International Organizations – SUPER REVIEW

UN Membership
Universal membership
 Open to all peace loving states that accept the obligations contained in the UN chárter and in the judgement of the
Organization, are able to carry out these obligations”.
 State submits an application to the Secretary General  recommendation of Security Council (9/15 no votes
against from the permanent members) and decision by the General Assembly (2/3).
 Only sovereign, internationally recognized states!
Membersip by UN organs
 General Assembly: 193 (all) Member states.
 Security Council: 15 members. The Charter designates 5 MS as permanent ones and the GA elects 10 other
members for 2 –year terms.
 Economic and social council: 54 members, elected for 3 year terms by the GA.
 International Court of Justice: 15 judges, elected by both the GA and the SC for 9-year terms.
Non –members
Status of a Permanent observer
 Based on practice, no provisions in the charter
 Free access to most meetings and relevant documentation
 Participate and speak in GA meetings, but they don’t vote

Currently 2 non-permanent observers: Holy see and state of Palestine

Also, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies.

Suceeding states
USSR was a member from 23 October 1945
In 1991, the membership was beng continued by the Russian Federation wit the support of the 11 member countries of the
Commonwealth of Independent States.
The Republic of China (ROC) was a charter member of the the UN and one of 5 permanent members of SC since 1945
until 1971.
Chinese civil war establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, ROC fled to Taiwan.
SC meeting in 1971, representatives of the PRC were welcomed. The ROC lost any representation in the UN.
Suspension of membership
 A member against which the SC has taken preventive or enforcement action may be suspended by the GA upon
the recommendation of the SC.
 Only the SC, not the GA, has the power to restore the member.
 Any members that “has persistently violate the principles” of the Charter may be expelled by the same procedure.
Example: South Africa.
Withdrawal
The Charter makes no provision for the withdrawal of member governments, largerly to prevent the threat of withdrawal
from being used as a form of political blackmail or to evade obligations under the Charter.
Customary international law: the principle of rebus sic stantibus (is the legal doctrine allowing for treaties to become
inapplicable because of a fundamental change of circumstances. It is essentially an "escape clause" that makes an
exception to the general rule of pacta sunt servanda). Example: Indonesian case
Main contributors of the UN Regular Budget: United States (22%), Japan (9%), China (8%), Germany (6%), France (5%),
UK (4%), Brazil (4%), Italy (4%), Russian Federation (3%), Canada (3%).
UN SC Power of veto, troughout history the ones who exercise it most are: USSR (90), USA(79), UK (29), France (16),
Russia (13), China (9).
History behind the UN and the UN Charter
 The league of Nations, the forerunner of the UN was established in 1919 “to promote international cooperation
and to achieve peace and security, however, after failing to prevent WWII, it became clear another solution has to
be found in order to prevent further wars and lead to cooperation on an international level.
 In 1945, representatives of 50 countries attended the United Nations Conference on International Organisation in
order to ratify a new “Nations Charter”.
 The Charter was signed on 25 June 1945 in San Francisco and the UN came into existence on 24 October 1945.
Structure of the Charter
The Charter consists of the:
1. Preamble (it is divided into 2 principal parts). First parte calls for the maintenance of peace and international
security and respect for human rights and the second one is that this is a declaration, a proof that governments
have agreed to act upon the Charter).
2. Articles that are grouped into chapters.
Main principles of the UN Charter
The UN and its members, in pursuit of the purposes states in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following
principles:
1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its members.
2. All Members, in order to ensure, to all of them rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good
faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present charter.
3. All members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace
and security, and justice, are not endangered.
4. All Members shall refrain in their international relation from the threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the
United Nations.
5. All members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present
Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive
or enforcement action.
Amendments, how and when
The amendments to the Charter can me made according to the article 108, resulting in amendment coming into force only
in case it has been adopted by a vote for two thirds of the members of General Assembly.
Since 1945: The Charter has been amended five times in total, in 1965, 1968 and 1973.
United Nations Security Council Reform
UNSC
1 of the 6 principal organs of the United Nations
Established in 1945, first session held in 1946
Members of the UNSC
 15 members: 5 permanent members, 10 non-permanent members
 United States, UK, France, Russia and China are the permanent members with veto right.
 The permanent members are: the victors of WWII, nuclear armed states and world’s largest arms exporters
 3 out of 5 permanent seats are occupied by NATO members (US, UK and France)
 Non-permanent members serve 2 years in the Council
 The presidency rotates monthly among all 15 members
Role of and the functions of the UNSC
 Maintenance of international peace and security
 Accepting new members into the United Nations
 Approving changes to the UN Charter
 Establishing peace-keeping operations
 Enforcing international sanctions (Iran, North Korea)
 Authorize military action

Article 2 of the United Nations Charter

All members should refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or
political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.
Historical UNSC Resolutions
1950 UNSC Resolution 84 on the Korean War
 Republic of Korea invaded by forces from the North = breach of peace
 UNSC offered military assistance from willing members, unified under US command
 Resolution was only passed due to absence of USSR (boycotted Council)
1990 UNSC Resolution 678 on Iraq-Kuwait war
 UNSC ultimatum for Iraq: withdraw forces in Kuwait within 6 weeks
 Empowered states to use “all necessary means” to force Iraq out in case of non-compliance
 Saddam Hussein didn’t comply, resolution was legal authorization for the Gulf War
2001 UNSC Resolution 1373 on Counter-Terrorism measures
 Marked a shift in International Law: UNSC imposed this resolution on all member statses, acted as a world
legislator
 Resolution asked for adjustments in national law to
 strengthen counter-terrorism measures, share intelligence on terrorist group
Problems of the UNSC
Veto right (USSR paralyzed it during Cold War, US uses 50% to protect Israel)  Tool of great power politics
Problem of representation: No African, Latin American or Middle Eastern state with permanent seat.
India: largest democracy, Japan and Germany: 2nd and 3rd largest UN donors.
Reform
Reform of 1965: Number of non-permanent seats increased from 6 to 10 (following de-colonization and increase in
overall members of UN)
Call for reforms: G4 (Brazil, Japan, Germany, India) VS uniting for consensus  4 new permanent seats vs increase in
non-permanent seats
Annan plans:
Plan A: add 6 permanent seats, add 3 non-permanent seats
Plan B: add 1 permanent seat, create 8 seats in new class serving 4 years
Calls for reform of Veto Right –> Limit or abolish
Basis for reform in the UNSC
Any reform of the UNSC requires the agreement of at least 2/3 of all member states, including all 5 permanent members
enjoying the veto right  reform that reduced power of permanent members is therefore unlikely to happen.
Kofi Annan: Life and career
At the United Nations:
1976-1990: steadily advancing positions (HR/finance)
1980: Head of Personnel, UNHCR
1990: International recognition after negotiating in Iraq
1993: Under –Secretary-General, Department for peacekeeping operations.
17 peacekeeping missions, 70 thousand personnel from 77 nations.
Failures: In Somalia (civil war, drought) and Rwanda (genocide)
1995: Special Representative to the Former Yugoslavia: Succesful transition of peacekeeping from the UN to NATO.
US was against the reelection of Boutros-Boutros Ghali, so a search for his successor began.
Annan was not very enthusiastic about his chances. France vetoed several times, but the Security Council nominates him
and the GA elected him.
Main priorities: implement a comprehensive reform programme to revitalize the UN and make the international system
more effective.
Nobel Peace Prize (2001)
Kofi Annan received the Nobel Peace Prize divided with the United Nations in 2001. He was awarded the Prize “for
having revitalized the UN and for having given priority to human rights”.
“His commitment to the struggle to contain the spreading of the HIV virus in Africa and his declared opposition to
international terrorism” were also recognized.
Major issues: Reduce poverty and social exclusion, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality and
empower women, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/aids and tuberculosis, ensure
environmental sustaintability and partnership for development.
Content
2000: United Nations Global Compact
 Promoting corporate social responsibility
 Called on companies to adopt universal principles
 Human Rights, labour standards and environmental practices
Lessons from the UN leader
1. We are all responsible for each other’s security.
2. We are also responsible for each other’s welfare.
3. Both security and prosperity depend on respect for human rights and the rule of law.
4. Governments must be accountable for their actions, in the international as well as the domestic arena.
5. Multilateral institutions must be organized in a fair and democratic way.
Birth of the United Nations Organization

1941 The Atlantic Charter (Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill)

1942 Declaration by th United Nations
1943 Moscow Meeting (Foreign Ministers of the Big Four)
1944 Dumbarton Oaks (purposes, nature, membersip, organs, competence)
1945 Yalta
1945 San Francisco (UN conference on International Organization) and debated questions
24th October – United Nations Day
1941-1945 Foundation
1945-1954 Stagnation
1955 – 1974 Decolonization
1975-1984 North-South conflict
1985 – Renassaince and reform

Principal organs of the UN

 Security Council (SC)
 General Assembly (GA)
 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
 International Court of Justice (ICJ)
 Secretariat

General Assembly
 Place of debate
 Global parliament
 Most representative and democratic organ
 Recommendations, no mechanism for excecution

Sessions
Agenda
Regular sessions
Main committees: 1. International security, economic and financial issues, social humanitarian and cultural issues,
special political questions and decolonizaton, budget and administration, legal issues.
Special and emergency special sessions
Voting system

Resolutions: Uniting for peace 1950, Decolonization 1960, sanctions against South Africa 1962, Agression 1974,
Cionism 1975, Ethnic cleansing in Bosnia 1993, Rights of indigenous people 2007, Holocaust 2007.

Security Council
 Decision making body
 Resolutions are usually binding
 15 members (5 permanent, 10 non permanent)
 Non-permanent members: 1 CEE, 2 Western Europe, 2 Latin America, 5 Africa and Asia.
 Voting
 President

Security council
Chapter VI and VII
History: 1945-1987, 1987-
Institutional changes (Arria formula; group of friends, NGO working group).

Resolutions: Korea 1950, Middle East 1967, Kuwait 1990, Kosovo 1999, Iraq 2002, Lybia 2011.
Economic and social council: coordination, make the UN more coherent
54 members, 3 years
Relation with the GA

Secretary Generals: Ban Ki Moon (2006-present), Kofi Annan (1996-2006), Boutrosz-Boutrosz Ghali (1991-
1996), Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (1981-1991).

Role of the Secretary General

 Internationalization
 Security Council’s work
 Agenda setting
 Institutional reforms
 Secretary General as an actor

Main actors
 G4- Germany, Japan, India and Brazil
 Coffee club “United for consensus”
 African countries
 Muslim majority countries

Countries which possess nuclear weapons: India, China, France, Russia, UK, US

Germany and the European integration

 Since the German reunification the pursue of European Integration is an important element of the German
politics.
 In the Art. 23 of the German constitution the realization of the European integration is mentioned as a
national objective.
 Germany has an important role in the integration process: politically and economically.

Economic role
 Germany has the largest economy among the member states (export)
 In February 2017 the new record trade surplus of 281 billion dollars
 Pays proportionally the most for the EU’s budget
 It is a in a good negotiation position
 Central importance for progress in European integration

Political influence:
 Germany has the highest voting weight in the European Parliament
 Has among Italy and France the highest voting weight in the Council of Europe

Difficulties regading the integration process:

 Integration process has phases of dynamic progress and stagnation
 Spin-of trend
 Dissatisfaction of European Citizens
 Failure of cooperation, e.g migrants

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

Overview:
 A regional intergovernmental organization
 10 member states: Indonesia, Malaysia, Phillippines, Singapore, Thailand, the founding fathers;
Cambodia, Brunei, Laos, Myanmar, Vietnam.
 Establishment: Bangkok declaration. August 8, 1967. Asean Charter, December 16,2008.
  ASEAN Secretariat: it was set up in February 1976. Secretariat provides greater efficiency in the
coordination of organs and more efficiently implements ASEAN projects and activities.
 ASEAN Chairman: Phillippino Rodrigo Duterte.

Aims and purposes

 To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development
 To promote regional peace and stability
 To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest
 To collaborate more effectively
 To promote Southeast Asian studies
 To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organisations with
similar aims and purposes

3 pillars of the ASEAN community: economic, socio-cultural and political security.

The ASEAN Charter:

 Serves as a firm foundation in achieving the ASEAN community by providing legal status and
institutional framework.
 Codifies ASEAN norms, rules and values
 Sets clear targets
 Presents accountability and compliance

ASEAN six majors and the role of Indonesia

 ASEAN 6 majors are: Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia and Vietnam
 Indonesia’s leading role in: geographical dimension, large population, strategic position, natural
resources.
 Indonesian role is determined by the ability to provide international public goods in the areas of security
and economics, engage in conflict management and promote institution building. It focuses on a stable
and autonomous security environment, to conduct conflict mediation efforts in the Cambodian conflict
and the South China Sea disputes, and to develop institutional mechanism to promote security, democracy
and human rights among other issues.

Comparison between ASEAN and the European Union

1) Transparency level: while the EU prioritizes democracy, the rule of law and respect of multilevel
governance, in the case of ASEAN, according to Transparency International, there is the urgent need for
fighting corruption at the national and regional level.
2) Accountability level: key anti-corruption laws are absent and civil society engagement is restricted. If we
take a look at the EU, European Commission’s work is remarkable adopting anti-corruption policies and
monitoring performances in the fight against corruption.
3) Decision-making: While EU can’t argue about their “fast decision-making” processes, ASEAN tends to
advance slower, which could be because of the so called “The ASEAN way”.
4) “The ASEAN way”: importance of cultural norms of Southeast Asia, informal working process, using
non-conflictual way of addressing problems.

African Union
Establishment
 Originated in the Union of African States (1960s), Organisation of African Unity (1963), African
Economic Community (1981).
 Criticism of OAU  Dictator’s club
 1999 Sirte Declaration: Establishment of an AU
 AU was launched on 9 july 2002
 Composed of 55 member states

Objectives:
 Achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the peoples of Africa
  To promote peace, security and stability on the continent
 To promote democratic principles and institution, popular participation and good governance
 To promote and protect human and people’s rights in accordance with the African Charter on Human and
People’s Right and other relevant human rights instruments
 To promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels as well as the integration
of African economies

Organs
 Assembly is the AUs supreme organ, composed of heads of state, government of the member states, AU
main decision-making body, meetings: once a year. Current chairperson: Guinean President Alpha Condé.
 African Union Commission: Secretariat of AU, composed of: 10 commissioners + staff members, the
headquarters are in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Chairperson is: Moussa Faki Mahamat.

 Organs
 Pan-African Parliament
 African Union Commission
 Executive Council
 Judicial and Human Rights Institutions
 Permanent Representatives Committee
 Specialized Technical Committees
 Peace and Security Council
 Financial Institutions
 Economic, Social and Cultural Council

Criticism:
Positive
 Strenghtening African voice in global politics
 Strong presence in the UN
 Strong symbolic value
 Peacekeeping mission in Somalia and Darfur
Negative
 Failure to act earlier in Lybia
 Concern over China
 No intervention in rigged elections

Regionalism
Definition:
• Charles Kupchan: group of countries sharing a common identity, this collective identity might have several
sources

• Joseph Nye: as a limited number of states linked by a geographical relationship and by a degree of mutual
interdependence (international region)

• Concentrated along some dimension(s), unproportionally, extremely dense network of contacts, cooperation,
interactivity, interdependence between countries geographically close or far from one another

Regionalization
The natural tendency to form regions, or the process of forming regions due to similarities between states in a
given geographical space (whereas regionalism refers to an intentional political process, typically led by
governments with similar goals and values).

What drives regionalism?

Political factors: identitity, internal and external threat, domestic politics, leading actors.
Economic factors: economic independencies, complementer economies, attracting foreign investments, market
expansion.

First wave of regionalism

 Homogenous membership
 “Deep” institutions
 Protectionist trade policy
 State’s regulation ability
 Specific objectives

Examples: NATO, WEU, Warsaw Pact, Council of Europe, EURATOM, EEC, ASEAN, Organisation of
American States, Rio Pact, League of Arab Nations,OAU, later African Union.

Second wave of regionalism:

 Forms: closer cooperation, enlargement, new institutions.
 Reasons: New ways of international cooperation
 Economic changes
 End of “third world”
 Democratization

Characteristics:
 Heterogeneity
 Integration into world economy
 Multidimensional form of integration
 Spontaneous cooperation
 Participation of non-stat e actors
 “Loose” institutions
 Closer North-South relations

Examples: OEEC, OSCE, APEC, ASEAN Regional Forum, Gulf Cooperation Council, Mercosur, Free Trade
Area of the Americas, North American Free Trade Agreement, Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) .

 Organization of American States (1948). General Assembly, Permanent Council, Meeting of Foreign
Ministers.
 Second wave. Summit of the Americas, Cumbre de las Americas. Free Trade Area of the Americas.

Subregional integration : Lafta – Latin American Free Trade Association, 1960.

Andean Pact, 1969.

Central American Common Market, 1960.

CARICOM, Caribbean Community, 1973.

Second wave

 Mercosur, Common Market of the South, 1991.

 North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA , 1994
 Anden Community, 1996
 Central American Integration System, SICA, 1991
 Caribbean Community

Third wave? Post-hegemon regionalism: UNASUR 2010, CELAC 2011, ALBA 2004.
League of Nations

 An organization for international cooperation established on January 10, 1920 at the initiative of the victorious
Allied Powers at the end of World War I.
 It was headquarted in Geneva, Switzerland, served the primary purpose to provide a forum for resolving
international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
 It was first proposed by President Woodrow Wilson as part of his fourteen points plan for an equitable peace in
Europa, the United States never became a member.
 Strenghts: the League of Nations had set up the Treaty of Versailles which every nation had signed and had 58
nations as members by the 1930s, as well it could arbitration trough the court of International Justice, or apply
trade sanctions against countries that went to war.
 Reasons behind the US rejection: the league had no army to enforce its will. Furthermore, the United States also
practiced a policy of isolationism.
 At the beginning the loosing countries of World War I didn’t join the organization, but entered eventually, along
with the USSR in 1934. The last nation to join was Egypt in 1937.
 USA is not a member  USSR: 1934–1939  withdrawals: Germany and Japan (1933), Italy in 1937,
 Spain and Hungary in 1939  1 expulsion: USSR – 1939

Structure of the League of Nations: 3 main constitutional organs, the general Assembly, the council, the
permanent secretariat. The two essential wings of the League were the Permanent Court of International Justice
and the International Labour Organization.

Why the League failed?

 It was supposed to present the world and encompass all countries, but many countries never even joined the
organization.
 Absence of US
 The league didn’t have its own armed forces
 Pacificism was a great problem: the leagues two largest members, Britain and France, were very reluctant to
resort in sanctions and military actions.
 When countries started to attack others in order to try and expand, the League didn’t have any power to stop them.

Mandate system of the League of Nations

After the First World War, the fate of former German colonies and Middle Eastern territories
of the Ottoman Empire was a highly debated issue among the victorious powers during the Paris
Peace Conference. Every victorious colonial power wished to use German colonies to further
their own colonial empire; independence was not a realistic option for these territories.
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson advocated the right to self-determination of the peoples of the
colonies and opposed colonial rule, partly due to his country’s past with colonialism. The
British Empire wanted colonies for its dominions as a compensation to their war efforts.
General Jan Christiaan Smuts of South Africa preferred a strong League of Nations and that
former German colonies be annexed by their new rulers.

Mandates
At the end of the peace negotiations, on 28 June 1919, the victors signed the Treaty of Versailles
with Germany and the Covenant of the League of Nations among themselves. Article 22 of the
Covenant established the mandate system of the League of Nations and defined three different
types of mandates to be allocated to mandatories.

Class A mandates were the former Middle Eastern territories of the Ottoman Empire, which
had a relatively high level of development and independence could be achieved in a short time.
Mandatories had a rather nominal control over the mandates, as governance was highly
devolved to local authorities. Class A mandates were Palestine (Britain) and Syria (France).
Class B consisted of former German colonies in West and Central Africa, which were less
developed and needed assistance from a great power. Mandatories had greater control over
these mandates, but they had to respect basic rights and freedoms of the indigenous peoples.
Class B mandates were Ruanda-Urundi (Belgium), Tanganyika (Britain), Togoland and
Kamerun (each split between Britain and France).

Class C mandates were the least developed, either due to their small size or their ‘remoteness
from centres of civilisation’. They were effectively an integral part of the mandatory’s territory:
although they were not formally annexed, the laws of the mandatory applied in full force in the
mandates. To this class belonged South-West Africa (South Africa), South Pacific islands
(Japan), New Guinea and Nauru (Australia) and Samoa (New Zealand).

Reasons for failure of the League

• USA never joined
• no way of compelling a nation to submit to any method of the League or accepting any decision
• no army or police force
• League was closely linked with the Paris Peace Treaties and therefore associated with their defects
• most countries joined but then left (Italy, Japan, USSR, Germany)
• assumed that the countries did not have any economic ties, so they would be vulnerable to economic
sanctions  wrong assumption, used economic sanctions only once, case of Italy
• decisions, both in the Council and the Assembly, had to be unanimous, each country had a veto power

Essential features of the League of Nations

 promoting peace and preventing wars
 war was not outlawed but limited (moratorium – 3 months)
 sanctions (moral, economic, military)
 Abyssinian War
 disarmament
 disarmament ”to the lowest point consistent with national
safety”
 annual Armament Yearbook
 international economic and social cooperation
 no special machinery

 International Labour Organization

 specific economic and social problems
 just treatment of non-self-governing peoples
 supervision of traffic in women and children
 supervision of traffic of dangerous drugs
 supervision of arms trade
 freedom of communication and transit
 equitable treatment of international trade for all states
 prevention and control of disease
 abolition of secret treaties
 Treaty Series

Essential features of the Mandate System

 well-being of the peoples of these territories: ”a
sacred trust of civilization”
 ”tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted
to advances nations”
 mandatory states: UK, Fr., S-Afr., Belg., Japan,
Australia, New Zealand
 mandates in three categories  „A”: Fr. – Syria (1), Lebanon (2), UK – Palestine
(3), Transjord. (4), Iraq (5)  „B”: Fr.–UK: Kamerun (8,9), Togo (6,7), UK:
Tanganyika (11), Belgian: Rwanda-Burundi (10)  „C”: S.-Afr.: SW.-Afr (12)., New Zealand and
 Australia: New Guinea, Samoa, Nauru,
Japan: South Pacific
 annual reports
 protection of minorities
 territorial disputes

Minority protection and the league of nations

World War 1 resulted in the formation of many newly recognised and/or downscaled nations, such as:
Austria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Latvia, Hungary, Lithuania and Estonia
The Paris Peace Conference convened in January 1919 at Versailles (just outside of Paris).

Called to establish the terms of the peace after the Great War.

The Big Four (UK, France, Italy and the US) dominated the proceedings that led to the formulation of Treaty of
Versailles (although nearly 30 nations participated).

Included was the compulsion of countries (new and old) to protect the rights of minorities displaced within their
borders and their nationals within foreign sovereign borders.

Although enforcement procedures were assigned to the League of Nations, countries took it upon themselves to
implement such actions, which on many occasions never happened due to conflicting interests.

As a result of the lack of action taken by major powers, many countries disobeyed programmes in place to protect
minorities – rules were deemed obsolete.

1919 League of Nations Polish Minority Treaty (aka Little Treaty of Versailles) between the Allied Powers and
Poland worked out the first definition of the word “Minority”.

Definition: "Group of persons of different race, religion or of language than the majority living within the
state. These minorities are of two kinds:
• Those who are citizens of a foreign state
• Those who are the citizens living within the state”

This Treaty worked as a model for all subsequent minority treaties. Articles 1-8 obligated Poland to “full and
complete protection of life and liberty to all inhabitants… without distinction of birth, nationality, race, language
or religion”.

Peacekeeping
Current missions
1. United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO)
2. United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA)
3. United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA)
4. United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)
5. United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO)
6. African Union-United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID)
7. United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
8. United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)
9. United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL)
10. United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA)
11. United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS)
12. United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)
13. United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL)
14. United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP)
15. United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)
 Introduction
 limitations of the use of force:
‚’all members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial
integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the
United Nations’ Article 2 of the UN Charter’ → general prohibition, 2 exceptions
 ’peacebuilding triangle’: degree of hostility, extent of local capacities, amount of international assistance
 peacekeeping in numbers, finance (2017-2018 fiscal year: $6,8 billion)
 top 10 providers of assessed contributions to United Nations Peacekeeping operations for 2017 are:
 United States (28.47%)
 China (10.25%)
 Japan (9.68%)
 Germany (6.39%)
 France (6.28%)
 United Kingdom (5.77%)
 Russian Federation (3.99%)
 Italy (3.75%)
 Canada (2.92%)
 Spain (2.44%)

definition
‚[…] the prevention, containment, moderation, and termination of hostilities between or within states,
through the medium of a peaceful third party intervention organized and directed internally, using
multinational forces of soldiers, police and civilians to restore and maintain peace’ (International Peace
Academy: Peacekeepers Handbook)
‚Peacekeeping is a deployment of a United Nations presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all the
parties concerned, normally involving United Nations military and/or police personnel and frequently civilians as
well. Peacekeeping is a technique that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of conflict and the making
of peace’ (Boutros Boutros-Ghali: An Agenda for Peace)
peacekeeping is rather a custom → ’Chapter Six and a Half’
double legitimacy → consent, authorization of the UN SC
mandate, control
principles:
neutrality,
consent,
non-use of force

First generation – history, milestones

 1940s (UNTSO – Middle East, UNMOGIP – India, Pakistan)
 1956: Suez, milestone → UNEF I, II
 1950.11.03.: Uniting for Peace (Acheson Plan)
 Congo (1960–1964) – ONUC
 Cyprus (1964) – UNFICYP, South Libanon (1978) – UNIFIL
 1960s: decrease
 1980s: increase
Characteristics of the first generation
 interstate crisis
 unarmed or lightly armed forces
 narrow mandate
 key principals: consent, neutrality, nonuse of force
 1946–1988: 15 missions
 low cost
 limited number of peacekeepers
 host countries are not hostile

Second generation (characteristics)

 changing conflicts
  interstate wars
 fast escalation speed
 involvement of large number of civilians
 ethnic motives
 involvement of paramilitary forces, militias
 changing environment
 cooperation in international politics
 features of the second generation
 number of peacekeeping operations tripled between 1987-1994
 missions are deployed in ongoing conflicts → the aim is not maintaining the status quo but to restore
peace
 mandate is wider including civilian, political, economic, humanitarian aspects
 costs are higher (larger contingents, more weapons)
 missions are more dangerous, environment is often hostile

failures (Somalia, Rwanda) → third generation

Characteristics:
 UN operations became multifunctional (security, humanitarian, political, environmental, developmental
and socio-economic objectives)
 more emphasis on peace enforcement
 new multidimensional approach that included civilians and police, as well as military participants
 wider variety of demanding tasks, from helping to maintain security, restoring law and order, monitoring
human rights, building sustainable institutions of governance, coordinating elections, reforming the
security sector, to disarming, demobilizing and reintegrating former combatants
 peacekeeping also became far more multinational and multi-cultural (member states contributing: over
100 countries)
 international administrations

The IMF

Bretton Woods
 July 1944, 44 countries
 $: new international currency
 Need for institutionalised monetary cooperation

Bretton Woods System – starting points Compensate the lack of gold Additional financial facility Stability of
exchange rates $ - world currency Monetary role of gold Role of the United States

Bretton Woods – basic principles 1 ounce of gold = 35 $ Exchange rate stability Convertibility

IMF - objectives
1. promote international monetary cooperation;
2. facilitate the expansion, balanced growth of
international trade;
3. promote exchange stability;
4. assist in the establishment of a multilateral
system of payments; and
6. make resources available to members

IMF Policies:
International Monetary Policy

(“Dollar is a good as gold”  the IMP is based on the dollar and gold remained in the system.

Policy of Liberalisation, Exchange rate policy

Marshall plan
Dollar shortage  Marshall plan

During 1950’s
Undisturbed functioning
$ demand declined
Considerable outflow of $
$ oversupply by end of decade

The 1960s
 Liquidity, correction, trust
 Signs of crisis - $ oversupply and its consequences
 IMF’s reaction
 Declining trust in $ – rise of price of gold
 1961-68: gold pool (USA, GB, FR, B, N, IT, SWI,
FRG)
 1968-71: double gold market
 1969: SDR

Policy of liberalisation
 Convertibility – the currency is convertible if
 exchange is possible without limitations
 to any other currencies
 concerning current accounts
 on an officially declared exchange rate
 By 1958: convertibility of currencies of leading
States

Exchange rate policy

System of fixed exchange rates.
Balance of payments approach
+/- 1% fluctuation range
Intervention of Central Banks
Modification of fixed parity

1960s
•Defending fixed exchange rates
•USA – no such obligation
Chronic deficit / surplus

End of Bretton Woods

 Budgetary deficit
 New competitors: Japan, Western
Europe
 Capital export
 Deteriorating economic performance 
Nixon, 15th August 1971

International Monetary Fund

 Statute entered into force on 27 December
1945
 UN specialized agency (1947)
 Number of member states: 189
 Headquarter: Washington DC
Organization of IMF
Christine Lagarde
2011-
Board of Governors
• 189 members, annual meeting
• Admits new members
• Determines quotas, approves
quota increases
• Amendment of the Articles of
Agreement (85%)
• Allocates funds
Executive Board
• 24 members (all elected now)
• Daily decisions
• Implements policy decisions
Managing director
• Elected for 5 years
• Chairs the Executive Board
meetings
• Head of the staff

IMF’s monetary activities: technical assistance, surveillance, lending

History of lending
First two decades • Industrial countries as main debtors
•Industrial countries turned to financial markets
•Lower and lower – middle income countries as debtors 1970s- 1980s
1990s • Demand for IMF loans flourished
• Repayment of loans
•Demand for IMF loans dropped 2004-2008
Post 2008 • Demand for loans increased

Debt relief
 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
Initiative
◦ 1996 – IMF, World Bank
◦ Decision point, completion point
 Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative
(MDRI)
◦ 2005
◦ Per capita income < $380

World Bank

 Principles of lending
 balance of payments problems
 normal credit facilities determined by quota
 loans provided from own financial assets
 borrowing – special form of swap
 growing indebtedness, more severe conditions

 Principles of lending
 in case of chronic imbalance, longer term credit facilities
 IMF is more active in borrowing
 special credit facilities
 less dependence on quotas
 risk of lending increased, conditions strengthened
  political and economic conditions as well

 Conditionality
 Aim to have focused and adequately tailored
 conditions
 IMF discusses with the country the economic
 policies (letter of intent)
 Measures introduced to safeguard IMF’s resources
 (be able to pay back the loans)

 Conditionality
 Critical remarks
 Hurt economic growth, raise
 inequality
 Standardized conditions
 Impact on most vulnerable groups
 Social unrest leading to withdraw
 of capital
 Policies implemented do not solve
 the crisis
 Democratic implications
 Another side of debate
 •Lender of last resort
 •No panacea for years of
 mismanagement
 •Dysfunctional governments
 hardly implement programs
 •There is penalty for economic
 recklessness

IMF reforms
 2006, Singapore
 6 decisions at the end of 2010:
◦ Doubling quotas (capital)
◦ shift more than 6 percent of quota shares from overrepresented
to under-represented member countries,
◦ shift more than 6 percent of quota shares to dynamic
emerging market and developing countries
◦ significantly realign quota shares
◦ preserve the quota and voting share of the poorest
member countries
◦ Changes in Executive Board
 Effective from 26 January, 2016
World Bank Group
 International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD)
 International Development Association (IDA)
 International Finance Corporation (IFC)
 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
(MIGA)
 International Centre for Settlement of
Investment Disputes (ICSID)

World Bank
 27 December, 1945: IBRD founded
 15 November, 1947: UN Specialised Agency
 Headquarter: Washington
 Members: 189
President: Jim Yong Kim 2012-present

Board of Governors
 Admit and suspend members;
 Increase or decrease the authorized capital stock;
 Determine the distribution of the net income of the Bank;
 Decide appeals from interpretations of the Articles of
Agreement by the Executive Directors;
 Make formal comprehensive arrangements to cooperate with
other international organizations;
 Suspend permanently the operations of the Bank;
 Increase the number of elected Executive Directors; and
 Approve amendments to the Articles of Agreement.

Votes, loans and development (IBRD)

 Lending to poorer countries
 Role of USA
 Promotion of international capital flow
 Two types of loans
 Financing projects

International Finance Corporation

(IFC)
 1956
 Ivestments in for-profit and commercial
projects
 Focus: private sector
 Purpose: further economic growth
 Catalytic role in mobilizing funding
 Technical assistance
 Issuance of bonds (triple-A)

International Development
Association (IDA)
 1960
 Members: 173 shareholder nations
 Aims
 Lending on concessional term
Grant element:
- No repayment obligation
- IDA: grant element often 80-90%

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)  1988  Provides guarantee for lending  Types of risks

Nepal case
 Number of inhabitants: 30.4 million
 2001: 91 children out of 1000 died because
of diarrhea
 Every 5th child suffered from diarrhea
 Families more affected
 Time period: 2004-2012
 IDA contribution 25 million $
International Criminal Judicial Bodies
Mission of international criminal courts
 Individualization of guilt
 Official acknowledgement of past atrocities
 Prevention
 Retribution
 (R. Goldstone)
 Truth revelation
 Contribution to reconciliation… etc

 International ad hoc Tribunals: Nuremberg IMT ICTY ICTR

 Permanent international court: ICC
 Hybrid ad hoc tribunals (ex.) SCSL ECCC BWCC
 Domestic courts

Establishment of theUN ad hoc tribunals

827 (1993) SC Resolution »
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
955 (1994) SC Resolution »
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)

UN Charter, Chapter V - extract

Art. 29. The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems
necessary for the performance of its functions.

UN Charter, Chapter VII - extract

Art. 41 The Security Council may decide what measures not
involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give
effect to its decisions, […]. These may include complete or
partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea,
air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of
communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations.
Art. 42 Should the Security Council consider that measures
provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have
proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea,
or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore
international peace and security. […]

Art. 39 The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act
of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with
Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Establishment of the ICC

1998 Adoption of the Rome Statute
July 1, 2002 Rome Statute entered into force » International
Criminal Court
123 State Parties today…
Crimes falling under the jurisdiction of the Court:
Genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity
(agression: not yet. 2010 Kampala Review Conf.)

Relationshipwith domestic criminal courts ICTY, ICTR: international primacy » absolute international primacy,
Rules of the Road » Completion Strategy, Rule 11 bis ICC: complementarity Cooperation of state authorities!

Complementarity – ICC
Version A: Domestic authorities conduct investigations and criminal proceedings.
 Version B: Domestic autorities are UNABLE or UNWILLING to proceed.
 ICC steps in.

7. ICC and the UN Security Council
 Art. 13 Exercise of jurisdiction
 […]
 (b) A situation in which one or more of such crimes appears to have been committed
 is referred to the Prosecutor by the Security Council acting under Chapter VII of the
 Charter of the United Nations
 Art. 16 Deferral of investigation or prosecution
 No investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded with under this
 Statute for a period of 12 months after the Security Council, in a resolution adopted
 under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, has requested the Court to
 that effect; that request may be renewed by the Council under the same conditions.

ICC and the UN Security Council Art. 87 Requests for cooperation […] 7. Where a State Party fails to comply
with a request to cooperate by the Court contrary to the provisions of this Statute, thereby preventing the Court
from exercising its functions and powers under this Statute, the Court may make a finding to that effect and refer
the matter to the Assembly of States Parties or, where the Security Council referred the matter to the Court, to the
Security Council.

What is civil society?

According to the United Nations website, “civil society, is the 3 rd sector of society, along with government and
business. It comprises civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations.

Definition
 Any international organisation which is not established by inter-governmental agreement (UN)
 Voluntary private associations
 NNGOs and SNGOs
 NGOs and NPOs
 Non-state actors and NGOs
 Number of NGOs 1 million

 GONGO (government-organized NGO)

 BINGO (business and industry)
 DONOR (donor-organized)
 QUANGO (quasi-autonomous)

3 branches: advocacy, operational and hybrid

Reasons for increasing activity

 Global challenges
 Role of the state
 End of Cold War and democratisation
 Technological revolution

Functions
 Consultation
 Lobbying
 Control over government activity
 Programs and projects
 Participation and decision-making
 Reports and statistics

NGOs in International Politics

 Relief, social and economic development, political roles (advocacy and lobbying, public education and
consciousness raising, agenda setting, monitoring other translational actors).

Humanitarian help
 Henry Dunant
 1862 Solferino
 1863 Red Cross conference
 ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross)
 IFRCRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies)

Doctors without borders

 1971
 Biafra
 Quick and voluntary medical help for victims of wars and natural disasters
 Headquarter: Geneva

Oxfam
 Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (1942), OXFAM (1965)
 International confederation of 20 organisations (1995)
 ‚just world without poverty’
 Criticisms