A THERMIE PROGRAMME ACTION

European Technologies for Oil and Gas

Exploration in Remote and Poorly Accessible
Areas

European Commission
Directorate-General for Energy (DG XVII)
THERMIE is an important European Community instrument, designed to promote the greater
use of European energy technologies.

The main aims of THERMIE are to:

• promote innovative energy technologies;

• disseminate information on these technologies;
• encourage greater use of new and renewable energy sources;
• improve energy efficiency;
• improve environmental protection.

THERMIE has been developed from previous Community programmes and provides
enhanced provision for:

• providing financial support for near-market energy technologies which would otherwise not
penetrate the market;
• providing a European forum in which information on energy technology can be obtained;
• encourage small and medium-sized enterprises to consider improved energy technologies;
• extensive dissemination of proven technologies;
• liaison with key intermediary bodies within Member States to aid promotion of innovation;
• expanding the market for European energy technologies outside the EU, especially in
Central and Eastern Europe and CIS countries.

The THERMIE programme covers a wide range of technologies for the production,
transformation and use of energy. These are:

RUE rational use of energy in industry, buildings and transport;

RES renewable energy sources including energy from biomass and waste, thermal and
photovoltaic solar energy, wind, hydroelectric and geothermal energy;
SF solid fuels, use of gaseous, liquid and solid wastes and gasification with a combined
cycle;
HC hydrocarbons; their exploration, production, transport and storage.

THERMIE Maxibrochures
A key element of the THERMIE programme is the enhanced dissemination of information
relating to proven measures. The information is brought together for example in publications
called maxibrochures. These maxibrochures provide an invaluable source of information for
those wishing to appreciate the current state-of-the-art within particular technologies.

Maxibrochures draw together relevant information on specific subjects. The information

describes the current experience within all Member States and will therefore provide a pan-
European assessment.

THERMIE Colour Coding

To enable readers to identify those publications relating to specific parts of the THERMIE
programme, each will be colour coded with a stripe in the lower right hand corner of each
document, ie:

RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY

RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOLID FUELS
HYDROCARBONS
Acknowledgements

The European Commission would like to thank the following companies for their assistance in
the production of this maxibrochure:

Ariane Espace S.A, France. Mr Bernard Pastor

Atlantic Resources Ltd, UK
BPB Wireline Services Ltd, UK. Dr P Elkington
Compagnie Générale de Géophysique S.A., France. Mr P Renoux
Security DBS, France. Mr P Fanuel
ELF Aquitaine Productions S.A., France.
Forasol S.A., France. Mr D Dupuis
GCA, Germany. Dr Schmitt
Schlumberger Geco-Prakla, Germany. Mr J Henke
Istar Espace S.A., France. Mr A Beinish
JEBCO Seismic Ltd, UK. Mr P Baxter
Kharkiv Gas Research Institute, Ukraine. Dr V Babayev
Metronix, Germany. Dr Karman
Nigel Press Associates Ltd, UK. Mr M Holliday
SCIENCO, UK. Mr R Arnold
Simon Petroleum Technology, UK. Mr I Somerton
SMA (UK) Ltd. Mr S Holmes
SPOT Images S.A., France. Ms A Bernard
World Geoscience Corporation, UK.
European Technologies for Oil and Gas
Exploration in Remote and Poorly Accessible
Areas

THERMIE PROGRAMME ACTION HC 1.5

Researched & Collated by:

GOPA Consultants
61285 Bad Homburg
Germany

GOPA Consultants and PSTI Editing & Print management

For the European Commission PSTI
Directorate-General for Energy (DGXVII) Offshore Technology Park
Aberdeen, UK

Reproduction of the Contents is Subject to Acknowledgement of the European

Commission.

Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf:
(a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the
information contained in this publication;
(b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damage resulting from this
information.

The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Commission.
Other Maxibrochures in the hydrocarbons series:

Oil and Gas Technology - Investing in a major European Industry for Future Security and Prosperity

Subsea Diverless Intervention Systems in the Offshore Oil Industry

The Oil Production Industry in Western Siberia and the Environment - Current Practices and
Prospects for Change

Oil and Gas Process Technology - the latest advances for use on offshore production installations
CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. EUROPEAN SATELLITE IMAGERY EXPLORATION TECHNOLOGIES 2

2.1 Introduction 2
2.2 Geological Basin Studies Using 3-D SPOT Satellite Data 3
2.3 Detailed Geological Mapping from Satellite Data for Oil 5
Exploration

3. AIRBORNE EXPLORATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUBSURFACE 6

BASIN RECONNAISSANCE AND HYDROCARBON SEEPAGE
DETECTION

3.1 Introduction 6
3.2 High Resolution Aeromagnetic Surveys Aid Subsurface Basin 7
Reconnaissance 8
3.3 Offshore Basin Screening 8
3.4 ALF - Airbome Laser Fluorosensor for Offshore Hydrocarbon 8
Seep Detection
3.5 Detection of Onshore Hydrocarbon Surface Seeps Using Satellite
Images 9
3.6 Oil Saturated Rock Detection by Airbome Infrared Sensors 10

4. EUROPEAN TECHNOLOGIES FOR GEOLOGICAL-GEOCHEMICAL 11

SURVEYS

4.1 Introduction 11
4.2 Field Source Rock Analyser 11
4.3 Analysis of Hydrocarbon Traces in Near Surface Soil Samples 13

5. GEOELECTRICAL METHODS FOR HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION 15

5.1 Introduction 15
5.2 Integrated Electromagnetic Exploration Method (IEEM) for 15
Improved Hydrocarbon Exploration

6. SEISMIC EXPLORATION IN FRONTIER AREAS 17

6.1 Introduction 17
6.2 Seismic Surveys Crossing Mountain Chains 17
6.3 3D Seismic Mapping of Source Rocks, Reservoir Facies 18
Conditions and Paleogeographical Distribution
6.4 "SEISMASTER" - Towed Land Geophone Streamer 19

7. REDUCING THE HIGH COST OF EXPLORATION DRILLING IN 20

REMOTE AND POORLY ACCESSIBLE ONSHORE AREAS

7.1 Introduction 20
7.2 The "EUROSLIM" Slimhole Drilling System 21
7.3 Quantitative Open-Hole Logging and Testing with very Small 21
Diameter Wireline Tools

8. CONCLUSIONS 23
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 23

1. INTRODUCTION

A large percentage of the oil and gas which will be used for energy and petrochemical raw
materials in the next century will be produced from newly discovered reserves. As the
likelihood of finding "new” oil and gas diminishes in well explored areas, these reserves will
be located to a large extent in remote, poorly accessible arctic, jungle or mountain regions with
severe operation problems. Despite adverse conditions, exploration in these areas must
progress in order to secure the world's future hydrocarbon supply. European technologies,
from step-by-step improvements of existing methods to highly innovative, new technologies
have been developed for "frontier exploration" in the remote, poorly accessible regions of the
world.

The technical feasibility of exploring in these regions is not the only problem. The need to
reduce the high cost of conventional exploration techniques in frontier areas has also initiated
new developments. An important aspect is the selection of optimum prospective areas from
very large exploration permits, which occasionally comprise entire sedimentary basins.
Inexpensive exploration methods covering a very large area need to be utilised to outline the
most promising zones where the expensive, detailed prospecting techniques will be applied.

In general, little is known about the geology and hydrocarbon potential of remote and poorly
accessible areas. Frontier exploration programmes integrate a number of geological,
geophysical and geochemical technologies with systematic steps from low-cost reconnaissance
surveys covering large areas to more and more detailed work in selected areas, with the
objective of locating the first exploration ("wildcat") well.

Typical frontier exploration programmes start with geological mapping. At this stage the use
of satellite images, remote sensing, airborne geophysics and air photo evaluation
predominate. This is followed by geological and geochemical field work for "ground truth"
input into the satellite and airborne mapping and to confirm the presence of the factors
necessary for oil or gas accumulations, such as mature hydrocarbon source rocks, potential
reservoirs, structural or stratigraphic traps and seals.

The next step is to extend the subsurface data base by ground geophysics, using regional
reflection seismic lines. This stage involves a dramatic cost increase from several hundred-
thousand ECU for the earlier stages to several million ECU for seismic surveys. Alternative
techniques which reduce this high cost are of major interest to the industry.

Concentrating on the most promising areas, high resolution seismic surveys delineate the
structural or stratigraphic objectives for exploration drilling. Oil and gas exploration wells in
remote or poorly accessible areas are expensive and the cost can easily become prohibitive. In
particular, moving drilling rigs is a major cost factor and light-weight, compact equipment
leads to substantial savings. As such, the development of highly mobile slimhole drilling
technology is a major objective of European companies in the exploration sector.

This maxibrochure considers the various steps involved in exploring remote and poorly
accessible areas and examines the advances made by European companies in producing
innovative technologies to reduce the cost of this expensive activity.

2. EUROPEAN SATELLITE IMAGERY EXPLORATION TECHNOLOGIES

2.1 Introduction
European satellite missions commenced in February 1986, when the French CNES launched
SPOT 1, an earth observation satellite. SPOT 1 provides:
• 10 m ground definition in panchromatic mode and 20 m resolution in multispectral (false-
colour) mode;
• stereo coverage, i.e. 3-D observation for topographic contour mapping (Fig 1);
• more frequent repeat imaging capability due to its directional camera system.

In comparison, American civilian satellites provide only 30 m ground definition without

stereo and on a fixed 18-day potential repeat cycle. SPOT 2 and SPOT 3 were launched in
January 1990 and September 1993 respectively (Fig 2).

SPOT images represent the state-of-the-art technology for ground detail in inaccessible and
poorly mapped areas. As such, they are especially useful for oil companies working in little
known or inaccessible areas, not only in providing access maps, but in understanding the
extent of previous exploration activity and field development, positioning of old seismic lines
and well sites.

In 1992, the European Space Agency launched ERS-l with a range of sensors to assist in
oceanographic and environmental studies. This satellite was the first operational civilian
mission with a radar imaging sensor. Although primarily designed to map changes in sea-
surface conditions, the radar, which "sees" through clouds, can also image land areas. As such
it provides the opportunity to view many parts of the equatorial regions and humid tropics
from a satellite perspective for the first time. ERS-2 is scheduled for launch in 1995.

2.2 Geological Basin Studies Using 3-D SPOT Satellite Data

The special features of the SPOT satellite images (high resolution and 3-D stereo coverage) can
be used to obtain fairly detailed geological and topographical information over a large remote
exploration area in a relatively short time and at low cost. Several computer enhancement
techniques can be used to provide sharper images or contrast variations as well as vertical and
oblique stereo-viewing.

Istar and Elf-Aquitaine of France have jointly conducted a sedimentary basin pilot study using
3-D recorded SPOT satellite data. The study focused on the Logroño region of Northern Spain
at the North-Western margin of the Ebro Basin. The Oligo-Miocene sediments were folded
along WNW-ENE axial trends with slight inclination of the axial planes towards the south. Fig
3 indicates the location of the study area on a geological map of the Iberian Peninsula.

The high resolution and oblique viewing capabilities, which produce stereopair images, make
SPOT a special earth observation satellite. Stereopairs can be used to calculate each pixel
altitude and build a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to obtain a 3-D image of altitudes. The
accuracy of the SPOT DEM is approximately the same as a conventional 1:50,000
topographical map in Europe. Previously, comparable location and elevation control could
only be obtained by costly and time-consuming photogrammetrical mapping from stereo
airphotos.

The DEM (Fig 4) can be used for various purposes including:

• correction of the distortions resulting from oblique viewing of the images acquired by
SPOT;
• drawing contour maps on grand elevation, slope gradients, also outcrop and drainage
network maps;
• obtaining data which cannot be generated from non-stereo images, such as measuring
tectonic dips, fault displacement, interval thickness.

A structural-geological map of the Logroño area was derived from the stereo SPOT images.
However, the greatest detail is given by the exposure map on the left side of Fig 5 which
covers the entire study area. A code of 256 shades of grey is used to indicate direction and
intensity of structural dip.
The image presentations of Fig 5 show detailed surface structure, including small faults and
fracture patterns. For oil and gas exploration, these images reveal the structural style of the
basin which allows hydrocarbon migration and entrapment to be assessed. Surface anticlines,
domes, faults and other hydrocarbon trap mechanisms are shown on the maps but their
subsurface continuation can only be projected with caution. However, geophysical surveys
can be carefully planned when the surface structuring trends are known. Presence, intensity
and directions of fracturing can lead to conclusions for possible fracture porosities and
permeabilities in subsurface reservoirs. Identification of small fault patterns may later
improve seismic mapping of effective reservoir continuity on faulted prospective structures.

Undistorted perspective views are derived from the images and the DEM using specially
developed software. The oblique view landscape (Fig 6) can be superimposed with geology,
highlighting of structural features, outcrops of key bed horizons, etc. An almost instantaneous
access to viewing from any desired angle is possible. This technique can be used to
demonstrate surface geological features, but also for operational planning, ranging from field
geology to geophysical surveys, access for drilling equipment and possibilities for pipeline
traverses.

A number of geological interpretations and calculations can be conducted with the DEM-
corrected stereo images including:

• dip and strike measurements;

• fault displacement calculations;
• detection of fault zones under cover;
• construction of structural cross sections;
• lithological columns obtained at unfaulted locations identified on the images;
• demonstration of thickness variations of lithological units.

Fig 7 shows a geological map, lithological columns with a thickness comparison, dip
projections and a stratigraphic structural cross-section derived from the SPOT images of the
Ebro Basin study area.

The results of a SPOT satellite image reconnaissance study, such as the one conducted by Istar
and Elf-Aquitaine in Northern Spain, are available within a very short time frame and at
relatively low cost. They are highly valuable when fast and far-reaching decisions have to be
taken concerning a remote and poorly accessible area selected for oil and gas exploration.

2.3 Detailed Geological Mapping from Satellite Data for Oil Exploration
A British company, the NPA Group (Nigel Press Associates Ltd), is currently developing
innovative new methodologies incorporating the latest satellite data. NPA's geological
mapping for oil exploration in Yemen provides a good example of their work.

NPA produces high resolution imagery by digital merging of panchromatic SPOT images
with those of the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM). This results in high resolution enhanced
colour imagery and is routinely used in the mapping of basin areas. The colour component of
the TM imagery is combined with the spatial information content of the panchromatic
imagery. This facilitates detailed terrain type discrimination and geological interpretation and
also has the sharpness to reveal fine details of infrastructure and access.

The unique near/middle infrared bands of the Landsat TM respond strongly to the reflection
properties of bare rock and soil and are used to provide discrimination between rock types.
Furthermore, since the source image data are digital, the power of the computer can be
harnessed to optimise the discrimination and the results presented in a visually effective way
by matching the stratigraphic key (Fig 8) to those of the image colours. The product is a
photo-stratigraphic image (Fig 9) which provides an excellent base for geological field work.
Arid regions are best suited for this technique.
The great advantage of the SPOT satellite images is the potential for 3-D applications and
stereo interpretations. Through computer processing to produce a DEM, topographic
contouring similar to conventional airphoto photogrammetry can be conducted, but at a
considerably lower cost (Fig 10). In areas of low tectonic dips where structure mapping is
difficult even in the field, satellite images and DEM contours help reveal the structural
geology at the surface. High definition colour enhanced imagery greatly assists structural
interpretation and careful morphological analysis can reveal the subtle surface effects of
buried structures by their anomalous influence on drainage or surface moisture patterns.

Structural contour mapping for the search of surface expressions of structural traps for
hydrocarbons is also possible. By combining digitised outcrop contacts and digital elevation
models automatically derived from stereo satellite imagery, structure contours can be
computed allowing quantitative analysis and the visualisation of shallow dipping structures.
The DEM technique also permits perspective views of terrain and tectonic features (Fig 11).

3. AIRBORNE EXPLORATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUBSURFACE BASIN

RECONNAISSANCE AND HYDROCARBON SEEPAGE DETECTION

3.1 Introduction
Airborne exploration techniques are normally conducted from a small or medium-sized,
fixed-wing aeroplane. Certain surveys need the use of a (contour flying) helicopter.

Airborne magnetometry is a well-established tool for outlining large sedimentary basins at

low cost. This old technique has recently been revived by high resolution aeromagnetic
mapping, which can easily be combined with other aerial surveys. European technologies for
high resolution aeromagnetometry include:

• the CENG High Sensitivity Overhauser Effect Airborne Magnetometer (MRM 360)
manufactured by the Centre d'Etudes Nucleares de Grenoble (France) with a 0.01 nT
resolution at sample rates greater than 10 per second and continuous analogue recording;

• the innovative ARK 3DP grid data processing package of ARK Geophysics (UK) for high
resolution aeromagnetometry.

Airborne gravity is still at the pilot project stage. The main problem is the sensitivity of the
instruments to flying. Low altitude, slow speed and vibration free conditions are required.
The classic Zeppelin airship design with separate engine and payload gondolas may be best
suited for aerogravity surveys.

Important new developments in airborne exploration technologies (for both onshore and
offshore exploration) are related to the detection of oil and gas "seeps". Even minor
hydrocarbon seepage at the surface or the sea bed indicates the presence of an active
hydrocarbon source system in the subsurface. Therefore, any detection of oil or gas seeps
considerably reduces the exploration risk of an area.

3.2 High Resolution Aeromagnetic Surveys for Subsurface Basin Reconnaissance

Recently, major advances have been made in the acquisition and processing of aeromagnetic
data. High Resolution Aeromagnetic (HRA) surveys can now identify faults and lithological
variations in sedimentary basins giving a plan view of structure. The ability of these surveys
to image basin architecture and map small-scale features has had major implications for oil
exploration.

In general, the data are acquired at less than 100 m above the terrain, along flight lines a few
hundred metres apart. The raw compensated line profile data normally have a noise envelope
of less than 0.1 nT peak-to-peak.
Simon Petroleum Technology (SPT) has carried out four major HRA surveys over
sedimentary basins on the North-West European Continental Shelf; two over the Irish Sea and
two offshore Norway. The main use of such data is to integrate it with 2-D seismic
interpretations to provide information of fault linkage. Structural information from HRA
surveys also enables targeted planning of new seismic surveys.

Processing aeromagnetic data has been developed to provide a reconnaissance picture of

poorly explored basins and areas. SPT has developed the technique of GRIDEPTH processing.
This describes the process of 3-D Euler Deconvolution applied to gridded gravity or magnetic
data to determine the position, depth and nature of any sources present. It is used by SPT’s
geophysicists and structural geologists to help interpret such data in terms of basement
trends, lineaments and topography.

GRIDEPTH solves Euler’s homogeneity equation for source position, working on a "window"
of the grid at a time and moving the window across the grid until all parts of the grid have
been examined. For each window position and for each structure index an estimate of source
position (x, y and z) is produced with uncertainties and an estimate of the local background
field.

GRIDEPTH employs a structure index (SI) to distinguish between different types of source
(Table 2).

Table 2 Structure Index

______________________________________

SI Source
______________________________________
0.0 Contact with considerable depth extent
0.5 Contact with limited depth extent
1.0 Dyke or sill edge
2.0 Pipe intrusion (point pole)
3.0 Small source body (point dipole)
______________________________________

In normal operation, the GRIDEPTH programme automatically solves for source positions
using SI values of 0, 0.5 and 1. For any chosen feature, the best SI is indicated by the best
focusing of solution positions.

The technique works best on data that has been reduced to pole, but this is not essential. The
window size is chosen so that it incorporates substantial variations in the field; a typical size
would be 10-15 km. The minimum depth solutions are of the order of the grid cell size.

The solutions map of Yemen (Fig 12) displays the solutions derived from a standardised
aeromagnetic dataset covering the country (compiled by SPT under contract with the Ministry
of Oil & Mineral Resources, Sana’a). The map shows, among other features, the volcanic and
basement areas in the western part of the country in reddish colours. These are interrupted by
the NW-SE trending in blue. This is the present producing trend. The new exploration area of
the Hadramant region shows different colours indicating geological complexity.

The GRIDEPTH technique has been used on many data sets from around the world each of
which has helped geologists gain a better understanding of the regional geological structural
setting.

3.3 Offshore Basin Screening

A new technique developed by a consortium led by NPA, has developed methods to process
and analyse satellite radar (SAR) and radar altimeter data which show:
• satellite radar can image sea surface slicks that repeat in time and exhibit a distribution
pattern that shows a clear relationship to known oil and gas accummulations;
• satellite gravity delineates sedimentary basins, troughs and faults.

World-wide there are many poorly explored offshore basins where exploration managers
would find such information essential before committing to more significant expenditure.

3.4 Airborne Laser Fluorosensor for Offshore Hydrocarbon Seep Detection

Airborne measurement of laser-induced fluorescence (ALF) of ultra-thin films of oil on the sea
surface are used to detect hydrocarbon seepage from the seabed (Fig 13). This confirms the
presence of an active hydrocarbon source rock system below the seabed, which is necessary
for the formation of commercial oil fields.

The ALF system, developed by BP Exploration during the late eighties, was purchased by
World Geoscience Corporation, Perth, Australia and is now operated exclusively by them. It
has been used extensively for exploring remote shelf areas around the world. Together with
high resolution aeromagnetometry installed in the same aeroplane, a rapid assessment of the
oil and gas exploration potential of unexplored or poorly known offshore areas can be
obtained.

The ALF system consists of a pulsed (50 Hz) ultra-violet (266 nm) solid state laser, an imaging
telescope, an electro-optical detector and a data logger computer. The laser beam is
transmitted vertically downward through a survey port in the aircraft floor to illuminate the
sea surface. A characteristic fluorescence response is produced at the presence of surface oil.

The reflected light, which includes the induced fluorescence signal, is collected by a 16 inch
Newtonian reflecting telescope. The beam is split into its constituent spectral colours and
converted into electrical signals by a 512 channel diode array detector.

The data are stored digitally by the data logging computer system which simultaneously
records GPS (Global Positioning System) satellite navigational information.

Oil films, including those invisible to the naked eye, can be detected down to a thickness of
0.05 µm or less. The peak wave length of oil fluorescence reflects the overall composition of
the oil. Heavier oil fluorescence at wave lengths towards the longer (red) end of the spectrum.
Lighter oils produce thinner oil films and fluoresce towards the blue end of the spectrum. The
Raman signal (Fig 14) allows the contribution of the sea water background to be assessed and
eliminated. The ratio of fluorescence to Raman (F/R ratio) is used as primary oil indicator,
being more sensitive than fluorescence alone as it normalises the background noise
disturbances. Raman attenuation in the presence of oil films also allows an assessment of film
thickness to be made. Fig 15 shows a typical ALF display. The precise width of individual oil
slicks can be calculated from the Raman "troughs".

The detailed ALF signature (both the spectral and spatial) and, in some cases, repetition of the
overflight eliminate wrong leads such as oil spills (pollution), fluorescing algae, wind and
seawater current induced slicks or sun glint.

3.5 Detection of Onshore Hydrocarbon Surface Seeps Using Satellite Images

The spectral response properties of the satellite sensors have significant roles in detecting
natural hydrocarbon seepage from subsurface accumulations. Natural hydrocarbon seepages
are well documented, both onshore and offshore. Hydrocarbon seeps produce a local
reducing environment due to H2S and C02 which are normal products of hydrocarbon
biodegradation. The locally reduced pH converts insoluble ferric products to soluble ferrous
products which are consequently leached away resulting in colour anomalies in rock, through
which the biodegradation products have passed. Furthermore, the high pH environment
causes changes in clay minerals which can influence the weathering characteristics of affected
rocks, resulting in geomorphological anomalies. A combination of these chemical processes
can also affect the vegetation, further enhancing the chance of surface anomalies being
detected.

Anomalies caused by these phenomena can sometimes be detected on specially processed

Landsat (TM) or SPOT data. Fig 16 shows a colour anomaly at the site of hydrocarbon
seepages in the Ebro Basin near Siguenza/Spain on a satellite image processed for seep
detection by NPA Ltd. Surface thermal anomalies may also be directly associated with
biodegrading surface hydrocarbons. Satellite sensors can also measure these effects and the
combination of these techniques may develop into an important exploration and basin
screening technique for remote areas.

3.6 Oil Saturated Rock Detection by Airborne Infrared Sensors

A technology for identifying onshore oil seeps by locating oil impregnations was developed at
the Kharkiv Gas Research Institute in the Ukraine.

Patterns of geothermal heat flow from the earth’s interior to the surface are deformed by
geological complexities, mainly lithology, pore-space fluids and tectonic deformation. The
heat flow signal is also changed by oil impregnated rocks or residual oil, asphalt or tar
deposition at the surface. In these cases not only are the changes in thermal conductivity of
importance, but so are the chemical (oxidation etc) and biochemical (bacteria action) activities
of oil deterioration. All these effects lead to thermal anomalies which can be mapped.

The thermal variations caused by conductivity differences from oil impregnation in

comparison with water saturated rocks remain relatively modest. For the top 10 m interval
below the surface, differences of between 0.03 and 0.11°C were found. In contrast,
microbiological activities in the same oil and gas impregnated 10 m thick top layer (where
they are most intense) lead to anomalies in temperature distribution which range up to 0.5°C
at the surface and up to 2.0°C at about 2 m depth.

These thermal anomalies are registered by an airborne Scanning Infrared Radiometer (SIR),
which was developed and constructed by the Kharkiv Institute. The scanning is linear with an
up to 60° scanning angle at 12 scans per second. The spectral operating range is 8 to 14 µm in
the infra-red band. The SIR is operated from a low flying aircraft.

The data acquisition is supplemented by a special data processing and mapping technique.
The SIR technology can be used to check and detail indications of possible surface
hydrocarbon seeps which were identified on satellite images. It can also be used to fly profiles
along geological features (faults, anticlines) to check for possible hydrocarbon seepage. It is
best suited for semi-arid, arid or arctic conditions rather than jungle areas.

4. EUROPEAN TECHNOLOGIES FOR GEOLOGICAL - GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS

4.1 Introduction
The geological reconnaissance mapping from satellite images or airphotos is followed by field
work on the ground. This confirms the satellite and airborne data and establishes the presence
of potential hydrocarbon source rocks and their thermal maturity, occurrence of potential
reservoir rocks and other features which are essential for oil formation and gas fields in the
basin. The field work results must be projected from the outcrops into the deeper parts of the
basin.

With the refinement of sedimentological and geochemical laboratory methods to identify

potential reservoir and source rocks, field-geology and sampling are increasingly applied by
the oil industry in poorly known areas. The results are used to build a computer model of
basin history with its source rock maturation and hydrocarbon migration. These models
indicate the basin’s potential and distinguish oil or gas target areas.
Verification of the presence of potential hydrocarbon source rocks is essential. Samples of
black shales, coal, bituminous limestones or dolomites with high contents of organic matter
can be obtained from outcrops in the field, from shallow coreholes drilled into the outcrop for
fresh, unweathered samples or from sections encountered in exploration wells.

The presence of a thermally mature hydrocarbon source rock sequence in the subsurface can
also be verified by minute traces of hydrocarbon gas from upward microseepage. It is trapped
in soil layers with microporosity, such as clays with up to 40% porosity but near-zero
permeability. Soil gas can be extracted by soil samples from a depth of a few metres and
analysed for traces of thermally derived hydrocarbon gases from a deep source. These gases
indicate the presence of a mature source rock and can be distinguished from recent, biogenic
hydrocarbon gases ("swamp gas") by isotope analysis.

4.2 Field Source Rock Analyser

The Field Source Rock Analyser (SRA), developed by the BP Research Centre, is
manufactured by Scienco (UK) under licence. The SRA comprises a portable pyrolysis and
detector system designed for geologists and geochemists working at field outcrops (Fig 17) or
a well site. It is mainly used as a screening tool to reject lean, poor potential or non-source
rock samples and identifies rock sequences with a hydrocarbon source potential. Samples
from sufficiently rich source rocks can be selected for a more detailed geochemical analysis in
the laboratory.

The instrument (Fig 18) responds to organic matter which produces volatile hydrocarbons
during the pyrolysis (fractional heating) process. The SRA provides total pyrolysis yield
values (such as Sl + S2) and data reflecting the source-effective organic carbon contents and
thermal maturities of samples.

During operation, pyrolysis of the sample occurs over a pre-set, adjustable timed period. The
miniature lead/acid battery powering the pyrolyses heater will last for 25 to 30 operations
before re-charging or before it becomes necessary to change over to one of the spares. The
instrument can also be powered by a car battery. The SRA is designed to comprise discrete
sub-units which may readily be replaced at the operational site requiring a minimum of
specialist back-up knowledge, tools or equipment.

During a controlled well site evaluation using the SRA, almost 300 source potential readings
(Sl + S2) were obtained over a 1900 m drilled section. On average, this equates to one
screening pyrolysis determination every 6 m of the well. In practice, a greater sampling
frequency was used over the more geochemically significant mudstone sequences with a
lesser frequency over the potential reservoir sections which do not contain source rock
kerogen.

Such source rock screening would normally be deemed impracticable by conventional

laboratory pyrolysis both on grounds of cost and time; average consultant’s cost for laboratory
pyrolysis is 26 ECU with each analysis requiring around 20 to 30 minutes. Thus, to carry out
such intense screening for a well or a geological surface section would cost approximately
7,700 ECU with a total analysis time of six days, assuming automated instrumentation capable
of running 50 samples per day.

The SRA does not require lengthy sample preparation procedures. Use of the SRA at the well
site enables the geologist or mud-loggers to analyse individual washed but not dried cuttings
for source potential whilst carrying out their normal duties. For this study, however, samples
were weighed prior to pyrolysis in the SRA to enable normalisation of the results obtained to
take into account the differences between the standard and sample weights.

For convenience SRA readings are displayed on a logarithmic scale thus enabling
differentiation between Poor/Moderate/Good and Very Good potential (Fig 19). It is clearly
evident from the 'Source Log' that the SRA has identified two rich source rock horizons - a
thick sequence from 500 m to 900 m of “Very Good” potential and a deeper but much thinner
sequence around 1200 m to 1350 m with a “Good” potential. These well site observations were
verified at a later stage by laboratory analyses which also correlated with geological
predictions for the area.

An identical survey can be conducted along a geological profile following outcrops. It would
be shown as a geochemical surface cross-section instead of a depth plot from a well.

4.3 Analysis of Hydrocarbon Traces in Near Surface Soil Samples

Many of the first petroleum provinces of the world were discovered by searching for visible
oil and gas seeps. These are either the result of leakage from subsurface accumulations
through fracture systems or faults, or they occur on outcropping updip truncations of
permeable carrier beds.

Today, exploration for oil and gas has to rely on much more subtle investigations connected
with the same geological features. The sensitivity and precision of today’s analytical
equipment and methods allow the detection and identification of trace amounts of
hydrocarbons in near-surface sediments and water, which could indicate the presence of
micro-seeps and in turn are evidence of hydrocarbon accumulations and migration. The
technology described here is based on work carried out by the German company GCA -
Geochemical Analysis.

Commonly, two types of hydrocarbon gases are found in near-surface sediments and the
water column:

• biogenic hydrocarbons (mainly methane) produced by bacterial ecosystems at shallow

depth;

• thermogenic hydrocarbons, generated by thermocatalytic reactions at elevated

temperatures in the deep subsurface.

However, the occurrence of mixtures of biogenic and thermogenic gases in surface sediments
requires the ability to differentiate and to quantify the amount of the two common types of
near-surface hydrocarbons. This differentiation is achieved by a specially developed sample
preparation technique combined with both gas analysis and stable isotope analysis of
individual hydrocarbons.

The ability to characterise the origin of gaseous hydrocarbons is of considerable importance

for the correlation to their subsurface source. The exploration interest is focused on the
thermocatalytically generated hydrocarbons which indicate the presence of a mature
hydrocarbon source rock in the underlying subsurface area.

Applying these isotope geochemical methods requires systematic sampling of soil or

sediments over the prospective area. Samples are collected from a slotted core sampler driven
into the ground by a percussion hammer drill. Approximately 200 - 300 grams of sediment
material from depths between 1 m to 5 m are sufficient for the analysis. The samples are flash
frozen in liquid nitrogen to prevent loss of gas and possible secondary (bacterial)
fractionations during transport and storage.

In the laboratory the samples are sieved and washed to differentiate the different types of
hydrocarbons for the analysis. Hydrocarbon gases are liberated from the sediments using an
acid-vacuum-extraction. The hydrocarbon gases are analysed qualitatively and quantitatively
by capillary gas chromatography. In a second analytical step the origin of the gases is
characterised by stable isotope analysis of 13C/l2C and D/H. These data are used to
characterise the hydrocarbon gases (Fig 20) and to distinguish thermogenic hydrocarbon gas
(indicating a source rock at depth) from biogenic gas recently formed in the soil layer itself
(which is non-diagnostic) or secondary oxidized gases.
The ratios of carbon isotopes 13C and 12C as well as deuterium and hydrogen are influenced
by bacterial, thermocatalytic and oxidation effects.

Thermogenic methane without the presence of higher hydrocarbons suggests a gas-prone

source rock at depth (kerogen type III). Increasing percentages of heavier hydrocarbon
molecules, especially hexane and liquids, characterise oil related microseepage gases from an
oil-prone source (kerogen types I or II).

Hydrocarbons adsorbed in shallow sediments or soil samples, provides information about the
regional distribution and nature of source rocks, geological faults and the content of reservoirs
in prospecting areas. In recent years this relatively inexpensive method has been applied to
many worldwide oil exploration projects prior to drilling.

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS FOR HYDROCARBON EXPLORATION

5.1 Introduction
The "western" oil industry has rarely used electromagnetic (EM), magneto-telluric or other
geoelectrical methods for oil and gas exploration. In contrast, these methods have been
applied extensively in the C.I.S. countries.

Recent THERMIE-backed European developments have demonstrated the great potential of

modern EM technologies for subsurface reconnaissance in geophysically difficult areas such
as:

• basins with strong salt tectonics;

• sedimentary sequences with intercalated volcanoes and intrusives;
• areas with deep and/or poorly defined basement;
• complex mountain areas with overthrust tectonics.

A great advantage of EM and other geoelectrical methods is the high mobility of the data
acquisition equipment for surveys in poorly accessible areas. The EM method provides a tool
for structural mapping in regions with severe problems for the application of conventional
reflection seismic. In such areas EM can also be combined with a limited seismic cover for
excellent, detailed structural subsurface mapping.

5.2 Integrated Electromagnetic Exploration Method (IEEM)

In an earlier research project Metronix refined and improved a passive electromagnetic
technique for hydrocarbon exploration applications. The field tests demonstrated that if the
technique was to be attractive to the exploration industry, higher quality data was required to
provide enhanced geological interpretations from relatively shallow depths (1-3km). The
current project, which is supported by the EC’s THERMIE programme, is specifically
designed to integrate both passive and active electromagnetic methods to provide optimum
geological information. The IEEM data acquisition is highly mobile and can be used more
readily than seismic surveys in areas where access is difficult. In geologically complex areas,
detailed and reliable models for subsurface structure mapping and horizon reservoir
identifications were obtained combining IEEM data with a limited amount of seismic work.
This reduces cost, especially in areas of difficult access, without sacrificing quality of the
geophysical-geological interpretations.

A pilot project to test the Metronix IEEM technology was initiated in a structurally complex
salt dome region of Northern Germany. Numerous oil fields are found over salt domes and at
the flanks, but structure and stratigraphical details are difficult to obtain from the surface by
seismic methods alone. IEEM, partly in combination with seismic data, provides a tool for
identification of prospects on and around salt domes. The same IEEM method can be applied
in areas with problems from volcanic layers and intrusions and in complex overthrust zones
of alpino-type foldbelts.

The IEEM uses several multichannel receivers which record data synchronously at different
sites along the profiles in the target area. The receivers measure the variations of two
perpendicular horizontal electric fields Ex and Ey and two horizontal magnetic fields Hx and
Hy, as well as the vertical magnetic field Hz in a frequency range of (4096 sec)-1 to 256 Hz. The
source for these field variations are of solar and atmospheric origin, and they occur
worldwide. During the period of recording (approximately 1 to 4 days) the systems are
running automatically without an operator, according to a fixed time schedule that is
programmed into all stations. From time to time the recorded data is transferred to a portable
PC (Fig 21). The data processing can then be performed and this results in a matrix containing
all combinations of stacked cross- and autospectra of all the measured fields. The apparent
resistivity and phase curves and all other important EM-parameters can be computed from
this spectral matrix.

The exploration technique should preferably include an extended frequency range in order to
delineate more shallow structures. At the same time, measurements in areas with excessive
EM “noise” must provide satisfactory results.

For this reason the passive electromagnetic exploration method, which uses natural EM-field
variations, was expanded with the addition of the active control source EM. The source of the
active system is a transmitter that injects a current into the earth via a grounded dipole. The
frequency of the transmitter is changed in course of the measurement. Since the receiver is
able to process the data in real-time, the productivity is increased. The frequency range for the
active EM is 4096 Hz to (4 sec)-1 and partially overlaps with that of the passive EM.

By adding the active long distance control source EM and using a newly developed enhanced
data processing technique, the data quality could be improved and the frequency range
extended. Active and passive methods deliver comparable results in the overlapping range.

The measured apparent resistivities and phases are the input data for the modelling and
interpretation programme package which provides a two dimensional model of the resistivity
to depth distribution of the geological structure. Data from seismics and other pre-
information is also considered and added to the model. This integrated interpretation
procedure greatly improves the accuracy of the model.

The data from the survey are still being processed, but the preliminary results indicate that
the salt dome structure can be delineated with a significantly greater detail than from the
seismics alone (Fig 22). The integration of the seismic data with the electromagnetic data from
the active component of the IEEM provides enhanced geological detail of the stratigraphy
overlying the salt dome, as well as the geometry of the flanks of the salt dome.

Additional processing of the data and further integration with seismic information is expected
to provide new details of the geometry and contact relationships of the salt domes that
represent important targets for oil exploration in Northern Germany.

6. SEISMIC EXPLORATION IN FRONTIER AREAS

6.1 Introduction
A regional reconnaissance seismic survey followed by seismic detailing of the most promising
areas is the normal procedure following field work in frontier exploration areas.
During the last decade significant progress has been made in seismic technologies world-
wide, in data acquisition as well as in data processing and interpretation. The most important
achievements were:

• the introduction of new, effective and environmentally safe sources of seismic energy,
especially offshore;
• seismic stratigraphy, lithology, facies, reservoir features and even hydrocarbon
identification by seismic signal analysis;
• 3-D seismic surveys resulting in highly detailed structure, reservoir displays etc.

European companies and university institutes have played a major role in this technological
advance and the THERMIE programme has supported several key developments in this field.

6.2 Seismic Surveys Crossing Mountain Chains

Schlumberger Geco-Prakla of Germany has developed a system to conduct long reflection
seismic lines in very rugged, mountainous terrain based on experience gathered from the
execution of several reflection seismic surveys in the Swiss and Italian Alps.

Where the terrain permits, the seismic reflection data are obtained from a vibrator source with
an especially high input of signal energy. In more rugged terrain the source of seismic energy
is switched to explosives. Shothole drilling involves light-weight equipment; in extreme cases
only ultralight, heliportable rigs like Geco-Prakla's P 0511 can be used. The integration of
vibroseis and explosive-source data during processing and interpretation has been successful.

The heliportable drilling rig P 0511 was designed for shothole drilling in difficult,
mountainous terrain (Fig 23). The rig is suitable for rotary drilling with water or air circulation
as well as inhole hammer work for very hard formations. Maximum depth of the hole is 50 m.
A screw compressor and mud pump which run under their own power are available as
additional units.

The 30 kW motor, the mast with the rotary drive and all hydraulic units needed for rotation
and advancing the drill bit are mounted on the base frame. The complete unit weighs only 680
kg (Fig 24).

Inaccessible terrain can be crossed by line-of-sight radio wave propagation using the MIDAS
Microwave Seismic Data Link System developed by Geco-Prakla (Fig 25). The MIDAS system
replaces line cables for transmitting data using the ISM frequency band (2.4 to 2.5 GHz). Data
transmission is largely independent of weather conditions. MIDAS transmits in real time with
a bit error rate (BER) lower than 10-8.

The MIDAS units are highly portable, weighing 17 kg each plus 10 kg for the antenna. Their
operating range is 1500 m, but a free line of sight is required between the two antennae.

6.3 3-D Seismic Mapping of Source Rocks, Reservoir Facies Conditions and
Paleogeographical Distribution
In co-operation with the Ministry of Petroleum of the C.E.I., the Compagnie Generale de
Geophysique (CGG) carried out a 3-D survey within the western Siberian basin. The zone
studied was 4 km east to west and 2.5 km north to south. The processing was carried out in
two steps; the first resulted in a 3-D x, y, time block and the second in a depth and acoustic
impedance (density velocity product) block. Using information from available well logs, a
calibrated interpretation was made to define the petrophysical characteristics of the different
layers.

The lithologic logs reveal only two main sediment components; sand and shales. Assuming
that acoustic impedance and depositional energy are high for sands and low for shales,
impedance values could be associated with the lithology as a function of increasing sand
content and associated with a colour palette as follows:
black coal and bituminous shale
blue shales and gas reservoirs
green and yellow sandy shales
red sandstones

The east-to-west section (Fig 26) shows alternation of sandstone layers interbedded with coal-
bearing series. Lateral variations are visible with shaly sandstones in the depressions and coal-
bearing shale at the top, featuring a coal dome. The position of source rock seals changed as
the water level rose. Some sandstones are oil-bearing reservoirs, such as IOC2.

A perpendicular constant depth slice illustrates the invasion of paleo-valleys by transgression.

Coal deposits in black delineate their former geometry. The terminal Jurassic has sealing
Bagenov bituminous shales. This bed, the major source rock 20 m to 25 m thick, extends over
one million square kilometres.

Fig 28 shows a map view of the early Cretaceous paleoriver network. The oil and gas low
impedance bearing sandstones appear in dark blue, elongated from south to north-west. The
reservoir thickness varies between 3 m and 13 m and the width is 25O m. Water bearing
sandstones appear in yellow and red. The low impedance axis corresponds to a structural top.

The 3-D study of the impedance block improved the understanding of the sedimentation
process and, via the acoustic impedance calibration, the petrophysical characteristics of the
series. It allows the mapping of the rock types, potential source and reservoir rocks.
Ultimately the study results in accurate siting of the production wells.

6.4 "SEISMASTER" - Towed Land Geophone Streamer

Obtaining seismic data for oil and gas exploration can be a time consuming and therefore
costly exercise, particularly over difficult terrains. Seismaster, developed by the UK company
Scientific Management Associates (SMA), is a towable geophone spread for oil and gas
exploration over land. It can be used for various locations including ice, snow, sand, mud
transition zone and other difficult terrains.

The main economic benefit of Seismaster is in the reduced man-power required over
conventional methodology. Over a 15 km stretch, Seismaster requires 30 man-hours compared
to 400 man-hours for conventional techniques.

The Seismaster system consists of a rectangular section carrier structure (80 mm x 20 mm),
incorporating tensile towing members, data wires and digital grade geophones within the
section envelope. A typical Seismaster configuration consists of 100 m, 50 m or 25 m
interchangeable sections, providing 120 groups, 25 m group length, 12 geophones per group
and a 3 km total spread. The mass of the system is 1.5 kg/m and the construction ensures that
the components are well protected in a watertight structure, which is also of an extremely
robust design.

The data quality from Seismaster is comparable with planted geophone spreads in all but the
severest wind conditions and geophone ground coupling problems have not been evident in
comparative seismic sections recorded by Seismaster and conventional planted spreads.

The low friction carrier structure has resulted in measured towing loads as low as 250 kgf
(equivalent) for a 3 km configuration towed at 15 km/hour over snow.

Seismaster has been used on trials by two major international oil companies with seismic data
being acquired over mud, sand and snow, in environments ranging from tropical to Antarctic
(Figs 29 and 30).
In addition, Seismaster has been used for the past two years by the British Antarctic Survey as
the preferred seismic acquisition tool in surveys on Adelaide Island and the Ronne ice shelf in
Antarctica.

7. REDUCING THE HIGH COST OF EXPLORATION DRILLING IN REMOTE AND

POORLY ACCESSIBLE ONSHORE AREAS

7.1 Introduction
The drilling cost of exploratory wells is the most significant cost factor for frontier exploration
before the start of field development, pipeline transport, etc. A large portion of the drilling
cost consists of rig mobilisation, move-in and move-out expenditures. In Europe, significant
progress has been made in the development of light and mobile rigs, and specialised tools and
services for slimhole drilling. Use of light and highly mobile rigs will greatly reduce drilling
costs in remote areas.

7.2 The " EUROSLIM " Slimhole Drilling System

A complete drilling and coring system specially dedicated to slimhole is currently being
finalised by Forasol (France) and Security DBS (Belgium). The system, supported by the EC’s
THERMIE programme, includes rig, mud systems, instrumentation, and a complete
downhole package.

One of the key elements in the EUROSLIM system is a new high torque connection which is
used on all items, i.e. drillpipes, drillcollars, stabilisers, core barrels, drillbits and core heads.
During 1993 tests were successfully carried out at two sizes (4 3/4 inches and 3 3/8 inches) on
2,150 m wells. Both systems should allow drilling to depths of 3,500 m.

The required drilling site surface is small (about 850 m2) which is important for difficult
locations. The rig is easily transportable by small lorries and helicopter. The EUROSLIM rig
Foraslim 1 is designed for three rig move options:

• Helicopter rig move: The rig can be broken down into packages with a weight below 5,500
lb (2,500 kg). The units can be carried by a helicopter like the Bell 212/412 with 5,000 lb
cargo capacity and a range of 420 km.
• Lorry rig move: Packages are optimised for weight not exceeding 22,000 lb (10 MT) and
reduced overall dimensions.
• Marine rig move: For marine rig moves, packages are optimised for overall dimensions
not exceeding 8 ft. x 8ft. x 40 ft. (2.44 x 2.44 x 12.2 m) to allow the use of container ships.

7.3 Quantitative Open-Hole Logging and Testing with very Small Diameter Wireline Tools
One consequence of the drive for more cost-effective exploration, particularly in remote
locations, is that more small diameter wells are being drilled. These are wells less than 6
inches in diameter and frequently 41/8 inches or smaller. Evaluating these wells with
conventional wireline logging tools may be impossible or prohibitively expensive, but
slimline tools with diameters of around 2 inches have been developed specifically for this
application (Fig 31).

BPB Wireline Services (UK) provide the following slimhole logging services:

• dual density and dual neutron porosity;

• multiple receiver sonic;
• dual laterolog;
• array induction sonde;
• micro-resistivity;
• dipmeter;
• gamma ray and caliper;
• the surface system for BPB slimhole logging;
• repeat formation testers;
• acoustic imaging service;
• adaptors for coiled tubing conveyance.

BPB has merged technologies from two parts of their business to develop these tools: the high
technology of their conventionally sized equipment, and the technology of portability and low
manufacturing cost associated with their slim equipment used in minerals exploration. The
combination provides excellent measurement quality with the advantages of a lower
operating cost.

The data produced by these tools have always been digitally transmitted and recorded, but a
recent development has been the introduction of a PC-based system comprising an interface
unit, a lap-top PC and a thermal plotter. This system can provide all the facilities which were
previously only available from a computer centre. All the normal industry-standard data
formats on floppy disk can be accommodated, and if a 9-track tape unit is added, oilfield LIS
tapes can be produced in the field. This, coupled with high portability and very light-weight,
makes it easy to mount the system in light weight go-anywhere vehicles or in small helicopter
skid units (Fig 32).

Fig 32 Helicopter transport of slimhole logging unit

BPB's formation testers are applicable in slimholes down to 21/2 inch diameter. Applications
of this technology include:

• fluid identification and location of fluid contacts from pressure measurements made at
multiple depths;
• formation permeability from rate information recorded during pressure drawdown and
building;
• lateral communication testing by monitoring adjacent wells during flow tests;
• optimising completion design through the identification of abnormally pressured zones.

BPB's slimline RFS (Fig 33) gives formation pressure in wells with diameters between 21/2
inches and 41/2 inches. Its small-size diameter (21/4 inch) has been achieved by replacing the
conventional hydraulic generator with a passive system in which the pressure of the mud
column drives the setting rams.

8. CONCLUSIONS
Oil and gas exploration in remote and poorly accessible areas is essential if oil and gas
supplies are to remain plentiful in the next century. However, exploration methods must
become more effective, less expensive and more successful in order to attract sufficient
upstream oil and gas investments for this important activity.

Cost-effective, innovative European technologies are continuously being developed to obtain

successful exploration results in difficult areas. Support in critical phases of technical
development, testing and marketing is provided under the European Commission’s
THERMIE Programme. The worldwide dissemination of information on innovative European
technologies that are available or near-market is a very important aspect of THERMIE's
activities, helping to make Europe's industry competitive in this field. This is particularly the
case for small and medium sized enterprises which may otherwise have problems in
penetrating the market.

European technologies for exploration in remote and poorly accessible areas are also of major
importance for the economic future of the newly independent states of Central and Eastern
Europe. These technologies will help to develop their important resources for the country as
well as for Europe and the world in the next century.
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Berger Z., Lee Williams T.H., Anderson D.W. (1992); Geologic Stereo Mapping of Geologic
Structures with SPOT Satellite Data. Bull. AAPG, v.76/1, p.101-120.

Baum G, Schmitt M (1992); Stable Isotope Geochemistry Sheds Light on Potential of Basins in
Southeast Turkey. OGJ, Nov.2, 1992, p.90-95.

Baum G (1994): Oberflächengeochemische Untersuchungen als Zusatzinstrument zur

Bewertung von Aufschlußprojekten. Erdöl, Erdgas, Kohle, 110. Jg., Heft 1, Jan. 1994, p.9-15.

Martin B, Cawley S (1991): Onshore and Offshore Petroleum Seepage: Contrasting a

Conventional Study in Papua New Guinea and Airborne Laser Fluorosensing over the
Arafura Sea. I. Austral. Petr. Expl. Assoc., vol. 31/1, p.333-353.

Reid A.B, Allsop J.M., Gramser H., Millet A.J., Somerton I.W. (1990): Magnetic Interpretation
in 3-D using Euler Deconvolution. Geophysics, v.55, p.80-91.

Renoux P., Etienne C. (1992): 3-D Seismic and Well Logging Study of a West Siberian Lowland
Oil and Gas Field: Application to Petrophysical Characterisation. Reservoir Geophysics in:
Investigations in Geophysics, vol. 7, edited by R.E. Sheriff, Soc. Explor. Geophys., Tulsa 1992,
p.259-280.

Thomson M., Remington C., Purnomo I., MacGregor D. (1991): Detection of Liquid
Hydrocarbon Seepage in Indonesian Offshore Frontier Basins using Airborne Laser
Fluorosensor (ALF). The Results of a Petramina-BP Joint Study. Proceedings Indonesian
Petroleum Assoc., Twentieth Annual Convention, Oct. 1991, p.1-10.
THE OPET NETWORK
Within all Member States there are a number of organisations recognised by the
European Commission as an Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technologies
(OPET). It is the role of these organisations to help to coordinate specific promotional
activities within Member States. These may include staging of promotional events
such as conferences, seminars, workshops or exhibitions as well as the production of
publications associated with the THERMIE programme.

ADEME - Agence de l’Environnement et la Maîtrise de l'Energie, 27 rue Louis Vicat, F-

75015 PARIS
Tel: 33-1-47.65.20.21/56. Fax: 33-1-46.45.52.36

ASTER - Agenzia per lo Sviluppo Tecnologico dell'Emilia Romagna, via San Felice 26, I -
40122 BOLOGNA. Tel: 39-51-23.62.42. Fax: 39-51-22.78.03

BCEOM - Société Française d'lngéniérie, Place des Frères Montgolfier, F - 78286

GUYANCOURT Cedex. Tel: 33-1-30.12.49.90. Fax: 33-1-30.12.10.95

BRECSU - Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, Hertfordshire, UK- WD2

7JR.
Tel: 44-1923-66.47.54/56. Fax: 44-1923-66.40.97

CCE - Estrada de Alfragide, Praceta 1 -Alfragide, P - 2700 AMADORA.

Tel: 351-1-471.14.54/81.10. Fax: 351 -1-471.13.16

CEEETA - PARTEX Cps, Calçada da Estrela, 82 -1° DT°, P- 1200 LISBOA

Tel: 351-1-395.56.08. Fax: 351-1-395 24 90

CESEN - Viale Brigata Bisagno 2, I -16129 GENOVA

Tel: 39-10-550.46.70. Fax: 39-10-550.46. 18

CORA c/o SEA - Saarländische Energie-Agentur, Altenkesselerstrasse 17, D - 66115

SAARBRÜCKEN
Tel: 49-681-976.21.70. Fax: 49-681-976.21.75

COWlconsult - Engineers and Planners A/S, Parallelvej 15, DK - 2800 LYNGBY

Tel: 45-45-97.22.11. Fax: 45-45-97.22.12

CRES - Centres for Renewable Energy Sources, 19 km Athinon - Marathona Avenue,

GR -19009 PIKERMI.
Tel: 30-1-603.99.00. Fax: 30-1-603.99.04/11

EAB - Energie-Anlagen Berlin GmbH, Flottwellstr. 4-5, D- 10722 BERLIN

Tel: 49-30-25.49.6-0. Fax: 49-30-25.49.62.30

ECOTEC - Research and Consulting Ltd, Priestley House, 28-34 Albert Street, UK-
BIRMINGHAM B4 7UD.
Tel: 44-21-616.10.10. Fax: 44-21-616.10.99

ECD - Energy Centre Denmark, Suhmsgade 3, DK- 1125 KØBENHAVN K

Tel: 45-33-11.83.00. Fax: 45-33-11.83.33

ENEA - ERG-PROM CRE-Casaccia, Via Anguillarese 301, I - 00060 S. Maria di Galeria

ROMA
Tel: 39-6-30.48.4118-3686. Fax: 39-6-30.48.6449
ETM Consortium - European Technology Marketing, 51 rue Colonel Picquart, B-1030
BRUXELLES
Tel: 32-2-539.00.15. Fax: 32-2-534.86.30

ETSU - Harwell, Oxfordshire, UK - OX11 0RA

Tel: 44-1235-43.33.27. Fax: 44-1235-43.20.50

EUROPLAN - CHORUS, 2203 Chemin de Saint Claude, Nova Antipolis, F - 06600 ANTIBES
Tel: 33-93.74.31.00. Fax: 33-93.74.31.31

EVE - Ente Vasco de la Energia, Edificio Albia 1, San Vicente 8- Planta 14, E - 48001
BILBAO
Tel: 34-4-423.50.50. Fax: 34-4-424.97.33

FAST - Federazione delle Associazioni Scientifiche e Tecniche, Piazzale Rodolfo

Morandi 2, I-20121 MILANO
Tel: 39-2-76.01.56.72. Fax: 39-2-78.24.85

Fiz-Karlsruhe / KFA Julich - c/o Abt. BEO, Postfach 1913, D - 52405 JÜLICH
Tel: 49-2461/61-3729. Fax: 49-2461/61-5837

FORBAIRT - The Irish Science and Technology Agency, Glasnevin, IR - DUBLIN 9

Tel: 353-1-837.01.01. Fax: 353-1-837.28.48

Friedemann und Johnson Consultants - Pestalozzistr. 88, D-10625 BERLIN

Tel: 49-30-312.2684. Fax: 49-30-313.2671

GEP - rue Louis Blanc 1, La Défense 1, F - 92038 PARIS LA DEFENSE

Tel: 33-1-47.17.67.37. Fax: 33-1-47.17.67.47

GOPA Consultants - Hindenburgring 18, D - 61348 BAD HOMBURG

Tel: 49-6172-930-0. Fax: 49-6174-3-5046

ICAEN - Institut Catalá d'Energia, Avda Diagonal, 453 Bis, Atic, E - 08036 BARCELONA
Tel: 34-3-439.28.00. Fax: 34-3-419.72.53

ICEU Leipzig GmbH, Auenstr. 25, D - 04105 LEIPZIG

Tel: 49-341-29.46.02/43.50. Fax: 49-341-29.09.04

ICIE - Istituto Cooperativo per l'Innovazione, Via Nomentana 133, I - 00161 ROMA
Tel: 39-6-884.58.48. Fax: 39-6-855.02.50

IDAE - Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía, P° de la Castellana 95 -

P 21, E - 28046 MADRID
Tel: 34-1-556.84.15. Fax: 34-1-555.13.89

IMPIVA - Instituto de la Mediana y Pequeña Industria, Valenciana, Avellanas 14 - 3° F,

E - 46003 VALENCIA
Tel: 34-6-392.00.05/04/03. Fax: 34-6-391.44.60

INETI/ITE
Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial, Instituto das Tecnologias
Energéticas Asinhapa dos Lameros à Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, P- 1699 LISBOA
Codex
Tel: 351-1-716.52.99. Fax: 351-1-716.46.35
INNOTEC Systemanalyse GmbH - Kurfürstendamm 199, D- 10719 BERLIN.
Tel: 49-30-882.32.51/34.32. Fax: 49-30-885.44.33

INSTITUT WALLON ASBL - 10 Bld. Baron Huart, B - 5000 NAMUR

Tel: 32-81-23.04.52. Fax: 32-81-23.07.42

IRO - Branchver.voor Nederlandse Toeleveranciers in Olie en Gasindustrie,

Engelandlaan 330, NL - 2701 AG ZOETERMEER
Tel: 31-79-41.19.81. Fax: 31-79-41.97.64

KEMA - PO Box 9035 (NL-6800 ET), Utrechtseweg 310, NL - 6812 AR ARNHEM

Tel: 31-85-56.24.77. Fax: 31-85-51.73.62

LDK Consultants Engineers & Planners - 7 Sp Triantafyllou Str., GR -113 61 ATHENS.

Tel: 30-1-862.96.60. Fax: 30-1-861.76.81

LUXCONTROL - Avenue des Terres Rouges 1, L- 4004 ESCH-SUR-ALZETTE

Tel: 352-54.77.111. Fax: 352-54.79.30

MARCH Consulting Group - Telegraphic House, Waterfront 2000, Salford Quays, UK -

MANCHESTER M5 2XW
Tel: 44-161-872.36.76. Fax: 44-161-848.01.81

NIFES - National Industrial Fuel Efficiency Service Ltd, 8 WoodsideTerrace, GLASGOW

UK-G3 7UY
Tel: 44-141-332.24.53. Fax: 44-141-333.04.02

NOVEM - The Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment, (PO Box 17)
Swentiboldstraat 21, NL - 6130 AA SITTARD
Tel: 31-46.59.52.76. Fax: 31-46.52.82.60

OCICARBON - Asociación Gestora para la Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico del

Carbon, C/Agustín de Foxá 29 4° A, E - 28036 MADRID
Tel: 34-1-733.86.62. Fax: 34-1-314.06.46

The Petroleum Science and Technology Institute - Offshore Technology Park,

Exploration Drive, ABERDEEN UK-AB23 8GX
Tel: 44-1224 70.66.00. Fax: 44-1224 70.66.01

RARE c/o RHONALPENERGIE - Rue de la République 69, F - 69002 LYON

Tel: 33-78.37.29.14. Fax: 33-78.37.64.91

SODEAN - Sociedad para el Desarrollo Energético de Andalucía s.a., Bolivia 11, E -

41012 SEVILLA
Tel: 34-5-462.60.01/11. Fax: 34-5-462.63.01

SOGES Organizzazione e Gestione - Corso Turati 49, I -10128 TORINO

Tel: 39-11-319.08.33. Fax: 39-11-319.02.92

SYNERGIA - Apollon Tower, 64 Louise Riencourt Street, GR-11523 ATHENS

Tel: 30-1-69.20.961. Fax: 30-1 -64.96.186

TÜV RHEINLAND - Institut für Umweltschutz und Energietechnik, (KST 931), Am Grauen
Stein, D - 51105 KÖLN
Tel: 49-221-806.0. Fax: 49-221-806-13.50

University College Dublin - Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, Richview,

Clonskeagh, IR- DUBLIN 14
Tel: 353-1-269.27.50. Fax: 353-1-283.89.08

VLAAMSE THERMIE COORDINATIE - Markiesstraat 1, 8e verdieping, B-1000 BRUSSEL

Tel: 32-2-507.43.31. Fax: 32-2-507.44.38

Zweckverband Regionale - Entwicklung und Energie, Wieshuberstrasse 3, D-93059

REGENSBURG
Tel: 49-941-42004. Fax: 49-941-44691

THESE DATA ARE SUBJECT TO POSSIBLE CHANGE. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT
THE OPET-CS, 18 AV R.VANDENDRIESSCHE, B-1150 BRUSSELS. FAX: +32 2 771 56.11
 Researched and Collated by:

GOPA Consultants
Postfach 15 41
61285 Bad Homburg
Germany
Tel: +49 6172 930-0
Fax: +49 6172 3 50 46

Editing and Print Management by:

The Petroleum Science and Technology Institute

Offshore Technology Park
Exploration Drive
Aberdeen
AB23 8GX - UK
Tel: +44 1224 706600
Fax: +44 1224 706601