is directly related
which can be rewritten as to the fractal dimension of a process, and provides a measure of pro-
cess roughness. The Hurst exponent is associated with a self-affine re-
log½Nð≥cÞ ¼ C−P d logðcÞ ð4Þ cord, which measures the long-range dependence in a time series and

Fig. 3. 3D model of the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit (based on Cu cut-off grade of 0.3%).

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
4 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Statistical information of 77 boreholes (73 mineralized boreholes and four non-mineralized (bold and underline) boreholes in the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit). Note: “-” delineates
monofractal properties of boreholes.

Zones (from south to north) Borehole Depth Bd Bd N Cu grade (%) Hurst Hurst D Bifractal
(m) (R2) exp. exp.(R2)
Mean(μ) Std. dev.(σ) CV Bi.(D1) Bi.(D2)
(σ/μ)

Mineralized zone in complex I, Line 15 ZK1501 306.86 1.01 0.985 8 0.017 0.015 0.900 0.82 0.988 1.18 0.547 2.524
ZK1513 150.15 1.02 0.996 14 0.016 0.008 0.500 0.82 0.977 1.18 0.815 5.674
Ore zone in intrusive complex I, Line 7 ZK0701 280.28 1.17 0.996 94 0.193 0.196 1.016 0.83 0.970 1.17
ZK0705 115.07 1.05 0.996 33 0.280 0.171 0.611 0.88 0.951 1.12
ZK0709 329.60 1.23 0.997 55 0.214 0.112 0.521 0.78 0.974 1.22 0.610 3.670
ZK0713 163.31 1.09 0.997 58 0.193 0.209 1.085 0.94 0.981 1.06
ZK0717 251.05 1.16 0.990 76 0.025 0.016 0.621 0.76 0.957 1.24
Ore zone in complex I Line 3 ZK0301 230.38 1.25 0.994 139 0.261 0.158 0.606 0.86 0.993 1.14
ZK0304 155.48 1.16 0.994 93 0.228 0.091 0.397 0.89 0.979 1.11
ZK0305 157.11 1.18 0.996 86 0.265 0.138 0.521 0.95 0.983 1.05
ZK0313 171.33 1.14 0.997 62 0.319 0.133 0.416 0.92 0.986 1.08
ZK0317 340.15 1.29 0.995 167 0.070 0.053 0.759 0.87 0.985 1.13 0.732 5.577
Ore zone in complex I Line 1 ZK0101 99.30 1.14 0.996 65 0.493 0.255 0.517 0.86 0.981 1.14
ZK0104 93.58 1.18 0.994 55 0.370 0.091 0.245 0.81 0.990 1.19
Ore zone in complex I Line 0 ZK0008 300.28 1.22 0.994 139 0.193 0.097 0.505 0.86 0.976 1.14 0.235 4.156
ZK0004 150.08 1.21 0.994 97 0.615 0.195 0.317 0.73 0.924 1.27 0.036 4.381
ZK0002 124.26 1.13 0.995 83 1.553 0.376 0.242 0.83 0.990 1.17 0.058 5.328
PLD001 300.19 1.27 0.998 168 0.667 0.350 0.525 0.94 0.990 1.06 0.375 2.302
ZK0003 147.48 1.17 0.993 97 0.944 0.328 0.347 0.75 0.963 1.25 0.022 4.053
ZK0005 268.14 1.31 0.998 140 0.336 0.178 0.530 0.85 0.984 1.15 0.136 3.736
ZK0009 378.25 1.25 0.995 178 0.268 0.114 0.424 0.87 0.966 1.13 0.066 4.342
ZK0013 252.22 1.26 0.995 117 0.438 0.185 0.422 0.94 0.989 1.06 0.504 6.760
ZK0017 375.30 1.26 0.997 116 0.071 0.081 1.144 0.79 0.990 1.21 0.830 4.100
Ore zone in complex I Line 2, Line 4, PLD002 268.67 1.23 0.992 104 0.349 0.127 0.362 0.89 0.981 1.11
Line 6, Line 8, Line 10, Line 12, Line 16, ZK0201 168.30 1.17 0.995 104 1.320 0.342 0.259 0.78 0.975 1.22
Line 20, Line 24 ZK0202 143.60 1.18 0.994 93 1.544 0.532 0.345 0.85 0.982 1.15
ZK0203 181.80 1.23 0.995 104 0.827 0.252 0.305 0.74 0.960 1.26
ZK0204 111.10 1.13 0.996 71 0.564 0.181 0.322 0.86 0.992 1.14
ZK0205 204.80 1.20 0.997 101 0.523 0.184 0.352 0.86 0.984 1.14
ZK0401 450.80 1.36 0.998 258 0.332 0.219 0.661 0.97 0.977 1.03 0.072 2.465
ZK0402 172.50 1.23 0.996 114 0.594 0.208 0.350 0.93 0.993 1.07
ZK0403 700.30 1.43 0.994 387 0.530 0.322 0.608 0.92 0.988 1.08
ZK0404 122.80 1.17 0.996 79 0.279 0.099 0.356 0.80 0.981 1.20
ZK0405 217.00 1.23 0.996 129 0.696 0.232 0.333 0.78 0.985 1.22 0.385 5.319
ZK0406 750.20 1.41 0.993 358 0.283 0.114 0.403 0.81 0.985 1.19
ZK0407 270.80 1.33 0.995 142 0.392 0.171 0.435 0.93 0.988 1.07
ZK0411 391.00 1.31 0.994 178 0.235 0.103 0.440 0.90 0.983 1.10
ZK0415 235.60 1.20 0.991 111 0.296 0.259 0.873 0.88 0.999 1.12 0.471 3.936
ZK0419 750.20 1.38 0.998 144 0.158 0.125 0.792 0.88 0.974 1.12
ZK0601 228.60 1.27 0.997 145 0.686 0.340 0.496 0.93 0.986 1.07
ZK0602 205.80 1.18 0.996 93 0.601 0.324 0.539 0.89 0.976 1.11
ZK0603 236.10 1.27 0.997 148 0.549 0.194 0.353 0.84 0.960 1.06
ZK0604 181.70 1.24 0.993 121 0.329 0.174 0.527 0.91 0.995 1.09
ZK0605 237.15 1.22 0.998 132 0.402 0.165 0.410 0.70 0.963 1.30
ZK0606 410.20 1.25 0.994 113 0.056 0.057 1.016 0.73 0.983 1.27
ZK0608 141.70 1.12 0.989 74 0.173 0.229 1.323 0.78 0.989 1.22
ZK0801 307.98 1.23 0.993 156 0.346 0.204 0.590 0.81 0.946 1.19
ZK0803 270.66 1.31 0.994 150 0.339 0.117 0.345 0.87 0.993 1.13 0.140 5.520
ZK0804 256.00 1.24 0.995 97 0.250 0.094 0.375 0.73 0.982 1.27
ZK0805 307.85 1.26 0.995 121 0.239 0.111 0.464 0.89 0.986 1.11
ZK0808 370.30 1.23 0.995 168 0.244 0.208 0.855 0.91 0.996 1.09
ZK0809 432.75 1.28 0.995 101 0.240 0.106 0.443 0.92 0.991 1.08
ZK0813 105.80 1.07 0.993 44 0.120 0.067 0.554 0.89 0.988 1.11
ZK0819 320.00 1.10 0.996 17 0.076 0.058 0.768 0.75 0.932 1.25
ZK1001 281.81 1.22 0.994 167 0.597 0.344 0.577 0.93 0.997 1.07
ZK1004 239.80 1.24 0.996 109 0.215 0.094 0.437 0.79 0.991 1.11
ZK1005 285.00 1.19 0.994 84 0.175 0.064 0.364 0.90 0.979 1.10
ZK1201 446.90 1.11 0.995 34 0.145 0.178 1.226 0.71 0.940 1.29
ZK1201′ 357.20 1.25 0.995 177 0.627 0.508 0.809 0.93 0.994 1.07
ZK1203 446.25 1.21 0.998 133 0.205 0.103 0.500 0.75 0.987 1.25
ZK1204 333.08 1.27 0.997 54 0.221 0.079 0.360 0.88 0.965 1.22
ZK1205 341.88 1. 25 0.992 139 0.216 0.077 0.358 0.77 0.987 1.23
ZK1209 184.83 1.01 0.998 7 0.116 0.082 0.708 0.70 0.844 1.30
ZK1601 534.25 1.42 0.997 297 0.392 0.146 0.373 0.85 0.993 1.15
ZK1603 333.75 1.30 0.998 160 0.257 0.097 0.377 0.90 0.995 1.10 0.082 5.160
ZK1604 312.07 1.11 0.996 39 0.190 0.089 0.470 0.72 0.961 1.28
ZK1605 265.85 1.04 0.996 26 0.146 0.120 0.821 0.81 0.980 1.19
ZK1608 514.00 1.13 0.992 38 0.220 0.278 1.264 0.78 0.942 1.22
ZK2001 374.25 1.28 0.995 136 0.218 0.073 0.338 0.92 0.982 1.08
ZK2401 760.50 1.29 0.997 96 0.189 0.066 0.348 0.78 0.968 1.22
ZK2404 608.55 1.21 0.994 69 0.191 0.068 0.355 0.70 0.960 1.30

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 5

Table 1 (continued)
Zones (from south to north) Borehole Depth Bd Bd N Cu grade (%) Hurst Hurst D Bifractal
(m) (R2) exp. exp.(R2)
Mean(μ) Std. dev.(σ) CV Bi.(D1) Bi.(D2)
(σ/μ)

Potential exploration target in complex ZK5816 224.00 1.07 0.991 20 0.180 0.119 0.658 0.82 0.950 1.18 0.370 2.000
II Line 58, Line 66, Line 74 MZK0001 152.41 1.10 0.991 59 0.327 0.156 0.478 0.73 0.9887 1.27 0.090 3.840
ZK6616 360.38 1.31 0.997 87 0.022 0.021 0.957 0.75 0.946 1.25 1.230 -
ZK6628 301.08 1.01 0.999 36 0.056 0.039 0.702 0.82 0.985 1.18 0.254 1.81
ZK7424 434.48 1.29 0.999 99 0.034 0.020 0.605 0.70 0.985 1.30 0.139 2.999
ZK7432 347.98 1.13 0.989 75 0.018 0.013 0.761 0.84 0.983 1.16 1.203 -

provides a measure of long-term nonlinearity. The values of H lie be-
tween 0 and 1. If H = 0.5, the cumulative behavior is a random walk
and the process produces uncorrelated white noise. Values of H b 0.5
represent anti-persistent behavior whereas values of H > 0.5 repre-
sent fractional Brownian motion with increasing persistence strength
as H → 1.
The rescaled range analysis (R/S), implies the ratio of the rescaled
range (R) to the standard deviation (S), and can be used to estimate
the Hurst exponent (Mandelbrot and Wallis, 1969) as follows. An or-
dered data sequence is divided into d contiguous sub-series of length
n, such that d × n = N is the total number of samples. For each of
the sub-series m, where m = 1,…, d, the following analyses are
performed.
(i) Determine the mean, Em, and standard deviation, Sm, of data in
each sub-series.
(ii) Normalize each data point (Zi,m) in each sub-series by sub-
tracting from it Em:
3. Geological setting and datasets
The Pulang copper district (ca. 35 km2) is situated in the Sanjiang
copper belt in southwestern China. The Cu reserve in the district is
more than 4.3 Mt, and the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit represents
more than 75% of the total Cu reserve (Li et al., 2011; Wang et al.,
2009). The Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit is one of the most important
copper deposits discovered in China in the last five years. Four intrusive
complexes (labeled as I, II, III, and IV; Fig. 1), surrounded by hornfels,
exist in the Pulang copper district. The intruded country rocks consist
of volcaniclastic rocks of the Late Triassic Tumugou Formation (T3t).
The strata of T3t are inclined (68°–82°) to the south and to the north
in the northern and southern parts, respectively, of the study area
(Li et al., 2011).
Intrusive complex I hosts the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit and asso-
ciated hydrothermal alterations. The geological features of the Pulang

X i;m ¼ Z i;m −Em ðform ¼ 1; 2; …; nÞ ð5Þ

(iii) Create a cumulative series by consecutively summing the nor-

malized data points:

X
n
Y i;m ¼ X i;m ð6Þ
i¼1

(iv) Use cumulative series to find the range as:

   
Rm ¼ max Y i:m ; …; Y n;m − min Y i:m ; …; Y n;m ð7Þ

(v) Rescale the range by dividing the range by the standard devia-
tion (i.e., Rm/Sm).
(vi) Calculate the mean of the rescaled range for all sub-series of
length n:

1X d
ðR=SÞn ¼ R =S ð8Þ
d m¼1 m m

(vii) The length of n must be increased to the next higher value,

where d × n = N, and d is an integer value. Repeat steps (i) to
(vi) until n = N/2.
(viii) Finally, estimate the value of H as the slope of the regression
line for log (N) versus log (R/S).
In general, for a one-dimensional profile, the fractal dimension D is
related to Hurst exponent by H = 2 − D. The practical significance of D
is the local discontinuous distribution of a variable. For a one-
dimensional profile in two-dimensional space, the range of possible
fractal dimensions is from 1 to 2, with corresponding H values of 1 to Fig. 4. Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit semivariograms of Cu borehole data: (A) horizontal
0. Therefore, values of H outside this range do not appear to have a omni-directional semivariograms, for azimuths of 0, 45, 90, and 135; (B) vertical omni-
physical interpretation. directional semivariogram.

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
6 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
porphyry-Cu deposit, which outcrops in an area of ca. 1 km2, have been
studied in detail by Pang et al. (2009) and Li et al. (2011). Intrusive
complex I consists three stages of intrusions: quartz diorite porphyry
formed in the first stage, quartz monzonite porphyry in the second
stage, and granodiorite porphyry in the third stage. The crystallization
ages of intrusive complex I, around 211.8 ± 0.5 Ma, have been deter-
mined using the single-grain zircon U–Pb method (Pang et al., 2009).
Porphyry-Cu mineralization is associated mainly with the quartz mon-
zonite porphyry (Fig. 1).
Intrusive complex II consists of the same lithologies and similar
hydrothermal alterations as intrusive complex I. Intrusive complexes
III and IV are comprised only of quartz diorite porphyries.
The Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit consists of intensely altered rocks
comprising a quartz–K-silicate (biotite, K-feldspar) zone, a phyllic
(quartz-sericite) zone, an albite zone, and a propylitic (chlorite, epidote)
zone (Fig. 2). The orebody (i.e., based on a cut-off grade of 0.3% Cu) is lo-
cated mainly within the phyllic and quartz–K-silicate alteration zones in
the quartz monzonite porphyry, which intruded into the quartz diorite
porphyry. Outwards form the quartz–K-silicate alteration zone, Cu miner-
alization weakens and chalcopyrite occurs as disseminations and veinlets
in phyllic zones in the quartz monzonite porphyry. In general, the quartz–
K-silicate zone is dominated by high-grade mineralization (0.40–1.56%
Cu), the phyllic zone by low-grade mineralization (0.20–0.40% Cu), and
the propylitic zone by weak mineralization (0.05–0.20% Cu).
The basic datasets from the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit include
1:2000 scale geological map, borehole logs, 1:2,000 scale topographic
maps, 19 cross-section maps of 1:2000 scale and 8145 assay samples
Fig. 5. Histograms of Cu assay values in selected boreholes (ZK6628 and ZK7424 are non-mineralized boreholes).
Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
from 77 boreholes, which were provided by the Yunnan Diqing Mineral
Resources Limited Company, 2007. The borehole spacing varies from
80 m × 60 m to 320 m × 240 m according to the standard of copper de-
posit exploration in China. Of the 77 boreholes, 73 intersected mineral-
ization whereas the other four boreholes intersected non-mineralized
rocks only. Of the 77 boreholes, 69 were sunk into intrusive complex
I for evaluation of the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit whereas the other
nine boreholes were sunk into intrusive complex II, 1–2 km farther to
the north, to explore for undiscovered porphyry-Cu deposit(s)
(Fig. 1). Using the available datasets, a 3D orebody model of the Pulang
porphyry-Cu deposit, based on a cut-off grade of 0.3% Cu, was created
(Fig. 3). The model delineates the continuous and block characteristics
of the orebody. Note that the orebody depth is not limited only to the
borehole data, but the model was limited to a maximum depth of
1050 m as simulated and calculated using neural network method
(Wang et al., 2009). The properties of the model and results of analyses
of the borehole datasets are summarized in Table 1. Figs. 1 and 2 show,
respectively, that alteration zones on the surface and subsurface are as-
sociated with intrusive complexes.
4. Results
On basis of the borehole datasets in Pulang ore district, the mean (μ),
standard deviation (σ), and coefficient variance (CV = σ/μ) of Cu assay
data were calculated respectively and are listed in the Cu grade (%)
column in Table 1. To model the Pulang porphyry-Cu grade distribution
in 3D, we calculated the semivariogram for all the borehole data
 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 7

Fig. 6. Log-log plots of N(δ) versus δ (see. Eq. (1)) for Cu values in selected boreholes (Fig. 5): (A) the Cu values lines with a vector to a raster to calculate Bd, (B) the result of Log-log
plots of N(δ) versus δ.

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
8 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
pertaining to the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit using S-SEMS software
with GSLIB data format (Deutsch and Journel, 1998; http://sgems.
sourceforge.net). Fig. 4 shows the horizontal and vertical semi-
variograms for the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit borehole datasets. Six
semivariograms corresponding to six different directions in the Pulang
porphyry-Cu deposit show similar behavior with direction, and they
can be considered as identical, the continuity of the ore is thus
the same mineralization in all directions (Fig. 4). The south-north
(azimuth = 0, dip= 0) directional semivariogram (Fig. 4A) and vertical
directional semivariogram (Fig. 4B) both exhibit cyclicity features, im-
plying that multiple ore-forming periods/stages were involved in the for-
mation of the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit. Fig. 5 shows positively
skewed distributions of Cu along selected representative mineralized
and non-mineralized boreholes.
The lower Cu grades in non-mineralized boreholes show non-
multifractal dimension features, which mean that they have single
mineralization from later magmatic and hydrothermal functions.
4.1. Box-counting dimension of Cu distribution
A variety of methods are used to estimate fractal dimension, each
having its basis in one or more of the scale-dependent properties of a
fractal. In this paper, the Cu values lines per borehole were converted
from vector to raster format (Fig. 6A). Different cell sizes were used
to for rasterization and the grid cells were counted per cell size used.
Then, for every borehole, a log-log plot of cell size versus count cell
was made (Fig. 6B) in Excel with a trend line fitted using a power func-
tion to determine box-counting fractal dimensions (Bd) and coefficients
of determination (R2) (Table 1). The values of Bd range from 1.01 to
1.43 with R2 greater than 0.99, indicating aproximate irregularity of
the vertical distributions of Cu. Mineralized boreholes have higher Bd
values compared to non-mineralized boreholes (Table 1), indicating
that mineralization makes the vertical distribution of Cu values more
concentration. The quartz–K-silicate zone has higher Bd values com-
pared to the phyllic zone (e.g., a maximum Bd (ZK0005) of 1.31 in
Line 0 pertains appriximately to the center of porphyry-Cu orebody
(Fig. 2)), implying that metal-bearing fluid spread from the central
Fig. 7. Log-log plots of cumulative number versus Cu grade in selected boreholes (Fig. 4). Logarithms are base e (2.732) (ZK6628 and ZK7424 are non-mineralized boreholes).
Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
portion of the intrusive complex toward the country rocks. The differ-
ences in Bd values for mineralized and non-mineralized boreholes
and for the quartz–K-silicate and phyllic zones suggest multiple miner-
alization stages/periods.
4.2. Power-law frequency distribution of Cu values
The results obtained by the power-law frequency model for bore-
holes are listed in the last two columns of Table 1 and shown in
Fig. 7 for the selected boreholes. The log-log plots of cumulative num-
ber of samples versus Cu grades show that the vertical distributions of
Cu in mineralized boreholes exhibit bifractal properties. Note that in
Line 15 (represented by boreholes ZK1501 and ZK1513), which is
near the southern boundary of the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit in the
southern part of the Pulang district (Fig. 1), the average Cu grades are
low but the vertical distributions of Cu values exhibit bifractal proper-
ties. Likewise, the vertical distributions of Cu values in boreholes
ZK5816, ZK6628, ZK7424, and MZK0001 in complex II in the northern
part of the Pulang district have fractal properties, as in Line 15
(Table 1). However, the vertical distributions of Cu values in non-
mineralized boreholes (e.g., ZK6616 and ZK7432) in complex II exhibit
monofractal properties (Fig. 7; Table 1). Therefore, the bifractal proper-
ties of the vertical distributions of Cu values in the Pulang copper
district are likely due to the multiple ore-forming stages/periods or
the complex setting of porphyry intrusions in the district.
4.3. Hurst exponent
Based on the semivariograms of the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit
borehole datasets (Fig. 4), we used the R/S method to calculate the
Hurst exponents of the vertical distributions of Cu values in each of
the 77 boreholes. Hurst exponents with high goodness of fit using R/S
were obtained for 73 mineralized boreholes and four non-mineralized
boreholes (Fig. 8; Table 1). The Hurst exponents of the vertical distribu-
tions of Cu data for continuous mineralized boreholes in quartz-K-
silicate alteration zone are >0.5 with R2 mostly greater than 0.94, and
the N is generally greater than 10. These results indicate vertical
 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 9

Fig. 8. Log-log plots of R/S versus number (N) of samples in selected boreholes (Fig. 4). Logarithms are base 10 (ZK6628 and ZK7424 are non-mineralized boreholes).

persistence and vertical continuity of mineralization mainly within the
intrusive complex. There is at least one borehole wherein the Hurst ex-
ponents of the vertical distribution of Cu data are >0.85 in every
exploration line in intrusive complex I (Table 1, Fig. 1). In contrast, the
vertical distributions of Cu data in boreholes in the mineralized zone
(Line 15) and potential targets in complex II (Lines 58, 66, 74)all have
Hurst exponents of b0.85. Therefore, the complex I should be the ore-
forming center compared to the complex II corresponding to the geo-
logical facts in Pulang ore district.
The Hurst exponents obtained for individual boreholes (Table1)
have Pearson's correlation coefficients of 0.12, −0.10, 0.27, and
−0.96 versus mean Cu grade, CV of Cu grades, Bd and D, respectively.
These show that the Hurst exponent, mean Cu grade, CV of Cu grades,
Bd and D can be regarded as independent variables. Note that both D
and Bd are one-dimension variables, and all the one-dimension values
lie between 1 and 1.5, but they have different sample lags and have dif-
ferent geological meaning/interpretation. Generally, the frequency-size
fractal model focuses on the frequency distribution of data, and the
fractal dimension of this distribution is related with the ratio of high
values. The box-counting fractal dimensions measure the complexity
of the spatial distribution of Cu grade along boreholes. Therefore, D
pertains to the degree of local discontinuous distribution of a variable,
and for the present study high values of D imply that Cu grades are
discontinuous whereas low values of D imply that Cu grades are contin-
uous. Values of Bd pertain to the intensity of distribution of ore-forming
elements, and for the present study high values of Bd imply that concen-
tration of Cu whereas low values of Bd imply dispersion of Cu.
4.4. Predictive mapping of potential exploration targets
To interpret the different parameters (mean Cu grade, CV of Cu
grades, Bd, D, Hurst exponents, and bifractal/multifractal properties) as-
sociated with the Cu mineralization, we calculated all those parameters
for every borehole along exploration Line 0, which is a complete cross-
section of geological bodies (e.g., country rocks, alteration zones, and
intrusive rocks) in the Pulang ore district (Fig. 2; Table 1). Although
the boreholes ZK0017 and ZK 0008 at each end of exploration Line
0 generally have lower Cu values compared to the boreholes in the cen-
ter orebody, all boreholes along exploration Line 0 are mineralized and
the vertical distributions of Cu grades exhibit bifractal properties. High
Hurst exponents (equivalent to low D) and high mean Cu grades but
low Bd values generally represent continuous vertical Cu distributions
in mineralized boreholes within the quartz–K-silication alteration
zone (represented by boreholes ZK0005, ZK0009, ZK0013, and
PLD001). In contrast, low Hurst exponents (equivalent to high D) and
high CV of Cu grades apparently represent wall rock (e.g., in borehole

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
10 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 11

Fig. 9. Predictive mapping for porphyry-Cu exploration targets based on statistical analysis and fractal modeling of borehole Cu data: (A) average Cu grades; (B) coefficients of
variance; (C) box-counting dimensions (Bd); (D) Hurst exponents; (E) D; and (F) sum of H and Bd.

ZK0017), and low Hurst exponents, low CV of Cu grades and and low Bd
values represent intrusive rocks without hydrothermal alteration
(e.g., boreholes ZK0003, ZK0002, and ZK0004, each with depth of
b160 m) in mineralized boreholes. Therefore, mean Cu grade, CV of
Cu grades, Bd, D, and Hurst exponents of Cu in borehole data allow
distinction between mineralized and non-mineralized zones, and the
integrated analyses of those variables allow identification of potential
exploration targets. Both Bd and Hurst exponent are positively correlat-
ed to the Cu mineralized in Pulang ore deposit, and therefore high Bd
(>1.25) and high Hurst exponent (>0.85) are favorable for prediction
of potential exploration targets at depth. Accordingly, Bd and H can be
utilized together to predict potential mineralized target at depth.
In order to demonstrate the proposition above that fractal modeling
can used to identify potential exploration targets, the statistical parame-
ters and fractal properties of Cu data in each of the 77 boreholes were cal-
culated. The calculated values were then used to interpolate values of the
same parameters and properties at unvisited locations within a total area
of 5.45 km2 (1.47 km × 3.71 km) (Fig. 9). All interpolated maps shown in
Fig. 9 were created by kriging with spherical semivariogram model
(using a search radius covering a minimum number of three data points)
and 1/2 standard variance classifications in ArcGIS. The results show that
the zone of intrusive complex II is a potential exploration target in the
northern part of the Pulang district (Fig. 9C, F). In addition, the zone be-
tween Line 7 and Line 15 in the southern part of the Pulang district has
potential Cu targets, which delineate the known potential continuous
orebody at depth (from 750 to 1050 m) (Fig. 9C, D, F). These results
are similar to earlier prediction results obtained by applying neural net-
work and 3D GIS modeling methods to geological, geophysical, and geo-
chemical datasets (Wang et al., 2007, 2009).
5. Discussion and conclusions
The Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit has typical characteristics of low
grade, large tonnage, and continuous mineralizations both in vertical
and horizontal directions. The continuity of mineralization is a key issue
in district-scale mineral exploration of porphyry-Cu deposits, and it can
be recognized by characterizing the vertical distributions of geochemical
data along boreholes. Although there are differences in styles of
porphyry-Cu mineralization in terms of intrusive lithology, presence/
absence of breccias, alteration assemblages, and mineralization geome-
tries, the district-scale continuity of porphyry-Cu mineralization can be
delineated using fractal modeling of district-scale borehole datasets.
Therefore, characterization of the vertical distributions of elements is
essential for mineral exploration.
In this paper, three fractal models, including box-counting dimen-
sion (Bd), power-law frequency and Hurst exponent/fractal dimen-
sion (D), were used to investigate the irregularity or continuity of
Cu mineralization in the Pulang ore district. The vertical distributions
of Cu data in 73 mineralized boreholes and four non-mineralized
boreholes in the Pulang copper district (China) were characterized
using those fractal models. Conventional statistical and geostatistical
methods can be utilized to analyze the basic ore-forming features
using borehole data and knowledge of specific geological setting
(e.g., porphyry-Cu alteration model and metallogenic model). How-
ever, the simple fractal models demonstrated in this paper is an effi-
cient methodology to predict and assess mineral targets from
sufficient borehole datasets, whereas the multifractal/bifractal prop-
erties can be utilized to predict potential targets using sparse bore-
hole data. Fractal models of borehole datasets in a porphyry-Cu
district can be used in geologically similar surrounding areas for map-
ping of potential targets.
The results of the present study can be summarized as follows:
(1) The box-counting method shows that the vertical distributions
of Cu values in mineralized and non-mineralized boreholes ex-
hibit self-similarity, with Bd values ranging from 1.01 to 1.43.
The Bd values of the vertical distribution of Cu in mineralized
boreholes are greater than those in non-mineralized boreholes,

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
12 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
indicating that mineralization processes make the vertical dis-
tribution of Cu more irregular.
(2) The power-law frequency analysis reveals that the vertical dis-
tributions of Cu in mineralized boreholes exhibit bifractal
properties, and monofractal properties are associated only
with non-mineralized boreholes. Therefore, the frequency
power law model can be utilized to directly identify the pres-
ence of mineralization using a single or few borehole data
sets in a region permissive for porphyry-Cu mineralization,
which generally comprises multiple ore-forming stages and
complicated mineralization factors.
(3) In the present study, Hurst exponents of vertical geochemical
data distributions from continuous mineralized boreholes are
>0.5, indicating that the Pulang porphyry-Cu deposit has
good vertical continuity of mineralization. This implies that
the development of orebodies was relatively stable in this geo-
logic setting, which is consistent with current knowledge of
geological evolution of the Pulang ore district. Therefore, high
Hurst exponents (>0.85 in the present study) can be utilized
to identify ore-bearing/mineralized targets.
(4) The Hurst exponent, mean Cu grade, CV of Cu grades, and Bd
are independent variables. The interpolated maps of mean Cu
grades, CV of Cu grades, Bd, D, Hurst exponents, and combina-
tion variable (‘H + Bd’) were utilized to compare and analyze
the potential porphyry-Cu targets between the known orebody
in intrusive complex I and the other intrusive complexes. The
results show that mean Cu grades and CV of Cu grades can be uti-
lized to predict potential exploration targets at the surface,
whereas high Bd (>1.25) and high Hurst exponent (>0.85)
favor prediction potential exploration targets at depth. This meth-
odology is convenient, simple and direct for mineral resource pre-
diction and assessment without processing multiple geological,
geophysical, and geochemical datasets.
(5) Based on the geological setting and the 3D Cu grade model of
the Pulang ore district (Figs. 1 and 3), the zone between Line
7 and Line 15 in the southern part of the Pulang district has a
potential Cu target, which is likely a continuation of the Pulang
porphyry-Cu orebody at depth. The depth of the potential
porphyry-Cu target is from 750 m to1050 m, which is consis-
tent with earlier research results using neural network and
3D GIS modeling methods to geological, geophysical, and geo-
chemical datasets (Wang et al., 2007, 2009).
(6) In the Pulang ore district, if a mineralized borehole has a higher
Bd value compared to other boreholes, that borehole is general-
ly likely to have a high Hurst exponent and bifractal properties
of the vertical metal distribution. Therefore, high box-counting
fractal dimensions, high Hurst exponents, and the frequency
power law (bifractal model) fractal model can be utilized to
identify potential mineral targets. Both Bd and Hurst exponent
are single-value parameters that can be utilized together to
identify potential targets with sufficient borehole data, where-
as the bifractal/multifractal model is effective and reliable
when the borehole data is sparse.
Acknowledgements
We thank two anonymous reviewers for their useful comments,
and Prof. C.V. Deutsch and J. Boisvert (University of Alberta, Canada)
for calculating the semivariograms and for discussion to interpret the re-
sults. The research was jointly supported by the 12th “Five-Year Plan”
(No. 2010BAB04B06), Ministry of Land and Resources Public Service
Sectors Fund (No. 201111007), the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 40972232), the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), and the
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources
(Grant No. GPMR0941), the Fundamental Research Founds for National
Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
University, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41002118).
References
Afzal, P., Alghalandis, Y.F., Khakzad, A., Moarefvand, P., Omran, N.R., 2011. Delineation
of mineralization zones in porphyry Cu deposits by fractal concentration-volume
modeling. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 108, 220–232.
Agterberg, F.P., 1993. Calculation of the variance of mean values for blocks in regional
resource evaluation studies. Nonrenewable Resources 2, 312–324.
Carranza, E.J.M., 2009. Objective selection of suitable unit cell size in data-driven
modeling of mineral prospectivity. Computers and Geosciences 35, 2032–2046.
Carranza, E.J.M., 2011. From predictive mapping of mineral prospectivity to quantita-
tive estimation of number of undiscovered prospects. Resource Geology 61, 30–51.
Carranza, E.J.M., Sadeghi, M., 2010. Predictive mapping of prospectivity and quantita-
tive estimation of undiscovered VMS deposits in Skellefte district (Sweden). Ore
Geology Reviews 38, 219–241.
Carranza, E.J.M., Owusu, E.A., Hale, M., 2009. Mapping of prospectivity and estimation
of number of undiscovered prospects for lode-gold, southwestern Ashanti Belt,
Ghana. Mineralium Deposita 44, 915–938.
Cheng, Q., 1995. The perimeter-area fractal model and its application to geology.
Mathematical Geology 27, 69–82.
Cheng, Q., 2008. Non-linear theory and power-law models for information integration
and mineral resources quantitative assessments. Mathematical Geosciences 40,
503–532.
Cheng, Q., Agterberg, F.P., Ballantyne, S.B., 1994. The separation of geochemical anom-
alies from background by fractal methods. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 51,
109–130.
Cheng, Q., Xu, Y., Grunsky, E., 2000. Multifractal power spectrum-area method for
geochemical anomaly separation. Natural Resources Research 9, 43–51.
Deutsch, C.V., Journel, A.G., 1998. GSLIB: Geostatistical Software Library and User's
Guide, second edition. Oxford University Press, New York. 369 pp.
Hurst, H.E., 1951. Long-term storage capacity of reservoirs. Transactions of the American
Society of Civil Engineers 116, 770–808.
Li, C., Xu, Y., Xu, Y., Jiang, X., 1994. The fractal model of mineral deposits. Geological
Zhejiang 10, 25–32 (in Chinese with English Abstract).
Li, W., Zeng, P., Hou, Z., White, H.C., 2011. The Pulang porphyry copper deposit and
associated felsic intrusions in Yunnan Province, southwest China. Economic Geology
106, 79–92.
Lowell, J.D., Guibert, J.M., 1970. Lateral and vertical alteration–mineralization zoning in
porphyry ore deposits. Economic Geology 65, 373–408.
Mandelbort, B., 1985. Self-affine fractal and fracatal dimension. Physical Scripta 32,
257–261.
Mandelbrot, B., 1983. The Fractal Geometry of Nature, updated and augmented edition.
W.H. Freeman and Company, New York. 468 pp.
Mandelbrot, B., Wallis, J.R., 1969. Some long-run properties of geographical records.
Water Resources Research 5, 321–340.
Meyer, C., Hemley, J.J., 1967. Wall rock alteration. In: Barnes, H.L. (Ed.), Geochemistry
of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, pp.
166–235.
Monecke, T., Gemmell, J.B., Monecke, J., 2001. Fractal distributions of veins in drill core
from the Hellyer VHMS deposit, Australia: constraints on the origin and evolution
of the mineralising system. Mineralium Deposita 36, 406–415.
Pang, Z., Du, Y., Wang, G., Guo, X., Cao, Y., Li, Q., 2009. Single-grain zircon U-Pb isotopic
ages, geochemistry and its implication of the Pulang complex in Yunnan Province,
China. Acta Petrologica Sinica 25, 159–165 (in Chinese with English Abstract).
Raines, G.L., 2008. Are fractal dimensions of the spatial distribution of mineral deposits
meaningful? Natural Resources Research 17, 87–97.
Sanderson, D.J., Roberts, S., Gumiel, P., 1994. A fractal relationship between vein thick-
ness and gold grade in drill core from La Codosera, Spain. Economic Geology 89,
168–173.
Shi, J., Wang, C., 1998. Fractal analysis of gold deposits in China: implication for giant
deposit exploration. Earth Science-Journal of the China University of Geosciences
23, 616–618 (in Chinese with English abstract).
Sillitoe, R.H., 1973. Tops and bottoms of porphyry copper deposits. Mining Magazine
142, 550–553.
Turcotte, D.L., 1997. Fractals and Chaos in Geology and Geophysics, second ed. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, pp. 81–99.
Turcotte, D.L., 2002. Fractals in petrology. Lithos 65, 261–271.
Wang, G., Guo, Y., Du, Y., Fan, Y., Guo, X., Pang, Z., Chen, J., 2007. Three-dimensional
metallogenic prediction of Pulang porphyry copper deposit in Yunnan Province
by using GIS technology. Mineral Deposits 26, 651–658 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Wang, G., Du, Y., Cui, G., Tan, C., 2009. Mineral resource prediction based on 3D-GIS and
BP network technology: a case of study in Pulang copper deposit, Yunnan Province,
China. 2009 Fifth International Conference on Natural Computation, Tianjin, China.
IEEE, pp. 382–385, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICNC.2009.305.
Wang, G., Zhang, S., Yan, C., Song, Y., Sun, Y., Li, D., Xu, F., 2011. Mineral potential
targeting and resource assessment based on 3D geological modeling in Luanchuan
region, China. Computers and Geosciences 37, 1976–1988.
Yu, C., 2006. Deposits in the edge of chaos fractal growth. Anhui Education Press, Anhui.
1429 pp. (in Chinese).
Zuo, R., 2011. Identifying geochemical anomalies associated with Cu and Pb–Zn skarn
mineralization using principal component analysis and spectrum–area fractal
 G. Wang et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 13

modeling in the Gangdese Belt, Tibet (China). Journal of Geochemical Exploration
111, 13–22.
Zuo, R., Cheng, Q., Xia, Q., 2009a. Application of fractal models to characterization of
vertical distribution of geochemical element concentration. Journal of Geochemical
Exploration 102, 37–43.
Zuo, R., Cheng, Q., Agterberg, F.P., Xia, Q., 2009b. Application of singularity mapping
technique to identification local anomalies using stream sediment geochemical
data, a case study from Gangdese, Tibet, Western China. Journal of Geochemical
Exploration 101, 225–235.
Zuo, R., Agterberg, F.P., Cheng, Q., Yao, L., 2009c. Fractal Characterization of the Spatial
Distribution of Geological Point Processes. International Journal of Applied Earth
Observation and Geoinformation 11, 394–402.

Please cite this article as: Wang, G., et al., Mapping of district-scale potential targets using fractal models, J. Geochem. Explor. (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2012.06.013
View publication stats