In Pursuit of

Flow Control
Those protuberances that look like
they don’t belong

By Ed Kolano

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 hey’re never on the first sketch of a new
T airplane design. They’re almost never on
the prototype airplane. But somewhere be-
tween concept and production, they appear. I’m
talking about those protuberances that look like
they don’t belong. Vortex generators, cuffs, fences,
stall strips, and a handful of other bumps, lumps,
fins, and tabs adorn some of the most popular tra-
ditional airplanes, and they’re showing up on the
light-sport aircraft (LSA) fleet as well.
I suppose some of these protuberances might be
appreciated as style enhancements, but that’s in the
beholder’s eye. It’s quite doubtful the airplane designer
was beholding any aesthetic inclinations when these
apparent add-on devices were included. They were added
on, nevertheless, and their presence implies they improve
some undesirable aerodynamic behavior of the airplane.
Should you be concerned because the airplane you’re
about to climb aboard has one or more of these refinements?
Probably not. Remember, if these protuberances didn’t
make something better, they wouldn’t be there. In fact,
these doodads might be the reason the company can
boast about its airplane’s carefree handling qualities.
Typically, these design add-ons are installed to improve
slow-speed characteristics. They might be incorporated to
achieve a slower minimum speed, to lower stall speed, or
to delay the degradation of control authority that usually
accompanies slower flight. It’s all about flow control.
Vortex Generators—Auntie Em, It’s a Twister
You have to like the straightforward simplicity of a de-
vice whose name declares its purpose. Vortex generators
(VGs) generate vortices. Okay, there’s a little more to the
process than that. Remember when fire was discovered?
It was bad news. It was too hot; it was destructive; it was
life-threatening. Then some glass-half-full-thinking folks
figured out a way to use fire for warmth and cooking and
eventually to push pistons down a cylinder.
26-32_doodads.indd 3
Same for vortices. Like Dorothy, it’s doubtful anyone’s
had a good experience with a tornado. Although soaring
pilots might benefit from secondary effects of mountain
rotors, those horizontal vortices are generally unfriendly
toward aircraft. Well, it turns out that airplanes create
their own vortices. Sometime after that whole fire thing,
aerodynamicists linked vortex production to lift and drag,
and they’ve been toiling to increase one and decrease the
other ever since. If your airport serves large aircraft, you’ve
probably spent some time—in three-minute blocks—hold-
ing short, because the tower cited wake turbulence from
a departing large airplane. Wake turbulence is primarily
the trailing vortices caused by that heavy plane generat-
ing the lift it needed to fly away. These localized tornados
can be powerful, because that swirling air contains a lot of
energy. VGs are designed to create vortices for the purpose
of using that energy.
To understand how VGs work, let’s hearken back to that
elementary lift diagram we’ve all seen. You know, the one
with the airflow streamlines above and below the wing? As
the wing’s angle of attack (AOA) increases, the flow over
the top of the wing has to make an increasingly sharper
turn to remain attached. Eventually the AOA becomes too
steep, the flow over the top of the wing separates, and lift
decreases—that is, the wing stalls. For most wings, the
separation begins at the trailing edge and moves progres-
sively forward as AOA increases. This separation occurs
because the trailing edge vortex causes another vortex far-
EAA SPORT PILOT . 27
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Laminar
boundary
Streamlines layer
Typical aerodynamic flow patterns. Air flowing over an airplane wing experiences the same effects as the
air flowing over the obstacle in this illustration. Over the years, a number of design add-ons have been
developed to improve flow control at lower speeds. This article will explore the use of several of these
devices. (Reproduced from Aerodynamics)
ther forward along the wing’s upper
surface, and that secondary vortex
opposes the lift-producing streamline
flow moving aft.
Too deep? How’s this—it’s a battle
of energy. At lower AOA, the stream-
line air flowing aft wins the battle
and remains attached, and the wing
produces lift. At higher AOAs, the
streamline air flowing aft loses the
battle and gets forced away from the
wing surface, and lift is lost.
One way to come to the aid of the
streamline flow is to add energy to it.
VGs do this by creating little cyclones
of high-energy air. This turbulent air
has more energy to push back against
Should you be concerned because the
airplane you’re about to climb aboard has
one or more of these refinements?
Probably not. Remember, if these
protuberances didn’t make something
better, they wouldn’t be there.
28 . JULY 2006
26-32_doodads.indd 4
Turbulent
boundary Eddies
layer in wake
the separation “bubble” that’s try-
ing to work its way forward. Because
the air is tripped into turbulent flow,
there is increased drag. Considering
the overall benefit of the VG-ener-
gized air, this minimal drag increase
is a small price to pay.
VGs placed on the lower surface
of the horizontal tail work the same
way as they do on the upper surface
of the wing. If the tail’s job is to lift
downward to pitch the airplane nose-
up, VGs might increase an airplane’s
nose-up pitching authority. Before
you slap a bunch of VGs here, you
should consider whether you really
want extra nose-up pitch control. It
could be the designer intentionally
limited the elevator authority for a
reason.
Ever flown an airplane that drops
a wing as it approaches stall speed?
Some planes always drop the same
wing. In other planes, the drop seems
to be random or sensitive to how close
to balanced flight (centered slip-skid
ball) you fly. VGs might help that sit-
uation by providing more consistent
flow over the wing.
Maybe that wing drops because
the airplane just runs out of lateral
control authority. It’s possible that a
plane can roll off even with full later-
al stick applied at a speed faster than
stall speed. If the reason is separation
over the ailerons, VGs placed forward
of the ailerons might improve this
situation.
It’s all about flow control. You may
have seen VGs attached to the verti-
cal stabilizer to help provide higher
energy air over the rudder. Why not?
The vertical fin is just another wing.
By now, you’ve probably conjured
a mental image of the typical vortex
generator. They look like little metal
rectangles set perpendicular to the
The pattern of a fluid flowing over an airfoil
is depicted in these two illustrations. Top, the
airfoil is positioned at a low angle of attack;
bottom, the airfoil is positioned in a high angle
of attack, to the point where the airfoil (wing)
stalled. (Reproduced from Principles of Airfoil
Characteristics)
6/7/06 3:34:29 PM
 surface and at an angle to the airflow.
Sometimes they’re parallel to each
other, but sometimes they’re attached
as pairs of trailing-edge-left/trail-
ing-edge-right sets. It all depends on
what the designer wants to achieve.
The parallel, or co-rotating, VGs can
influence the overall flow over the
wing. One example might be to in-
fluence the flow spanwise to help en-
sure the inboard portion of the wing
stalls before the tip. The counter-ro-
tating VGs are intended to introduce
turbulence (energy), and you’re likely
to see this arrangement ahead of con-
trol surfaces.
But who says they have to be rect-
angular pieces of metal? Have you
ever seen a strip of nonskid surface on
a wing? How about a length of tape
near the leading edge? Those triangu-
lar T-sections on the Glastar family of
airplanes? All vortex generators.
Bugs, or any leading-edge contami-
nation, are also little VGs. Would you
believe the presence of smashed in-
sects on a wing’s leading edge could the tip. This is one way to make sure
make the difference between an air- your ailerons continue to function
plane meeting the FAR 23 require- properly all the way down to stall
ments and failing to do so? Bugs on, speed. In the past, some airplane
it passed; clean wing, it failed. Unfor- manufacturers tailored the length of
tunately, the insects could not be cer- individual stall strips during produc-
tified, so the airplane manufacturer tion flight-testing to ensure the air-
had to resort to a more robust solu- plane didn’t drop a wing at stall.
tion—VGs.
Making Air Bumpy
Sometimes it’s a good idea to inten-
tionally trip the boundary layer. You’ve
probably seen stall strips attached
to the leading edge of the wings on
some airplanes. These strips are usu-
ally triangular and typically located
near the wing root. They have sharp
leading edges, because their job is to VGs create mini-vortices (mini-tornadoes) that
upset the nice, smooth flow over the delay separation of the airflow from the wing.
inboard section of the wing to help Credit: (Reproduced with permission from The
ensure the root section stalls before Design of the Aeroplane, by Darrol Stinton)

A row of vortex generators (VGs) on this vintage J-3 Cub improved slow flight capabilities significantly. Owner George Karamitis said stall speed dropped
from 38 mph to 23 mph, “making the airplane even more fun to fly at slow speeds,” he added. VGs are also used on horizontal and vertical stabilizers on the
empennage—again for the purpose of keeping airflow attached Inset: Typically, VGs are set at angles to one another to create mini-vortices (see drawing)
that keep the airflow attached to the wing, thus making ailerons or flaps more effective. (Photos by Jim Koepnick)

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Stall strips, like those used here on the Flight
Design CT, are designed to trip the boundary
layer of air flowing over the wing in the area just
aft of the stall strip to make sure that the wing
stalls first near the root, thereby maintaining the
effectiveness of the ailerons. Stall strips can also
offer a more advanced stall warning because the
turbulent air they create affects the tail surfaces,
causing the control stick or yoke to buffet and
announce the impending stall.
30 . JULY 2006
26-32_doodads.indd 6
The stall strip is attached spanwise
to the wing leading edge. At higher
AOAs, that sharp leading edge pro-
trudes into the flow on its way to the
top of the wing, causing flow sepa-
ration and loss of lift downstream
of the strip. This might sound like
a contradiction, because VGs also
cause turbulent flow. The VGs cre-
ate little tornadoes that are parallel
to the wing upper surface. Visualize
the vortex created by a VG as a he-
lical airflow—a cone of swirling air
lying on its side, with the tip of the
cone attached to the VG. Those swirls
bring high-energy air down close to
the wing’s upper surface, helping to
keep the flow attached and delaying
flow separation.
Another reason for locating the
stall strips inboard is to cause a more
pronounced stall warning. If the
strips are placed correctly, the turbu-
lent air they trigger impinges on the
horizontal tail. You feel this in the
form of airframe or control stick buf-
feting. Of course, to take advantage
of this feature requires a particular
geometric relationship between the
wing and the horizontal tail. In some
airplanes this buffeting occurs natu-
rally without the need for strips. In
Sometimes it’s
a good idea to
intentionally
trip the
boundary layer.
others, like some T-tails, the horizon-
tal tail would remain above the tur-
bulent flow whether or not stall strips
are installed.
Another method of ensuring the
wing stalls at its root first is to twist
the wing. Washout is the term that
6/7/06 3:35:06 PM

describes wing twist where the tip
has a lower incidence angle than the
root. The tip is at a lower relative AOA
than the root, so it remains flying
even as the root stalls. The problem is
it’s a tad more difficult to incorporate
wing twist than add stall strips for an
airplane that’s already built.
Spanwise Flow
Although none of the currently ap-
proved special LSA (S-LSA) have ca-
nards, who’s to say future designs
won’t? Canard designs like the Long-
EZ, Cozy, and Velocity have swept
wings. While this looks really cool,
it’s not for the same reason that jet
fighters have swept wings. Fighter
wings are swept for drag reduction
and compressibility reasons during
high-speed flight. Because most of
26-32_doodads.indd 7
even an uncontrollable—pitch-up.
Not good.
Russian designers of early MiG
the canard designs we fly have rear- fighters minimized this spanwise flow
by incorporating fences on the wing’s
mounted engines and pusher propel-
upper surface. Perhaps you’ve seen
lers, the wing sweep is a way to get
these vertical blades running chord-
the vertical tail (winglets, in this case)
wise. They present a physical barrier
far enough aft to provide directional
to the air flowing outboard, forcing
stability and control.
it to flow aft, parallel to the fuselage.
As the air flows over a swept wing
Air spilling over the fence becomes a
it tends to flow outboard, particular-
vortex, which energizes the air near
ly at higher AOA. This flow is gen-
erally undesirable, because it can re- the wing surface.
sult in low-energy air near the wing
tip. Separated airflow is more likely
with lower energy air, and that could
mean the tips would stall before the
inboard wing section. This is a bad
situation. If the stall progresses from
tip toward the root, you’ll probably
lose aileron effectiveness, so there
goes your primary roll control. As Fences (small, vertical blades) are physical barriers
the tips of a swept-wing aircraft stall, that force air to flow aft, parallel to the fuselage.
the center of lift moves forward, and Air spilling over a fence becomes a vortex, which
that can result in an unwanted—or energizes the air near the wing surface.
EAA SPORT PILOT . 31
6/7/06 3:35:17 PM
 A more elegant solution is the
vortilon. Vortilons are little blades
mounted on the lower section of the
swept wing’s leading edge. They’re
oriented the same way a fence would
be—parallel to the airplane’s longi-
tudinal (nose-to-tail) axis. At high
AOA, spanwise flow encounters the
vortilon. The resulting vortex flows
aft, just as it does in the case of the
VGs. You already know how this lit-
tle tornado energizes the air and de-
lays flow separation, but its presence
also establishes an invisible fence
that further deters spanwise flow.
Neat, huh? Another type of vortilon, shown here on a VariViggen. It also acts similar to a fence, pushing air aft and
delaying separation. (Bonnie Kratz)
Other Gizmos, Doodads,
and Gadgets effectiveness, but there’s another ing-edge notch. Oh, and the dog-
Leading-edge cuffs are those protrud- pronounced effect of cuffs: The in- tooth. And strakes. And leading-edge
ing leading-edge sections sometimes board edge of the cuff is blunt. It extensions. And dorsal fins and ven-
installed on the outboard wing sec- does not fair into the wing leading tral fins. And winglets. And suction
tion. They blend seamlessly to the edge. This abrupt geometric discon- and blown wings and slats and slots
upper and lower wing surfaces, but tinuity—you guessed it—creates a and cranked wings and raked wing
their leading-edge shape is different vortex with all the energy-adding, tips. And I haven’t even mentioned
from the rest of the wing. Their lead- spanwise-flow-attenuating features tabs, but just look at all the devices
ing edge is generally drooped below already mentioned. invented to control the flow of air
the wing’s leading edge, providing There you have it. All the devices over the lifting surfaces of an air-
the same lower AOA effect as wash- ever invented to control airflow over plane. Flow control must be pretty
out. This is good news for aileron a wing or a tail. Except for the lead- important.

Vortilons are small, blade-like devices positioned

on the lower surface of a swept wing just below
the leading edge, as shown on this Long-EZ. They
act like fences and at higher angles of attack
force air aft, again delaying separation.

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