AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY

MODULE 1: Biological Molecules

TOPIC 1 TOPIC 3 ○○ Double-stranded

Carbohydrates Proteins •• Complementary base pairing
○○ A-T; C-G
•• Sugars
○○ Hydrogen bonds
○○ Monosaccharides vs polysaccharides
○○ 2 strands in double helix
○○ Glycosidic bond
•• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
–– Structure
○○ Transports amino acids to ribosome
–– Condensation/hydrolysis
○○ Codon vs anticodon
○○ Disaccharide formation
•• Transcription = copying RNA from DNA
•• Glucose
○○ RNA synthase forms mRNA
○○ Alpha- and beta-Glucose
•• Translation = form polypeptides based on mRNA
•• Starch
○○ Ribosomes on rough ER
○○ Amylose and amylopectin
○○ Active process involving tRNA
○○ Long chain a-Glucose polymers
○○ Stop codon
○○ Stored in chloroplasts •• 20 different R groups = 20 different amino acids
•• Genetic code
•• Glycogen •• Dipeptide vs polypeptide
○○ 1 triplet = 1 amino acid
○○ Multibranched a-Glucose polymer •• Peptide bonds
○○ Degenerate
○○ Stored in muscles and liver ○○ Formed in condensation reactions
○○ No triplet overlaps
○○ Hydrolysed to glucose as energy substrate •• Primary structure
•• Types of gene mutations
•• Cellulose ○○ Amino acid sequence
○○ Substitution
○○ Unbranched B-glucose polymer ○○ Unique to gene
–– Nucleotide replaced
○○ Contributes to cell wall strength •• Secondary structure
○○ Insertion
○○ B-pleated sheet or a-helix
–– Causes frameshift
TOPIC 2 ○○ Interactions of amino acid in same polypeptide
○○ Deletion
Lipids ○○ Result of hydrogen bonds
–– Causes frameshift
•• Triglycerides •• Tertiary structure
•• Consequences of gene mutations
○○ 1 glycerol + 3 FA ○○ Further coils/folds
○○ Neutral
○○ Ester bond ○○ Interactions between R groups
○○ Harmful
○○ Can be saturated or unsaturated •• Quaternary structure
○○ Beneficial
○○ Fats are solid at room temp, oils are liquid ○○ Two or more polypeptides
•• Point mutation
•• Phospholipids ○○ E.g. Haemoglobin, collagen
○○ Only one base is affected
○○ Like triglyceride, but one FA replaced with ○○ Fibrous or globular
○○ Silent vs missense vs nonsense mutations
phosphoric acid group ○○ E.g. Sickle cell anaemia
○○ Polar head, hydrophobic tails
TOPIC 4
DNA and protein synthesis
○○ Main component of plasma membranes TOPIC 5
•• G, T, C, A, (U) Enzymes
○○ Purines vs pyramidines
•• Enzymes = globular proteins
•• Deoxyribose and ribose
○○ Catalyse metabolic reactions
•• DNA
○○ Active site binds to substrate
○○ Replicable information store
○○ Catalase is extracellular, amlyase is intracellular
○○ Stable long-chain polynucleotide
○○ Catabolic vs anabolic

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY
MODULE 1: Biological Molecules

•• Induced fit hypothesis

○○ Enzymes are specific to substrate
○○ Enzyme-substrate complex formation
○○ Lowers activation energy
○○ Enzyme-product complex unbinds
•• Enzyme activity affected by
○○ pH different from optimal pH
○○ Temp different from optimal temperature
○○ Enzymes become denatured
○○ Enzyme concentration
○○ Substrate concentration
–– Reaction rate reaches Vmax
–– Active sites can become saturated
•• Competitive vs non-competitive inhibitors
•• Reversible vs irreversible inhibitors

TOPIC 6 INORGANIC IONS

•• Nitrate ions for DNA/amino acids
•• Calcium ions for calcium pectate
•• Magnesium ions for chlorophyll
•• Phosphate ions for ATP/ADP

TOPIC 7 WATER
•• Water molecules are polar
•• Water involves covalent and hydrogen bonds
•• Properties of water
○○ Polar solvent
○○ High specific heat capacity
○○ Cohesion
○○ Incompressibility/density at 4 degrees

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